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Effective Practices
in Early Childhood
Education
Building a Foundation
Su e Bredeka m p
Early Childhood Education Consultant
Third Edition
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Bredekamp, Sue.
Effective practices in early childhood education : building a foundation / Sue Bredekamp, Early Childhood Education Consultant. —
Third edition.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-13-395670-2—ISBN 0-13-395670-9 1. Early childhood education—United States. 2. Child development—United States.
I. Title.
LB1140.23.B72 2015
372.21—dc23
2015029580
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Student Edition
ISBN 10: 0-13-395670-9
ISBN 13: 978-0-13-395670-2
Loose-Leaf Version
ISBN 10: 0-13-411549-X
ISBN 13: 978-0-13-411549-8
REVEL eBook
ISBN 10: 0-13-430324-5
ISBN 13: 978-0-13-430324-6
A01_BRED6702_03_SE_FM.indd 2 10/9/15 1:37 PM
To Joe Bredekamp, for a lifetime of love, friendship, wonderful memories, and tolerance
of craziness, and to Darby whose unconditional love enriches our lives every day.
Dedication
A01_BRED6702_03_SE_FM.indd 3 10/9/15 1:37 PM
About the author
Dr. Sue Bredekamp is an early childhood education specialist from the Washington,
D.C., area who serves as a consultant on developmentally appropriate practice, curricu-
lum, teaching, and teacher education for state and national organizations such as NAEYC,
Head Start, the Council for Professional Recognition, and Sesame Street. From 1981 to
1998, she was Director of Accreditation and Professional Development for NAEYC where
she developed and directed their national accreditation system for early childhood centers
and schools. Dr. Bredekamp is the editor of NAEYC’s best-selling, highly influential publi-
cation, Developmentally Appropriate Practice in Early Childhood Programs.
Dr. Bredekamp is Chair of the Board of the HighScope Educational Research Foun-
dation. She was a member of the National Research Council’s (NRC) Committee on
Early Childhood Mathematics, which produced a landmark report, Mathematics in Early
Childhood: Paths toward Excellence and Equity. Dr. Bredekamp serves on several advisory
boards and is a frequent keynote speaker and author of numerous books and articles re-
lated to standards for professional practice and teacher education. She has been a visiting
lecturer at Macquarie University in Sydney, Australia; Monash University in Melbourne;
University of Alaska; and University of Hawaii. She holds a PhD in Curriculum and In-
struction from the University of Maryland. The McCormick Center for Early Childhood
Leadership at National Louis University recognized Dr. Bredekamp with its Visionary
Leadership Award in 2014. For 45 years, Dr. Bredekamp has worked for and with young
children toward the goal of improving the quality and effectiveness of early childhood
education programs.
About the contributor
Dr. Kathleen (Kate) Cranley Gallagher is an educational psychologist and scientist
at Frank Porter Graham Child Development Institute at University of North Caro-
lina at Chapel Hill. She is a Clinical Associate Professor in the School of Education at
UNC, where she teaches undergraduate and graduate early childhood professionals.
Dr. Gallagher has herself been an early childhood professional for over 30 years; she has
taught in and administered diverse programs for children birth to 8 years of age, with and
without disabilities. Dr. Gallagher’s publications and applied work focus on developing,
implementing and evaluating evidence-based interventions to support social- emotional
well-being and development for young children, their families and early childhood pro-
fessionals. Dr. Gallagher has served on state advisory panels, developing standards and
assessments for early childhood education and health and is a founding member of the
North Carolina Infant Mental Health Association. She developed Be Well to Teach Well,
a program designed to support the well-being and of early childhood professionals.
Dr. Gallagher is an accomplished teacher and frequently invited speaker nationally,
and presented a keynote address at the International Preschool Teachers’ Conference in
Hangzhou, China as a guest of Zhejiang Normal University. She delivered a TEDx talk,
entitled, The Healthy Child: Assembly Required in which Dr. Gallagher argued that the
single most important feat of construction that our society undertakes is the assembly
required to build physically, emotionally, cognitively, and socially healthy children. She
lives in Carrboro, North Carolina, with her husband, John, and enjoys time with her two
adult children, Jack and Bridget.
iv
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v
In the previous editions of this book, I described the challenge of my first day of
teaching preschool in a child care center many years ago. It was the hardest job I have ever
had, primarily because my bachelor’s degree in English did not prepare me for it. I didn’t
know enough about child development, how and what to teach, how to communicate with
families, how to positively guide children’s behavior—the list goes on and on. Feeling com-
pletely incompetent, I seriously thought about not going back the next day. Then I realized
that although I had a choice not to return, the children did not. They deserved a better
teacher than I was at that time. As a result, I continued teaching, went back to school, and
set out to learn as much as possible about child development and how best to teach young
children. And I have been learning ever since. In short, my initial motivation in writing
this book was a personal one—to help ensure that new teachers get off to a better start
than I did and that the children do, too.
In the decades since I entered the early childhood profession, however, there has been
an explosion of new knowledge and research, and a huge increase in public recognition
and support for early education. A great many parents, policy makers, and researchers
now consider early childhood programs essential for fostering school readiness and long-
term success in life. Economists and business leaders consider high-quality child care and
early education a necessary investment in the future of our country. Nobel Prize–winning
economist James Heckman believes that investing in early education is a cost-effective
strategy that will improve educational and health outcomes, strengthen the economy, help
solve America’s social problems, and produce a more capable, productive workforce.
But the power of early education depends on the quality of interactions teachers have
with children, and the effectiveness of their instructional practices. To achieve their po-
tential, children need and deserve highly competent, well-educated teachers. My goal in
writing this book is to help all teachers, whether beginning or continuing their profession-
al journeys, gain access to the exciting new knowledge about child development, engaging
and challenging curriculum content, and effective ways of teaching. Today, our profes-
sion has a deep responsibility to meet the expectations of families, the general public, and
policy makers and to fulfill the promise that has been made to children.
My hope is that every teacher embraces new knowledge as well as the enduring values
of early childhood education, and encounters the sheer joy of teaching young children.
Every child needs and deserves a highly qualified teacher from day one.
Preface
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New to This Edition
This is the first edition of Effective Practices in Early Childhood Education: Building a
Foundation offered in REVELTM.
REVELTM is Pearson’s newest way of delivering our respected content. Fully digital
and highly engaging, REVEL offers an immersive learning experience designed for the
way today’s students read, think, and learn. Enlivening course content with media inter-
actives and assessments, REVEL empowers educators to increase engagement with the
course, and to better connect with students.
REVEL offers:
Dynamic content matched to the way today’s students read, think, and learn
• Integrated Videos and Interactive Media Integrated within the narrative, videos
empower students to engage with concepts and take an active role in learning.
REVEL’s unique presentation of media as an intrinsic part of course content brings
the hallmark features of Pearson’s bestselling titles to life.
• Quizzing and Short-Answer Response Opportunities Located throughout
REVEL, quizzing affords students opportunities to check their understanding at
regular intervals before moving on. Quizzes are in multiple-choice and short-answer
response formats.
• Chapter Quiz “Demonstrate Your Learning” end-of-chapter multiple-choice ques-
tions allow students to check their understanding on chapter concepts.
Additional Significant Changes to this Edition
• A new feature, “Promoting Play,” in every chapter addressing a different issue re-
lated to supporting children’s learning through play or protecting children’s right to
play. See the Special Features page at the end of the Table of Contents for a list of all
of the feature topics by chapter.
• Revised Chapter 3 with examination of current issues such as the Common Core
State Standards and accountability through the lens of developmentally appropriate
practice.
• New sections on the implications of the Common Core State Standards for curricu-
lum and teaching in preschool through grade 3 in Chapter 10 on planning curricu-
lum, Chapter 11 on assessment, Chapter 12 on language and literacy, and Chapter
13 on mathematics.
• Updated Chapter 1 with discussion of new policy initiatives, changing demograph-
ics, new research on the effectiveness of early education, and trends in the field.
• Updated Language Lenses on research-based classroom practices for effectively
teaching dual language learners.
• New examples of developmentally appropriate use of digital media with children,
teachers, and families throughout the text.
• Reorganized content by moving sections on developmentally appropriate learning
environments, materials, and schedule to Chapter 3, Developmentally Appropriate
Practice.
• Reorganized Chapter 10, Planning Effective Curriculum, to include discussion of
Reggio Emilia.
vi
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• Updated research and new examples of effective practices for children with diverse
abilities, particularly children with autism spectrum disorder.
• Expanded discussion of current research on brain development and executive
function and implications for teaching.
• New artifacts and examples of children’s work, especially from children in the
primary grades.
Book Organization Reflects
Guidelines for Developmentally
Appropriate Practice
This book is designed to teach the concept of developmentally appropriate practice for
students because an understanding of its principles is the foundation on which to build
early childhood programs and schools for children from birth through age 8. Chapters
are organized according to NAEYC’s guidelines for developmentally appropriate practice,
which I have coauthored for 30 years.
Part 1, Foundations of Early Childhood Education, describes the current profession
and the issues and trends effecting it today (Chapter 1), the rich history from which
developmentally appropriate practices evolved (Chapter 2), and an overview of its
principles and guidelines, which are described in depth in later chapters (Chapter 3).
Part 2, Dimensions of Developmentally Appropriate Practice, includes chapters
describing the key factors teachers must consider as they make professional decisions.
Chapter 4 presents an overview of current knowledge about how all children develop and
learn. Chapter 5 addresses the unique, individual differences among children, including
children with diverse abilities. Chapter 6 discusses the critical role of social, cultural, and
linguistic contexts on all children’s development and learning and how teachers must
embrace a diverse society to help every child succeed in school and life.
Part 3, Intentional Teaching: How to Teach, describes the role of the teacher in
implementing developmentally appropriate practices. Each of the interconnected aspects
of the teacher’s role is addressed in separate chapters: building effective partnerships with
families (Chapter 7), creating a caring community of learners and guiding young children
(Chapter 8); teaching to enhance learning and development (Chapter 9); planning effective
curriculum (Chapter 10); and assessing children’s learning and development (Chapter 11).
Part 4, Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach, describes both
how and what to teach children from birth through age 8 in language, literacy, the arts,
mathematics, science, technology, social-emotional development, social studies, physical
development, and health. Each chapter demonstrates how the continuum of children’s
development determines the appropriateness of curriculum content and intentional,
effective teaching strategies for children of different ages.
Early childhood educators join this profession and stay in it because they believe their
work can make a difference in the lives of children and their families. But to make a last-
ing difference, our practices must be effective—they must contribute to children’s learning
and development. This book reflects this core goal by building on the basic framework
of developmentally appropriate practice while going beyond to emphasize intentional
teaching, challenging and interesting curriculum, and evidence-based, effective practices
for a new generation of early childhood educators. Each of these key themes is discussed
on the following pages.
vii
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Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach118
gets over the last hurdle herself. Ave gives him a big smile as she pushes off with her feet
and makes a circle around the room.
By giving Ave “a leg up,” Khari helped her accomplish a goal that she couldn’t do on
her own, but could achieve with his assistance. Vygotsky (1978) identified this as the
zone of proximal development (ZPD)—the distance between the actual developmental
level an individual has achieved (their independent level of problem solving) and the
level of potential development they could achieve with adult guidance or through
collaboration with other children. The assistance, guidance, and direction teachers pro-
vide children in their ZPD is called scaffolding. To gain deeper understanding of how
children learn in their ZPD, read the feature Becoming an Intentional Teacher: Teaching
in the “Zone.”
Social Construction of Knowledge Scaffolding does not mean that teachers
control or shape learning, as behaviorists believe (see p. 124). Instead, children learn by
solving problems collaboratively with the teacher’s support or by working with peers,
which is called co-construction, or social construction of knowledge.
zone of proximal development
(ZPD) The distance between
the actual developmental level
an individual has achieved (her
independent level of problem
solving) and the level of po-
tential development she could
achieve with adult guidance
or through collaboration with
other children.
scaffolding The assistance,
guidance, and direction teach-
ers provide children to help
them accomplish a task or
learn a skill (within their ZPD)
that they could not achieve on
their own.
co-construction Children
learning by solving prob-
lems collaboratively with the
teacher’s support or by working
with peers; also called social
construction of knowledge.
Becoming an Intentional Teacher
Teaching in the “Zone”
Here’s What Happened In my kindergarten, we are
working on the basic mathematical number operations—
adding and subtracting. In our classroom, children work in
centers for part of the morning. Through assessments that I
do during center time, I learned that Miguel can add two sin-
gle-digit numbers on his own. I also learned that he is strug-
gling with subtracting single-digit numbers, but is successful
when I talk through the subtraction activities with him. I also
observed that Miguel is able to subtract more successfully
when the problem is applied, such as when he is playing
cashier and giving “change” in our Home Improvement Store
center. Miguel especially likes to play there because his Dad
works in construction. I decided on a three-pronged approach
to support his understanding and application of subtraction:
1) I set aside 5–10 minutes twice a week to work individ-
ually with Miguel. Using manipulatives, including an
abacus and small counting trains. Miguel loves trains!
During this time, I verbally support Miguel’s grouping
and counting, using short word problems and number
cards.
2) I also intentionally join Miguel and other children in
the Home Improvement Store at center time. I intro-
duce the concept of “Supply Lists” to the center, using
cards with pictures and labels of the different supplies.
Children can add nuts, bolts, and tools to their baskets,
according to the list, and return (subtract) things they
no longer need for their building projects. As Miguel
purchases and returns items for his building project, I
support and make explicit his adding and subtracting,
pointing out to Miguel how successfully he uses math
for his project.
3) Finally, during the morning math challenge, I pair
Miguel with a friend who understands subtraction con-
cepts well, and is very verbal. I have them work together
to solve the problem, ex-
plaining each of their steps.
After about two weeks of this more
intensive approach, Miguel demonstrates ability to subtract
single-digit numbers on his own, and begins to experiment
with double-digit numbers. He insists on being the employee
at checkout in the Home Improvement Store to showcase his
adding and subtracting.
Here’s What I Was Thinking As a kindergarten teach-
er, I know that understanding and applying these founda-
tional mathematical concepts is essential for building chil-
dren’s later competence in math. I also understand that
children learn best in the context of supportive relation-
ships, and I structure interactions in my classroom to in-
tentionally support each learner. I do this by: (1) assessing
each child’s level of independent performance on a skill,
(2) assessing each child’s level of supported (with help)
performance on a skill, and (3) developing lessons that al-
low a child to practice in their supported level, until the
child can do the skill independently. I then set the next
higher level of skill as the child’s goal skill.
Vygotsky used the term zone of proximal development
(ZPD) to describe the child’s skill level when supported by
an adult or more experienced peer. He believed that by as-
sessing only what a child knows, a teacher does not have
information on how to support the child’s progress. But by
assessing a child’s ZPD, I am able to structure for progres-
sive development and learning.
Reflection How did this teacher use assessment to
guide her intentional teaching? What other strategies could
she have used to teach Miguel in his Zone of Proximal
Development?
Intentional Teaching of Young Children
This text builds on the framework of developmentally appropriate practice emphasizing
that effective teachers are intentional, thoughtful, and purposeful in everything they do.
Intentional teachers know not only what to do with children
but also why they are doing it and can explain the rationale
for the decisions they make to other teachers, administrators,
and families. To help students understand this concept,
Becoming an Intentional Teacher features reveal what
teachers are thinking in classroom situations, how and why
they select the strategies they do, and challenge students to
reflect further on these scenarios.
Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education84
should not be viewed in isolation. All three considerations, in fact, interact with and
influence each other; they are always intertwined in shaping children’s development and
behavior. For example, children all over the world follow a similar developmental pat-
tern when learning language. They all progress from cooing, to babbling, to one-word
utterances, to telegraphic speech (“Daddy up”), to short sentences, and finally to more
complex sentences. However, a wide range of individual variation exists in language
acquisition of children who are roughly the same age, because of differences in language
experience as well as developmental variation. At age 3, Joey speaks in three-word ut-
terances, whereas his same-age cousin, Michael, expounds in paragraphs. Finally, each
child speaks the language, including the dialect, of his or her own cultural group. Six-
year-old Amelia speaks English to her mother and Spanish to her father. All of these fac-
tors influence children’s language development and how teachers think about supporting
it optimally for all children.
Now let’s look at how the meshing of the three considerations plays out in the deci-
sions of one primary grade teacher:
Frida Lopez has 22 children in her first-grade class. Her first challenge each year is to
get to know the children well. She meets with their families, engages in one-on-one
conversations with children, observes their behavior and skills throughout the day,
and sets up specific tasks to evaluate their skills such as literacy tasks or solving math
problems with counters.
As she gets to know her students, she regularly assesses their abilities and in-
terests in relation to what she knows from her study of child development, the cur-
riculum goals, and her experiences teaching other 6- and 7-year-olds. She finds that
a few children exceed her expectations in reading or social skills, whereas others are
significantly behind their peers in some areas. Each child has a unique personality
and profile of abilities, and Frida becomes more aware of these.
Neela has Down syndrome, and Frida has already met with her parents and the
team of special education professionals who create and implement an individualized
educational plan for her. After a few weeks, Frida becomes concerned that another
child, Almonzo, might have an undiagnosed language delay. In the case of the six
children whose home languages are not ones Frida knows, she recognizes that she
must take extra steps to find out about them. Using community volunteers and, in
one case, a paid translator, Frida connects with the families of her students to build
relationships and to learn what capabilities the children exhibit in their homes and
communities.
So we see that in meeting the children, Frida seamlessly draws on her knowledge
of child development and learning, as well as her knowledge of them as individuals and
members of cultural groups. Precisely because children are so different and their abilities
vary so greatly, Frida will need to draw from a wide repertoire of teaching strategies to
help them achieve developmentally appropriate goals.
So far we have described the areas of knowledge that teachers consider in making
decisions about developmentally appropriate practice—what teachers need to know and
think about. Now we turn to the work of the teachers—what do early childhood teachers
do? What are the dimensions of practice that describe the teacher’s role?
✓ Check Your Understanding 3.3: Developmentally Appropriate Decision Making
The Complex Role of the Teacher
According to the NAEYC’s (2009) guidelines for developmentally appropriate practice,
the complex job of an early childhood teacher has five interrelated dimensions: (1)
creating a caring community of learners, (2) teaching to enhance learning and devel-
opment, (3) planning curriculum to achieve important goals, (4) assessing children’s
learning and development, and (5) establishing reciprocal relationships with families.
M03_BRED6702_03_SE_C03.indd 84 10/8/15 11:56 AM
Effective teachers are informed decision makers who adapt
for individual differences, including for children with dis-
abilities and special needs. Check Your Understanding
features engage students in assessing their own learning.
Some questions involve critical thinking about a complex
teaching situation or issue confronting the early childhood
field. These quizzes appear only in REVELTM and include
feedback.
Chapter 3 Understanding and Applying Developmentally Appropriate Practice 99
Key Terms
■ age appropriate
■ assessment
■ caring community of
learners
■ culturally appropriate
■ culture
■ curriculum
■ developmentally appro-
priate practice (DAP)
■ individually appropriate
■ intentional teachers
■ learning centers
■ position statement
■ push-down curriculum
■ reciprocal relationships
■ scientifically based
curriculum
Carter, M., & Curtis, D. (2014). Designs for living and
learning: Transforming early childhood environments.
St. Paul, MN: Redleaf Press.
Copple, C., & Bredekamp, S. (Eds.). (2009). Devel-
opmentally appropriate practice in early childhood
programs serving children from birth through age 8
(3rd ed.). Washington, DC: National Association for the
Education of Young Children.
Epstein, A. S. (2014). The intentional teacher: Choosing
the best strategies for young children’s learning (Rev.
ed.). Washington, DC: National Association for the Edu-
cation of Young Children.
ASCD Whole Child Initiative
This website provides resources promoting elementary
education that supports all areas of children’s develop-
ment and learning.
National Association for the Education of Young
Children
NAEYC’s website has a special section on resources for
developmentally appropriate practice and play, plus cop-
ies of all their position statements.
ZERO to THREE—National Center for Infants,
Toddlers, and Families
This website provides resources and practical tips for
working with infants, toddlers, and their families.
Readings and Websites
Demonstrate Your Learning
Click here to assess how well you’ve learned the content in this chapter.
✓
Intentional teachers must reflect and apply their knowl-
edge using a broad repertoire of effective teaching strat-
egies. Demonstrate Your Learning features at the end
of each chapter require students to practice these skills.
This end-of-chapter quiz appears only in REVELTM and
includes feedback.
viii
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Chapter 3 Understanding and Applying Developmentally Appropriate Practice 81
quietly with a puzzle or pegboard. A second grader loves to read and spends all of her free
time with a book, while another struggles with reading but looks forward to math because
it’s her best subject.
The term individually appropriate refers to teachers using what they know about the
personality, strengths, interests, and abilities of each individual child in the group to adapt
for and be responsive to individual variation. Consider, for instance, two tricycle riders:
The fearless rider may need more careful supervision to prevent injury, while the warier
child may need extra encouragement and support to develop his large motor skills. Similar-
ly, some children will need enriched experiences to accelerate their language development,
while a few may need individual support to continue to build on their precocious reading
ability. A withdrawn, timid child may need a great deal of emotional support to cope with
life’s challenges, while another needs help controlling aggression to make friends.
With the individual differences that exist, teachers clearly cannot expect all children
in a group to learn the same thing in the same way at the same time. Even when the
teacher introduces a concept or reads a book to a whole group, each child will take away
something different from the learning experience. Therefore, to help children progress,
individually appropriate
Information about the strengths,
interests, abilities, and needs
of each individual child in the
group that enables teachers to
adapt to and be responsive to
individual variation.
People sometimes wonder if developmentally appro-
priate practices are effective for children with dis-
abilities. The fact is that the basic elements of de-
velopmentally appropriate practice are necessary for
inclusion to succeed. Consider the following example:
Isaac is 4 years old and has a diagnosis of autism.
He is sitting on a brightly colored carpet square
between two of his preschool peers at circle time.
His teacher is reading a book the class made called
Friends, Friends, Who Do You See? It is adapted
from Brown Bear, Brown Bear (Martin, 1996), but
features pictures of the children in the class paired
with their names. Isaac loves the book, and reads
along with the teacher. As the teacher reads each
child’s name in the story, he or she stands up and
moves. After the story, it is time for singing. Isaac
knows this because circle time happens in a similar
routine each day.
The teacher pulls out the “song chart” featur-
ing the pictures and titles of eight different songs.
One song is about a train. Isaac loves trains and
seems eager to hear the new song. He points to the
“Trains on the track.” The teacher helps Isaac re-
move the song card. Isaac holds the card while the
children sing. Then Isaac makes the sign for “play”
with his hands. The teacher says, “Yes, Isaac, it is
time for centers.” She lets Isaac choose a center
first because she knows it is hard for him to wait.
Isaac brings the teacher the song card and then
points to the picture of the water table. His teacher
models, “I want to play at the. . . .” Isaac says,
“Water table.” His teacher, proud of his increasing
verbal skills, gives him a hug and says, “Off you go
to the water table.” When Isaac’s mother picks him
up from school, his teacher describes how often he
used his words and which friends he played with
during center time.
By contrast, when children with disabilities are included
in programs that are not developmentally appropriate,
it becomes difficult for the child with special needs—
indeed, for all of the children—to make meaningful
progress. Compare this child’s experience to Isaac’s:
Tara, also a 4-year-old with autism, is sitting next to
her teacher at circle time. The teacher is reading from
a small-sized book, and many of the children can-
not see the pictures very well, including Tara. Circle
time has been in progress for over 20 minutes and
many of the children are getting restless. Tara begins
rocking back and forth and looking at the door. With-
out warning, the teacher stops reading the book and
tells the children to stand up for a finger play. Tara
bolts from the circle and runs to the water table. She
begins splashing and yelling. The teacher stops and
asks Tara to return to circle. When Tara does not re-
turn on her own volition, the assistant teacher physi-
cally moves her back to the circle, and a 10-minute
struggle ensues. When Tara’s father comes to pick her
up, the teacher describes “her bad day” and asks him
to talk to Tara about listening at school.
A child with a disability acts like a magnifying glass on
the developmental appropriateness of an early child-
hood program. As is clear from Isaac’s case and by
contrast Tara’s experience, developmentally appropri-
ate practice provides the necessary foundation for his
successful inclusion in the program. But individually
appropriate adaptations are also essential for children
with disabilities and other special needs.
Developmentally Appropriate Practice
and Children with Disabilities
Including All Children
Chapter 13 Teaching Children to Investigate and Solve Problems 449
What Works
Teaching STEM to Dual Language Learners
Considerable attention is paid to research on how dual language
learners acquire English and learn to read. At times, there is an as-
sumption that because mathematics is about numbers and quan-
tity, language is less of a barrier. However, mathematics itself is
a language, and as we have seen, math talk is what makes its ab-
stract concepts comprehensible for children. Other areas of STEM
have their own vocabulary and involve academic language that
children do not encounter in everyday interactions. In short, STEM
learning presents unique challenges for dual language learners.
Many of the same strategies for teaching dual language
learners in general are effective in teaching STEM. For example,
gestures such as a circling motion are useful in helping young
children understand basic concepts such as the whole amount or
putting together and taking apart. Children readily count or form
shapes with their fingers. Teachers can set up an obstacle course
for children to use their whole bodies to learn position words such
as above, below, between, and through. A strategy for older chil-
dren is to create a math, science, or technology dictionary of rel-
evant terms. Such a resource engages children in using different
ways of representing a concept—in this case, words that can be
referred to later.
Another effective strategy is having children talk to one another
in pairs or small groups. When children are learning a new lan-
guage, it is important not to put them on the spot. They shouldn’t
be expected to respond in front of the whole class. In a small group,
it is easier to practice concepts and “errors” are more likely to be
viewed as part of the learning process. This is especially important
with a topic like math that may have only one correct answer.
Introducing a math or science concept to the whole class can
be done effectively using an interactive whiteboard. Then chil-
dren can be prompted to respond to questions chorally as a whole
group. Not every child will answer correctly, and no one child’s
response will be singled out.
Another proven strategy when introducing a math or science
concept is to explicitly teach it by modeling, supplying the spe-
cific name, and having children repeat the word. Also helpful is
introducing and using a consistent sentence such as the one first
graders used to interpret their graphs in
Figure 13.1.
Problem solving is playing a larger role in
today’s curriculum due to the Common Core standards, but word
problems complicate the challenge of math instruction for dual
language learners. Teachers should avoid tricky word problems
that create confusion, such as: “Jonas has 2 cars and 3 trucks;
how many vehicles does he have?” Such a question poses a lan-
guage test rather than a math problem. A related challenge pre-
sented by word problems is the culturally implicit knowledge they
often require. Solving a problem usually requires that a child un-
derstand the situation in which it occurs, whether it’s purchasing
groceries or driving a car at a certain speed.
Manipulatives are hailed as an excellent tool to teach STEM,
and yet many children cannot relate to these toys. Few such toys
reflect the racial, cultural, and gender diversity of our classrooms.
For example, Lego® has introduced some plastic figures portray-
ing people of color as doctors, scientists, architects, and other
STEM occupations. However, most STEM toys still promote ste-
reotypes of only white males in these roles.
What works most effectively are the practices that are de-
velopmentally appropriate for all children—hands-on, meaning-
ful experiences coupled with teacher scaffolding, as opposed
to worksheets that test what children should have already
learned. Dual language learners need to actively “do” science,
technology, and engineering tasks—as teachers and other chil-
dren supply the words. And most important of all, teachers need
to have high expectations that all children can learn challenging
STEM content.
Sources: Based on “6 Tips When Discussing Math with the English Language
Learner,” by B. Austin, 2014, Chicago, Erikson Early Math Collabora-
tive, retrieved March 17, 2015, from http://earlymath.erikson.edu/6-tips-
discussing-math-english-language-learner; “It’s Time for More Racial
Diversity in STEM Toys” by M. Weinstock, 2015, Scientific American,
Voices: Exploring and Celebrating Diversity in Science, retrieved March
8, 2015, from http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/voices/2015/02/23/
its-time-for-more-racial-diversity-in-stem-toys/?WT.mc_id=SA_sharetool_
Twitter.
STEM skills and understanding, with T standing for technology. In other words, children
need to think critically about how technology is used to solve problems as well as learn
how to use technological tools in intentional and creative ways.
A Developmentally and Technologically
Appropriate Classroom
A preschool teacher creates a class website that is updated regularly. The children create
a slide show about their class pet using Kid Pix software to share with families. For an
integrated science study on the properties of water, kindergartners produce information
books on the computer using digital photos of their water experiments.
Current Research on Effective Practices
In an era of Common Core State Standards and Early Learning standards, accountability,
and rapid change in the field, the text makes research understandable and meaningful for
students and illustrates the connections between child development, curriculum content,
assessment, and intentional teaching.
What Works features present research-based practices in
action, including descriptions of demonstrated effective
practices such as teaching mathematics to dual language
learners, father involvement, and using evidence-based cur-
riculum to narrow the achievement gap.
Lens features present insights on culture, language, and in-
cluding all children. These features discuss practice through
diverse lenses, expanding the sources of information teach-
ers use to make decisions and helping them look at questions
or problems from broader perspectives. Widening the lens
with which teachers view their practice is a strategy to move
beyond the persistent educational tendency to dichotomize
difficult or controversial issues into “either/or” choices, and
move toward “both/and” thinking.
• Current research findings, such as effective strategies for teaching dual language learn-
ers or children with autism spectrum disorder, are brought to life and made meaningful
by connections to classroom and community examples.
• The terms and definitions used in this text contribute to establishing a shared vocabulary
for all of those in and entering the field.
• Approximately 40% of the references are from 2012 and beyond.
Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach192
Dual language learners are individuals. They need differentiated instruction to devel-
op their English skills, to maintain and further develop their home language, and achieve
in school. Today’s vast array of digital tools make individualizing instruction for multi-
language learners much easier than in the past, as described in the feature Language Lens:
Using Technology to Teach Dual Language Learners.
Awareness and responsiveness to all forms of diversity must be integrated across all
areas of curriculum and teachers’ relationships with children to ensure that all children
succeed in school. But more than that, schools have a responsibility to provide today’s
children with the skills to function in a complex, global society. In short, they benefit from
an anti-bias education, which we describe in the next section.
Anti-Bias Education
The early childhood field has embraced the concept of an anti-bias education. Anti-bias
education includes learning experiences and teaching strategies that are specifically
designed not only to prepare all children for life in a culturally rich society but also
to counter the stereotyping of diverse groups and to guard against expressions of bias
( Derman-Sparks & Edwards, 2010). In this section, we discuss goals of culturally
responsive, anti-bias education and ways of helping children achieve those goals. The
overarching goal of anti-bias education is to help all children reach their full potential.
To do so, anti-bias education focuses on four core goals for children (Derman-Sparks &
Edwards, 2010; Teaching Tolerance, 2012):
1. Identity. Teachers foster and support children’s self-awareness, confidence, and
pride in their family and own identity.
anti-bias education Learning
experiences and teaching
strategies that are specifically
designed not only to prepare all
children for life in a culturally
rich society, but also to counter
the stereotyping of diverse
groups, and to guard against
expressions of bias.
Language Lens
Using Technology to Teach Dual Language Learners
With growing numbers of dual and multi-language learn-
ers in our classrooms, all teachers need to be prepared
to support English language acquisition while also pro-
moting continued home language development. Using
technology exponentially increases teachers’ options to
achieve these goals, as these examples illustrate:
Yao is a Chinese speaker who doesn’t talk at all in
preschool. He is isolated from the other children who
won’t play with him. His teacher knows that without
social interaction, his English skills won’t develop. She
loans his family an iPad and with the help of a trans-
lator shows him a digital storytelling app to create a
story about his family with photos and narration in both
English and Chinese. When he shares the story with the
other children, they realize that Yao has an interesting
life and several of them decide to use the app to create
stories about themselves.
Kara’s kindergarten includes speakers of four different
home languages, some of whom are newly arrived immi-
grants. She relies on technology to create an accessible
environment for all the children as they acquire sufficient
English to navigate the school. Kara posts pictures and
labels in various languages (in some cases with phonetic
spellings) to help children learn routines and safety pre-
cautions. On the Internet she finds images, songs, and
stories that accurately depict children’s homelands, and
uses these to spark conversations among small groups of
children. She teaches all the children to use iTranslate
on classroom tablets to aid communication and support
burgeoning friendships. The class uses Skype to com-
municate with children’s relatives in other parts of the
country or world. Within a few weeks, all the children,
including native English speakers, enjoy helping each
other explore different languages and learn together.
Children all over the world speak multiple languages. The
opportunity to become bilingual or multilingual awaits
every child in America if schools take advantage of young
children’s inborn ability to learn language and the afford-
able, technological resources now available.
Sources: Digital Story Helps Dual Language Learner Connect
with Classmates, by D. Bates, no date, Washington, DC: National
Association for the Education of Young Children, retrieved August
27, 2014, from http://www.naeyc.org/technology/digital-story-
helps-dual-language-learner; “Using Technology as a Teaching
Tool for Dual Language Learners in Preschool through Grade 3,”
by K. N. Nemeth and F. S. Simon, 2013, Young Children, 68(1),
48–52.
Chapter 12 Teaching Children to Communicate: Language, Literacy, and the Arts 393
Stage Description How Teachers Can Help
Stage 6: Advanced
Language Proficiency
Children have developed understanding
of specialized, content-related vocabu-
lary. It can take from 5 to 7 years for
children to master this level of cogni-
tively demanding language.
Teachers intentionally teach the vocabu-
lary and language skills required for
academic achievement in school. For
example, mathematics requires knowing
words like addend or double-digit mul-
tiplication that are not used in everyday
speech.
Sources: Based on Getting It Right for Young Children from Diverse Backgrounds:
Applying Research to Improve Practice, by L. M. Espinosa, 2010, Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Pearson; Oral Language and Early Literacy in Preschool: Talking, Reading, and
Writing. 2nd edition, by K. A. Roskos, P. O. Tabors, and L. A. Lenhart, 2009, Newark,
DE: International Reading Association.
Code switching is the ability to understand and use both
the commonly accepted version of English and the home
language or dialect. When children are learning a second
language, they often code switch, usually beginning a
sentence in one language and then switching to the other
as in: “I drew a picture de mi madre” or “Mi mano es
dirty.” Code switching is not limited to children. In fact,
bilingual people of all ages alternate between languages
depending on the setting and the topic of conversation.
Many bilingual individuals find that they can best ex-
press their feelings and personal thoughts in their native
language.
In the past, it was assumed that code switching meant
that children were confused or incompetent. But now we
know that the opposite is true: children are able to sepa-
rate the languages in their brains and apply the differ-
ent rules of grammar of each language. Code switching
is actually a sign of children’s growing communicative
competence. They are using all they know to communi-
cate as clearly as they can.
So what should teachers do about code switching? First,
they should expect code switching as a normal aspect
of dual language learning. The most important thing is
not to correct children when they mix languages. Cor-
recting children’s language attempts sends a signal that
they’ve done something wrong. They may stop trying to
communicate in order to avoid making the “mistake” of
code switching.
Instead of focusing on children’s “errors,” teachers
should focus on understanding the child’s message. They
should view code switching as a strength. As always,
teachers should be good language models themselves,
using the same strategies that promote language learning
in all children: listening and responding in a meaningful
way, using real objects and nonverbal cues, intentionally
teaching new words, and extending conversations with
questions and ideas.
Sometimes bilingual teachers think that they can sup-
port dual language learning by alternating languages
themselves. Again, the opposite is true. Children’s brains
will automatically listen and respond to the language
they know best and tune out the other one. To promote
dual language development, bilingual teachers can read
books in each language but should do so at separate
times.
Encouraging children to code switch and responding
positively honors the language system that they already
possess and helps them adapt to different communica-
tion requirements in different situations. And it also
respects and supports their cultural identity because
language and culture are inextricably linked. Teach-
ers should always create a warm, positive classroom
climate in which children feel safe to express them-
selves. Capable code switchers acquire the ability to
think about their own use of language, which serves
them well in other learning situations and has long-
lasting positive effects on language, cognition, and so-
cial development.
Source: Code Switching: Why It Matters and How to Respond, by
National Center on Cultural and Linguistic Responsiveness, no
date, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services, Office of Head Start. Retrieved January 26, 2015, from
http://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/hslc/tta-system/cultural-linguistic
/fcp/docs/code-switching .
Understanding and Responding to Code Switching
Culture Lens
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Chapter 1 Continuity and Change in Early Childhood Education 31
Addressing Threats to Children’s Play
Pediatricians and psychologists agree that too many
children today experience high levels of unrelent-
ing stress. Factors such as poverty and violence are
the primary sources, but stress affects the lives of
all children to some extent. Teachers today report
that more children are aggressive and disruptive as
a result of stressful events. Increasing numbers of
children, especially boys, are inaccurately diagnosed
as hyperactive and needlessly medicated. Childhood
obesity is also endemic.
Research demonstrates that exercise and child-
initiated play are effective stress-relievers. Ironically,
however, a survey of child care, preschool, and Head
Start teachers found that they tend to limit chil-
dren’s opportunities for active play, especially out-
doors, due to safety concerns and the need to pre-
pare children academically for school. And children
living in poverty are most likely to suffer because
they have less access to safe outdoor play areas and
programs feel extra pressure to focus on academic
instruction to close the school readiness gap.
Part of the solution is that teachers, parents, and
administrators need to understand that play and
school readiness is not an either/or choice. The
American Academy of Pediatrics emphasizes that
play is essential for children’s physical health, emo-
tional and mental well-being, social relationships,
and brain development and cognition. Vigorous play
develops large motor skills, and can reduce obesity.
In short, play contributes to all areas of develop-
ment and learning.
In an attempt to get children ready for school and
protect them from injury, early childhood programs
may actually be contributing to children’s stress by
minimizing children’s large muscle activity and child-
initiated play time. Because children spend so much
time in early childhood programs and school, it may
be their only opportunity to have physical activity or
outdoor play.
Early educators need to draw on the support of
physicians and other experts to help educate parents
and policy makers about the importance of play in
children’s lives and its essential role in helping chil-
dren cope with stress and improve school success.
They also need to advocate for funding to provide
safe playgrounds and adequate spaces indoors and
outdoors for active engagement. Play spaces and
opportunities must be designed to protect children
from injury, but protecting them from stress is
equally important.
Sources: “Societal Values and Policies May Curtail
Preschool Children’s Physical Activity in Child Care
Centers,” by K. A. Copeland, S. N. Sherman, C. A.
Kendeigh, H. J. Kalkwarf, & B. E. Saelens, 2012,
Pediatrics, 129(2), retrieved from http://pediatrics.
aappublications.org/content/early/2012/01/02/
peds.2011-2102.full +html; “The Importance of
Play in Promoting Healthy Child Development and
Maintaining Strong Parent-Child Bond: Focus on
Children in Poverty,” by R. M. Milter, K. R. Ginsburg, &
Council on Communications and Media Committee
on Psychological Aspects of Child and Family Health,
Pediatrics, 129(1), e204–e213, retrieved from http://
www.pediatrics.aappublications.org.
Continuity and Change
One overarching trend always affecting education is continuity and change. As the field
expands and changes occur in response to new political and economic realities, many
longtime early childhood professionals are concerned that the fundamental values of the
field will be lost. Development, including development of professions, is characterized by
both continuity and change. In this book we describe how the fundamental values of early
childhood education can be retained and enhanced (thus maintaining continuity with the
important tenets of the past), while also presenting what is known from new research
about effective teaching practices for all children. Some ways of thinking and practicing
should be cherished and held onto, whereas others may need to be updated or abandoned.
Promoting Play
Chapter 12 Teaching Children to Communicate: Language, Literacy, and the Arts 383
Developmental Continuum
Oral Language
Age of Child Developmental Expectations
Birth to about
8 months
• Communicate through behaviors rather than words; signal distress by crying. Caregivers
need to interpret babies’ sounds and gestures.
• Smile or vocalize if they want someone to pay attention or play.
• Begin vocalizing vowel sounds called cooing. Soon after, they begin to babble, producing
consonant/vowel sounds such as “ba.”
• Continue to babble using all kinds of sounds and will play with sounds when alone.
• Begin to understand familiar names such as those of siblings or pets.
• Laugh and appear to listen to conversations.
Between 8 and
18 months
• Become more purposeful in their communications.
• Use facial expressions, gestures, and sounds to get their needs met. (If a bottle falls from
a high chair tray, instead of just crying, the 14-month-old may grunt and wave at the floor.)
• Understand many more words than they can say.
• Speak in long, babbled sentences that mirror the cadence of conventional speech.
• Soon start to shake their head “no” and begin to use the word me.
• Usually crack the language code and begin to use their first words between 12 and
18 months.
From 18 to
24 months
• Experience a burst in vocabulary and begin to combine words into two-word utterances
called telegraphic speech. Like old-fashioned telegrams, they waste no words in commu-
nicating their message: “No nap.”
Ages 2 to 3 • Progress from using two-word combinations (my truck) to three- and four-word sentences
with words in the correct order more often (Where’s my truck?).
• Speaking vocabulary may reach 200 words.
• Use adjectives and adverbs. (Give me my blue truck now.)
• Most children’s speech becomes more understandable. Constantly ask, “Wassat?” as
they seem to want to name everything.
Ages 3 to 6 • Have a vocabulary of about 1,000 words.
• Although some may still have difficulty, most are better able to articulate some of the
more difficult sounds, like s, th, z, r, and l.
• Can initiate and engage in more complex conversations.
• Use 1,500 to 2,000 words as vocabulary expands rapidly during kindergarten.
• Usually speak clearly and are lively conversation partners with adults and other children.
The primary grades • Language development continues at a rapid pace.
• During these years, children need a large vocabulary to learn to read and to comprehend
what they read. Explicit teaching of vocabulary needs to be an instructional goal.
• At the same time, the more children read, the more words they learn because the lan-
guage of books is more elaborate than everyday conversation. Some researchers estimate
that children need to learn 3,000 words a year throughout the elementary school years.
Sources: Based on Assessing and Guiding Young Children’s Development and Learning, 6th
edition, by O. McAfee, D. Leong, and E. Bodrova, 2015, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson;
Learning Language and Loving It: A Guide to Promoting Children’s Social, Language,
and Literacy Development in Early Childhood Settings, 2nd edition, by E. Weitzman and
J. Greenberg, 2002, Toronto: The Hanen Centre.
Connections between Curriculum and
Child Development
Unlike many early childhood texts that focus on child development only, this text shows
how child development and curriculum content knowledge are connected.
In the Developmental Continuum feature, the text provides
an overview of the continuum of learning in the areas of
language, literacy, mathematics, and cognitive, social, emo-
tional, and physical development and describes how child
development is linked to curriculum planning for children
from birth through age 8.
• Chapters 12 to 15 help early childhood teachers understand right from the start
that there is content in the curriculum for young children. They describe the goals
for young children’s learning and development that predict success in school and
life. Each of these chapters includes examples of effective strategies such as teach-
ing children of diverse abilities in inclusive classrooms or ways to promote dual
language learning.
A new feature, Promoting Play, presents new research on the
important role of play in development and effective strategies
to help children learn through play or protect their right to play.
These features address play across the full age range, from birth
through age 8. Discussions of play are also integrated in each
chapter throughout this book as an effective means to support
all domains of development and promote learning in all cur-
riculum areas. Today many people are concerned about how the
standards movement is negatively impacting play. We often hear
statements such as “We can’t let children play because we have
to teach literacy,” or “We don’t have time for outdoor play in
primary grades because we have to get children ready for stan-
dardized tests.” Play should not be treated as a separate part of
an early childhood program or day that can be cut if someone
deems it unimportant. Therefore, you will find a discussion of
play in every chapter of this book.
• The emphasis on implementing effective curriculum reflects current trends such
as the goal of aligning prekindergarten and primary education, NAEYC accredita-
tion and CAPE professional preparation standards, and enhanced expectations for
teacher qualifications as described in the 2015 report, Transforming the Workforce
for Children Birth through Age 9: A Unifying Foundation by the Institute of Medicine
and the National Research Council.
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O ver more than four decades in early childho o d education, I have had the
privilege of working with and learning from countless friends, colleagues, teachers, and
children. This book would not have been possible without the help and encouragement of
the following people:
My deepest appreciation goes to Kathleen Cranley Gallagher, my collaborator on this
edition, who revised Chapters 4, 5, 7, 8, 11, 14, and 15. Kate’s vast experience with chil-
dren, with and without disabilities, as well as her research on children’s social-emotional
development and mental health greatly inform this edition. Kate contributed research and
effective practices on early intervention, teaching children with autism spectrum disorder,
and other cutting-edge topics. Without Kate’s help, I can’t imagine completing this work
in a timely fashion.
I especially wish to thank Carol Copple, with whom I have collaborated on Devel-
opmentally Appropriate Practice in Early Childhood Programs for several decades, and
who contributed features as well as invaluable assistance in conceptualizing aspects of the
book. Thanks also to Laura Colker for her overwhelming generosity, sharing of ideas, and
gracious support.
I want to acknowledge Carol Brunson Day for teaching me so much about diver-
sity, anti-bias education, and cultural influences on development. Her work contributed
greatly to the Culture and Language Lens features and Chapter 6.
Thank you to Gail E. Joseph, who was especially helpful on the first edition, and many
of her contributions are still present in Chapters 5 and 14 and the Including All Children
lenses.
Thanks to my longtime friend Kay M. Albrecht, who contributed to Chapter 15 and
provided numerous examples from her extensive classroom experience.
I wish to thank Linda Espinosa and Luis Hernandez for helping ensure that the book
reflects the most current research and practical examples for teaching dual language
learners.
Close colleagues whose wisdom and encouragement have educated and sustained me
for decades include Marilyn Smith, J. D. Andrews, Barbara Willer, and Barbara Bowman.
My deepest gratitude goes to Sharon Lynn Kagan for writing the foreword to this edi-
tion. The debt is never paid to the late Carol Seefeldt, who taught the first early childhood
course I ever took and mentored me through my dissertation. I hope that my work con-
tinues to reflect her vision.
A sincere thank you and acknowledgment of support to Arlington Public Schools
(APS) in Arlington, Virginia. Those assisting in the effort include: Arlington Public
Schools administrative personnel Regina Van Horne, Lisa Stengle, and Linda Erdos;
K. W. Barrett Elementary principal, Mr. Dan Redding; and K. W. Barrett instructional
staff Joshua McLaughlin, Anastasia Erickson, Emily Sonenshine, Stephanie Shaefer, Judy
Concha, Jennifer Flores, Elizabeth Jurkevics, and Richard Russey. Also, a big thanks to
those students and their parents who allowed us to use the student artwork and artifacts
found in this book.
I am also grateful to the many other schools, teachers, and administrators who
welcomed me as an observer, shared examples, and contributed artifacts, including:
Cathy Polanski, Second Grade, Arcola Elementary School; Hoaliku Drake Preschool,
Kamehameha Schools Community-Based Early Childhood Education; the Center
for Young Children at the University of Maryland; The Shoenbaum Family Center in
Columbus, Ohio, including Anneliese Johnson; Wickliffe Progressive Community School
and the Jentgen family; Linden, New Jersey, Public Schools; Far Hills Country Day School
in Far Hills, New Jersey; the HighScope Demonstration Preschool in Ypsilanti, Michigan;
and Easter Seals Blake Children’s Achievement Center in Tucson, Arizona.
I continue to be indebted to Julie Peters, my editor at Pearson, for contributing her
wealth of knowledge about early childhood teacher education, and her unwavering support
for my work. I also wish to thank Linda Bishop for leading me through the development
Acknowledgments
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of an Interactive eText for the first time. Thanks also for the creative contributions to the
first edition of Max Effenson Chuck and Kelly Villella Canton.
My life and work continue to be inspired by Patty Smith Hill, founder of NANE,
whose vision for early childhood education laid the foundation for NAEYC’s commitment
to developmentally appropriate practice.
I would also like to thank the many reviewers who contributed to the development
of this book. They are: Margaret Charlton, Tidewater Community College; Jody Eberly,
The College of New Jersey; Amy Howell, Central Oregon Community College; Claire
Lenz, St. Joseph’s College; Marilyn Roseman, Mount Aloysius College; and Lois Silvernail,
Spring Hill College.
Instructor Supplements
The following instructor tools supplement, support, and reinforce the content presented
throughout the text. All supplements are available for download for instructors who adopt
this text. Go to http://www.pearsonhighered.com, click “Educators,” register for access,
and download files. For more information, contact your Pearson representative.
• Online Instructor’s Manual (013402687X). The Instructor’s Resource Manual pro-
vides chapter-by-chapter tools to use in class. Lecture or discussion outlines, teach-
ing strategies, in-class activities, student projects, key term definitions, and helpful
resources will reinforce key concepts and applications and keep students engaged.
• Online Test Bank (0134026756). These multiple-choice and essay questions tied to
each chapter provide instructors the opportunity to assess student understanding
of the chapter content. An answer key is provided.
• Online PowerPointTM Slides (0134026829). Each slide reinforces key concepts and
big ideas presented throughout the text.
• TestGen (013402673X). This powerful test generator contains the same items that
are in the Online Test Bank, but you may add or revise items. Assessments may be
created for print or testing online. You install TestGen on your personal computer
(Windows or Macintosh) and create your own tests for classroom testing and for
other specialized delivery options, such as over a local area network or on the web.
The tests can be downloaded in the following formats:
TestGen Testbank file – PC • TestGen Testbank file – MAC • TestGen Testbank –
Blackboard 9 TIF • TestGen Testbank – Blackboard CE/Vista (WebCT) TIF •
Angel Test Bank • D2L Test Bank • Moodle Test Bank • Sakai Test Bank
xii
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http://www.pearsonhighered.com
Like all Sue Bredekamp’s work, Effective Practices in Early Childhood Education:
Building a Foundation has become a landmark. Since its publication, it has been
the major benchmark against which all volumes related to early childhood practice are
measured, domestically and internationally. Indeed, it has been a driving force, not only
guiding practice and scholarship, but also serving as a seminal vehicle to codify and
chronicle the impact of history, the experiences of practitioners and leaders, and the im-
pact of policy on the changing field of early education. In so doing, it has converted static
assumptions and understandings about early childhood pedagogy into living, dynamic,
and far more intentional practices.
Since its appearance, Effective Practices has been widely read and used to guide early
childhood teacher preparation and practice. Its popularity has placed a special burden on
the work; it, like the field, cannot remain stagnant or isolated from changes in the social
context. Precisely because it is so well used and because the field is changing so rapidly, a
new edition is necessary. Consider for example, the impact that the emergence of the K–12
Common Core has had on early education: whether one favors or disparages the Common
Core ideologically, it is here to stay and is having profound impacts on American educa-
tion generally, and American early education specifically. In addition, the revitalization
of an emphasis on continuity and transition, emerging currently in the form of the “P–3
Movement,” is altering the way early educators conceptualize and actualize the linkages
between pre-primary and primary education. Within the birth to 5-year-old component
of early childhood, a renewed emphasis on supporting the infrastructure through the Ear-
ly Learning Challenge Fund, with its focus on Quality Rating and Improvement Systems,
standards, and assessments, is precipitating dramatic changes in the way early childhood
education services are being designed and delivered. Finally, new research related to the
way children learn and process information is calling forth compelling pedagogical align-
ments that address the importance of dual language learners, executive functioning, early
mathematics, and learning progressions.
With the early childhood field changing so rapidly, time-honored questions are be-
ing catapulted to new prominence, often begging for urgent response: What should be
the balance between cognitive development and other domains historically important to
early childhood? What should be the balance between a focus on learning processes and
content? What should be the balance between teacher-guided, intentional pedagogy and
child-guided experiential learning? Note that none of these questions is new and that each
recognizes the critical importance of balance.
Indeed, the majesty of this volume is that it, too, understands and addresses the im-
portance of the contemporary context and the balance in perspective and practice it de-
mands. In this volume, Bredekamp takes a long-haul view; she renders solid definitions
of the field, situating the reader firmly in reality, and provides one of the most thorough
historical overviews available. But Bredekamp does not stop there, nor does she skirt the
tough issues, the new research, or the new demands being placed on early educators.
Rather, with clarity and grace, she systematically addresses them all, setting before the
field a rich compendium of research, firsthand and extremely well-cultivated practice,
and ever-wise counsel. Readers will be impressed by the currency, practicality, and clear
intentionality of the volume, evoking the same from those who regard it with the care with
which it was written.
Of particular importance in this ever-changing and increasingly connected world
is the role of culture and language. Bredekamp addresses these issues with honesty and
integrity, treating readers to a richly nuanced understanding of the important roles of
each in the development of young children. Cautiously, she reminds us that the words
“developmentally appropriate”—although bywords of the profession—must be deeply
contextualized in order to be understood and mastered. Indeed, in discussing how to
balance developmentally, individually, and contextually appropriate practices, Bredekamp
brilliantly notes that “a child with a disability acts like a magnifying glass on the
xiii
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developmental appropriateness of an early childhood classroom.” In turn, early educators
must regard this seminal edition as the best possible lens through which to see and enlarge
what matters most in our field; with wisdom and prescience, it sheds all the light necessary
to advance our evolving, joyous profession and our critically important work on behalf of
children, their families, and their countries.
Sharon Lynn Kagan, Ed.D.
Virginia and Leonard Marx Professor of Early Childhood and Family Policy,
Teachers College, Columbia University;
and Professor Adjunct, Yale University’s Child Study Center
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Brief Contents
Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education 2
Chapter 1 Continuity and Change in Early Childhood Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Chapter 2 Building on a Tradition of Excellence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Chapter 3 Understanding and Applying Developmentally Appropriate Practice . . . . . . . . 68
Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach 100
Chapter 4 Applying What We Know about Children’s Learning and Development . . . . . 100
Chapter 5 Adapting for Individual Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Chapter 6 Embracing a Culturally and Linguistically Diverse World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach 204
Chapter 7 Building Effective Partnerships with Families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Chapter 8 Creating a Caring Community of Learners: Guiding Young Children . . . . . 238
Chapter 9 Teaching to Enhance Learning and Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Chapter 10 Planning Effective Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Chapter 11 Assessing Children’s Learning and Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach 378
Chapter 12 Teaching Children to Communicate: Language, Literacy,
and the Arts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
Chapter 13 Teaching Children to Investigate and Solve Problems:
Mathematics, Science, and Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
Chapter 14 Teaching Children to Live in a Democratic Society: Social-Emotional
Learning and Social Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
Chapter 15 Teaching Children to Be Healthy and Fit:
Physical Development and Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
Chapter 16 Putting It All Together in Practice: Making a Difference for Children . . . 516
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Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education 2
Chapter 1 Continuity and Change in Early Childhood Education . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
What Is Early Childhood Education? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Why Early Childhood Education Is a Field on the Rise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
The Landscape of Early Childhood Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
How Early Childhood Education Is Expanding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Access to Early Childhood Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
How Early Childhood Education Is Changing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Why Become an Early Childhood Educator? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
The Joys of Teaching Young Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Dimensions of Effective, Intentional Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Career Options for Early Childhood Educators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
The Culture of Early Childhood Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Early Childhood Program Quality and Effectiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Setting Standards for Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Measuring Quality in Early Childhood Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Measuring Effectiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
The Positive Effects of Early Childhood Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Brain Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Lasting Benefits of Early Childhood Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
The Positive Effects of Prekindergarten, Head Start, and Child Care . . . . . . . . 24
Social Justice and Closing the Achievement Gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Current Trends in Early Childhood Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
New Federal and State Policy Initiatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Standards and Accountability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Higher Teacher Qualifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Alignment of Services from Birth Through Age 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Advances in Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Stress in Children’s Lives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Continuity and Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Chapter 2 Building on a Tradition of Excellence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Learning from the Past . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Why History Is Relevant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
The Changing View of Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
European Influences on American Early Childhood Education . . . . . . . . . .41
John Amos Comenius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Table of Contents
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Johann Pestalozzi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Friedrich Froebel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Maria Montessori . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Early Childhood Movements in the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47
The Kindergarten Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Progressive Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
The Nursery School Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
The Child Care Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
A Wider View of Early Childhood History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57
African Americans in Early Childhood History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Native American Early Childhood History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Latino Early Childhood History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Bringing the Stories Together . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62
The Story of Head Start . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
The Prekindergarten Story . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Building on a Tradition of Excellence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Chapter 3 Understanding and Applying Developmentally Appropriate
Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
What Is Developmentally Appropriate Practice? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70
NAEYC’S Position Statement on Developmentally Appropriate Practice . . . . . . 70
Current Issues in Developmentally Appropriate Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Developmentally Appropriate Practice in the Classroom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Intentional Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
Purposeful Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Understand and Explain Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Developmentally Appropriate Decision Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
Make Informed Decisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Consider All You Know When Making Decisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
The Complex Role of the Teacher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
Create a Caring Community of Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Teach to Enhance Learning and Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Plan Curriculum to Achieve Important Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Assess Children’s Development and Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Build Relationships with Families and Communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
The Teacher’s Role in Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Widening the Lens: Moving from Either/Or to Both/And Thinking . . . . . . . . . . 89
Developmentally Appropriate Learning Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91
Organize the Physical Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Organize the Day . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Research on Developmentally Appropriate Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .94
Research Reviews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Research on Elements of Developmentally Appropriate Practice . . . . . . . . . . . 95
The Future of Developmentally Appropriate Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
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Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach 100
Chapter 4 Applying What We Know about Children’s Learning
and Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Understanding Development and Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
What Is Development? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
What Is Learning? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
The Role of Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
The Relationship between Theory, Research, and Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Why Study Child Development and Learning? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Brain Development and Implications for Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
How the Brain Promotes Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Implications for Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Implications for Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Child Development Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory of Human Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Maslow’s Self-Actualization Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Piaget and Cognitive Developmental Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Vygotsky and Sociocultural Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory of Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Learning Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
B. F. Skinner and Behaviorism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Albert Bandura and Social Cognitive Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
The Role of Play in Development and Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Types of Play . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
The Benefits of Play . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Play and Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Connecting Theory and Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Chapter 5 Adapting for Individual Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
The Importance of Individual Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Why Pay Attention to Individual Differences? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Where Do Individual Differences Come From? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
How Experience Affects Outcomes for Children: Risk or Resilience . . . . . . . . . 142
What We Know About Individual Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Gender Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Cognitive Development and Abilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Emotional and Social Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Approaches to Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Physical Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Seeing Each Child as an Individual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Multiple Intelligences: A Theory of Individual Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Gifted and Talented Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Responsive Education for All Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Differentiating Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Response to Intervention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
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Individual Differences in Ability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
The Language of Early Childhood Special Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
What Teachers Should Know about Children with Disabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Seeing Children with Disabilities as Individuals: The Case of Autism . . . . . . . . . 155
What Teachers Should Know about Legal Requirements
for Children with Disabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Embracing Natural Learning Environments and Inclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Effective Practices for Children with Diverse Abilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Work on a Team . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Assess Young Children of Diverse Abilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Plan Individualized Instructional Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Chapter 6 Embracing a Culturally and Linguistically Diverse World . . . . . . . . . . 170
Understanding Cultural Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
What Is Culture? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
The Role of Culture in Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
How Culture Functions: Principles to Keep in Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
A Framework for Thinking About Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Individualistic Cultural Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Interdependent Cultural Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Continuum of Common Cultural Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Applying the Continuum in Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Understanding Your Own Cultural Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Become Aware of Your Own Cultural Experiences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Learn about the Perspectives of Various Cultural Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Teaching in a Culturally and Linguistically Diverse World . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Why Does Culture Matter to Teachers? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Embracing Linguistic Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Cultural Competence: The Key to Effective Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Cross-Cultural Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Effective Practices for Diverse Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Culturally Responsive Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Linguistically Responsive Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Anti-Bias Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach 204
Chapter 7 Building Effective Partnerships with Families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Today’s Families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Welcoming Diverse Families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Family Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Family Circumstances and Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Reciprocal Relationships with Families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Roles of Teachers and Parents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Family-Centered Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
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Communication with Families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Barriers to Effective Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Effective Communication Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Family Engagement in Programs and Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Benefits of Family Involvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Opportunities for Meaningful Family Engagement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Community Partnerships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
A Framework for Building Partnerships with Families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Clarify Preferences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Communicate Preferences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Negotiate Successfully . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Demonstrate Willingness to Learn and Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Chapter 8 Creating a Caring Community of Learners: Guiding
Young Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
A Caring Community of Learners: The Teaching Pyramid Model . . . . . . . . 240
The Value of a Caring Community of Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
The Teaching Pyramid Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Positive Relationships with Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
The Importance of Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Effective Strategies to Build Positive Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
High-Quality Supportive Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Establish Clear, Consistent, Fair Rules for Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Support Children to Do Their Best . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Teaching Social-Emotional Competence and Guiding Behavior . . . . . . . . . 255
Guidance and Punishment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Teach Emotional Literacy and Social Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Conflict Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Intensive Individualized Interventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Understand Challenging Behaviors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Assess and Address the Function of the Child’s Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Team with Families and Professionals to Implement Individualized Plans . . . . 261
Use Positive Behavior Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Applying the Teaching Pyramid Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Apply the Pyramid Model to Teaching Boys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Apply the Pyramid Model to Address Biting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Apply the Pyramid Model to Alleviate Bullying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Chapter 9 Teaching to Enhance Learning and Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Teaching: Both a Science and an Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
The Science of Teaching. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
The Art of Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
A Repertoire of Effective Teaching Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
What Are Teaching Strategies? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Teacher-Initiated and Child-Initiated Experiences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Using an Array of Teaching Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
The Power of Scaffolding: An Integrated Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Connecting Teaching Strategies and Learning Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
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Reflect on Your Own Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Strategies That Make Learning Meaningful . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Strategies That Develop Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Strategies That Promote Higher-Level Thinking and Problem Solving . . . . . . . . 292
Grouping as an Instructional Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
The Learning Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Play as a Context for Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Teachers’ Involvement during Play . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Teachers’ Role during Play . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Teaching with Digital Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Research on Digital Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Using Technology and Digital Media to Teach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
Assistive Technology for Children with Diverse Abilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
Chapter 10 Planning Effective Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Defining Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
What Is Curriculum? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Curriculum Models, Approaches, and Frameworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Written Curriculum Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
The Teacher’s Role . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Components of Effective Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
The Role of Standards in Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
What Are Standards? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
How Do Standards Affect Curriculum? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
Alignment of Standards and Curriculum across Age Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Approaches to Planning Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
Emergent Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
Integrated Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
Thematic Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
Webbing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
The Project Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Scope and Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Research-Based Early Childhood Curricula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
Comprehensive Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
Focused Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
The Reggio Emilia Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Research on Preschool Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
A Model for Planning Effective Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
The Child in the Sociocultural Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
Sources of Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Applying the Curriculum Model in Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Adapting for Individual Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Chapter 11 Assessing Children’s Learning and Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
Learning the Language of Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Formative and Summative Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Informal and Formal Assessments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Observation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
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Performance Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Dynamic Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Standardized Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Types of Standardized Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Purposes of Assessment: Why Assess? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Assessing to Improve Teaching and Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
Identifying Children with Special Learning or Developmental Needs . . . . . . . . . 351
Evaluating Program Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
Assessing for Accountability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
Connecting Purposes and Types of Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Indicators of Effective Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Developmentally Appropriate Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
Culturally and Linguistically Responsive Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
Individually Appropriate Assessment for Children with Special Needs . . . . . . . . 358
Observation and Recording to Improve Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
Observing and Gathering Evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
Recording What Children Know and Can Do . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
Interpreting and Using Evidence to Improve Teaching and Learning . . . . . . . . . 369
Standardized Testing of Young Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
Types of Standardized Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
Appropriate Uses of Standardized Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
Concerns about Standardized Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
Assessment and the Common Core . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
Kindergarten Entry Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach 378
Chapter 12 Teaching Children to Communicate: Language, Literacy, and the Arts . . . 378
Children’s Language Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
The Critical Importance of Language Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
Types of Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
Language Differences in Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
Developmental Continuum: Oral Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
Impact of Common Core Speaking and Listening Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
Scaffolding Children’s Language Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
Supporting Language Development in Babies and Toddlers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
Scaffolding Preschoolers’ Language Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
Dual Language Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
How Children Learn a Second Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
Developmental Continuum: Dual Language Acquisition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
Teaching Dual Language Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
Early Literacy: Birth through Age 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
Developmental Continuum: Early Literacy Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
Literacy-Rich Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
Early Literacy from Birth to Kindergarten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
Literacy in the Primary Grades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
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Learning to Read . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
Developmental Continuum: Literacy in Kindergarten and Primary Grades . . . . 404
Evidence-Based Reading Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
Digital Literacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
Impact of the Common Core State Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
Communicating Through the Arts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
The Value of Creative Arts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Visual Arts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
Music, Movement, and Dance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
Drama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
Seeing the Arts with New Eyes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
Chapter 13 Teaching Children to Investigate and Solve Problems:
Mathematics, Science, and Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
The Importance of Mathematics and Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
The Need for an Educated Workforce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
The Mathematics Achievement Gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
The Cognitive Foundations of Early Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
The Continuum of Cognitive Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
Executive Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
Children’s Thinking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
Language and Cognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
Mathematical Language and the Achievement Gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
Effective Mathematics Curriculum and Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
Mathematics Curriculum Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
Mathematics Process Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
Effective Mathematics Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
Effective Mathematics Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
The Role of Play in Teaching and Learning Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
Effective Science Curriculum and Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
Science and Technology in the Early Childhood Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
Science Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
Effective Science Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
Teaching about and with Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
A Developmentally and Technologically Appropriate Classroom . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
Chapter 14 Teaching Children to Live in a Democratic Society:
Social-Emotional Learning and Social Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
Social-Emotional Foundations of Early Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
Emotional Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
Self-Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
Social Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
Stress in Children’s Lives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
Continuum of Social and Emotional Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
Infants and Toddlers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
Preschool and Kindergarten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
Primary Grades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
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Diversity and Social-Emotional Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
The Role of Play in Social-Emotional Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
Emotional Development and Play . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
Social Development and Play . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
Effective Social-Emotional Curriculum and Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
Social and Emotional Curriculum Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
Effective Social Studies Curriculum and Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
What Is Social Studies? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
Social Studies Content Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
Effective Strategies for Teaching Social Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
Chapter 15 Teaching Children to Be Healthy and Fit: Physical
Development and Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
The Importance of Physical Fitness and Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
Benefits of Physical Fitness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
Childhood Obesity Crisis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
Implications for Early Childhood Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
How Physical Development Occurs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
The Continuum of Physical Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
Phases of Motor Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
Gross-Motor Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
Fine-Motor Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
The Role of Play in Physical Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
Childhood Experiences with the Natural Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
Outdoor Play Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
The Value of Rough-and-Tumble Play . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
Health and Safety Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
The Teacher’s Role in Health and Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
Effective Curriculum and Teaching to Promote Physical
Fitness and Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
Curriculum for Physical Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
Effective Health Curriculum and Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
Chapter 16 Putting It All Together in Practice: Making a Difference
for Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
Life as an Early Childhood Educator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
Caring for and Educating Infants and Young Toddlers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
Teaching the Whole Child in the Preschool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
Teaching the Whole Child in the Kindergarten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
Teaching the Whole Child in the Primary Grades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524
Beginning Your Journey as an Early Childhood Professional . . . . . . . . . . . 526
Become a Professional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
Protect Children from Abuse and Neglect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
Join a Profession That Makes a Difference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572
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xxv
Promoting Play
Ch. 1: Addressing Threats to Children’s Play . . . . . 31
Ch. 2: The Image of the Child and the Role of Play. . . 42
Ch. 3: Does Developmentally Appropriate
Practice = Play? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Ch. 4: Incorporating Playful Exercise into the
Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Ch. 5: Supporting Pretend Play for Children with
Disabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Ch. 6: African American Children and Play . . . . . 186
Ch. 7: Get Outside and Play! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Ch. 8: All Can Play . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Ch. 9: Teaching and Learning through
Transmedia Play . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Ch. 10: Involving Children in Planning Their Play . . . 329
Ch. 11: Play as an Assessment Context . . . . . . . . 361
Ch. 12: How Play Supports Language and Literacy
Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
Ch. 13: Digital Play and Traditional Play . . . . . . . . 451
Ch. 14: Learning to Get Along Using Board Games . . . 473
Ch. 15: Teaching Sports Skills in Primary Grades . . . 496
Ch. 16: Resolving an Ethical Dilemma about Play . . . 530
Becoming an Intentional Teacher
Ch. 1: Being Purposeful and Playful . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Ch. 2: Expanding Children’s Experience . . . . . . . . 55
Ch. 3: Expanding Thinking and Communication
Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Ch. 4: Teaching in the “Zone” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Ch. 5: Individualizing Group Time . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Ch. 6: Responding to Cultural Differences . . . . . . 199
Ch. 7: Responding to Parents: Welcoming
“Complainers” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Ch. 8: Easing Separation Woes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Ch. 9: Working in Small Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Ch. 10: Shaping Curriculum to Connect with
Children’s Needs and Interests . . . . . . . . . 315
Ch. 11: Using Assessment to Inform Teaching . . . 365
Ch. 12: Teaching the Alphabet and Phonological
Awareness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
Ch. 13: Integrating Physical Science in Block
Building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
Ch 14: Integrating Social Studies Content to Meet
Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
Ch 15: Teaching Fine-Motor Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
Ch 16: Advocating for Effective Inclusion of Children
with Disabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
What Works
Ch. 1: Increasing School Readiness for All Children . . . 25
Ch. 2: Developing Mathematical Skills with
Unit Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Ch. 3: How Both Teacher-Directed and Child-Initiated
Experiences Promote Learning . . . . . . . . . . 90
Ch. 4: Exposing Babies to Different Languages . . . 107
Ch. 5: Principles of Universal Design . . . . . . . . . 162
Ch. 6: Making Education Culturally Compatible . . . 191
Ch. 7: Father-Friendly Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Ch. 8: Teaching Emotional Literacy . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Ch. 9: Reciprocal Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Ch. 10: Using Tools of the Mind to Close the
Achievement Gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
Ch. 11: Using Technology to Assess Learning . . . . 371
Ch. 12: Dialogic Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
Ch. 13: Teaching STEM to Dual Language
Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
Ch. 14: The Turtle Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
Ch. 15: Teaching Physical Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
Ch. 16: Having an Effective Teacher . . . . . . . . . . . 534
Special Features
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xxvi
Developmental Continuum/Learning Trajectory
Ch. 12: Oral Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
Ch. 12: Second Language Learning . . . . . . . . . . . 392
Ch. 12: Early Literacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
Ch. 12: Literacy in Kindergarten and Primary
Grades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
Ch. 13: Cognitive Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
Ch. 14: Social-Emotional Development in Infants
and Toddlers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
Ch. 14: Social-Emotional Learning in 3- through
5-Year-Olds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
Ch. 14: Social-Emotional Learning in the Primary
Grades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
Ch. 15: Gross-Motor Skills from Birth through
Age 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
Ch. 15: Fine-Motor Skills from Birth through
Age 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
Including All Children
Ch. 1: What Does Inclusion Mean? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Ch. 2: Early Childhood Special Education in Historical
Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Ch. 3: Developmentally Appropriate Practice and
Children with Disabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Ch. 4: Teaching Self-Help and Social Skills to Chil-
dren with Disabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Ch. 6: Cultural Diversity and Diverse Ability . . . . . 184
Ch. 7: Family-Centered Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Ch. 8: When to Teach Social and Emotional Skills 258
Ch. 9: Project DATA: A High-Quality Comprehensive
Early Intervention Program for Children with
Autism Spectrum Disorders . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Ch. 10: Individualized Education Plans: Meeting Chil-
dren’s Individual Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Ch. 11: Individually Appropriate Assessment
Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
Ch. 13: Science Exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
Ch. 14: Fostering Friendships in the Inclusive
Classroom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
Ch. 15: Nutrition and Children with Developmental
Disabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
Culture Lens
Ch. 2: Early Childhood Education through the
Lens of Non-Western Culture . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Ch. 3: The Role of Culture in Development . . . . . . 83
Ch. 4: The Effect of Culture on Research and
Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Ch. 5: Responding to Cultural and Individual
Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Ch. 7: Developing Partnerships with Latino
Families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Ch. 8: Helping Each Child Adapt to School . . . . . 250
Ch. 12: Understanding and Responding to Code
Switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
Ch. 13: Finger Counting in Cultural Context . . . . . 432
Ch. 14: Learning about Cross-Cultural Similarities
through the Milestones Project . . . . . . . . . 476
Ch. 15: Cultural Influences on Gross-Motor Movement
and Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
Language Lens
Ch. 1: Preparing to Teach Dual Language
Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Ch. 5: Accurate Assessment of Linguistically
Diverse Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Ch. 6: Using Technology to Teach Dual Language
Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Ch. 9: Teachable Moments with Dual Language
Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Ch. 10: Curriculum Approaches for Dual Language
Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Ch. 11: Involving Parents in Assessment of Dual
Language Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
Ch. 12: Teaching Dual Language Learners . . . . . . 394
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1
Tables—Effective Practices
Ch. 1: NAEYC Early Childhood Program Standards . . . 20
Ch. 4: Erikson’s Stages of Personal and Social
Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Ch. 4: Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development . . 115
Ch. 4: Comparing Theories of Child Development . . 130
Ch. 4: Principles of Development and Learning to
Guide Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Ch. 5: Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences . . . 148
Ch. 5: Some Types of Exceptionality . . . . . . . . . . 154
Ch. 7: Characteristics of Family Systems . . . . . . . 210
Ch. 7: Planning and Conducting Family
Conferences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Ch. 7: Strategies for Engaging Families . . . . . . . . 228
Ch. 8: What a Caring Community Looks Like . . . . 249
Ch. 8: Strategies for Teaching Conflict Resolution . . 259
Ch. 8: Effective Teaching and Intervention
Strategies for Boys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Ch. 9: Effective Teaching Strategies . . . . . . . . . . 279
Ch. 9: Learning Centers and Suggested Materials . . 295
Ch. 10: Continuum of Curriculum Approaches
and the Teacher’s Role . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Ch. 10: Components of Effective Curriculum . . . . . 316
Ch. 11: Matching Purpose and Types of
Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Ch. 11: Effective Assessment Practices . . . . . . . . . 354
Ch. 11: Learning to Observe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
Ch. 11: Methods of Gathering Assessment Information:
Advantages and Disadvantages . . . . . . . . 364
Ch. 11: Methods of Recording Assessment Information:
Advantages and Disadvantages . . . . . . . . 370
Ch. 12: Improving Teacher–Child Conversations . . . 387
Ch. 13: Scientific Inquiry Processes in Children . . . 445
Ch. 13: Effective Science Teaching Strategies . . . . 447
Ch. 14: Levels of Social Play . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
Ch. 14: Social Studies Themes and Concepts . . . . 475
Ch. 14: Geography Education Standards . . . . . . . . 479
Ch. 14: Teaching Early Economics . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
Ch. 15: Phases of Motor Development . . . . . . . . . 490
Ch. 15: Effective Strategies: Gross-Motor Skills from
Birth through Age 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
Ch. 15: Effective Strategies: Gross-Motor Skills
in the Primary Grades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
Ch. 15: Effective Strategies: Fine-Motor Skills in
Infants and Toddlers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
Ch. 15: Effective Strategies: Fine-Motor Skills in
Preschool and Kindergarten . . . . . . . . . . . 500
Ch. 15: Effective Strategies: Perceptual-Motor
Development from Birth to Age 8 . . . . . . . 503
Ch. 16: Considerations for Infant/Toddler
Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
Ch. 16: Considerations for Preschool Teachers . . . 522
Ch. 16: Considerations for Kindergarten
Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524
Ch. 16: Considerations for Primary Grade
Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
Ch. 16: Recognizing Potential Signs of Child
Abuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
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1
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
1.1 Define early childhood education.
1.2 Describe the career options of early childhood educators and the dimensions
of intentional, effective teaching.
1.3 Explain high-quality early childhood education and how it is measured.
1.4 Report research about the positive effects of early childhood education.
1.5 Analyze the current trends affecting early childhood education.
Continuity and Change in
Early Childhood Education
Learning Outcomes
© Kali9/E+/Getty Images
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3
At Cresthaven Primary School, teachers, children, and family members of all generations are viewing children’s work and sharing memories during the year-end celebration. This public school serves children
from age 3 to grade 3, through a partnership with Reed Child Development Center nearby. The Reed Center
provides state-funded preschool classrooms for 3- and 4-year-olds who will attend Cresthaven as well as before-
and after-school care and child care for infants and toddlers.
The preschoolers are in awe of the “big school” where they will attend kindergarten and are excited to see their work
displayed in the hallway. “Look, Mommy! Here’s my painting of the yellow fish,” cries 4-year-old Amber as she tugs on her
mother’s hand. “See where I wrote my name. And here’s Brenda’s picture. She’s my new best friend.” Amber’s mother
smiles and tries to read what her daughter wrote: “I lk fsh.” The teacher, Ms. Engels, comes up and says, “Amber knows
a lot about writing and letters. She can write her name, and she is starting to write the consonants she hears in words.”
For several years, Cresthaven School has been involved with its neighbors in a community garden project.
In each class, the teachers connect the larger curriculum—especially science and social studies goals—to
aspects of the garden project. Six-year-old Sergio and his grandmother walk down the hall to find the list of all the
meals the kindergartners prepared with the vegetables they harvested. He exclaims, “And tonight, we get to eat
strawberries!” Meanwhile, first-grader Mathias quietly explains to some parents, “Me and my friends made this
graph. It shows the vegetables the kids liked most.” Third-grader Carola describes her class project to her father.
“You’ll like this, Dad. For social studies, we’re figuring out where food comes from and why it costs so much.”
The second-grade teacher, Ms. George, gets everyone’s attention. “Our class is going to present their video of
the garden project in 15 minutes.” Seven-year-old Kelsey takes 75-year-old Mrs. Carrero by the hand and invites
her to see the show. The children share most of the food raised in the garden with elderly neighbors such as
Mrs. Carrero. “I’ll show you the chapter book I can read, too,” says Kelsey.
Four-year-old Cooper, who has autism, has been in Ms. Watson’s class for 2
years. His mother comes up and quietly whispers to Ms. Watson,
“I wanted you to know that Cooper got invited to Martie’s birthday party.
I never thought that would happen, but he’s made more progress here
than I ever imagined.”
As she’s leaving, Nicky’s mom stops to thank Isela and Evan,
who are finishing their first year of teaching 2-year-olds. They
remember their struggles with Nicky’s tantrums
as he hugs his mom’s leg and playfully peeks
around at Evan. She says, “I know he is growing
up and has to move to preschool, but we are really
going to miss you two.” ■
L
istening to these children, parents, and teachers, some new to the field and others
with many years of experience, reveals the most exciting—as well as challeng-
ing—dimensions of early childhood education. Teaching young children is hard
work. It takes energy, physical stamina, patience, a sense of humor, and a wide range of
knowledge and skill. But early childhood professionals soon discover the rewards of their
efforts. Nothing is quite as exciting as making a baby smile and giggle, seeing a toddler’s
grin as he climbs the stairs on his own, or observing a preschooler’s serious look as she
comes to the rescue as a pretend firefighter. And what can compete with a first grader’s
feeling of utter accomplishment that accompanies learning to read?
Case Study
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Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education4
Early childhood education is a rewarding profession for many reasons. We describe
the diverse field of early childhood education and discuss its rewards in this chapter. We
also discuss why early childhood education is a field on the rise and what the current trends
are that present both challenges and opportunities. We also describe how, in a period of
rapid change, the early childhood profession continues to be shaped by its enduring values.
Above all, early childhood educators enter and stay in the field primarily for one reason—
they know that their work makes a difference in the lives of children and families.
What Is Early Childhood Education?
Early childhood education is a highly diverse field that serves children from birth
through age 8. During these years, children participate in many different kinds of care
and education settings. Regardless of where they work or what their specific job titles
are, however, early childhood teachers are professionals. This means that they make de-
cisions based on a specialized body of knowledge, continue to learn throughout their
careers, and are committed to providing the best care and education possible for every
child. The opportunity to make a difference in this exciting field has never been greater.
Why Early Childhood Education
Is a Field on the Rise
Early childhood education benefits greatly from increasing public recognition, respect, and
funding. In fact, a bipartisan poll reported that 86% of American voters believe that “ensur-
ing children get a strong start in life” should be a national priority, second only to increas-
ing job opportunity and growing the economy (First Five Years Fund, 2014). A Gallup poll
found that 70% of voters supported federal funding to make high-quality preschool pro-
grams available for all children (Jones, 2014). Although higher percentages of Democrats
and Independents supported such funding, a majority of Republicans were also in favor.
Forty states—as diverse as Oklahoma, Georgia, New Mexico, New York, Illinois,
Massachusetts, Tennessee, and Florida—provide funding for prekindergarten programs
(Barnett, Carolan, Squires, & Brown, 2013). Continued funding even in challenging eco-
nomic times reflects growing public recognition of the benefits of early education, espe-
cially for children at risk of later school failure, but also for middle-class children. A great
many policy makers, parents, and researchers now consider early childhood programs
essential for fostering school readiness and long-term success in life (Barnett, 2013a).
Groups such as the prestigious Committee for Economic Development (2012) consider
quality child care and early education a necessary investment in the future of our coun-
try. A powerful advocate for early education, Nobel Prize–winning economist James
Heckman (2013) believes that investing in early education is a cost-effective strategy
that will improve educational and health outcomes, strengthen the economy, help solve
America’s social problems, and produce a more capable, productive workforce.
Early education is also considered an effective crime-prevention strategy. A presti-
gious group of America’s police officers and prosecutors call themselves, “the guy you
pay later” because America’s failure to pay for quality services for young children in-
creases the costs of the criminal justice system (Fight Crime: Invest in Kids, 2014).
Several factors have contributed to the rise in status of early childhood education. These
include an impressive body of research on the positive effects of early childhood programs
and concerns about the persistent achievement gap in our schools. Next, we examine the
overall landscape of the field, including the types of settings where children are served.
The Landscape of Early Childhood Education
Although early childhood terminology is not uniform across diverse settings, throughout this
text we will use vocabulary that is consistent with that used by the National Association for
the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) and that we feel best represents the present
early childhood education
Education and child care ser-
vices provided for children from
birth through age 8.
professionals Members of an
occupational group that make
decisions based on a special-
ized body of knowledge, con-
tinue to learn throughout their
careers, and are committed to
meeting the needs of others.
National Association for the
Education of Young Children
(NAEYC) The world’s largest
organization of early childhood
educators, whose mission is to
act on behalf of the needs and
interests of children from birth
through age 8. NAEYC estab-
lishes standards for teacher
preparation and accreditation of
early childhood programs.
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Chapter 1 Continuity and Change in Early Childhood Education 5
and future of the field. NAEYC, headquartered in Washington, D.C., is the world’s largest
professional organization of early childhood educators. Founded in 1926, NAEYC’s mis-
sion is to act on behalf of the needs, rights, and well-being of all young children from birth
through age 8.
One way the association achieves its mission is by establishing standards for teacher
preparation at the associate, baccalaureate, and graduate-degree levels (NAEYC, 2011b).
NAEYC’s standards have considerable influence in the field; it is likely that the course
you are now taking is designed to meet the association’s teacher education standards.
NAEYC (2008b) also administers an accreditation system for high-quality children’s pro-
grams and provides resources such as publications and conferences to support teachers’
continuing professional development.
Given NAEYC’s definition of the field—birth through age 8—early childhood teachers
work with various groups:
1. Infants and toddlers: birth to 36 months
2. Preschoolers: 3- and 4-year-olds
3. Kindergartners: 5- and 6-year-olds
4. Primary grades 1, 2, and 3: 6-, 7-, and 8-year-olds.
Because early childhood is defined so broadly, the field encompasses child care
centers and homes, preschools, kindergartens, and primary grade schools. Figure 1.1 pro-
vides an illustration of the various settings where young children are educated and cared
for. Young children are always learning, and they always need loving care. Therefore, it is
important not to distinguish child care from early education, but rather to ensure that all
children have access to programs that are both caring and educational, regardless of the
length of day or who provides the service.
FIGURE 1.1 Types of Early Childhood Settings Early childhood education is a diverse field
because young children’s care and education occurs in a variety of settings as depicted here.
Types of
Early Childhood Settings
Schools
Kindergarten to 3rd grade
Public schools
Charter schools
Private schools
Head Start/Early Head Start
3-, 4-, & 5-year-olds in centers
& home-based programs
Infants/toddlers & families
Income-eligible families
Family Child Care Homes
Birth through school-age
Caregiver’s home
Individuals and groups
Child Care Centers
Infants/toddlers
Ages 3, 4, & 5
Before- and after-school for
school-aged children
For-profit or nonprofit
Preschools
3-, 4-, & 5-year-olds
Private or public
Prekindergartens
Parent cooperatives
Laboratory schools
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Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education6
Child Care The term child care typically refers to care and education provided
for young children during the hours that their parents are employed. To accommo-
date work schedules, child care is usually available for extended hours, such as from
7:00 a.m. to 6:00 p.m. In some settings, such as hospital-affiliated child care centers,
care is offered for longer hours to accommodate evening, weekend, or even night-shift
employment.
Child care is typically provided in two types of group programs: child care centers
and family child care homes. In either setting, children’s care may be privately funded
by parent tuition or publicly subsidized for low-income families. Child care centers usu-
ally enroll children from infancy through preschool-age children, and many also offer
before- and after-school care for primary grade children. In family child care homes,
caregivers provide care in their own homes for a small group of children, often of varying
ages. Family child care is the setting of choice for many parents of infants and toddlers
because of its home-like atmosphere.
Preschool Preschool programs, as the name implies, serve 3- and 4-year-olds pri-
or to their entrance into kindergarten. Preschool programs may be operated by com-
munity organizations or by churches, temples, or other faith-based organizations and
also by parent cooperatives, which are run and partially staffed by groups of parents.
Preschools often operate half-day, although extended hours—the school day—are be-
coming more common. Some colleges and universities operate laboratory schools,
which usually serve children of students and faculty and also act as models for student
teachers.
Preschools are called by various names, including nursery schools and prekindergar-
tens. (To further complicate matters, child care centers are also called preschools.) Pre-
school programs are both privately and publicly funded. Those that are primarily funded
by parent tuition tend to serve middle- or upper-income families. Two particular types of
preschool are designed primarily for children from low-income families: public prekin-
dergarten and Head Start.
Public Prekindergarten The term prekindergarten (pre-K) usually refers to
preschools that are funded by state and local departments of education. Currently, public
prekindergarten is in the news media regularly and is the fastest-growing sector of the
field, with enrollment increasing enormously in recent years. In 1980, 96,000 preschool-
ers were served in public elementary schools; in 2012, enrollment had increased to more
than 1.3 million children across 40 states (Barnett, Carolan, et al., 2013).
The primary purpose of prekindergarten is to improve school readiness; that is, to
prepare children for kindergarten. Although some state officials narrowly define readi-
ness as literacy and math skills, the early childhood profession uses a broad definition of
school readiness that describes the whole child (Head Start, 2015):
• Language development and early literacy skills
• Cognitive development and general knowledge, including mathematics and science
• Social-emotional development
• Physical development and health
• Positive approaches to learning such as curiosity and motivation
The majority of public prekindergarten programs are designed for children from low-
income families or those who are considered at risk for school failure due to conditions
such as low levels of maternal education or speaking a language other than English in the
home. However, a growing number of people, including the president and members of the
U.S. Congress, are calling for funding of universal voluntary prekindergarten, the goal
of which is to make these programs available to families of all income levels who choose
to use them. Publicly funded prekindergarten has contributed to the field’s growth; today
the number of 4-year-olds in state pre-K programs exceeds the number enrolled in Head
Start (Barnett, Carolan, et al., 2013).
child care center Group
program that provides care and
education for young children
during the hours that their
parents are employed.
family child care home Child
care in which caregivers provide
care in their own homes for a
small group of children, often
multi-age groups.
preschool Educational
programs serving 3- and
4-year-olds delivered under
various sponsorships.
parent cooperative Preschool
program owned, operated, and
partially staffed by parents.
laboratory school School
operated by colleges and
universities that usually serves
children of students and faculty
and also acts as a model of
excellent education for student
teachers.
prekindergarten (pre-K)
Educational program serving
3- and 4-year-olds, usually in
public schools.
school readiness Children’s
competencies related to success
in kindergarten, including
physical development, health,
and well-being; social-emotional
development and learning;
cognitive development and
general knowledge such as
mathematics and science;
positive approaches to learning
such as curiosity and motivation;
and language development and
early literacy skills.
universal voluntary
prekindergarten Publicly
funded preschool, usually for
4-year-olds but sometimes
3-year-olds; available to any
family that chooses to use it.
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Chapter 1 Continuity and Change in Early Childhood Education 7
Head Start Head Start is a federally funded, national program that promotes school
readiness by enhancing the social and cognitive development of children ages 3, 4, and 5.
Head Start provides educational, health, nutritional, social, and other services to the na-
tion’s poorest children and families whose incomes fall below the official poverty level
(Head Start, 2013). Head Start’s goal is to improve school readiness by supporting all areas
of children’s development and promoting the early reading and math skills needed for later
success. In addition to these comprehensive services, parent involvement is a special focus
of the program. Parents volunteer in the classroom and also serve in governance roles, with
the goal of empowering families to move out of poverty. In fact, 23% of Head Start staff
members are parents of current or former Head Start children (Head Start, 2013). Children
with disabilities make up about 12% of Head Start’s enrollment (Head Start, 2014b).
Head Start programs are quite diverse. Most Head Start children are served in
classroom-based preschool programs, although in rural or remote areas, a home-based
option is available. One of the smallest serves 30 children on the Havasupai reservation
in the Grand Canyon, accessible only by helicopter or donkey, while the largest programs
serve over 22,000 children in 400 centers across Los Angeles (Head Start, 2011a).
The families represent all the racial and cultural groups in the United States (Head
Start, 2014b). About 43% of the children are White, 38% are Latino, and 29% are Afri-
can American. A sizable number of families—almost 10%—report that their children are
biracial or multiracial. In addition, the program has a special focus on serving American
Indians, Alaska Natives, and migrant and seasonal workers. About 30% of the children
speak a language other than English at home. Of these, 85% speak Spanish, but 140 other
languages are spoken.
In response to brain research and concerns that age 4 or even age 3 is too late for
services to be effective, the government launched Early Head Start in 1995. Early Head
Start serves low-income pregnant mothers, infants, and toddlers and promotes healthy
family functioning. As of 2012, there were more than 1,000 Early Head Start programs in
all 50 states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico (Head Start, 2014a). Research on
Early Head Start (Vogel, Yange, Moiduddun, Kisker, & Carlson, 2010) demonstrates that
it achieves its promise of lasting positive effects on children and families.
Head Start Federally funded,
national program that promotes
school readiness by enhancing
the social and cognitive develop-
ment of children ages 3, 4, and
5 through providing educational,
health, nutritional, social, and
other services to the nation’s
poorest children and families.
Early Head Start Federally
funded program serving
low-income pregnant mothers,
infants, and toddlers that
promotes healthy family
functioning.
Early childhood education includes child care centers, preschools, prekindergartens, family child care
homes, and schools. But every high-quality program provides both loving care and education for young
children and support for their families.
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Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education8
Early Intervention and Early Childhood Special Education Early
childhood special education serves children with disabilities or special needs who
meet eligibility guidelines that are determined on a state-by-state basis, according to the
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). In addition to serving children
with identified disabilities, some states provide early intervention services for infants
and toddlers who are at risk of developmental delay and their families.
Federal legislation enacted during the past three decades has fundamentally changed
the way in which early childhood services are organized and delivered to children with
disabilities and special needs (Division for Early Childhood & NAEYC, 2009). These
children, including children who are at risk for disabilities or who exhibit challenging be-
haviors, are far more likely to participate in a typical early childhood program than in the
past. This trend, called inclusion, is defined and described in the Including All Children:
What Does Inclusion Mean? feature.
All early childhood educators are likely to work with children with disabilities at
some point in their careers. This inevitability broadens what teachers need to know right
from the start, and requires that general early childhood teachers develop skills to col-
laborate with special educators.
Kindergarten and Primary Grades Most 5- through 8-year-old children at-
tend public schools, although many attend secular or faith-based private schools funded
early childhood special educa-
tion Services for children with
disabilities or special needs who
meet eligibility guidelines that are
determined on a state-by-state
basis according to the Individuals
with Disabilities Education Act.
Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act (IDEA) Federal
law governing provision of ser-
vices for children with disabili-
ties and special needs.
early intervention Services for
infants and toddlers who are at
risk of developmental delay and
their families.
inclusion Participation and ser-
vices for children with disabilities
and special needs in programs
and settings where their typically
developing peers are served.
Mark and Monique Berger operate a family child care
program in their home. Their state permits group homes
such as theirs to serve up to 12 children. The licens-
ing agent informs them that they are required by law
to serve children with disabilities and special needs.
One mother, whose son Barry has cerebral palsy, has in-
quired about enrolling him in their program. Mark wants
to be sure that they abide by the law, but Monique is a
little unsure about what it means to include a child with
a disability in her child care home.
Although full inclusion of children with disabilities in
early childhood programs has been the law of the land
for several years, Mark and Monique are not alone in
being unsure about what it means. To help them and
other professionals like them, the Division for Early
Childhood of the Council for Exceptional Children and
NAEYC (2009) jointly developed a statement defining
early childhood inclusion:
Early childhood inclusion embodies the values, poli-
cies, and practices that support the right of every in-
fant and young child and his or her family, regardless
of ability, to participate in a broad range of activities
and contexts as full members of families, commu-
nities, and society. The desired results of inclusive
experiences for children with and without disabili-
ties and their families include a sense of belonging
and membership, positive social relationships and
friendships, and development and learning to reach
their full potential.
The statement describes the key features of high-
quality inclusive programs, which are (1) access,
(2) participation, and (3) supports.
A defining feature of high-quality early childhood in-
clusion is access, which means providing children
with a wide range of learning opportunities, activities,
and environments. In inclusive settings, adults also
promote belonging, participation, and engagement of
children with disabilities and their typically develop-
ing peers in a variety of intentional or purposeful ways.
Finally, an infrastructure of inclusion supports must
be in place to ensure a foundation for the efforts of
individuals and organizations that provide inclusive
services to children and families. For example, Mark
and Monique will need access to ongoing professional
development and support to acquire the knowledge,
skills, and dispositions required to effectively meet
Barry’s needs and contribute to his development. In
addition, specialized services and therapies for Barry
will need to be coordinated and integrated with the
other activities they offer the children.
Source: Early childhood inclusion: A joint position statement
of the Division for Early Childhood (DEC) and the National
Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC),
by Division for Early Childhood and National Association for
the Education of Young Children, 2009, Chapel Hill: The
University of North Carolina, FPG Child Development Institute,
retrieved from http://community.fpg.unc.edu/resources/ articles/
files/EarlyChildhoodInclusion-04-2009 .
Including All Children
What Does Inclusion Mean?
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http://community.fpg.unc.edu/resources/articles/files/EarlyChildhoodInclusion-04-2009
http://community.fpg.unc.edu/resources/articles/files/EarlyChildhoodInclusion-04-2009
Chapter 1 Continuity and Change in Early Childhood Education 9
by parent tuition. Typically considered the first year of formal schooling,
kindergarten has traditionally been designed for 5-year-olds. States estab-
lish varying dates for the legal entrance age to kindergarten, but 40 states
require that children who are entering kindergarten must have their fifth
birthday before the end of September or earlier (Education Commission
of the States, 2013). This means that today’s kindergartens enroll many
6-year-olds. By contrast, in 1975, only nine states required that children be
5 by September (Colasanti, 2007)
First, second, and third grades are the primary grade years of school
(6 through 8 years of age). These grades are especially important because
during these grades, children are expected to acquire the fundamental abilities of read-
ing and mathematics, along with the foundations of other academic disciplines includ-
ing social studies, science, the creative arts, technology, and physical education. In
first to third grade, children are learning to read; after that, they are expected to read
to learn (Annie E. Casey Foundation, 2010). Therefore, if a good foundation is not laid
during the primary years, children are likely to struggle in later years (U.S. Depart-
ment of Health and Human Services, 2014).
Forty states and the District of Columbia permit funding of public charter
schools. A charter school is a publicly funded school that is independently oper-
ated under a contract with the state or district. Typically, charter schools have
greater f lexibility than do regular public schools for meeting regulations, but they
must also meet accountability standards. In school districts where charter schools
are an option, parents have a choice of where to send their children. More than
2 million children attend charter schools and the percentage is increasing (National
Center for Education Statistics, 2014a).
How Early Childhood Education Is Expanding
Participation in early childhood programs has increased steadily for many decades
as more children participate in group programs at younger ages. In 1965, only 60%
of 5-year-olds went to kindergarten, whereas today about 95% do (National Center
for Education Statistics, 2014b). A similar but steeper growth trend is apparent for
younger children. In 1960, only 10% of 3- and 4-year-olds were enrolled in any
type of early childhood program. By 2012, 64% of 3- to 5-year-olds were enrolled
in preprimary programs (National Center for Education Statistics, 2014b). Although
the economic downturn has affected enrollment, all types of early childhood pro-
grams have seen growth over the years, including private preschools and child
care centers, state-funded prekindergartens, preschool special education, and Head
Start (Barnett, Carolan, Fitzgerald, & Squires, 2011; National Center for Education
Statistics, 2014b).
Growth in Preschool Attendance Changes in preschool participation are ap-
parent in the findings of the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort (Jacobson
Chernoff, Flanagan, McPhee, & Park, 2007). The study revealed that preschool, rather
than kindergarten, is now seen as the first year of school for children. The percentage of
children who attend center-based preschools is approximately the same whether or not
their mothers are employed. This finding indicates that the growth in preschool enroll-
ment is related to increased demand for early education as much as increased need for
child care (Barnett & Yarosz, 2007).
Child Care for Employed Families Expansion of the early childhood field is
directly related to the demand for child care for employed families. Currently, 64% of
women with children under age 6 are in the labor force (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2014).
Infant and toddler care is a particular need because 58% of mothers of children under age
1 are in the workforce. Almost 80% of school-agers need care for some hours of the day
(Children’s Defense Fund [CDF], 2011).
kindergarten Typically
considered the first year of
formal schooling; serves 5- and
6-year-olds.
primary grades First, second,
and third grade; sometimes
includes kindergarten.
charter schools Independently
operated, publicly funded
schools that have greater
flexibility than regular schools
in meeting regulations and
achieving goals.
Classroom Connection
This video defines inclusion as
“belonging.” How does inclusion
benefit all children?
http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=n_qgW9FWEgQ
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Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education10
Recognizing how important good child care is to maintaining a productive work-
force, some employers sponsor on-site child care centers or subsidize child care expenses
as an employee benefit. Employers find that support for child care reduces absenteeism
and turnover (National Child Care Information Center, n.d.).
In addition, the federal government provides child care assistance through
Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF). The TANF program provides
temporary financial aid but requires recipients to move into the labor force or school-
ing, further increasing the demand for child care. The Child Care and Development
Block Grants (CCDBG) allocates funds to states for low-income working families
to purchase their own child care. In 2014, Congress reauthorized the CCDBG for the
first time since 1996, with significant bipartisan support. The new law significantly
improved provisions designed to protect children’s health and safety and improve
the quality of care.
Access to Early Childhood Education
Despite the overall increase in the number of children attending preschool, access to
programs varies considerably depending on family income and other factors. In fact, the
children who are most likely to benefit from high-quality programs are the least likely to
participate in them. Consider the following statistics:
• Young children who live in poverty are less likely to attend preschool than children
from higher-income families.
• Head Start and state-funded prekindergarten programs increase the participation
rates for low-income families, but insufficient slots are available to serve all the
eligible children.
• Families with moderate incomes face the greatest hurdle because they are not eli-
gible for subsidized programs and cannot afford private ones.
• Preschool participation varies considerably depending on the mother’s
education. About 75% of children whose mothers have a college education
or higher participate in preschool, compared to 54% of those whose mothers
are high school dropouts (National Center for Education Statistics, 2014b).
Again, the children who need preschool the most—those whose mothers are
less likely to provide educational experiences at home—are the least likely
to get it.
How Early Childhood Education Is Changing
Recently, two enormous transformations in the United States have had significant im-
pacts on early childhood education—changing demographics and economics. The nation
is becoming increasingly diverse. At the same time, economic hardship and poverty—
including homelessness—are affecting increasing numbers of families.
Changing Demographics The 2010 U.S. census revealed that the population is
highly diverse, both racially and culturally. As illustrated in Figure 1.2, the racial and
ethnic composition of the child population has changed dramatically since 1990. The
white population of children declined from 60% to 53%. By 2018, the majority of young
children will be children of color—members of groups currently identified as minorities
(Annie E. Casey Foundation, 2014). In many school districts today, this is already the
case (Ennis, Ríos-Vargas, & Albert, 2011).
The largest increase is among individuals who identify themselves as Hispanic or
Latino. Between 2000 and 2010, the Hispanic population grew by 43%, accounting for
over half of the total increase in the U.S. population (Ennis et al., 2011). Due to both
higher birth rates and immigration, Latinos now constitute 24% of the nation’s children
Temporary Assistance for
Needy Families (TANF)
Federally funded program, more
commonly known as Welfare to
Work, that provides temporary
financial aid but requires
recipients to move into the labor
force or schooling.
Child Care and Development
Block Grants (CCDBG) Federal
funds allocated to states for
low-income working families to
purchase child care.
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Chapter 1 Continuity and Change in Early Childhood Education 11
FIGURE 1.2 Child Population by Race and Ethnicity In the last two decades, the population of
young children in the United States has become dramatically more ethnically and racially diverse.
Source: Annie E. Casey Foundation. (2014). 2014 Kids Count data book: State trends in child well-being.
Baltimore: Author. Retrieved November 16, 2014, from http://www.aecf.org/2014db
(Annie E. Casey Foundation, 2014). Many of these children are dual language learners
because they are learning to speak two languages at the same time—their home
language and English. These demographic shifts have important implications for early
childhood educators as discussed in the feature Language Lens: Preparing to Teach
Dual Language Learners.
Changing Economics The recent economic crisis led to millions of children
and families falling into poverty, with potentially devastating impacts on children’s
health, development, and learning. Almost 25% of all children under 6 live in poverty,
but African American and Latino children are about three times as likely to be poor as
White, non-Hispanic children (CDF, 2014). Most alarming, in 2014, 2.5 million chil-
dren, or nearly 1 in 30, experienced homelessness, an 8% increase in one year (National
Center on Family Homelessness at American Institutes for Research, 2014). Children
growing up in poverty are especially in need of high-quality early childhood experiences
and good teachers.
Increased unemployment also negatively affects enrollments in early childhood pro-
grams as families struggle to pay for child care (NACCRRA, 2011). In some situations,
families remove their children from preschool or child care centers because they can no
longer afford or do not need these services. Some employers are less willing or able to
subsidize child care as a benefit.
The effects of the economic downturn on children, families, and early childhood
programs are real. However, increased funding for child care and early education at
this difficult time in the nation’s history is solid evidence of its broad support and the
recognition of its value.
dual language learners
Children who are learning to
speak two languages at the
same time—usually their home
language and English.
100%
3%
1% 1%
5%
24%16%
69%
53%
4%
14%15%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
1990 2012
African American
American Indian
Asian and Pacific Islander
Latino
Two or More Races
White
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Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education12
✓ Check Your Understanding 1.1: What Is Early Childhood Education?
Why Become an Early
Childhood Educator?
Choosing to teach young children, like every career decision, involves weighing many
factors. Prospective teachers need to be familiar with what the work entails and the pos-
sible career options. Most important, they need to determine whether the demands and
rewards of their chosen profession are a good match with their own strengths, disposi-
tions, and personal goals (Colker, 2008).
The Joys of Teaching Young Children
Working with children demands patience and the willingness to care for and about other
people’s children, even or especially the least lovable of those children. Teaching young
children is truly rewarding work, even when it is most challenging (Colker, 2008). Each
day brings new discoveries, accomplishments, and joys for children and teachers.
Picture a 4-year-old child. What are the first thoughts that come to mind? Is he
or she curious? Eager to learn? Excellent early childhood teachers take advantage of
young children’s deep desire to actively engage with and make sense of the world
Preparing to Teach Dual Language Learners
Eight different languages are spoken among the children
in Natalia’s kindergarten class. Natalia and two of the
children are the only ones whose first language is Eng-
lish. Natalia works hard to create a caring community
where all the children comfortably experiment with learn-
ing English while also developing their home language.
She strives to communicate with the parents by using
translators. Last year, Natalia’s class also included eight
languages—but some of them were different from those
spoken this year.
The number of languages represented in Natalia’s class-
room may seem extreme, but linguistic and cultural diver-
sity is now the norm in our nation’s schools. In the next
20 years, the biggest single child-related demographic
change is predicted to be an increase in dual language
learners. Most of these children speak Spanish as a home
language, but many others speak Asian, Middle Eastern,
and African languages. California, Florida, and Texas con-
tinue to have the largest percentages of Spanish- speaking
families, but according to the last census, between 2000
and 2010, the Hispanic population grew in every region
of the country.
In the past, most teachers could safely assume that they
would never encounter a language other than English in
their entire careers. Today, Natalia’s experience or some-
thing like it is not so very rare. New teachers may find
it beneficial to learn another language themselves, but
learning eight languages is not a reasonable expectation.
What can new and experienced teachers like Natalia do?
They can start by remembering some important princi-
ples about dual language learners:
• People who speak the same language, whether Spanish
or another language, are not all alike—they come from
a variety of countries and cultures.
• Learning two or more languages does not confuse chil-
dren as some people think, but rather enhances brain
development.
• Supporting home language development is essential
because children can learn many skills in their home
language and apply those skills as they learn English.
• Teachers need to intentionally teach English vocabulary
and provide lots of opportunities for children to play
together and practice their developing language skills.
• Communicating with families is essential regardless of
the effort required.
The children of today must be prepared to function as
citizens of a global society. Speaking two or more lan-
guages is an important skill for the 21st century. When
children enter early childhood programs speaking a lan-
guage other than English, the foundation is already there
to build on.
Sources: The Hispanic population: 2010. 2010 Census Briefs,
by S. R. Ennis, M. Ríos-Vargas, and N. G. Albert, 2011, U.S.
Census Bureau, retrieved from http://www.census.gov/prod/
cen2010/briefs/c2010br-04 ; Pre-K-3rd: Challenging
common myths about dual language learners, an update to
the seminal 2008 report by L. Espinosa, 2013, New York:
Foundation for Child Development.
Language Lens
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http://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-04
http://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-04
Chapter 1 Continuity and Change in Early Childhood Education 13
around them. Recall the sense of satisfac-
tion you felt when you mastered a difficult
task such as learning to read or ride a bike.
Children, too, gain great pleasure from the
sense of mastery that comes from learning
something new or overcoming an obstacle.
Another word that comes to mind when
thinking of children is fun. Yes, early childhood
programs prepare children for success in school,
but they also provide them with joyful learn-
ing experiences every day of their young lives.
Children should have fun in child care centers
and homes, preschools, and schools. They love
to joke, tease, and be silly; to sing, move, and
dance; to play by themselves and with friends;
to know that adults care for them; to wonder
about and explore the natural world; and to
generally enjoy living. When teachers create a
safe and supportive place for children to experi-
ence the unique joys of childhood, children will
thrive—and their teachers will also.
Dimensions of Effective, Intentional Teaching
One overarching theme of this book is that effective early childhood practice requires teachers
to be intentional in everything they do. Intentional teachers have a purpose for the decisions
they make and can explain that purpose to others (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009; Epstein, 2014).
However, we believe that intentional teaching involves much more. Intentional teaching is a
multifaceted, multidimensional concept that conveys many of the personal and profes-
sional qualities of an early childhood educator. Consider how well your own aspirations
and dispositions fit with our description of the dimensions of intentional teaching that
appears in Figure 1.3.
For an example of intentional teaching, read the Becoming an Intentional Teacher:
Being Purposeful and Playful feature. Now that we have described both the dedication
and the delight that teaching young children entails, we turn to an overview of the job
opportunities in the field.
Career Options for Early Childhood Educators
As the field of early education grows, so do the potential career options and opportunities
for early childhood professionals. At the same time, however, the field is experiencing
a shortage of qualified teachers (Whitebook, 2014). Even as a large percentage of the
current teaching staff is nearing retirement, teacher qualification requirements are being
raised in many sectors of the field.
Because the early childhood field is so diverse and covers such a broad age range,
early childhood educators have many possible career choices. Careers tend to fall into
two categories:
• Working with children involves daily interaction and direct responsibility for chil-
dren’s care and education and includes positions such as classroom teacher or fam-
ily child care provider.
• Working for children involves work that supports children’s development and edu-
cation, whether in proximity to the children, such as being a child care center direc-
tor, or at a further distance, such as being a teacher-education professor.
Over the course of their careers, many early childhood professionals move back and
forth between these types of jobs. However, we believe that success in working for chil-
dren is greater if an individual has actually worked with children. No one in the early
intentional teachers Teachers
who have a purpose for the deci-
sions they make and can explain
that purpose to others.
Intentional teachers are
purposeful, but they are also
playful. How can teachers keep
the fun in childhood while
helping children achieve
important learning goals?
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Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education14
FIGURE 1.3 Characteristics of Professional, Intentional Early Childhood Teachers Intentional teaching involves a
wide range of personal and professional qualities such as those listed here.
• Caring and committed. They recognize that developing a personal, positive, warm relationship
with each child is the foundation for everything they do. Their commitment to children means
putting children’s needs before their own and recognizing that teaching young children is less a
job than a calling.
• Enthusiastic and engaged. They genuinely enjoy being with young children however messy or
challenging they may be, and share in the excitement of their discoveries. They become energetically
and intensely involved in children’s activity, whether it means getting down on the fl oor to play and
talk with a baby or thinking through the solution to a problem with a kindergartner.
• Curious and creative. They are eager to learn, just as children are. Young children want to learn all
sorts of things that teachers themselves may not know—what’s inside a bug, why the sky is blue, how
an airplane fl ies. Intentional teachers model an inquisitive attitude. They want to fi nd out along with
children, and they approach questions or problems in new, imaginative ways.
• Respectful and responsive. They value and treat children, families, and colleagues with dignity and
esteem. They respond thoughtfully to diversity in all of its forms: language, culture, race/ethnicity,
ability/disability, age, gender, and sexual orientation. They are open and accepting of perspectives
that are different from their own.
• Passionate and patient. They bring into their work their own emotions and deep interests, such as a
passion for music, painting, or poetry; a preference for belly laughs or quiet smiles. At the same time,
they recognize that children have their own intense feelings that can spill over into anger, frustration,
or fi ts of tears. Intentional teachers respond calmly and thoughtfully, without becoming upset or
annoyed themselves.
• Purposeful and playful. They have important goals for children—to help them make friends,
regulate their emotions, control their bodies, learn to read and write—and they plan carefully to help
children achieve their goals. But along the way, they joke and laugh with children, accept silliness,
encourage and support play, and make learning itself playful. A sense of humor is a necessity.
• Focused and fl exible. They are like cameras that can scan the entire classroom and then narrow
their attention to meet one child’s need or respond to her question or idea. They can be teaching
a reading lesson with a specifi c goal in mind and switch gears when a child starts talking about his
brother’s illness.
• Aware and accountable. They are self-aware, they refl ect on and evaluate their own performance,
and they strive to improve. But their judgments are not made in isolation; they compare their
performance to a standard of excellence. Intentional teachers are willing to be accountable; they
accept responsibility for their actions.
• Informed and effective. They know how children develop and learn; they know how to teach and
what to teach. They use research-based teaching practices that lead to positive outcomes for children
and help children make sense of the world around them. Intentional teachers also regularly check to
see if what they are doing is actually working. Are children making progress toward developmentally
appropriate goals?
• Listening and learning. They realize that the more they learn about children, the more they need
to know. They understand that choosing to teach is choosing to be a lifelong learner. Intentional
teachers learn from children every day; they listen to children, and they pay close attention to all of
children’s cues. They stay up to date about new knowledge and continue to grow as professionals.
childhood community can do his or her job well without knowing what life is like in an
early childhood setting (Colker, 2008). This experience informs decisions at every level.
Working with Children Early childhood teachers are usually the first to admit that
they aren’t in this profession for the money. It is the satisfaction they get from working
with children that is deeply rewarding. For many of them, the fact that they make an
impact on the life of every child they encounter is a powerful incentive and the reason
that, once they enter the field, they are there to stay (Colker, 2008).
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Chapter 1 Continuity and Change in Early Childhood Education 15
Being Purposeful and Playful
Here’s What Happened It was the fifth straight day
of rain facing my kindergarten children as they arrived at
school on Friday. Some of them were already dragging their
backpacks in apparent dread while others rambunctious-
ly ran down the hallway as though they couldn’t contain
themselves another minute. The bell rang and the class-
room door opened. The children stopped abruptly, almost
stumbling over each other. Their eyes opened wide as if
they thought elves had been at work overnight transforming
the environment.
Laughing, I suggested they put away their things and
come to the gathering area for morning meeting. We
usually discuss the day’s plans but today I gave some
new directions. “Instead of our regular choice time in
centers, we are going to divide into two groups and then
switch group assignments later. Group 1 is going to
use the obstacle courses we’ve set up here and in Mrs.
D’Onofrio’s room. Group 2 is going to go on a treasure
hunt. Each group will have a map with clues in pictures
and writing. You’ll find answers to some of the clues in
our classroom and some in hers. Her children will take
turns switching rooms with us to look for clues. You’ll
divide up into teams to help each other find the trea-
sure, but you’ll want to be quiet deciphering your maps
because you don’t want to give away the clues to the
other teams.”
Here’s What I Was Thinking Our kindergarten cur-
riculum is packed with learning goals based on the state
standards. I always keep those goals in mind and have a
purpose for everything I plan each day. After five straight
days of rain, my fellow kindergarten teacher and I knew
that we would have to adjust our regular plans. No outdoor
play time again could only mean very
distractible children whose attention
spans would suffer greatly.
As kindergarten teachers, we know how much children need
to play and how much their healthy development depends
on it. That’s why we thought of setting up the obstacle
course. The course included a balance beam and narrow
space to scoot through as well as objects to go over, around,
and through. Each time children attempted the course,
they were handed a different set of directions not only to
use different muscles, but also to learn to read and follow
directions. The children repeated the course several times
as they practiced their developing skills.
We had different purposes for the treasure hunt. We still
wanted children to be physically active, moving around the
room. But we made the clues difficult to figure out, requir-
ing kindergarten-level literacy skills. Having the children
work in teams meant they had to use language, employ
problem-solving skills, and cooperate. They also had to self-
regulate so as not to give away their plans to other teams
and to solve the puzzle.
At the end of the day, we’d all forgotten about the rain.
Some of the children said it was the most fun they had ever
had at school. It took a lot of work, but being playful and
purposeful meant that we were able to accomplish curricu-
lum goals and have a lot of fun as teachers, too.
Reflection Feeling pressured to cover the curriculum,
teachers may limit vitally important opportunities for chil-
dren to play. What other ways do you think these teachers
could have playfully but purposefully addressed their cur-
riculum goals?
Becoming an Intentional Teacher
Early childhood teachers work with different age groups from infancy through pri-
mary grades in a wide range of settings. The qualifications and required certifications
for specific jobs will vary, but a broad-based education in the field is necessary prepara-
tion. Following are some of the options and opportunities available for interesting and
rewarding work:
• Head Start teachers can alter the life trajectory of young children and their families
who are most in need. They help ensure that children from low-income families re-
ceive an excellent education and comprehensive health, nutrition, and other services.
• Early Head Start teachers intervene early with mothers and their babies to help set
them on a course of healthy development.
• Child care center teachers provide loving care and education to children for ex-
tended periods of time each day, and help employed parents feel secure about their
children’s care so they can do their jobs. Careers in child care offer the option
of teaching various age groups: infants and toddlers, preschoolers, and school-
age children before and/or after school. Although teaching in child care pays less
than does teaching in other settings, many teachers relish its flexible and cre-
ative environment. Conditions also vary by administrative agency; for example,
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Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education16
an employer-sponsored child care center may offer more benefits and higher com-
pensation than a community-based one.
• Teachers in family child care homes literally open their doors to small groups of
children from infancy through school age, providing a home-like atmosphere of
care and education. Family child care means being your own boss, but requires
administering a small business as well as caring for children.
• Preschools vary a great deal—public, private, faith-based, and so on—each with
its own benefits that will appeal to different teachers’ interests and match their
goals. A public prekindergarten, for example, may provide better salaries, whereas
a private one may be more flexible about curriculum and expectations for children.
• A teacher in a parent cooperative preschool has the opportunity to develop par-
ticularly close relationships with families but also needs the ability to work with
parents as co-teachers, an acquired skill.
• Teachers in public schools have the option of teaching different age groups from
kindergarten through primary grades. Schools are bureaucracies with regulations
and an established curriculum and tests, but as professionals, teachers make hun-
dreds of classroom decisions every day. Salaries and benefits in the public schools
are the most secure of any sector in early childhood.
• Early childhood special educators and early intervention specialists are qualified
individuals who work with children with special needs in various settings such
as in school systems, Head Start, or child care. Inclusion of children with spe-
cial needs means that early childhood special educators work closely with regular
classroom teachers. In fact, in some states, the same teacher education program
prepares teachers for certification in both fields simultaneously.
• Mentor teacher is an evolving career option for more experienced, outstanding pro-
fessionals. It is helpful for new teachers to work with a mentor teacher to improve
their skills or to get help for children with particular learning challenges. Mentor
teachers are becoming more common in elementary schools, preschools, and child
care programs.
• The need for bilingual teachers and those who are qualified to teach dual language
learners is growing. As the population becomes ever more diverse, these qualifica-
tions will be useful in any early childhood setting.
Given the variety of careers available, early childhood teachers have many options.
Even when an entire career is spent teaching the same age group in the same workplace,
teachers will always encounter new challenges and new experiences. I once asked a for-
mer teacher who had taught for 40 years, “Didn’t you ever get tired of teaching first
grade?” She looked stunned and replied, “Never, because every group was different.”
Having been a child in her class at one time, I clearly understood what she meant—that
every child is different and unique and that being a teacher never loses its fascination.
Working for Children At some point in their careers, all early childhood profession-
als should work with children in order to understand, firsthand, how educators help shape
our young children. However, there are many opportunities for early childhood educators
to pursue positions working for children. With additional education, specialized training,
and experience, a background in early childhood can lead to positions such as these:
• Director of a child care center or preschool, or school principal (with additional
course work in administration)
• Curriculum developer for an individual school, network of schools, or publisher
• Home visitor or family services worker in Head Start, Early Head Start, or another
community agency
• Policy staff at local/state/federal agencies, associations, and organizations
• College faculty teaching teachers and/or conducting research
• Writer/producer of resources for children such as children’s book author, technol-
ogy developer, children’s museum staff, or media performer
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Chapter 1 Continuity and Change in Early Childhood Education 17
In previous sections, we discussed what it means to be a professional, intentional
early childhood teacher. These definitions reflect the profession’s core values and beliefs,
a topic to which we turn next.
The Culture of Early Childhood Education
A key theme of this book is the important role that culture plays in development and
learning. Broadly defined, culture is the rules and expectations for behavior of members
of a group that are passed on from one generation to the next. These rules determine to a
large extent what group members regard as important and what values shape their actions
and judgments.
Like other professional groups, the early childhood profession has its own culture.
This culture is transmitted both explicitly and implicitly from more experienced, com-
petent members to new initiates in three ways: through formal education, through on-
the-job experiences, and through mentoring in either setting. New teachers may become
confused or flustered when the cultural rules transmitted in one setting, such as their
college classroom, do not seem to match the expectations for behavior in another, such as
their first teaching assignment.
Cultural groups define themselves in many ways, including through the language
they use, how they identify themselves, the values they share, and their fundamental be-
liefs. We discuss these topics in the following sections.
Shared Vocabulary One aspect of early childhood culture is a shared vocabulary.
Shared language facilitates communication and minimizes misunderstandings within
groups. The profession gives particular meaning to terms like developmentally appropri-
ate, play, relationships, comprehensive services, or inclusion (all of which are defined in
this book). Their definitions are tailored to our profession and may not mirror how these
words are used in other professions or everyday life.
An essential part of joining a profession is learning its language. For example, al-
though the larger society uses the term day care, within the profession the accepted term
is child care. We believe that saying child care is more respectful of children and a more
accurate description of the setting and the job.
Shared Identity Most professionals feel a sense of belonging to their group. They
identify themselves as members of the profession, whether it is as a doctor, a lawyer, or
an accountant. In early childhood education, it is often harder to “name” ourselves. The
profession itself does not have an agreed-on name (Goffin & Washington, 2007). Among
the names it is known by are early care and education, child care, early education, and
early development and learning. In this book, we refer to the field as early childhood edu-
cation. We prefer this term because it contains the word child, which is an ever-present
reminder of the primary focus of our work. We also believe that the term encompasses the
key elements of caring, development, and learning.
Another challenge to establishing a clear identity is what to call the role itself. Infant/
toddler teachers and teachers in center-based care are often called caregivers. In family
child care, adults are called providers. But we embrace the term teacher because it is the
broadest term, captures most of the job responsibilities, commands society’s respect, and
is after all what children usually call the adults who care for and educate them no matter
what the setting.
Shared Values The early childhood profession is committed to a core set of values
that is deeply rooted in the history of the field. NAEYC (2011a) articulates these core
values in its code of ethical conduct:
We have made a commitment to:
• Appreciate childhood as a unique and valuable stage of the human life cycle
• Base our work on knowledge of how children develop and learn
culture The explicit and
implicit values, beliefs, rules,
and expectations for behavior
of members of a group that are
passed on from one generation
to the next. These rules de-
termine to a large extent what
group members regard as im-
portant and what values shape
their actions and judgments.
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Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education18
• Appreciate and support the bond between the child and family
• Recognize that children are best understood and supported in the context of family,
culture (including ethnicity), community, and society
• Respect the dignity, worth, and uniqueness of each individual (child, family mem-
ber, and colleague)
• Respect diversity in children, families, and colleagues
• Recognize that children and adults achieve their full potential in the context of
relationships that are based on trust and respect.
I often take informal polls of teachers during speeches at education conferences. A
question I always ask is: “What are your values as an early childhood educator?” Most of
the core values just listed are mentioned. Yet there is one that is always stated emphati-
cally and is usually first—“play!” Early childhood professionals strongly value play as
essential for children’s development and learning. Because play is so important in early
childhood, we will revisit the topic throughout this book. Political and economic forces
threaten these values at times, but they nevertheless endure.
Shared Beliefs Although early childhood culture shares many beliefs, a few dominate:
• The strong belief in the potential of all children, regardless of their life circum-
stances and individual abilities or disabilities.
• The belief in the power of developmentally appropriate practice to produce posi-
tive results for children. Developmentally appropriate practice is teaching that en-
gages children’s interests and adapts for their age, experience, and ability to help
them meet challenging and achievable goals.
• The belief that early childhood teachers are professionals who make informed deci-
sions about what is developmentally appropriate for each child in each situation.
• The fundamental belief in the potential of our work to make a real and lasting dif-
ference in the world.
This is the final justification for joining the profession: the opportunity to make a con-
tribution to children’s lives. Many professions exist primarily to solve problems. Doctors
and nurses treat illnesses. Firefighters put out fires and rescue people. Insurance agents
developmentally appropriate
practice Ways of teaching that
engage children’s interests and
adapt for their age, experience,
and ability, to help them meet
challenging and achievable
learning goals.
Early childhood educators are members of a profession that shares knowledge, values, and beliefs
about children and their work. Meeting with more experienced teachers is one way of becoming a
professional. Can you think of others?
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Chapter 1 Continuity and Change in Early Childhood Education 19
help people recover from losses or catastrophes. The work of early childhood profession-
als, on the other hand, is to prevent problems from occurring. Our job is to set children on
a positive course from the beginning. The proven effectiveness of early intervention when
young children face difficulties creates room for optimism and hope.
✓ Check Your Understanding 1.2: Why Become an Early Childhood Educator?
Early Childhood Program Quality
and Effectiveness
Growing attention to early education primarily results from impressive research dem-
onstrating its effectiveness in improving outcomes for children. All of the research that
has influenced policy, however, finds that the key ingredient in the effectiveness of early
childhood education is the quality of the program for children. But what is quality?
Setting Standards for Quality
Earlier in this chapter, we described different types of early childhood programs. Various
kinds of programs must meet different sets of standards, which are intended to determine
the program’s quality. Early childhood educators have been instrumental in setting stan-
dards for quality that, in addition to research, reflect the profession’s core values and
beliefs.
Child Care Licensing Standards Child care centers and, in some states, family
child care homes, are regulated by each state’s child care licensing standards. These
set minimum requirements for a program to operate legally. Such standards usually
establish a minimum number of teachers required per child ( teacher/child ratios), teacher
qualifications, and health and safety requirements.
These standards, designed to ensure children’s protection, vary considerably from
state to state. For example, one state requires a teacher for every four infants, whereas
another permits a ratio of one to six. Child Care Aware® of America (2013) evaluates
state licensing standards and monitoring of centers’ compliance. They find
that no states rank at the highest level, while 21 states rate a grade of D and
20 are failing to provide basic protection for children’s health and safety and
support for their development.
Because licensing standards vary and represent minimums, the quality
of child care also varies considerably. Some licensed programs exceed the
required standards, whereas others barely meet them (Child Care Aware® of
America, 2013). To address this issue and help parents make informed deci-
sions, many states now operate quality rating and improvement systems
(QRIS). These tiered systems rate program quality according to achievement
of benchmarks beyond those required for minimal licensing, such as having
more highly qualified teachers or better ratios (Mitchell, 2012). The state
recognizes centers that meet higher standards with more stars and pay higher
reimbursement rates for children served. In some states, achieving accredita-
tion is the highest level. QRIS also helps families make informed decisions
about choosing child care.
Accreditation Standards The early childhood profession under the leadership of
NAEYC (2008) is committed to raising the overall quality of early education for all chil-
dren. Toward this end, the association sets high-quality standards and administers a vol-
untary accreditation system for all types of early childhood centers and schools serving
children from birth through kindergarten. The standards that programs must achieve to
obtain accreditation are listed in Table 1.1. These standards apply to any early childhood
child care licensing
standards Minimum require-
ments, legally established by
each state, for a child care
program to operate.
quality rating and improve-
ment systems (QRIS) State-
operated tiered systems that
evaluate and rate the quality of
child care programs according
to achievement of benchmarks
beyond those required for mini-
mal licensing, such as having
more highly qualified teachers
or better ratios.
accreditation system NAEYC’s
voluntary system for identifying
high-quality early childhood
centers and schools serving
children from birth through
kindergarten.
Classroom Connection
The video outlines the high
standards required of early child-
hood programs to become NAEYC
accredited. The 10 program
standards are the mark of quality
and best practices for the field.
Accreditation also assists families
in choosing the best programs for
their children.
http://www. youtube.com/
watch?v=rhBBd9Tl4k4
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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rhBBd9Tl4k4
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rhBBd9Tl4k4
Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education20
NAEYC’s accreditation standards describe all the key elements of a high-quality early childhood program.
Standard Standard Description
1. Relationships The program promotes positive relationships among all children and adults to encourage
each child’s sense of individual worth and belonging as a part of a community and to
foster each child’s ability to contribute as a responsible community member.
2. Curriculum The program implements a curriculum that is consistent with its goals for children and
promotes learning and development in each of the following areas: social, emotional,
physical, language, and cognitive.
3. Teaching The program uses developmentally, culturally, and linguistically appropriate and effective
teaching approaches that enhance each child’s learning and development in the context
of the program’s curriculum goals. Teachers purposefully use multiple instructional ap-
proaches to optimize children’s opportunities for learning.
4. Assessment of children’s progress The program is informed by ongoing systematic, formal, and informal assessment approach-
es to provide information on children’s learning and development. These assessments occur
within the context of reciprocal communications with families and with sensitivity to the
cultural contexts in which children develop. Assessment results are used to benefit children
by informing sound decisions about children, teaching, and program improvement.
5. Health The program promotes the nutrition and health of children and protects children and staff
from illness and injury.
6. Teachers The program employs and supports a teaching staff that has the educational qualifica-
tions, knowledge, and professional commitment necessary to promote children’s learning
and development and to support families’ diverse needs and interests.
7. Families The program establishes and maintains collaborative relationships with each child’s fam-
ily to foster children’s development in all settings. These relationships are sensitive to
family composition, language, and culture.
8. Community relationships The program establishes relationships with and uses the resources of the children’s com-
munities to support the achievement of program goals.
9. Physical environment The program has a safe and healthful environment that provides appropriate and well-
maintained indoor and outdoor physical environments. The environment includes facili-
ties, equipment, and materials to facilitate child and staff learning and development.
10. Leadership and management The program effectively implements policies, procedures, and systems that support stable
staff and strong personnel, fiscal, and program management so all children, families, and
staff have high-quality experiences.
Source: From Overview of the NAEYC Early Childhood Program Standards, 2008, by National Association for the Education of Young Children,
Washington, DC, retrieved from http://www.naeyc.org/files/academy/file/OverviewStandards .
program regardless of length of day or sponsorship. NAEYC accreditation standards are
designed to answer the question “What is high quality?”
To understand what we mean by quality, it is important to see the relationships
among the standards rather than to see them as a discrete list. In the accreditation system,
the primary focus is on children as described in the first five standards: relationships, cur-
riculum, teaching, assessment of children’s progress, and health. The other five standards
address teachers, partnerships with families and communities, and administration, includ-
ing the physical environment and leadership and management. Meeting these standards
establishes a supportive context that makes it possible to achieve and maintain the quality
of life for children described in the first five standards.
Head Start Standards Quality is also a critically important issue in Head Start, par-
ticularly so because it serves the nation’s most vulnerable children. Head Start programs are
regularly monitored for compliance with the national Head Start Program Performance
Standards (Head Start, 2006). These standards are similar to accreditation standards, but
they also address the comprehensive services that are part of Head Start’s mandate.
Head Start Program Perfor-
mance Standards National
standards that establish the
level of quality of services
provided by every Head Start
program.
Table 1.1 NAEYC Early Childhood Program Standards
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Chapter 1 Continuity and Change in Early Childhood Education 21
Military Child Care Act The largest employer-sponsored child care system in the
world is the U.S. military. Its voluntary workforce of men and women depends on the
provision of high-quality child care. In 1989, Congress passed the Military Child Care
Act to ensure consistently high standards of quality in these programs. The act required
that centers seek NAEYC accreditation, and also included provisions for teacher training
and a career ladder tying compensation to increased professional development. The Mili-
tary Child Care Act resulted in significantly improved quality and learning outcomes for
children that have been maintained for decades (Child Care Aware® of America, 2013;
Neugebauer, 2011). In addition, the military child care system is now seen as a model for
improving all child care systems (Whitebook, Phillips, & Howes, 2014).
Measuring Quality in Early Childhood Programs
The early childhood field defines quality as having two dimensions: structural and process
(Minervino, 2013). Structural quality includes features such as maximum group sizes,
teacher/child ratios, and teacher qualifications, which are relatively easy to quantify and
measure. Process quality, on the other hand, refers to the quality of the relationships and
interactions among teachers and children, and the appropriateness of the materials, learn-
ing experiences, and teaching strategies. These features are more difficult to evaluate, and
yet they are the key aspects of the quality of children’s experiences. They describe what
life should be like for children in a program, how they should be treated, and how their
learning and development should be promoted.
Structural quality and process quality are interconnected. For example, well-qualified
teachers are needed to plan and implement an engaging curriculum and teach effectively.
Similarly, positive relationships between teachers and children are more likely to be es-
tablished when the size of the group and ratio of adults to children is relatively small.
An age-appropriate, well-equipped, and organized environment is needed to protect chil-
dren’s health and safety and to promote active learning.
The most difficult challenge is determining how to measure compliance with quality
standards. To see if a program is meeting requirements, it is relatively easy to examine
transcripts of teachers or count the number of children in a group. But it is much harder—
especially for an outside evaluator—to decide if teachers have positive relationships with
each child and family or if they are using effective teaching strategies. These standards
can be assessed only by directly observing what goes on in classrooms (FPG Child
Development Institute, 2008).
To provide consistent ways of measuring quality, researchers have developed obser-
vation tools. The most widely used observational measure is the Classroom Assessment
Scoring System (CLASS), with versions for infants, toddlers, preschoolers and primary
grades (Hamre, La Paro, Pianta, & Locasale-Crouch, 2014; La Paro, Hamre, & Pianta,
2012; Pianta, La Paro, & Hamre, 2008). The CLASS focuses on the quality of teachers’
relationships with children and the instructional strategies they use to support children’s
learning. Research shows that how well classrooms and teachers score on these mea-
sures predicts how well children score on measures of language, literacy, mathematics,
and social-emotional abilities (Curby, Brock, & Hamre, 2013; Downer et al., 2012). The
CLASS has been adopted as a tool for monitoring quality in Head Start, state prekinder-
gartens, and QRIS.
Another widely used program quality assessment is the Early Childhood Environment
Rating Scale (ECERS-3) (Harms, Clifford, & Cryer, 2014) with versions for preschool,
infant/toddler, family child care, and school-age programs. ECERS is used by many state
QRIS systems.
The overall conclusion of all of the research on the effectiveness of early educa-
tion is that what teachers actually do with children is the most important determinant
of the quality of children’s experiences and their learning outcomes. After decades of
research on quality in early childhood programs, one thing we know for certain is that
teachers matter. If children are to reach their full potentials, then professionals must
also reach theirs.
structural quality Features of
an early childhood program,
such as maximum group
sizes, teacher/child ratios, and
teacher qualifications, that are
relatively easy to quantify and
measure.
process quality The quality of
the relationships and interac-
tions among teachers and
children, and the appropriate-
ness of the materials, learning
experiences, and teaching
strategies occurring in an early
childhood program.
Classroom Assessment Scor-
ing System (CLASS) Preschool
and elementary classroom
observational instrument that
assesses the quality of teachers’
relationships and interactions
with children and the instruc-
tional strategies used to support
children’s learning.
Early Childhood Environment
Rating Scale (ECERS-3)
Observational instrument used
to rate program quality on a
7-point scale from inadequate
to excellent.
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Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education22
Brain research demonstrates
the importance of early child-
hood education, especially for
infants and toddlers.
Measuring Effectiveness
As we have seen, program quality is usually defined and measured in terms of “inputs”—
the environments children experience and their interactions with teachers. However, pro-
gram effectiveness is usually defined in terms of “outcomes”—the effects of these expe-
riences on children’s development and learning. As a result, effectiveness is measured
against specific, usually age- or grade-related goals. For preschoolers, the most common
source of outcome goals are state early learning standards, which describe what chil-
dren should know and be able to do before entering kindergarten (Scott-Little, 2011). All
50 states have comprehensive learning guidelines for preschool children, and 30 states
have such goals for infants and toddlers (Barnett, Carolan, et al., 2013).
Head Start has established its own set of comprehensive goals for children—the Head
Start Child Development and Early Learning Framework. Head Start programs are re-
quired by law to periodically assess children’s progress toward the framework’s goals.
State departments of education establish outcome standards for children in kinder-
garten and primary grades. Children’s progress toward these goals is often measured by
state-wide testing programs usually beginning at third grade, as we discuss later in this
chapter.
✓ Check Your Understanding 1.3: Early Childhood Program Quality and Effectiveness
The Positive Effects of Early
Childhood Education
We began this chapter by citing ways that early childhood is a field on the rise. The
positive attention and support the field has garnered is to a large extent the result of an
impressive body of research on the importance of the early years and the lasting benefits
of early childhood programs.
Brain Research
Among the most exciting achievements in developmental psychology in the past cen-
tury were new insights into how the brain grows and functions during the earliest
years of life. Brain research, which had previously been confined to laboratories,
is now reported regularly in popular newspapers and magazines. Technologies such
as positron emission tomography (PET) scans and functional magnetic resonance
imagery (fMRI) reveal the inner workings of babies’ brains to policy makers, educa-
tors, and the public.
Major conclusions from brain research have significantly lifted the profile of early
childhood education—and especially the importance of experiences in the first three years
of life (Shonkoff, 2011; Shonkoff, Garner, & the Committee
on Psychosocial Effects of Child and Family Health, 2012):
1. Positive experiences in the early years—especially
warm, responsive, caring, conversational relation-
ships—literally grow babies’ brains and lay the foun-
dation for later learning.
2. Negative experiences such as prolonged stress,
physical or sexual abuse, or exposure to violence
can have dire and long-lasting effects on brain ca-
pabilities.
3. Early intervention including intensive early educa-
tion and comprehensive support services for fami-
lies—the earlier and more intensive, the better—can
ameliorate the negative effects.
early learning standards
Describe what children should
know and be able to do before
entering kindergarten.
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M01_BRED6702_03_SE_C01.indd 22 10/7/15 12:48 PM
Chapter 1 Continuity and Change in Early Childhood Education 23
Dramatic evidence, along with powerful visual images of brain scans,
has raised awareness of the vital importance of early experiences. For exam-
ple, brain scans of maltreated children provide striking evidence of smaller
brain volumes than those of children who have not suffered maltreatment,
with more negative effects the earlier the abuse began and the longer it lasted
(De Bellis et al., 1999). Findings such as these demonstrate the critical im-
portance of early intervention.
Lasting Benefits of Early
Childhood Education
A large body of research demonstrates that high-quality early childhood
programs can have long-lasting positive consequences for children,
especially children from economically disadvantaged backgrounds, and can
be cost effective (Minervino, 2014; Yoshikawa et al., 2013). Three well-
designed longitudinal studies—the Perry Preschool Project, the Abecedarian
Early Childhood Intervention Project, and the Chicago Child-Parent Centers—followed
children from early childhood into adulthood. The findings of these studies have been
singularly influential with policy makers and are largely responsible for increased
investments in early education such as President Obama’s universal preschool initiative
(Barnett, 2013b).
The Perry Preschool Project The Perry Preschool Project, which began in the
early 1960s in Ypsilanti, Michigan, was one of the first studies to demonstrate the lasting
effects of a high-quality preschool program on educational and economic outcomes. (Perry
Preschool later became the HighScope Educational Research Foundation.) Researchers
found that Perry Preschool graduates were less likely to be assigned to special education
or be retained in grade and had better achievement test scores than children who did not
attend preschool (Berrueta-Clement, Schweinhart, Barnett, Epstein, & Weikart, 1984).
Preschool participation was also related to less involvement in delinquency and crime and
a higher rate of high school graduation (Schweinhart, Barnes, & Weikart, 1993). At age
40, program participants were significantly more likely to have higher levels of education,
be employed, earn higher wages, and own their own homes; they were less likely to be
welfare dependent and had fewer arrests (Schweinhart et al., 2005).
These outcomes benefited not only the participants but the larger society as well.
Economists estimated that for every dollar spent on the program, as much as $16 was
returned on the original investment (Schweinhart et al., 2005). This means that Americans
saved money in terms of the decreased costs of crime, special education, grade retention,
and welfare payments, as well as increased taxes paid by those children who achieve in
school and later earn higher incomes.
The Abecedarian Project The University of North Carolina’s Abecedarian
Early Childhood Intervention Project demonstrated that intensive early intervention
(five years of full-day, high-quality child care with parent involvement) can greatly
enhance the development of children whose mothers have low income and education
levels (Campbell et al., 2008). The Abecedarian program produced positive effects on
achievement in reading and mathematics throughout elementary and high school. Chil-
dren who participated were significantly less likely to be retained in grade or placed
in special education, and they were more likely to attend 4-year colleges and to have
skilled jobs. Access to free child care improved the mothers’ long-term employment
opportunities and earnings.
Chicago Child-Parent Centers Perry Preschool and Abecedarian were rela-
tively small-scale demonstration programs. A third longitudinal study of the Title I fed-
erally funded Chicago Child–Parent Centers reached similar positive conclusions with
Classroom Connection
This video highlights brain re-
search and the impact of qual-
ity early learning opportunities.
Dr. Jack Shonkoff, founder of the
Center for the Developing Child at
Harvard University, presents the
importance of positive early child-
hood experiences based on what
scientists have learned by study-
ing the brain.
http://www. youtube.com/
watch?v=tLiP4b-TPCA
M01_BRED6702_03_SE_C01.indd 23 10/7/15 12:48 PM
Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education24
a large-scale, public school program involving more than 1,500 children
(Reynolds, Temple, Robertson, White, & Ou, 2011). Since 1985, the Chicago
Child–Parent Centers (CPC) have provided preschool and kindergarten for
children from low-income families and family support services with contin-
ued intervention in early elementary school.
Children who participated in CPC demonstrated higher school achieve-
ment, better social adjustment, less frequent grade retention, lower drop-
out rates, and lower rates of juvenile arrest. A follow-up study conducted
25 years later found strong positive effects into adulthood (Reynolds et al.,
2011). Children who attended the program at age 3 attained better levels of
education, income, job skills, and health insurance coverage, and lower rates
of substance abuse, arrest, and imprisonment.
The Positive Effects of Prekindergarten, Head
Start, and Child Care
As publicly funded prekindergarten programs have expanded, a great deal of research
evaluating their effectiveness has become available. Numerous states across the country
have found positive effects on children’s readiness for school (Camilli, Vargas, Ryan, &
Barnett, 2010; Minervino, 2014). For example, a longitudinal study of Michigan’s pre-
kindergarten program found that it decreased grade repetition and increased the number
of children who passed the state’s reading and mathematics tests and graduated from high
school on time, and all these differences were greatest for children of color (Schweinhart,
Xiang, Daniel-Echols, Browning, & Wakabayashi, 2012). Similar results were found in
Virginia’s state-funded prekindergartens (Huang, Invernizzi, & Drake, 2012). A study
involving more than 60,000 children found that prekindergarten was related to improved
literacy and less kindergarten retention. Results were most positive for Hispanic and Af-
rican American students and also children with disabilities, and persisted through first
grade.
Some of the strongest, most positive results were found in an evaluation of Tennes-
see’s statewide prekindergarten program (Lipsey, Farran, Hofer, Bilbrey, & Dong, 2011).
Children who attended prekindergarten improved on measures of literacy, language, and
math between 37% and 176% more than did children who did not attend. The greatest
gains were in language, which is very difficult to improve.
Most research demonstrates the value of preschool for children from low income
families, but a growing body of research provides evidence of the positive effects of early
education for all children. Read the What Works: Increasing School Readiness for All
Children feature for an example.
Perhaps no other federally funded project has been as thoroughly studied as Head
Start over the nearly 50 years of its existence. An overall conclusion that can be drawn is
that Head Start has positive effects on children’s overall development, health and dental
care, and preparation for school, including improved literacy skills and social-emotional
development (Barnett, 2008; Puma et al., 2005). Although there is evidence that Head
Start needs to be improved and participation does not close the achievement gap between
poor and middle-class children, it does narrow the gap. The effects are most positive for
children who enter at age 3 and participate in full-day programs that include regular home
visiting (Walters, 2014; Yoshikawa et al., 2013).
Child care research consistently finds that children who participate in high-quality
programs demonstrate better language and mathematics ability and fewer behavior prob-
lems than do children in poor-quality care (Cost, Quality, and Child Care Outcomes
Study Team, 1995; NICHD Early Child Care Research Network, 2002; Peisner-Feinberg
et al., 1999). Positive effects are evident for all groups of children but are greater for
children from lower-income families.
We could cite many other studies from states as diverse as New Jersey, Louisiana,
Maryland, New Mexico, Massachusetts, and South Carolina that prove that high-quality
Classroom Connection
This video describes the Chicago
Child–Parent programs and
cites the results of the studies
conducted on the success of the
program. Why has participating
in this program resulted in lasting
benefits for children and families?
http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=ToCbcbpEfDw
M01_BRED6702_03_SE_C01.indd 24 10/7/15 12:48 PM
Chapter 1 Continuity and Change in Early Childhood Education 25
early childhood programs can have positive short- and long-term consequences for young
children. Research is also powerfully connected to another reason early childhood educa-
tion is a field on the rise—the country’s need to close the achievement gap, as addressed
in the next section.
Social Justice and Closing the Achievement Gap
One of our nation’s greatest challenges is addressing the persistent gap that exists between
the school achievement of African American and Latino children and their white peers
(Aud, Fox, & KewalRamani, 2010; Hemphill & Vanneman, 2011). Scholars tend to agree
that these differences result primarily from the fact that race and ethnicity are strongly
associated with socioeconomic status (SES) in the United States (National Center for
Children in Poverty, 2014). For example, 42% of African American children and 35% of
Latino children under the age of 5 are in the lowest socioeconomic level of U.S. citizens
compared with 15% of white non-Hispanic children (CDF, 2014). And children of color
are much more likely to live in conditions of extreme poverty (CDF, 2014). Achieve-
ment differences between racial and ethnic groups narrow considerably among children
when they are from similar socioeconomic backgrounds (U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services, 2014).
As we have seen, the number of young children growing up poor in our country is
increasing, with the largest growth in poverty among children under age 5 and children of
color, which could further widen the achievement gap in the future. The achievement gap
has profound consequences for our nation’s future and its ability to compete in a global,
highly technological society. Moreover, the potentially devastating effects on the life tra-
jectories of individuals cannot be ignored.
socioeconomic status
(SES) Family income level.
Increasing School Readiness for All Children
As policy makers consider whether to increase funding for Head
Start, public prekindergarten, or child care for needy families, they
want to know whether these programs are effective. They want to
know, “How well do early childhood programs prepare children for
school?” and “Who should be eligible to attend?” A big issue is
whether programs should be universal—that is, available to fami-
lies of all income levels who choose to enroll their children—or
targeted to low income families as Head Start is.
Oklahoma’s state-funded prekindergarten has generated con-
siderable attention. It is universal, based in the school system,
and reaches a higher percentage of 4-year-olds than any other
state pre-K program. Although most classes are located in public
schools, some classes are located in Head Start and child care
programs that meet the same standards for quality.
The Oklahoma program has high standards compared to other
states, with lead teachers required to have a B.A. degree and be
certified in early childhood education. Notably, prekindergarten
teachers earn the same wages and benefits as other public school
teachers. Student–teacher ratios are 10 to 1 and class sizes are
limited to 20.
An evaluation of the program involving more than 3,000 children
found strong positive effects for children from all income groups. All
children’s language and cognitive test scores improved, regardless
of their economic status or ethnicity.
The largest gains were for poor children
of color, with Hispanic children making
the most learning progress, followed by African
Americans. But even though gains were somewhat higher for
low-income children, gains for children in the higher income group
were almost as large. A similar study comparing Tulsa’s ( Oklahoma)
pre-K program and the Tulsa County Head Start program (which also
receives state funds) found that both programs produce substantial
improvements in early literacy and math.
It is increasingly clear that children from low-income families
are not the only ones who need and can benefit from attending
preschool. Research shows that many middle-income children are
also behind their peers from the highest-earning families at kin-
dergarten entry and they are less likely to have access to the kind
of high-quality programs provided in Oklahoma.
Sources: The Effects of Oklahoma’s Universal Pre-Kindergarten Program on
Hispanic Children, by W. T. Gormley, 2008, Washington, DC: Center for Re-
search on Children in the U.S. (CROCUS), Georgetown University, retrieved
July 28, 2009, from http://www.crocus.georgetown.edu; “The Promise of
Preschool: Why We Need Early Education for All,” by W. S. Barnett and E.
Frede, 2010, American Educator, 34(1), 21–29, 40.
What Works
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Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education26
Where the Gap Begins Differences in children’s cognitive abilities are substan-
tial at a very early age and widen over time (U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services, 2014). By 18 months of age, SES differences in language development
are evident, and by 24 months, economically disadvantaged children are as much as
6 months behind their more advantaged peers (Fernald, Marchman, & Weislader, 2013).
At age 4, children who live below the poverty line may be 18 months below what is
considered normal for their age group. In fact, inequity in socioeconomic status is the
most important predictor of children’s cognitive skills (Aud et al., 2010; McLoyd &
Purtell, 2008).
To describe this discrepancy, a more accurate term than achievement gap is really
knowledge gap. The differences in achievement are likely the result of differences in
children’s opportunities to gain knowledge from a variety of learning experiences. For
example, children from higher-income families are much more likely to attend pre-
school.
Schools’ Contributions to the Gap Children from low-income families not
only enter kindergarten with fewer cognitive skills than their more aff luent peers, but
also are more likely to encounter poorer-quality elementary schools (Neuman, 2008).
These schools are likely to have fewer resources and qualified teachers, more nega-
tive teacher attitudes, and poorer neighborhood or school conditions. As a result, the
inequalities in cognitive abilities that are present even before kindergarten entry are not
eliminated and often are magnified by their elementary school experience (Parkinson &
Rowan, 2008).
One of the frequent criticisms of Head Start and prekindergarten is that the gains chil-
dren make “fade-out” by later grades. These criticisms focus on standardized test scores
rather than lasting social-emotional and meaningful life outcomes, and fail to take into
account the quality of children’s education in primary school (Barnett & Carolan, 2014).
A more accurate term than fade-out is convergence (Yoshikawa et al., 2013). Children’s
achievement scores converge in the early grades because their school experiences do not
build on preschool gains.
Children who begin school behind tend to stay behind. Although achievement has
improved on average in the last few years, problems remain. By fourth grade, only 41%
of public school students are proficient or above in mathematics and only 34% are profi-
cient in reading (National Center for Education Statistics, 2013). Reading achievement at
the end of first grade predicts reading skill at the end of fourth grade (Hernandez, 2011),
which subsequently predicts high school graduation. Moreover, deep-seated inequities in
communities and schools tend to increase rather than diminish these early achievement
gaps over time. As one child advocacy group states, “Our children are not failing to learn.
Our schools are failing to teach them effectively” (Foundation for Child Development,
2008, p. 4).
Early Education and Social Justice As we saw from research cited previ-
ously, these initial inequalities can be reduced. Children from low-income families who
attend high-quality early childhood programs begin kindergarten with higher achieve-
ment, thus providing the potential to narrow the gap at the outset. This research, as well
as studies on the effectiveness of services for children with special needs, proves that
early intervention is less costly, more effective, and more humane than later remediation
(Reynolds et al., 2011). Children living in poverty, however, are less likely to have access
to high-quality programs.
Improving quality and increasing access to early childhood programs are important
strategies for enhancing social justice in America and improving learning outcomes for
all children. These goals can be addressed, however, only in the context of current trends
in the field and the nation, which we discuss next.
✓ Check Your Understanding 1.4: Positive Effects of Early Childhood Education
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Chapter 1 Continuity and Change in Early Childhood Education 27
Current Trends in Early Childhood
Education
Early childhood education is literally a field in transition, experiencing rapid growth and
widespread attention. Current trends affecting the field include major new policy initia-
tives at the federal and state level, more focus on standards and accountability resulting in
increased emphasis on child assessment, calls for greater alignment across the full early
childhood age span, increased teacher qualifications, expanding role of technology, and
increased stress in the lives of children. These changes present new challenges, but also
opportunities. In the sections that follow, we describe the potential benefits as well as
the controversies of each trend. Even a cursory look at these trends reveals that they are
interconnected.
New Federal and State Policy Initiatives
The first two decades of the 21st century have seen enormous growth in public support
and funding for early education. The Obama administration proposed new investments to
establish a continuum of high-quality early learning from birth to age 5 and to meet the
following goals (Office of Early Learning, 2014):
• Provide access to high-quality infant and toddler care through Early Head Start-
child care partnerships;
• Expand voluntary evidence-based home visiting to support our country’s most vul-
nerable families; and
• Develop partnerships with states to provide voluntary, high-quality, full-day pre-
school for all 4-year-olds from families at or below 200 percent of the federal
poverty line.
In response, a bipartisan group in Congress introduced the Strong Start for America’s
Children Act in 2014. The U.S. Department of Education distributed $1 billion in Early
Learning Challenge Grants for statewide systems to improve the quality of early child-
hood programs and increase access for children who need them. Early Learning Chal-
lenge Grants support state efforts to build high-quality, accountable systems of early
education; the grants call for states to use the same learning standards across all pro-
grams, measure children’s learning outcomes, and improve professional development
and compensation for teachers. As a result, the grants led states to develop or adopt
kindergarten entry assessments (KEAs) to help teachers adapt instruction to individual
children’s needs. Preschool Development and Expansion Grants were also distributed to
states to move the country forward in achieving universal prekindergarten.
Most public prekindergarten programs are not universal. Attendance is
limited to children who qualify because they are from low-income families,
are dual language learners, or have an identified disability. Proponents of uni-
versality cite research showing that middle-class children also benefit from
prekindergarten, but the cost of high-quality programs is out of reach for
most of these families (Burger, 2010; Yoshikawa et al., 2013). There is also
evidence that academic and social skills of children from low-income fami-
lies improve when they participate in mixed-income programs (Barnett &
Frede, 2010; Schechter & Bye, 2007). In contrast, critics believe that limited
funds should go to the neediest families (Fuller, 2007). Another concern is
the competing need to fund services for infants and toddlers.
Expanding prekindergarten contributes to another trend: greater involve-
ment of public schools in preschool education. In the past, young children
rarely encountered a public school before kindergarten, but now the public
education system is a major player in the early childhood landscape. As a
Classroom Connection
Watch this video from the Na-
tional Institute for Early Educa-
tion Research to learn about the
research on effective teachers in
high-quality preschool programs.
How would this information be
useful to advocate for universal
prekindergarten?
http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=or10f-YcM8Q
M01_BRED6702_03_SE_C01.indd 27 10/7/15 12:48 PM
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=or10f-YcM8Q
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=or10f-YcM8Q
Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education28
result, issues that have dominated K–12 education for some time now affect programs for
younger children, such as more focus on standards and accountability.
Standards and Accountability
Since the 1990s, educational systems in the United States have emphasized learning
standards—what children should know and be able to do at various ages. At the same
time, a stronger emphasis on accountability has emerged, as seen in the Early Learning
Challenge Grants. The concept is that schools and teachers, which receive public dollars,
need to be held accountable for children’s achieving learning standards. This leads to two
related issues: (1) What are teachers to be held accountable for? and (2) How will it be
measured?
Elementary and Secondary Education Elementary and secondary educa-
tion is primarily controlled and funded by state governments, which means that learning
standards vary widely, with some states setting standards lower than others. The federal
government provides support to states through the Elementary and Secondary Educa-
tion Act (ESEA). This law is periodically rewritten and therefore its requirements and
funding are influenced by prevailing political trends. Since the 1990s, Congress has used
the law as a lever to hold public schools accountable for eliminating the persistent gaps in
achievement between different groups of children. Accountability is most often measured
by test scores in core academic programs (reading and mathematics).
The law has also addressed the need for more highly qualified teachers to implement
effective, scientifically based instructional practices, ways of teaching that research has
demonstrated to improve learning outcomes. Emphasis on standards and accountability
in elementary school has led to the development of learning standards for younger
children and a stronger emphasis on early literacy and mathematics in Head Start and
prekindergarten.
The Obama administration’s Race to the Top initiative (which includes the Early
Challenge Grants) was a recent approach to improving accountability and school reform.
States competed for funding to adopt high standards that will prepare students to succeed
accountability The process
of holding teachers, schools,
or programs responsible for
meeting a required level of
performance.
Elementary and Secondary
Education Act (ESEA) Law
governing how the federal
government distributes educa-
tion funds to states and holds
public schools accountable for
the use of funding.
scientifically based instruc-
tional practices Curriculum
and instructional practices that
research has demonstrated
improve learning outcomes.
Current trends in early childhood education include more focus on standards and accountability from
prekindergarten through third grade. The overarching goal is to help children become more successful
readers and writers.
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M01_BRED6702_03_SE_C01.indd 28 10/7/15 12:48 PM
Chapter 1 Continuity and Change in Early Childhood Education 29
in college and the workplace and compete in the global economy, ensure highly qualified
teachers and principals, and turn around failing schools.
Common Core State Standards One problem with a large-scale accountability
movement is the great variability among state content standards. To address this issue, in
2010, the Council of Chief State School Officers (CCSSO) and the National Governor’s
Association (NGA) released the Common Core State Standards (CCSS), which are de-
signed to establish a set of rigorous national standards in English language arts and math-
ematics for kindergarten through grade 12. The Common Core is intended to provide a
consistent, clear understanding of what all students are expected to learn to be successful
in college and careers, and for America to compete successfully in the global economy.
As of 2014, 44 states and the District of Columbia officially adopted the Common Core,
requiring much additional work to align curriculum and teaching practices, and create
new assessments to measure achievement of the standards.
Although the Common Core began as a bipartisan effort, it has become politically
controversial. A few governors who initially supported it withdrew their support. Some
view it as a federal intrusion on state control of education because the federal govern-
ment offered incentives to states to build systems around the CCSS. Others criticize the
standards for being unachievable, narrowing the curriculum to two areas, and leading to
overreliance on standardized tests for which students and teachers are not prepared.
Although the goals of increasing accountability and equity are worthy, the methods
that have been used are highly controversial (Ravitch, 2013). Criticisms of the Common
Core reflect broader concerns about the accountability movement in general. Some stan-
dards are actually unachievable for most children to meet even when they are in excel-
lent schools (Graue, 2009). Although the standards do not apply to preschool, like many
elementary school initiatives, they have a “push-down” impact on younger children.
Overemphasis on standardized test scores does tend to narrow the curriculum to what
is tested, does not truly measure all of children’s important capabilities, and punishes
schools that need the most help. Regardless of the requirements of any specific piece of
state or federal legislation, accountability is unlikely to go away in the future.
Higher Teacher Qualifications
Another related trend is to raise preschool teacher qualifications, with an emphasis on
college degrees in early education or child development (Institute of Medicine [IOM] &
National Research Council [NRC], 2015; Whitebook, Phillips, & Howes, 2014). Sev-
eral research reviews have concluded that having bachelor’s degree–level teachers with
specialized preparation in early childhood education leads to better outcomes for young
children (Minervino, 2014). Although some research has not found clear benefits of de-
grees (Walters, 2014), studies tend to support the fact that the more specialized education
teachers have, the better it is for the children they teach.
Head Start’s teacher qualifications have incrementally been raised over the years.
For many years, teachers were required to have only a Child Development Associate
(CDA) credential. This competency-based credential requires 120 clock hours of train-
ing (which may or may not be credit bearing) and 480 hours of experience with children,
plus passing a written test and being observed working effectively with young children.
The Head Start Act of 2009 requires that 50% of teachers hold a bachelor’s degree with
early childhood specialization. The program has exceeded this goal, with 66% of its pre-
school teachers holding a bachelor’s degree or higher (Head Start, 2014c). Similarly, at
least 50% of teacher assistants are required to have at least a CDA credential or be en-
rolled in a degree program. In addition, the CDA credential is the required qualification
for teachers in Early Head Start.
Raising teacher qualifications has the potential to improve quality for children and
also compensation and status for teachers. The biggest challenge is providing adequate
funding to increase compensation commensurate with teacher qualifications, which, sad-
ly, is far from the case (Whitebook, Phillips, & Howes, 2014).
Common Core State Stan-
dards Rigorous national
standards in English language
arts and mathematics for
kindergarten through grade 12
developed by the Council of
Chief State Officers (CCSSO)
and the National Governor’s
Association (NGA).
Child Development Associate
(CDA) credential National
competency-based credential
for entry-level early childhood
educators.
M01_BRED6702_03_SE_C01.indd 29 10/7/15 12:48 PM
Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education30
An additional concern is the need to maintain a diverse workforce that reflects the
population of children served. State prekindergarten programs have a larger percentage of
teachers with bachelor’s degrees than do Head Start or center-based programs. However,
Head Start teachers are much more likely to reflect the cultural and linguistic diversity of
the community (CLASP, 2011). For example, 30% of Head Start staff are proficient in a
language other than English (Head Start, 2013).
Alignment of Services from Birth Through Age 8
A trend that is related to accountability and increased involvement of public schools in
early education is the call for bridging the continuum of services for children from birth
through third grade (Bornfreund, McCann, Williams, & Guernsey, 2014). Traditionally,
preschool and K–3 have been two separate worlds with very little communication be-
tween them. Alignment means that curriculum at the preschool level would lay a founda-
tion for the kindergarten curriculum, which could then more easily build on what children
have learned. The idea is to ease transitions for students between schools and school lev-
els and enhance continuity of learning while also respecting the needs of young children
(Kauerz & Coffman, 2013).
Many early childhood educators are concerned that the push for alignment will nar-
row the curriculum to literacy and mathematics, apply learning standards intended for
older children, and lead to inappropriate testing of young children (Graue, 2009; NAEYC,
2009). They are especially concerned that schools will eliminate valuable experiences
such as play, the arts, and support for social-emotional development.
Advocates for Pre-K–3 alignment support better connected education for preschool
and elementary children. They stress that alignment does not mean that preschool children
should learn primary grade skills at an earlier age (Kauerz & Coffman, 2013; NAEYC,
2009). Rather, curriculum should reflect what children can and should learn at each age,
and teachers should know how to help children make progress.
Advances in Technology
In no aspect of life is the speed of change as rapid as in the area of technology. In educa-
tion, technology has a tremendous impact on how teachers teach and function in their
work, but also on children’s experiences at home and in school. Increasingly innovative
uses of interactive media in all aspects of early education is a major trend. Given the de-
mand for highly qualified teachers, online teacher preparation and professional develop-
ment options are increasing rapidly.
As digital media such as handheld mobile devices and video games proliferate, so has the
development of educational apps, the majority of which are targeted to preschoolers (Shuler,
2009; Thai, Lowenstein, Ching, & Rejeski, 2009). In their position statement on technol-
ogy, NAEYC and the Fred Rogers Center for Early Learning and Children’s Media (2012)
acknowledge legitimate concerns about potential inappropriate uses of technology but also
promote the almost unlimited creative ways that interactive media can support learning and
development. The question is no longer whether young children should be exposed to digital
media, but rather what is the quality of technological tools provided for them.
Stress in Children’s Lives
The foregoing trends coupled with the economic downturn, increased violence in society,
and other challenges facing families have all contributed to growing stress in the lives of
young children (Almon & Miller, 2011). In turn, mounting stressors endanger children’s
long-term mental and physical health (Shonkoff et al., 2012). Teachers and parents are
concerned about children’s safety, while at the same time they feel pressured to prepare
them for the academic rigors of school. These conditions conspire to threaten one of the
most important and beneficial activities of childhood—play, as discussed in the feature
Promoting Play: Addressing Threats to Children’s Play.
alignment Coordination of
the curriculum from one level
of education to the next in
order to build on what children
have already learned and to
ease transitions for students
between schools and school
levels.
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Chapter 1 Continuity and Change in Early Childhood Education 31
Addressing Threats to Children’s Play
Pediatricians and psychologists agree that too many
children today experience high levels of unrelent-
ing stress. Factors such as poverty and violence are
the primary sources, but stress affects the lives of
all children to some extent. Teachers today report
that more children are aggressive and disruptive as
a result of stressful events. Increasing numbers of
children, especially boys, are inaccurately diagnosed
as hyperactive and needlessly medicated. Childhood
obesity is also endemic.
Research demonstrates that exercise and child-
initiated play are effective stress-relievers. Ironically,
however, a survey of child care, preschool, and Head
Start teachers found that they tend to limit chil-
dren’s opportunities for active play, especially out-
doors, due to safety concerns and the need to pre-
pare children academically for school. And children
living in poverty are most likely to suffer because
they have less access to safe outdoor play areas and
programs feel extra pressure to focus on academic
instruction to close the school readiness gap.
Part of the solution is that teachers, parents, and
administrators need to understand that play and
school readiness is not an either/or choice. The
American Academy of Pediatrics emphasizes that
play is essential for children’s physical health, emo-
tional and mental well-being, social relationships,
and brain development and cognition. Vigorous play
develops large motor skills, and can reduce obesity.
In short, play contributes to all areas of develop-
ment and learning.
In an attempt to get children ready for school and
protect them from injury, early childhood programs
may actually be contributing to children’s stress by
minimizing children’s large muscle activity and child-
initiated play time. Because children spend so much
time in early childhood programs and school, it may
be their only opportunity to have physical activity or
outdoor play.
Early educators need to draw on the support of
physicians and other experts to help educate parents
and policy makers about the importance of play in
children’s lives and its essential role in helping chil-
dren cope with stress and improve school success.
They also need to advocate for funding to provide
safe playgrounds and adequate spaces indoors and
outdoors for active engagement. Play spaces and
opportunities must be designed to protect children
from injury, but protecting them from stress is
equally important.
Sources: “Societal Values and Policies May Curtail
Preschool Children’s Physical Activity in Child Care
Centers,” by K. A. Copeland, S. N. Sherman, C. A.
Kendeigh, H. J. Kalkwarf, & B. E. Saelens, 2012,
Pediatrics, 129(2), retrieved from http://pediatrics.
aappublications.org/content/early/2012/01/02/
peds.2011-2102.full +html; “The Importance of
Play in Promoting Healthy Child Development and
Maintaining Strong Parent-Child Bond: Focus on
Children in Poverty,” by R. M. Milter, K. R. Ginsburg, &
Council on Communications and Media Committee
on Psychological Aspects of Child and Family Health,
Pediatrics, 129(1), e204–e213, retrieved from http://
www.pediatrics.aappublications.org.
Continuity and Change
One overarching trend always affecting education is continuity and change. As the field
expands and changes occur in response to new political and economic realities, many
longtime early childhood professionals are concerned that the fundamental values of the
field will be lost. Development, including development of professions, is characterized by
both continuity and change. In this book we describe how the fundamental values of early
childhood education can be retained and enhanced (thus maintaining continuity with the
important tenets of the past), while also presenting what is known from new research
about effective teaching practices for all children. Some ways of thinking and practicing
should be cherished and held onto, whereas others may need to be updated or abandoned.
Promoting Play
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http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/early/2012/01/02/peds.2011-2102.full +html
http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/early/2012/01/02/peds.2011-2102.full +html
http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/early/2012/01/02/peds.2011-2102.full +html
http://www.pediatrics.aappublications.org
http://www.pediatrics.aappublications.org
Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education32
Resolving Contradictions Between Enduring Values and Current
Trends We propose that the way to resolve potential contradictions that arise over diffi-
cult or controversial issues is to “widen the lens.” Widening the lens is a metaphor for ex-
panding the sources of information professionals use to make decisions; gaining insights
from diverse perspectives including through the lenses of culture, language, and ability/
disability; and looking at questions or problems from broader perspectives. Widening the
lens is a strategy to move beyond the tendency to oversimplify complex educational issues
into “either/or” choices and to move toward “both/and” thinking.
Embracing Both/And Thinking Widening the lens to consider diverse points of
view—both/and thinking—is a constructive response to addressing both continuity and
change in the field. Figure 1.4 illustrates how this process applies to the field today. The left
side of the arrow describes traditional practices that have held sway in the past; the right
side of the arrow illustrates how current views encompass these earlier approaches and
extend beyond them, thus reflecting both/and thinking as well as continuity and change.
Throughout this text, we will revisit these issues as well as the profession’s core val-
ues and demonstrate how new research can help teachers effectively put these values into
practice. Chapters are devoted to each of the core values: child development and learning,
relationships, families, communities, individuality, and cultural diversity. We discuss the
overarching value of play in the context of all the key topics in this book.
We began by pointing out that early childhood education is a field on the rise. The
profession is expanding, growing in status, and gaining support from policy makers and
the general public. A huge body of research supports the importance of the work. It is
indeed an exciting time to be an early childhood educator.
✓ Check Your Understanding 1.5: Current Trends in Early Childhood Education
FIGURE 1.4 Continuity and Change in Early Childhood Education Early childhood education today builds on the enduring
values of its past but also changes as we acquire new knowledge about children, families, and the contexts in which they live.
• Both child-initiated, developmentally valuable play and playful learning
Traditional Practices
• Processes of child development and learning • Both how children learn and what they learn
• Inputs – standards such as licensing or accreditation
that mandate what programs should do
• Quality • Both quality and accountability
• Activities
Current Practices
• Free play
• Developmental appropriateness
• Observation of children
• Facilitating learning
• Development, not academics (viewing early childhood
education as separate from primary grades)
• Typical, normative development
• Both program standards and outcomes
(early learning standards)
• Both coherent curriculum plans and links to learning goals
• Both effectiveness and developmental appropriateness (Are children making
progress from the experiences we deem appropriate?
• Both observation and formal assessment of child outcomes
• Both intentional teaching and positive, supportive relationships
• Both viewing learning and development as a continuum from birth to
age 8 and alignment from pre-K to grade 3
• Both adapting for individual variation of every child and
intervention and adaption for children with disabilities and
special needs, as well as children who are advanced
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Chapter 1 Continuity and Change in Early Childhood Education 33
Revisiting the Case Study
. . . Cresthaven Child Development Center
We began this chapter by peeking in and eavesdropping on the end-of-the-year event for Cresthaven
Primary School and Reed Child Development Center. Now that we have seen the broader picture
of the early childhood landscape, the teachers’ thoughts and emotions become more meaningful.
At this event, we saw the wide range of age groups that early childhood encompasses as well as
some of the diverse settings. In addition, these teachers exemplify fundamentals of intentional
teaching.
The collaborative partnership between the school and child care program supports alignment of
curriculum from preschool through third grade, and eases transitions for children and families. The
garden project is one example of how these teachers connect the curriculum to the larger community
and provide children with meaningful, hands-on learning opportunities. Children, families, and teach-
ers not only celebrated the good times they’d had, but children also demonstrated how much they’d
learned through the displays of their work and through technology.
Across the classrooms, we saw the value of communication and responsive relationships among
teachers and families. New teachers Isela and Evan have learned that early childhood education is
hard work but have also begun to experience the rewards. Their patience and focus on intentional
teaching is paying off for Nicky. Cooper’s experience demonstrates the power of inclusion and how
it benefits children with disabilities and their peers. At the end of the day, these teachers go home
feeling good about what they’ve accomplished, but knowing that there is more to learn and new
adventures awaiting them tomorrow. ■
1 Chapter Summary
• Early childhood education is a diverse field that covers
the broad age range of birth through age 8. Teachers
work in child care centers and homes, preschools,
kindergartens, and primary grade schools.
• Becoming a professional, intentional early childhood
teacher is a challenging and rewarding opportunity.
Early childhood education is expanding and is a field
on the rise, benefiting from growing public recognition
and support. Many career options are available to work
with children or work for children.
• Early childhood professionals are part of a cultural
group that shares a vocabulary, an identity, values, and
beliefs. These include emphasis on the uniqueness
of early childhood, the value of play, the importance
of relationships and a sense of community, valuing
and teaching each child as an individual, respecting
linguistic and cultural diversity, and relationships with
families.
• The early childhood profession sets high-quality stan-
dards for programs. The most important determinants
of the quality of children’s experiences and strongest
predictors of positive outcomes are the social and
instructional interactions that occur between teachers
and children.
• Brain research demonstrates the importance of early
experience to later development. A large body of
evidence exists supporting the positive long-term and
short-term consequences of high-quality early child-
hood programs.
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Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education34
Key Terms
• High-quality early education has an important role
to play in improving children’s school readiness and
addressing social justice concerns about closing the
achievement gap in our schools.
• New political and economic realities present challeng-
es and opportunities for the field including the federal
and state policy initiatives, universal prekindergarten
movement, more focus on standards and accountabil-
ity, increased teacher qualifications, calls for greater
alignment across the full early childhood age span,
stress in children’s lives, and advancing technology use
by teachers and children.
• Early childhood education is a rewarding profession
for many reasons, but above all, early childhood
educators enter and stay in the field because they
know that their work makes a difference in the lives of
children and families.
■ accountability
■ accreditation system
■ alignment
■ charter schools
■ Child Care and
Development Block
Grants (CCDBG)
■ child care center
■ child care licensing
standards
■ Child Development
Associate (CDA)
credential
■ Classroom Assessment
Scoring System
(CLASS)
■ Common Core state
standards (CCSS)
■ culture
■ developmentally appro-
priate practice
■ dual language learners
■ early childhood
education
■ Early Childhood
Environment Rating
Scale (ECERS-3)
■ early childhood special
education
■ Early Head Start
■ early intervention
■ early learning standards
■ Elementary and Sec-
ondary Education Act
(ESEA)
■ family child care home
■ Head Start
■ Head Start Program
Performance Standards
■ inclusion
■ Individuals with
Disabilities Education
Act (IDEA)
■ intentional teachers
■ kindergarten
■ laboratory school
■ National Association for
the Education of Young
Children (NAEYC)
■ parent cooperative
■ prekindergarten (pre-K)
■ preschool
■ primary grades
■ process quality
■ professionals
■ quality rating and
improvement systems
(QRIS)
■ school readiness
■ scientifically based
instructional practices
■ socioeconomic status
(SES)
■ structural quality
■ Temporary Assistance
for Needy Families
(TANF)
■ universal voluntary
prekindergarten
Chenfield, M. B. (2014). Still teaching in the key of life:
Joyful stories from early childhood settings. Washington,
DC: National Association for the Education of Young
Children.
Feeney, S. (2012). Professionalism in early childhood
education: Doing our best for young children. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Hyson, M., & Tomlinson, H. B. (2014). The early years
matter: Education, care and the well-being of children,
birth to 8. New York: Teachers College Press.
National Association for the Education of Young
Children (NAEYC)
NAEYC’s website has a wealth of resources on every
aspect of early childhood education, including their pub-
lications, accreditation system, position statements on
controversial topics, and public policy.
National Institute for Early Education Research
(NIEER)
On this website, you will find summaries of research
conducted by NIEER and other resources to learn about
Readings and Websites
✓ Demonstrate Your Learning
Click here to assess how well you’ve learned the content in this chapter.
M01_BRED6702_03_SE_C01.indd 34 10/7/15 12:48 PM
Chapter 1 Continuity and Change in Early Childhood Education 35
and advocate for high-quality, effective early childhood
education for all young children.
National Resource Center for Health and Safety in
Child Care and Early Education
This site provides access to child care licensing informa-
tion for every state and resources for educators, families,
and health professionals.
New America Foundation Early Education Initiative
The Early Education Initiative of New America
Foundation, a nonpartisan organization that brings to-
gether diverse perspectives to address current issues, pro-
motes a high-quality and continuous system of early care
and education for all children, birth to age 8. Read their
blog, EdCentral, to stay informed on the latest develop-
ments and research in the field.
M01_BRED6702_03_SE_C01.indd 35 10/7/15 12:48 PM
2
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
2.1 Explain why it is important to learn from the past.
2.2 Describe how European educators influenced early education practices.
2.3 Describe the events and people that propelled the kindergarten, nursery
school, and child care movements in the United States.
2.4 Explain the experiences and contributions of African Americans, Hispanic
Americans, and Native Americans in the history of early childhood education.
2.5 Discuss the trends in early childhood history that came together to influence
the launch of the national Head Start program and current trends in early
childhood education.
Building on a Tradition
of Excellence
Learning Outcomes
© Alistair Berg/Digital Vision/Getty Images
M02_BRED6702_03_SE_C02.indd 36 10/7/15 12:51 PM
37
Grant, Melinda, and Reece are enrolled in an introductory course in early childhood education. Their first assignment is to observe a preschool classroom. The professor says, “I want you to pretend that
you are from another planet, or from such a remote part of the earth that you have never seen a preschool
classroom before. Observe for one hour and write down exactly what you see. Don’t try to guess what I want you
to observe or second-guess yourself, just write what you see.”
After completing their observations, Grant, Melinda, and Reece compare notes. Their lists are different in some
respects but the following items appear on all three lists: child-sized furniture, one-inch cube blocks, and wooden
parquetry blocks in various colors and shapes. They see groups of children building roads and towers with wooden
blocks. Each classroom has a library area with picture books, alphabet books, and stories (each room even has
a copy of Goodnight Moon on the bookrack). One class has sandpaper letters. There are also woodworking
benches, sand tables, a posted recipe for cooking a snack, and dress-up clothes and props. In all three classes
children are actively playing or working with teachers in small groups. One group had been to visit the firehouse
(as evidenced by a chart on the wall recording children’s remembrances) and there are firehats and hoses to play
with. At snack time in one room, the children sing “Happy Birthday” to their friend.
During class, the professor asks each student to share one thing on his or her list and
then for a show of hands to see who else had seen the same thing. There is remarkable
uniformity among the observations. The professor explains, “What you
observed are traces of the history of early childhood education. Your unfiltered
observations are like the first steps archaeologists take in uncovering what
has gone before. You may be surprised to find that all these things
you observed can be traced back to specific people or events in
the history of the field. They were put there and they remain
there for a reason. First, we’ll find out how they
got there, and the rest of this course will help you
understand why they are still there or how practices
have changed in the intervening years.” ■
Case Study
E
arly childhood educators tend to like stories. We love sharing stories about the en-
chanting things that young children say and do. We listen to parents’ stories about
their children. And we exchange stories about our teaching—sometimes when we
have a bad day, and almost always when we have a very good day. Those good days usu-
ally involve seeing an exciting example of a child’s developmental progress.
Stories—that is what history is. The goal of this chapter, then, is to tell the story
of early childhood education. We begin by describing how studying history is relevant.
Next, we describe how the concept of childhood has changed over the course of history.
Finally, we tell several stories about major historical movements and how they influence
early childhood education practice today. Parts of these stories occurred simultaneously
and overlap. Click here to review the major events in early childhood education.
Learning from the Past
Early childhood education is a field with a long and rich history going back to ancient
times. Its history differs from that of education for older children, which has been consid-
ered a public responsibility for more than a century. By contrast, young children’s care and
education are so closely tied to families that private and public support for early childhood
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Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education38
care and education is a very recent phenom-
enon. In addition, early childhood education
is a more interdisciplinary field than is ele-
mentary education, with historical influences
coming from not only child development and
education but also from medicine, psychol-
ogy, sociology, and other areas. As a result,
many historical paths have converged to lead
the field to where it is today.
Why History Is Relevant
The history of early childhood education,
especially during the past 150 years, reveals
that the past and the present are inexorably
linked. Most of the current issues and contro-
versies have been visited in some form in the
past. For example, even all those years ago, teachers grappled with questions such as these:
What environments and materials should be provided? What are the goals for children’s
learning and development? How should children be taught? What is the role of the teacher?
How should parents be involved? Who is qualified to be a teacher? All of these issues have
dominated debates about early education since its inception, and continue to do so.
Rather than assuming that these issues are being encountered for the first time,
understanding how they have been resolved in the past can inform current discussions.
One reason this is so important is that “the solution to every problem contains the seeds
of a new problem” (Bredekamp & Glowacki, 1996). For example, early in the 20th
century, advocates fought for kindergarten to be part of public schools. Succeeding in
doing so eventually meant that kindergarten teachers were able to earn public school
salaries and that services became available for all children. But this solution also cre-
ated a new problem—kindergartens became, and still are, more like first grades than
like preschools in curriculum expectations and teaching methods. Today’s advocates
for public prekindergarten need to be aware of this history as they pursue their goals.
Consider how this phenomenon may be evident in your own life. A problem that many
college students face is the high cost of tuition. Students solve this problem in different ways—
taking out loans, working full time or part time while going to school, or choosing less expen-
sive schools. But each of these solutions can lead to new challenges. The loans need to be re-
paid; a full-time job delays graduation; the accessible schools may not meet the students’ needs.
In turn, each of these “problems” leads to a subsequent solution, and the process begins anew.
The idea that solving problems creates new challenges can be discouraging; however,
it need not be. As long as we are working on solving new problems or challenges, we are
making progress. History is composed of such progress in spurts as well as in setbacks.
As you reflect on early childhood history you will encounter many example of solutions
creating new challenges.
Avoid Getting Stuck in the Past Just as it is true that we continue to confront
questions and challenges similar to those faced by our forebears, it is equally true that
responses to these issues need to reflect current knowledge. As we will see, many of the
principles and values that guide the field today are remarkably consistent with earlier
views (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009). There are also essential differences based on newer
research, theories, and realities. Getting stuck in the past can lead to defending past prac-
tices simply because we have always done it that way. Knowing why it was “done that
way,” however, can lead to changing it for the better.
Aspire to Make a Difference for Children History is not just the story of
events, but the stories of people. The history of early childhood education is replete with
inspiring stories of women and men who devoted themselves to improving the lives of
Traces of the history of the field
of early childhood education
can be found in any preschool
classroom today. What in this
classroom environment might
have been present in a pre-
school 80 years ago? Why do
you think it is still being used?
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Chapter 2 Building on a Tradition of Excellence 39
children and families. Many “dauntless women” (Snyder, 1972) contributed in count-
less ways to early childhood education at a time when women’s opportunities for higher
education and careers were severely restricted. Similarly, men have been at the forefront
of building the profession even though children were considered the purview of women.
The stories of these pioneers of early childhood education, who were forward look-
ing in both their thinking and their deeds, serve as inspiration and motivation for cur-
rent and future professionals. Learning about their lives, the obstacles they faced in their
work, and the brilliance of their minds sets a high standard for the rest of us.
Advocate for Change Understanding the paths history has taken is important if
early childhood educators are to be successful in improving services in the future. Even a
brief summary of historical underpinnings reveals that change is a constant. For example,
at times, services for children have been a priority while at other times (regularly, in fact),
the services are threatened. The Head Start program is a case in point. In the mid-1960s,
Head Start was launched to great fanfare as a means to end poverty in this country, an
impossibly unrealistic goal. But over the years, the program has fallen prey to changing
public attitudes and funding priorities.
Throughout these years, some advocates have set idealistic goals, which can be in-
spiring; yet history has taught us that unrealistic goals doom a program to failure. In
the intervening years, advocates have made it plain that Head Start plays a key role in
empowering low income families to improve their lives and in preparing their children
for success in school. However, Head Start is not a cure for the ills of poverty, nor is it an
inoculation against poor school experiences that might follow. To be most effective, ad-
vocates for improving Head Start and other early childhood programs and services should
use the lessons of successful efforts in the past.
Examining the history of childhood education reveals that there have been significant
changes—transformations, actually—in how children are viewed. In the sections that fol-
low, we examine the changing view of childhood and its effect on children’s lives.
The Changing View of Children
Different periods of history have had differing perspectives on children and the idea
of childhood itself (Aries, 1962). These perspectives matter because they have direct
implications for how children are treated and what kinds of education they are pro-
vided. Different eras in history have tended to view children as miniature adults,
born in sin, blank slates, innocent, economic valuables, competent, and as
citizens with rights. At different times, one or the other of these perspec-
tives has tended to prevail. To some extent, all of these views of children
persist to this day. In the sections that follow, each of the perspectives
of childhood just mentioned is described, along with the potential
positive and negative consequences for children’s lives.
Children as Miniature Adults From the Middle Ages
to about the 17th century in Western Europe, children were basi-
cally seen as adults on a smaller scale (Aries, 1962). Children
dressed like adults, did adult-like work, and even played the same
games. In fact, it wasn’t until the 15th and 16th centuries that children
appeared in paintings wearing specialized children’s clothing.
In the 18th century, discovery of smallpox inoculation and better condi-
tions in general reduced the death rate among children, which likely contributed
to changes in the idea of childhood (Aries, 1962). Previously, the extremely high infant
mortality rate motivated families to produce a large number of children to ensure the sur-
vival of a few. Families depended on their children to provide labor to support the family.
As children’s survival became less precarious, so too did their value as individuals and
the image attached to them.
Centuries ago, children were
viewed as “miniature adults.”
Children today are once again
dressing like adults, playing
adult-type games, and be-
ing exposed to adult images
through the media at younger
and younger ages.
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Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education40
Today, the image of children as miniature adults is apparent once again in the clothes
children wear and the images they are exposed to through the media. Primary-grade girls
dress like teenagers or young adults. Concern exists that they are too sexy too soon (Levin &
Kilbourne, 2008). Preschoolers engage in team sports previously reserved for older children.
Children’s toys have been replaced by adult-like video games and digital devices.
Children in Need of Redemption The image of the child during the 1300s to
1800s was shaped by the religious belief that children were born in sin and needed re-
demption. Misbehavior of any kind was considered sinful and punished harshly.
Schools in Europe and America in the 18th and 19th centuries were based on this
image of children. Children learned to read from the Bible, recited memorized passages,
and were often beaten or ridiculed for errors. Many people today continue to believe that
severe punishment is necessary to shape children’s moral character.
Children as Blank Slates English philosopher John Locke (1632–1704) coun-
tered the religious argument that children are born with a predetermined sinful nature.
Instead, he believed that children are born as tabula rasa, blank slates. What gets written
on the slates is determined by their experiences in the environment. Locke’s view was a
step forward because it rejected the notion of inherent sinfulness and strongly emphasized
the importance and value of education.
Locke was accurate in assuming that environmental experiences play a major role in
children’s learning; however, he did not see individual differences in children or how they
actively shape their own experiences. Nevertheless, Locke’s image of children as blank
slates persists. Many schools today still operate on the notion that children are empty
vessels that need to be filled, rather than active participants in the process of education.
Children as Innocents In contrast to Locke’s theory as well as the notion of
children as sinners in need of redemption, French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau
(1712–1778) introduced the Romantic image of the child as innocent. Rousseau’s novel
Emile promoted the idea that children are born good rather than evil, and that they have
inherent abilities upon which to build (Wolfe, 2000). He thought education should build
on children’s natural goodness.
Rousseau believed that it is important to observe children. He was among the first to
propose the concept of stages of development. He believed that children should not be
rushed through stages, nor that one stage was simply preparation for another, a concept
that continues to influence practice 150 years later.
Rousseau’s image of childhood was a radical departure from the views of his day.
Although he did not put these ideas into practice, they influenced many thinkers who fol-
lowed and continue to have an influence today. Early childhood education has a strong
tradition of focusing on the positive in children to develop individual potential.
Children’s Economic Value At various points in history, children’s value has been
calculated in response to a number of factors. Even today, some consider children to be
their parents’ property. They were, and still are in some communities, economically neces-
sary to contribute work to the sustenance and care of the family; this includes taking care
of other children and parents in old age. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, however,
child labor laws limited children’s potential economic contributions to family well-being.
As children’s economic contributions diminished, they began to take on more intrinsic
emotional value in the family. For example, insurance companies compensated parents for
a child’s death or injury not only because of the costs involved and the potential income
lost, but also as an attempt to compensate for the emotional loss (Zellizer, 1981).
The Competent Child Scientific study of children beginning in the 20th century
led to an alternative view of childhood—the competent child—the idea that children
are active players in their own development and learning. The more researchers learned
competent child The image
of children as active players
in their own development and
learning.
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Chapter 2 Building on a Tradition of Excellence 41
about children’s competencies beginning at birth, the less plausible it became to see them
as blank slates. Brain research in recent decades has further reinforced this image of chil-
dren’s innate competence.
The image of the competent child has had a major impact on early childhood prac-
tices and the larger culture. But negative consequences can emanate as well. Producers
of videotapes and television and computer programs claim that they can teach a baby
to read or produce a future Einstein. In addition, the image of the competent child has
contributed to the trend to hurry young children through childhood toward expectations
or experiences more appropriate for older children or adults (Elkind, 2007; Levin &
Kilbourne, 2008).
The Child as a Citizen with Rights The image of the child throughout his-
tory has come almost full circle in its relation to adults. But rather than seeing children
as small-scale adults, a present-day development is to view children as citizens who have
rights just as adults do (Hall & Rudkin, 2011). In a democratic society, rights are imple-
mented as laws such as those that protect children from abuse or prosecution as adults.
Similarly, toys and products used by children must meet safety regulations.
Internationally, the image of a child with rights has gained widespread attention.
In 1989, the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (http://www.unicef.
org/crc) went into effect. It has been ratified by every developed country in the world
except Somalia and the United States. The declaration calls for protection of all children
from physical, mental, and sexual abuse. One provision states that, although parents have
primary responsibility for children’s upbringing, states should provide appropriate assis-
tance and support for child care programs. This is one of several provisions that have been
politically controversial in this country. Although the United States has not endorsed the
UN Convention, its existence promotes an image of the child with rights.
Images of Childhood Today Elements of all of these images of childhood are pres-
ent in children’s lives today and influence how they are treated. Although our country tends
to see children as innocents in need of protection by parents and the government, we also
propel them into adult experiences at young ages. Our schools swing back and forth, between
taking an approach that children are empty vessels, and viewing them as competent contribu-
tors to their own learning. On the one hand, children are highly valued, and on the other hand,
they are abused and neglected. As we have seen throughout history, the prevailing image of
children impacts their lives in many ways. One example is the role of play, which is described
in the feature Promoting Play: The Image of the Child and the Role of Play.
As we explore the evolution of early childhood practice in the sections that follow,
it will become apparent which of these images has had the greater influence on the field.
We can only present highlights of the rich history of the field here; for a more complete
picture, click here to consult the timeline of major events.
✓ Check Your Understanding 2.1: Learning from the Past
European Influences on American
Early Childhood Education
Like much of American history, early education was strongly influenced by Western Euro-
pean ideas. Although European ideas were not the only, nor necessarily the best, educational
concepts in the world, current practices in the United States strongly reflect these early
influences. Later in this chapter, we consider early childhood history through a wider lens.
Rousseau’s belief in the inherent goodness and potential of children had a strong im-
pact on the educational ideas and practices that followed. Two other thinkers who shared
similar views are Comenius and Pestalozzi. Unlike Rousseau, both created schools that
implemented their vision.
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http://www.unicef.org/crc
http://www.unicef.org/crc
Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education42
John Amos Comenius
John Amos Comenius (Jan Komensky in his native Czech) (1592–1670) was a minister
who wrote about educational reform and directed a school where he could put his ideas
into practice. He believed in three key ideas (Wolfe, 2000): (1) Teaching methods needed
to be radically changed from punitive approaches to make learning easier, deeper, and
more pleasant; (2) teachers should engage children with nature and follow their lead; and
(3) children should learn in their own language, rather than in Latin.
To accomplish his last goal, Comenius wrote a new kind of book, Orbis Pictus, or “the
world in pictures.” Popular for the next 200 years, this was the first children’s picture book or
The Image of the Child and the Role of Play
Children always play. However, many factors influ-
ence how they play and the materials they play
with. To some extent, children’s play reflects the
prevailing image of the child. For example, when
children were considered miniature adults, there
was little difference between their play pastimes
and those of their elders. Adults and children
played with hoops and danced the same dances.
When children were thought to be born in sin,
Puritanical adults frowned on play as idleness and
thought children’s time should be spent in Bible
study or productive work.
The view that children are innocents who are inher-
ently good meant greater freedom for children to play
in less restricted, more creative ways. The late 19th
and early 20th centuries saw changes in children’s
play as living conditions improved. When child labor
laws went into effect, children enjoyed more time for
free play unsupervised by adults. Children created
their “toys” from real objects, such as bats out of
sticks. Boys and girls played make-believe, often out-
doors. Boys tended to engage in informal ball games,
and girls enacted housekeeping scenarios with dolls
and pretend, rather than manufactured, props.
As scientific study of child development expanded
in the later 20th century, the image of the “compe-
tent child” had a significant impact on children’s
play. Whereas previously toys such as balls, dolls,
blocks, and cards were relatively open-ended and
primarily designed for fun, “educational toys” began
to flood the market. Middle-class parents purchased
toys to teach rather than entertain their children.
And children’s free time became much more
structured with formal dance or music lessons and
participation on sports teams at younger ages.
The recent image of children as citizens with rights
is a noteworthy development relevant to play. Article
31 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights
of the Child affirms that governments recognize the
right to “engage in play and recreational activities
appropriate to the age of the child.”
Although play is influenced by adults’ image of the
child, children always exercise a certain amount of
control over play, or the activity isn’t play at all. And
their play is often based on their image of adults.
As a result, children prefer toys and play themes
that are connected to the adult world. For instance,
when horses were the primary mode of transporta-
tion, children played with hobby horses or stick
horses. Subsequently, these were replaced by cars,
and then airplanes, and eventually spaceships.
The U.S. culture now seems to have come full
circle. In many respects children are once again
seen as miniature adults. They dress like adults,
play with adult-like toys (Barbies instead of baby
dolls), and desire the same exact “toys” as adults—
video games, cell phones, and iPads.
Sources: Centuries of Childhood: A Social History of
Family Life, by P. Aries, 1962, New York: Vintage Books;
Play and Child Development, 4th edition, by J. L. Frost,
S. C. Wortham, and S. Reifel, 2012, Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Pearson; United Nations Convention on the Rights of
the Child, 1989, retrieved from http://www.ohchr.org/en/
professionalinterest/pages/crc.aspx.
Promoting Play
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Chapter 2 Building on a Tradition of Excellence 43
illustrated textbook ever published. It was
organized around topics of interest such as
birds and plants and included pictures with
labels attached. Comenius also wrote the
first illustrated alphabet book to teach chil-
dren to read in their own languages.
Some of the educational ideas that Co-
menius practiced in his school were radi-
cal for his time but sound familiar today.
For example, he thought the early years
were an extremely important foundation
for later learning. He believed that chil-
dren learn through their senses and need
to be active, and he felt that children’s in-
terests and firsthand experiences promote
learning and memory. Comenius believed
that children are born in the image of God,
and was vehemently opposed to physical
punishment (Wolfe, 2000). Like Rousseau, he identified developmental stages.
Comenius’s ideas have endured for centuries. For example, in the 1990s Eastern
European countries that had been under Communist dictatorship moved toward democracy.
One strategy was to reform previously rigid educational systems. With the help of American
philanthropy, the International Step by Step Association (http://www.issa.nl) was founded to
develop Head Start–like preschool programs. There was some concern that these “American”
ideas—such as child-centered education—would be culturally inappropriate. However, these
concerns underestimated the lasting reverence for native son Komensky (Comenius)—who
is, after all, the forerunner of much of American early childhood education.
Johann Pestalozzi
Johann Pestalozzi (1746–1827) was a Swiss educator who, like Comenius, founded his
own school and trained the teachers. He believed that all children—including children
who lived in poverty—could benefit from education (Nourot, 2005). The field’s current
views of best practice are remarkably consistent with many of Pestalozzi’s ideas about
teaching and learning.
Learning and Teaching in Pestalozzi’s School Pestalozzi (1894/2007) de-
scribed his philosophy in a book titled How Gertrude Teaches Her Children. He believed
that teachers must study child development. He thought that learning proceeds through
stages, with children needing to master skills and knowledge before moving on to the next
stage (Wolfe, 2000). Pestalozzi promoted what came to be called the “whole child” point
of view—that children’s physical, emotional, social, moral, and intellectual development
are integrated. He called these “the hand, heart, and head.”
Other important ideas of Pestalozzi included the notion that children need to dis-
cover ideas for themselves through their own activity—a precursor of Piaget’s theory of
constructivism. He rejected punishment and threats and felt that children are motivated
to learn by their interests. Like many early theorists, Pestalozzi viewed development as a
natural unfolding or blossoming from within, with teachers acting as gardeners who nur-
ture the process rather than direct it. Although this view is simpler than our understanding
of development today, it persisted well into the 20th century.
Impact of Pestalozzi’s Work Pestalozzi’s ideas directly influenced schools
for young children in the 19th century. Particularly influential was his notion of object
lessons—learning from direct observation and sensory experience in the natural world—
that begin with the here and now and move beyond (Wolfe, 2000).
constructivism Learning
theory derived from the work
of Jean Piaget, which assumes
that children actively build
their knowledge from firsthand
experiences in stimulating
environments.
First created more than
400 years ago, picture
books remain one of the
most popular, valuable, and
engaging learning materials in
early childhood programs and
homes.
©
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to
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/S
to
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ty
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es
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Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education44
A well-known school influenced by Pestalozzi was founded by Robert Owen (1771–
1858) as part of his idealized community in Scotland, New Lanark. Owen spread his ideas
to America by founding a similar model community in New Harmony, Indiana. Although
his experiment did not survive long, the school provided care and education for hundreds
of children, from infancy to age 10, whose parents worked in the mills—one of the earli-
est examples of a child care center.
Friedrich Froebel
Friedrich Froebel (1782–1852) built on Pestalozzi’s ideas but extended them
to develop educational materials. His view of development as a process of
natural unfolding is evident in the name of his school, a “garden for chil-
dren.” Froebel is well known as the “father of the kindergarten.”
Froebel believed in the innate goodness and capacities of children,
and saw God’s image in them. Like Pestalozzi, he believed that education
should be based on children’s interests and their active involvement, and that
teachers need to understand children’s development by directly observing
their actions (Giardiello, 2014).
He described stages of development that are similar to those Piaget ar-
ticulated in the 20th century. He saw infancy (birth to 3 years) as focused on
the family and the infant’s relationship with the mother. He wrote Mother
Play and Nursery Songs to assist mothers in their interactions with very young children—
something most mothers today take for granted. Froebel’s second stage (ages 3 to 7), for
which he developed his kindergarten materials, was the focus of most of his work. The
third stage (ages 7 to 10) focused on more formal school instruction.
Froebel’s Kindergarten Froebel’s metaphor of the children’s garden was more
than poetry. He strongly believed that children’s learning is a process of unfolding from
within. He also believed that learning would occur on the child’s own timetable and not
until the child was ready. Froebel’s kindergarten emphasized children’s free play, singing,
and movement (Nourot, 2005). The materials he developed, which were called Froebel’s
occupations and gifts, were used to guide and structure children’s play. As a result,
Froebel’s view of “free” play was not as free as some interpret today.
The role of the teacher in Froebel’s kindergarten was to be like a gardener. Teachers
were to observe, nurture, and help but not interfere with the natural growth of the child.
They needed to be aware of children’s development, however, so they could provide a
new challenge as children engaged with the gifts and occupations.
Froebel’s Gifts and Occupations Froebel’s gifts were concrete materials for
children to manipulate in specific ways. The first gift was a box of six wooden balls in the
colors of the spectrum—red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet—plus correspond-
ing strings. Each child could use these materials in many creative ways, but Froebel and
his teachers identified more than 100 games to play with this one gift and accompanying
songs and rhymes (Elkind, 2015).
Another gift was a cube that could be divided into eight smaller cubes and put back
together to form a whole. Children could play many games with this gift, but it also
promoted basic math concepts related to number and geometry. Froebel also invented
parquetry blocks—a set of flat, colored, wooden shapes that could be put together to form
various designs. Other gifts included sticks and rings made of wire and natural materials
such as seeds and pebbles. The same or similar materials are prevalent in early childhood
classrooms today, where children use them in creative ways, and also to learn mathemat-
ics and science.
In contrast to the gifts, occupations were planned experiences designed to train chil-
dren’s eye–hand coordination and mental activity (Wolfe, 2000). The occupations includ-
ed activities such as drawing on grid paper, lacing paper strips, weaving mats, folding and
cutting paper into designs, constructing with sticks, or making models from cardboard.
Classroom Connection
This video clearly depicts the ma-
terials Froebel developed for use
in the first kindergartens. How
did Froebel’s educational phi-
losophy influence early childhood
today, and which materials are
still popular toys for children?
https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=LNBzmCKLNdU
Froebel’s occupations and
gifts Invented by Froebel for
kindergartners, occupations
were planned experiences de-
signed to train children’s eye-
hand coordination and mental
activity, and gifts were concrete
materials, many of which influ-
enced later toy development.
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http://https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LNBzmCKLNdU
http://https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LNBzmCKLNdU
Chapter 2 Building on a Tradition of Excellence 45
Froebel believed that the use of the gifts and occupations engaged children in sym-
bolically representing objects and events in the real world—such as creating a model or
drawing a picture of a building. The importance of representation, which Froebel pre-
saged, is now supported by research.
Impact of Froebel’s Work Froebel’s work had a major impact on education in the
United States, leading directly to a large-scale kindergarten movement here. Several teach-
ers and teacher educators who studied Froebel’s methods in Europe—“kindergartners” as
they were called—transplanted his ideas to this country.
Kindergartens today bear less and less resemblance to Froebel’s “children’s garden”;
today they have become more like formal first grades (Strauss, 2014). However, many
of his basic ideas are still evident in preschool and child care programs. His gifts and
occupations were clearly the prototypes for many of the toys and materials, such as one-
inch cube and parquetry blocks, that are pervasive in preschool classrooms. Common ac-
tivities—constructing models or using natural materials in art and projects—also mirror
some of his occupations.
Froebel’s work had a significant impact on the development of American kindergar-
tens, which we return to later in this chapter. First, we visit another European educator
who lived a century later than Froebel, but whose work also stands out for its contribu-
tions to the field—Maria Montessori.
Maria Montessori
Maria Montessori (1870–1952) was a major figure in the history of early childhood edu-
cation. A brilliant woman, she was Italy’s first female physician. She was nominated for
the Nobel Peace Prize, and her face graced the 1,000 lira note until Italy abandoned the
lira for the euro. Montessori was, and probably always will be, the only early childhood
educator whose face adorned a currency.
History of the Montessori Method Montessori’s contributions grew out of
her work with poor children in the slums of Rome. The prevailing opinion was that these
children were mentally deficient. However, Montessori believed that what appeared to be
mental retardation was not biologically based, but rather caused by the lack of stimulation
in their environments.
In 1907, she started a program for children, ages 4 through 7, called Casa dei Bam-
bini (Children’s House), and developed a highly successful approach to teaching the chil-
dren, which revealed that they were not mentally disabled at all. Montessori demonstrated
that educating needy children is a less costly and more effective strategy than waiting
until they create problems for society. This is the same justification that was used to
launch Head Start, and it is still the core rationale for much of the current investment in
early education.
Key Elements of the Montessori Method The Montessori method includes
several basic elements. In the sections that follow, we briefly describe Montessori’s views
about children and learning, the environment, and the teacher’s role.
Image of Children: The Absorbent Mind Like other key figures in early childhood
history, Montessori (1909/1964) believed that children develop naturally in an orga-
nized environment. Her image of the child is the absorbent mind—actively learning
from sensory experiences. She also believed that children from 4 to 7 years old are in-
ternally motivated to interact with the world, and do not need external encouragement
or rewards.
Where Montessori deviated greatly from others in the field was in her opinion of play.
Montessori dismissed play as a waste of children’s time (Wolfe, 2000). She also minimized
the value of social interaction for children’s learning. As evidence, children each had an
individual small mat to work on and not be disturbed by others.
absorbent mind Maria Mon-
tessori’s image of the child as
actively learning from sensory
experiences.
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Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education46
A Prepared Learning Environment
Montessori believed that poor children
deserve high-quality experiences. She
thought that children need an orderly
environment that supports their ability
to work on and complete tasks inde-
pendently. Accordingly, she designed
classroom environments and materials
that demonstrate respect for children.
Montessori innovations included child-
sized tables and other furnishings, and
materials arranged on open shelves for
easy access by children.
To facilitate learning and prevent
wasted time, she developed educa-
tional materials for children to use in
prescribed ways. Montessori designed
self-correcting learning materials for
children, many of which are still com-
monly used. For example, she created
puzzles with little knobs attached to each piece, for very young children to practice the
pincer grasp used for writing; and to practice fine motor skills, she invented a cloth board
with buttons and buttonholes. Montessori emphasized that there was one right way to use
each of her materials. She did not consider her materials to be toys; instead, she viewed
them as educational tools. Children were also taught practical life skills such as washing
a table and sweeping a floor.
Montessori’s belief in sensory learning extended to academic areas as
well, specifically writing, reading, and mathematics (Montessori, 1912/1964).
For example, she created sandpaper alphabets so that children could feel the
shapes of the letters as a first step toward writing. She thought children should
learn to write as a strategy to teach reading. This was an innovative concept
for its time (when promoting reading at an early age was not accepted by
her peers in early education), and also presaged later understandings of the
strong connection between writing and reading in becoming literate.
The Teacher’s Role Montessori’s view of the teacher’s role is to prepare
the environment, observe children, and demonstrate materials, but not to
interfere with their natural exploration. Although teachers’ interactions with
children are very intentional in the Montessori method, much of the learning
is assumed to occur as children interact with materials. The teacher presents
brief individual or small-group lessons, but most of the day children choose
their activities. Their choices have limits, however, because the adults arrange
those choices.
Impact of Montessori’s Work From 1910 to 1920, interest in Montessori’s ap-
proach gained popularity in the United States; several elements of her approach remain
widely accepted. However, overall interest in her methods soon faded here, primarily
due to her unwillingness to adapt to new knowledge and her rejection of key elements of
American philosophy, such as the importance of play. Maria Montessori’s lasting con-
tribution to the field was her development of Montessori materials and her impact on the
organization of environments.
Not until the 1950s was interest in Montessori revived in the United States. In contrast
to Montessori’s original intent to serve poor children, Montessori schools in the United
States tended to be private, serving a more affluent population. In recent years, however,
the approach has been embraced by some magnet and charter public schools. A study of
Montessori classrooms are spe-
cially designed environments in
which children learn by inter-
acting with the materials. What
skills might children acquire
by working with the Montessori
materials depicted here?
Classroom Connection
This video shows the arrange-
ment and the materials found in a
typical Montessori classroom. As
you watch, reflect on the key ele-
ments of the Montessori Method,
how the materials themselves
promote learning, and the role
of the teacher in a Montessori
classroom.
©
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tt
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gh
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Chapter 2 Building on a Tradition of Excellence 47
a public Montessori school in Milwaukee found that the approach contributed positively
to 5-year-olds’ literacy, math, and social skills (Lillard, 2005) and to creativity and social
skills at age 12 (Lillard & Else-Quest, 2006). With its emphasis on individualized instruc-
tion, the Montessori approach also has been found to be effective in improving the school
readiness of Latino prekindergartners (Ansari & Winsler, 2014). Interestingly, the found-
ers of Google, Larry Page and Sergey Brin, attribute their success to the self- motivation
they gained from attending Montessori preschool (http://msr.org/google-founders-
pay-homage-to-dr-maria-montessori/).
✓ Check Your Understanding 2.2: European Influences on American Early
Childhood Education
Early Childhood Movements
in the United States
The following sections present three interwoven stories of early childhood education in
America—the kindergarten movement, progressive education, and the nursery school
movement. These stories are described separately but, in reality, they happened simulta-
neously and were inextricably connected. A parallel story—the child care movement—
was also occurring, but played out differently as you will read later in this section.
The Kindergarten Movement
The United States provided fertile ground for the growth of Froebel’s “children’s gar-
dens.” In the sections that follow, we describe how the movement began and spread wide-
ly and its lasting impact.
Early Days of the Kindergarten Movement The earliest leaders in the kin-
dergarten movement transplanted Froebel’s ideas directly. The first kindergarten in the
United States was founded by Margarethe Schurz (1833–1876) in Wisconsin in 1856
(Snyder, 1972). Schurz had studied with Froebel and, upon immigrating to the United
States, started a German-speaking school to teach her own and neighbors’ children. Later,
Schurz met Elizabeth Palmer Peabody (1804–1894), and their encounter was the impetus
for the American kindergarten movement.
Elizabeth Peabody was part of a well-known family of social reformers. Her sister,
Mary, was married to Horace Mann, considered to be the father of public education in the
United States. In Boston, Elizabeth Peabody organized the first English-speaking kinder-
garten in 1860, and soon after wrote the first American kindergarten textbook for teachers
(Cantor, 2013). She understood that teachers needed to be trained in Froebel’s philosophy
to ensure the quality and integrity of the expanding kindergarten movement. She also trav-
eled widely and became an outspoken advocate for the cause, inspiring new generations
of leaders, the most influential of whom was Susan Blow.
Susan Blow’s Leadership Susan Blow (1843–1916) was the major voice in ex-
panding the kindergarten movement and in fighting to keep it true to Froebel’s original
vision. Inspired by Elizabeth Peabody’s promotion of kindergarten, Blow visited Froebe-
lian kindergartens in the United States and Germany and became the leading interpreter
of the approach at home.
Founding Public Kindergarten In 1873, with the support of William Harris, a reform-
minded school superintendent in St. Louis, Blow founded the first public school kin-
dergarten (Snyder, 1972) in response to Harris’s concern that schooling did not begin
until age 7. Blow was ambivalent about connecting kindergarten to public school, fearing
that “the formality of the grades would seize kindergarten in its grip” (Snyder, 1972,
p. 66). Nevertheless, she worked with Harris and launched more than 50 kindergarten
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Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education48
classrooms. Teacher training was an essential part of her strategy, with teachers working
with children in the mornings and attending lectures in the afternoons on topics such as
the correct use of Froebel’s gifts and occupations—a combination of theory and practi-
cum that continues to this day in teacher education.
Upon Harris’s departure from his post, a new school administration was less sup-
portive of Blow’s cause and threatened her ideal vision of kindergarten. Subsequently,
Blow turned her energy from developing and spreading Froebelian kindergarten ideals to
defending them (Snyder, 1972). Blow promoted a rigid application of Froebel’s methods
(such as using the gifts in narrowly prescribed ways), which was actually antithetical to
his vision of kindergarten.
Founding the International Kindergarten Union In 1892, Blow convened a group
of ardent kindergartners from throughout the country and formed the International
Kindergarten Union (IKU). (Much later the IKU became the Association for Childhood
Education International.) The original mission of the IKU was not just to disseminate
information but also to protect the integrity of Froebelian kindergartens. Within two
decades, this mission was to come into direct conflict with winds of change that were
occurring in the wider educational world, emanating from the progressive education
movement, described in the next section.
Progressive Education
The progressive education movement was a major effort to reform schooling at all lev-
els to make it more democratic. Its tenets were in direct contrast to the prevailing practices
in schools of the time, which emphasized rote memorization, strict conformity, and harsh
discipline. The traditional curriculum was limited to the “3 Rs”: reading, writing, and
arithmetic.
The story of the progressive education movement in the United States is integrally
connected to the story of the nursery school movement (or preschool, as we now call it).
Many principles of developmentally appropriate practice are derived directly from the
work of early progressive leaders. Although differences exist between the earlier ideas
and current views, the commonalities between the two visions—progressive education
and developmentally appropriate practice—are striking. The following sections present
the contributions of John Dewey.
John Dewey John Dewey (1859–1952) was a professor of philosophy first at the
University of Chicago and then for 47 years at Teachers College, Columbia University, in
New York City. While in Chicago, John and his wife, Alice Chapman Dewey (d. 1927),
founded the University of Chicago Laboratory School to implement their philosophy of
a humane approach to education. Alice taught at the school, prepared the curriculum, and
served as principal. The school, which they ran from 1893 to 1903, became a laboratory
for developing and trying out their approach.
Principles of Progressive Education Dewey (1916) believed that the purpose of educa-
tion is to ensure the effective functioning of a democratic society. He believed that the
traditional approach to schooling could not produce citizen decision makers. He was con-
cerned that in a democratic society, it is “impossible to foretell definitely what civilization
will be twenty years from now” (Dewey, 1929, p. 6). Therefore, it is important to teach
children to take initiative and use judgment. Dewey (1929) articulated his philosophy in
My Pedagogic Creed. Let’s take a look at some of the principles of progressive education,
as described by Dewey in that document.
What Education Is “Education is the process of living and not preparation for future
living” (Dewey, 1929, p. 7). This famous quote of Dewey summarizes his definition of
education and continues to influence early childhood education.
Dewey was a prolific writer whose words still inspire. The titles of his books alone
convey his basic ideas about education: Democracy and Education, Education and
progressive education
movement Major effort to
reform schooling in the early
20th century to make it more
democratic and responsive to
children’s needs. This move-
ment was highly influential on
early childhood education and
later ideas about developmen-
tally appropriate practice.
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Chapter 2 Building on a Tradition of Excellence 49
Experience, The School and Society, Freedom and Culture, and The Child and the Cur-
riculum. In Dewey’s mind, schooling could not be separated from the larger needs of
democratic society, and children, rather than subject matter, needed to be at the center of
the curriculum.
What the School Is Dewey (1900) believed that the school should function as a commu-
nity. The teacher’s role is to be a member of the community. Teachers should not directly
impose discipline, but rather influence and assist children as they work together.
According to Dewey, teachers and parents should learn from each other—an accept-
ed idea today, but radical for his time. In his school, parents and teachers met regularly to
discuss topics such as why children should or should not learn to read at an early age—
again, an issue that many educators and parents debate today (Wolfe, 2000).
What the Curriculum Is Dewey believed that subject matter—reading, writing, geog-
raphy, history, science—should be introduced to children in ways that they can under-
stand and that involve them in social interaction. He introduced the idea of integrated
curriculum, now a staple of early childhood education, which addresses learning goals
across multiple subjects at the same time. For example, children might learn economics,
history, geography, and other subjects by studying the workers in their neighborhood.
A tenet of Dewey’s philosophy is that teachers should find ways to integrate traditional
curriculum into topics of interest to children, such as building a model of the neighbor-
hood. Dewey also brought expressive and constructive activities into the classroom such
as cooking, sewing, and woodworking. He felt academic skills should grow out of these
activities.
What Teaching Should Be Dewey (1929) believed that the traditional
emphasis on children as passive learners was a “waste of time.” He strong-
ly emphasized the importance of teachers observing children and building
on their interests. In progressive schools, the role of teachers is to guide or
facilitate learning based on what they know about children and to choose
the right problems and questions to further children’s learning. For example,
teachers don’t simply teach geography as adults know it; rather, they teach
the geography concepts and topics that the child is interested in and capable
of learning. This approach, called the child-centered curriculum, has been
falsely interpreted over the years to mean that children determine the curricu-
lum (Bredekamp & Copple, 1997). Although teachers build curriculum from
children’s experiences and interests, Dewey felt strongly that teachers needed
to know both what children are interested in and the content that children
needed to learn. This both/and thinking principle in progressive education
has often been lost in translation.
The Impact of Progressive Education on Schooling Although progres-
sive education has often been misinterpreted and periodically comes under
attack by proponents of more traditional practices, its contributions to American educa-
tion are profound. Lois Meek Stoltz (1977), the first president of NAEYC and a contem-
porary of Dewey, eloquently captured the impact:
I think it is very difficult for people of this generation to realize, or even picture, what
the public schools were like in the early 1900s. Children were in their seats all day
long. When they rose, they rose to count, “1, 2, 3,” they then turned, marched, and
went to the cloakroom. Then they did the same thing when they marched out of the
school and when they marched in. Everybody read out of the same book at the same
time. There was very little consideration for individual differences. (p. 103)
Earlier in this chapter, we talked about how solutions to problems contain the seeds of
new problems. Progressive education was a case in point. Giving children more freedom
meant that some people interpreted this as chaos, creating a backlash or a new problem.
integrated curriculum
Learning plan that addresses
goals across multiple areas of
the curriculum at the same
time.
Classroom Connection
This video shows how an inte-
grated curriculum can be used
effectively in the classroom. As
you watch, consider the ways
in which key elements of John
Dewey’s educational approach
have influenced early childhood
education and continue to be
implemented today.
child-centered curriculum
John Dewey’s idea that curricu-
lum should reflect the concepts
and topics that the child is
interested in and capable of
learning.
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Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education50
And yet, as Stoltz points out, the efforts overall led to real change in schools—and that
change is progress.
Although he was a philosophy professor, Dewey was strongly influenced by the trend
in his day toward more scientific approaches in education. This trend, called the child
study movement, is described in the next section.
The Child Study Movement As far back as Pestalozzi, educators understood that
teaching should be based on direct study of children. Beginning in the late 19th century,
G. Stanley Hall (1844–1924) launched the child study movement. Hall was interested in
understanding individual differences in children through direct observation.
Hall’s students went on to develop systematic scientific approaches to studying child
development. Arnold Gesell (1880–1961) is famed for launching a child study laboratory
at Yale University called the Gesell Institute. There he observed large samples of children
and derived age-related norms for children’s growth and development such as by what
age children should take their first steps or speak their first words. These norms were con-
sidered “universal” and have been widely influential. However, in the late 20th century,
Gesell’s age-related norms were criticized for understating individual differences and not
using diverse samples of children.
Hall was a strong critic of Froebelian kindergarten. He thought that its rigid methodol-
ogy lacked a scientific basis. Thus, the child study movement played an important role in
bringing about changes in the kindergarten movement, and it also contributed in large mea-
sure to the growing nursery school movement. We tell this story in the section that follows.
The Nursery School Movement
Dewey’s laboratory school and his emphasis on child observation reflected his under-
standing of the need to base education on the study of children. Similarly, other univer-
sities launched lab schools to train teachers and study children. Many of these schools
served children younger than kindergarten age, and were called nursery schools, based
on their philosophy of nurturing development. Laboratory schools were established for
the purposes of research and demonstration of teaching methods, rather than to serve
parents or neglected children (Hewes & the NAEYC Organizational History and Archives
Committee, 2001). As a result, many of these programs served middle- and upper-class
children of faculty or community members.
The nursery school movement eventually launched the wider field of early child-
hood education. It grew out of the kindergarten and child study movements through
the leadership of two women whose contributions to early childhood education are
unparalleled: Patty Smith Hill, founder of NAEYC, and Lucy Sprague Mitchell,
founder of Bank Street College. Every early childhood educator should know the
stories of these women and their contempo-
raries, who played seminal roles in laying
the foundation of early childhood education
as we know it today. We who follow are their
direct descendents.
Patty Smith Hill Patty Smith Hill’s life
story parallels the early history of early child-
hood education, with each phase of her life con-
nected to important developments in the field.
She was a joyful child, teacher of young chil-
dren, creator of resources for children, teacher
educator, and national leader.
Hill’s Early Life Experiences Patty Smith
Hill (1868–1946) had an idyllic childhood. Her
child study movement Early
20th century effort to scien-
tifically observe and system-
atically document children’s
individual development under
the leadership of G. Stanley
Hall and Arnold Gesell.
nursery schools Schools
serving children younger than
kindergarten age; out-of-date
term for preschool or prekin-
dergarten.
Early leaders of the nursery
school movement in the United
States, such as Patty Smith Hill,
saw the value of pretend play
for children’s development. The
need to defend children’s right
to play continues to this day.
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Chapter 2 Building on a Tradition of Excellence 51
father believed that girls should be educated, a radical idea at the time. Her mother was
a progressive thinker who had secretly, and also illegally, taught enslaved people to read,
write, and calculate (Wolfe, 2000). Furthermore, Hill’s mother believed that play was
essential to childhood.
Work as a Kindergarten Teacher By the 1880s, the kindergarten movement was under-
way and Anna Bryan launched a teacher training program in Louisville, Kentucky, where
Patty Hill became one of the first students (Snyder, 1972). Hill started her own kinder-
garten where she encouraged creative uses for Froebel’s gifts as toys, and constructive
materials such as blocks and clay. Her kindergarten evidenced her belief in the value of
children’s play as a way to learn.
In 1896, Hill and Bryan were among a group of influential kindergarten educa-
tors who attended one of G. Stanley Hall’s lectures on new knowledge and insights
gained from the systematic study of children’s development. Hall’s severe criticism of
the Froebelian approach as unscientific outraged the attendees, all of whom stormed out
of the meeting—with the exception of Hill and Bryan (Hewes, 1976). They stayed and
continued to study with Hall, and they developed a new curriculum for teaching young
children.
In 1903, Louisville’s kindergartens became part of the public schools. Hill was ex-
cited about the potential benefits, but feared that key kindergarten practices, including
parent education, would be lost (Snyder, 1972). Hill’s vision for kindergarten included
three purposes: (1) to meet the needs of 4 to 6 year olds, (2) to lay the foundation for the
first-grade curriculum while ensuring the right of kindergarten children to develop at
their own level, and (3) to connect the child’s experiences at home and school, building
on what children learn there (Hill, 1926/1987). This vision of kindergarten, especially the
role of parents, was not just ahead of Hill’s time, but one to aspire to today.
Creator of Resources for Children Hill developed resources for children, including a
set of lumberlike wooden blocks from which children could build structures large enough
for them to play in. She and her musician sister, Mildred, wrote songs for children, us-
ing music as a teaching tool. Their most famous song is “Happy Birthday,” although few
people know its composers.
Hill also wrote many poems about children’s interests as well as books to help chil-
dren learn to read. Much like her mother, Hill was concerned about racial inequality. In
the early 1940s, she worked for months on a set of readers showing African American
children, but she despaired when no publisher would consider them (Hewes, 1976). She
believed that respectful images would help resolve racial prejudices.
Hill’s Work as a Teacher Educator In 1905, Hill joined the faculty of Teachers College
in New York, where she stayed for 30 years and was considered a master teacher (Snyder,
1972). She focused her work in the community school, which served poor children, as
opposed to the campus lab school, which served well-off children of faculty.
The Dean of Teachers College, James Earl Russell, was famous for bringing to-
gether divergent points of view (Snyder, 1972). One of his provocative ideas was to
bring Susan Blow to coteach a course on kindergarten methods with Hill. Among the
topics they debated were opposing views of work and play. Although students loved their
lively debates, eventually it became clear that Hill’s point of view was carrying the day
(Snyder, 1972).
Hill’s Contributions as a National Leader Hill was active in the IKU and served as
its president. However, her more liberal ideas about kindergarten methods, including her
promotion of play and creativity, came into conflict with others’ more rigid interpretations
of Froebel’s ideas.
In 1904, the IKU formed the Committee of Nineteen, a group with varying per-
spectives on kindergarten practice, to resolve disputes on topics such as the role of play
and the curriculum (Wolfe, 2000). Each year the committee issued a report, and dis-
agreements became more apparent over time. By 1909, differences could not be resolved
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Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education52
and three reports were produced: one by Blow, another one by Hill, and a compromise
report by Lucy Wheelock (Snyder, 1972). Hill’s report was to become the vision for early
childhood practice as we know it today. Nevertheless, the process of debating conflicting
points of view, which she embraced, continues to be an essential part of the work of early
childhood educators (Bredekamp, 2001).
Founder of NAEYC As nursery schools began to proliferate in the 1920s, Hill was con-
cerned about the lack of standards and curriculum and the threat of unqualified people
taking leadership positions (Hewes, 1976). In 1926, she formed the National Commit-
tee on Nursery Schools, which became the National Association for Nursery Education
(NANE). The committee included Lois Meek Stoltz, Arnold Gesell, and Abigail Eliot.
Stoltz became the first president.
In the 1960s, NANE changed its name to NAEYC, the National Association for the
Education of Young Children. Hill was its first member, and her views dominated the
work of the nursery school movement during its early years. NANE’s first publication in
1929 was Minimum Essentials for Nursery School Education. In this tradition, NAEYC
has been involved in setting standards ever since (Bredekamp, 2001).
We have chosen to tell the story of Patty Smith Hill in such detail because she lived so
many of the historical events that helped define present-day early childhood education. In
the next section, we share the story of one of her close colleagues working in progressive
education, Caroline Pratt.
Caroline Pratt Caroline Pratt (1867–1954) attended the kindergarten education pro-
gram at Teachers College. Like Hill, Pratt rejected the Froebelian approach. She believed
that it was far too structured and did not allow children to play freely or experiment with
materials.
Pratt’s Educational Philosophy Pratt focused her energies on studying children direct-
ly. Her motto, as well as the title of the book for which she is best known, was “I learn
from children” (Pratt, 1948). She became intrigued by the potential of engaging children
with open-ended play equipment and materials.
Like others in the progressive education movement, Pratt looked to education to trans-
form society and worked in settlement houses with poor children. She set up classrooms
with her own hand-made blocks and toys, crayons, and paper and observed children’s
play. Based on her observations, Pratt realized the benefits for children of firsthand expe-
riences and self-directed plans, field trips and pretend play, letting children find answers
to their own questions, the relationship of play and intelligence, and the need to nurture
children’s play (Wolfe, 2000). Pratt also saw an active role for teachers in supporting
children’s play. These conclusions have all been supported by empirical research in the
intervening years.
Inventor of Unit Blocks Pratt’s most last-
ing contribution is undoubtedly her design of
wooden unit blocks. She admired Hill’s blocks
but found them difficult for younger children to
manipulate. She wanted blocks that would al-
low children to openly express their ideas about
the world. Her blocks are made of natural hard-
wood, in various three-dimensional shapes, and
mathematically precise because each block is
a fraction or multiple of the standard unit. For
example, the standard unit block is one-half
of the next size block, one-quarter of the size
after that, and so forth. What Pratt intuitive-
ly believed about the value of these tools for
children’s learning has been proven true by
Caroline Pratt’s invention of
wooden unit blocks was a major
contribution that countless
children have enjoyed and
benefited from ever since.
Research continues to uncover
new and lasting learning
benefits of block play.
©
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M02_BRED6702_03_SE_C02.indd 52 10/7/15 12:52 PM
Chapter 2 Building on a Tradition of Excellence 53
research. For a summary of these benefits of block play, read the feature What Works:
Developing Mathematical Skills with Unit Blocks feature.
Pratt created wooden people representing families and community workers to add
a pretend element to the block play. She also designed large hollow wooden blocks to
encourage large muscle play and for outdoor use. For more than a century, millions of
children have enjoyed and learned from these wonderful, creative materials. However,
because she did not patent them, Pratt never benefited financially.
One of Pratt’s closest colleagues was Lucy Sprague Mitchell. Mitchell’s enormous
contributions to the field are described in the next section.
Lucy Sprague Mitchell Lucy Sprague Mitchell (1878–1967) has been identi-
fied as a major link between Dewey’s progressive education movement of the early
20th century and NAEYC’s current concept of high-quality, developmentally appro-
priate education (Field & Baumi, 2014; Greenberg, 1987). Indeed, her life spanned the
period from the beginning of John Dewey’s work to the birth of Head Start in 1965.
In the sections that follow, we describe her early life, her educational experiments
and ideas about curriculum, and the important role of Bank Street College, which she
founded.
What Works
Developing Mathematical Skills with Unit Blocks
Terence and Sam are building tracks for their subway train. “It
isn’t finished,” Terence says. “Let’s make the dark part where it’s
got a roof [the underground].” He starts to lay blocks along the
side and then a roof.
“Wait, that’s not going to work,” Sam worries. “The subway
cars can’t get in. We need to make it higher for them.”
After some trial and error, the boys use taller blocks for the
tunnel sides, add a roof and run the train underneath, shouting,
“Yay, we did it!”
The wooden unit blocks Terence and Sam are using are
among the most popular and highly regarded play and learn-
ing materials for young children. In the early 1900s, when
teacher Caroline Pratt designed these blocks—called unit blocks
because each block is a fraction or multiple of the standard
unit—she was most interested in providing open-ended tools to
promote children’s creative play. But many learning possibilities
emerged. As children built with the blocks, they developed their
fine motor skills; measured blocks and classified them by size
and shape; explored symmetry, balance, and stability; discov-
ered the mathematical relationships among the blocks (e.g., two
small blocks equal one longer block); engaged in pretend play;
worked and solved problems together; and did many other things
that would contribute to their development and give them hours
of pleasure.
Today, researchers agree that unit blocks are indeed valu-
able learning materials. Because of the spatial and mathemati-
cal relationships that exist between the types of unit blocks,
researchers studying children’s math
development and learning have been
particularly interested in the effects of block
play. Young children’s spontaneous activities with blocks do in
fact include mathematical play and exploration of spatial relation-
ships. Research suggests that benefits from block play persist over
the years.
Evidence also indicates that teachers make a difference
in the complexity level of children’s constructions and the out-
comes of their block play. Children’s block structures are more
complex when teachers talk with children during their play, say-
ing, for example, “What would happen if . . .?” or “Sometimes
people use a block to join a structure. . . .” And children are es-
pecially likely to develop math concepts in block play if teachers
introduce math vocabulary and engage children in mathematical
thinking related to their play. For example, the teacher might
comment, “For your wall you have the blocks standing on their
thin edge,” or “Hmm, you’ve run out of the long blocks for your
road. What can you do … and how many will you need?” When
teachers give voice to thought and extend children’s thinking,
they enhance the learning potential of an already valuable and
much-loved learning material—unit blocks.
Source: Based on Mathematics Learning in Early Childhood: Paths toward
Excellence and Equity, edited by C. T. Cross, T. A. Woods, and H. Schwe-
ingruber, Committee on Early Childhood Mathematics, and National
Research Council, 2009, Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
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Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education54
Mitchell’s Early Years Lucy Sprague Mitchell was a brilliant woman who studied at
Teachers College with John Dewey and Edward Thorndike, the father of educational mea-
surement and statistical research. Her life’s work drew on both of these influences—a
progressive philosophy combined with research-based practice.
The Bureau of Educational Experiments In 1916, using inherited funds, Mitchell
launched the Bureau of Educational Experiments (BEE) to teach teachers and conduct
research. The goals of the Bureau of Educational Experiments (Wolfe, 2000) were to:
• Focus on child development rather than learning specific curriculum
• Take a whole-child approach to learning and development
• Observe how children’s development is stimulated by experiences and activities
• Focus on scientific measurement of stages of development and establishing norms
(representing the influence of Arnold Gesell as well as Thorndike).
Bank Street College When the bureau moved to 69 Bank Street in New York City, its
name was changed to Bank Street College of Education. A graduate program in teacher
education, Bank Street College played essential roles in the history of early childhood
education and continues to do so. We can only mention a few here.
Most notably, Mitchell’s educational philosophy emphasized children’s firsthand ex-
periences and play. Her ideas came to be called the Bank Street approach, later called
the Developmental-Interaction approach to more accurately describe its tenets. In this
model, children’s experiences in the “here and now” provide the launching pad for their
learning (Mitchell & David, 1992). These experiences, such as the field trips or projects
described earlier, gradually widen children’s horizons beyond the here and now. The con-
cept is that curriculum should be based on individual children’s development, and that
learning occurs through interaction with the environment and other people (Biber, 1977;
Shapiro & Nager, 1999). The Bank Street approach has been widely influential in early
childhood curriculum development, especially in teaching social studies.
One element of the Bank Street approach that has sometimes been underemphasized
is the role of the teacher. In Mitchell’s words, “We were looking at children learning, and
intentionally facilitating the process every day” (Greenberg, 1987, p. 75). Read the fea-
ture Becoming an Intentional Teacher: Expanding Children’s Experience for an example
of the teacher’s role in the Bank Street approach.
The Writer’s Workshops for Children’s Authors Mitchell herself was a prolific writer
and authored a series of children’s books. She created a writer’s workshop in 1937 for
authors of children’s books at Bank Street, which offered scholarships to ensure racial and
socioeconomic diversity. The writer’s laboratory was established to help authors better
understand children’s development and interests, and to promote their use of the rhythms
and rhymes of language that are so important and enjoyable for children (Wolfe, 2000).
Among the best-known writers who participated in the workshop were Margaret Wise
Brown and Ruth Krauss. Brown’s books Goodnight Moon and The Runaway Bunny re-
main classics, as does The Carrot Seed by Krauss.
Near the end of her life, Mitchell was instrumental in numerous national efforts to ex-
pand early childhood education beyond laboratory schools and use it for true social reform
(Field & Baumi, 2014). She lived to see the Bank Street approach used as the model for
the Head Start program. Head Start is also known for its emphasis on parent involvement,
which was another part of the nursery school movement, described in the next section.
Parent Cooperative Preschools As early as 1916, parents organized to start
their own nursery schools. In these programs, which are called parent cooperatives or
co-ops, the parents “own” and administer the program. They hire a teacher and take turns
volunteering in the classroom as a second staff member. Most parent co-ops throughout
the 20th century used a play-based, progressive education–influenced approach.
The number of parent cooperative nursery schools grew rapidly in the 1950s and
1960s, and through the leadership of Katherine Whiteside Taylor, an association was
Bank Street approach
Originating with Lucy Sprague
Mitchell at Bank Street
College and later called the
Developmental-Interaction ap-
proach, a curriculum framework
based on individual children’s
development, emphasizing that
learning begins in children’s
experiences in the immediate
environment (here and now).
M02_BRED6702_03_SE_C02.indd 54 10/7/15 12:52 PM
Chapter 2 Building on a Tradition of Excellence 55
formed, Parent Cooperative Preschools International (http://www.preschools.coop). In
recent years, the number of parent cooperative preschools has declined due to the increase
of mothers in the workforce. Nevertheless, the movement reinforced the integral role of
parents in early childhood education.
In the previous sections, we discussed the interconnected stories of the kindergarten,
progressive education, and nursery school movements. Many more outstanding leaders
contributed to these efforts than we can describe briefly. Click here to review the timeline
of major events in early childhood history to fill in the chronology. Consider this chrono-
logical review as you read about the history of child care in the United States, which
followed a different path from that of kindergarten and preschool.
The Child Care Movement
Kindergartens and preschools grew out of child study, were focused on middle-class chil-
dren, and were associated with education and development. By contrast, child care grew
out of social welfare efforts for poor families and focused on the need to support work-
ing parents. Consequently, child care became associated with physical care rather than
education.
In the later part of the 20th century and into the 21st century, these differences have
become less distinct. However, these histories still play out in public policy and attitudes.
For example, federal child care funding is part of public assistance for needy families,
whereas prekindergarten support comes from state education agencies. In the sections
that follow, we describe some of the key events and people involved in the history of the
child care movement.
McMillan Sisters Margaret McMillan (1860–1931) and Rachel McMillan (1859–
1917) worked to improve the lives of young children in London and North America dur-
ing the early 20th century. The purpose of their work was to offer children a temporary
alternative to the dreadful living conditions in the London slums, which severely damaged
Becoming an Intentional Teacher
Expanding Children’s Experience
Here’s What Happened The preschool I work in uses
the Bank Street curriculum approach. I was planning to do
some cooking with my 4-year-old class, so I wanted them
to learn more about where foods come from. In our urban
neighborhood, most children have limited experience with
growing things; however, there is a community garden that
a few of the families participate in, and those children are
involved with planting, watching things grow, and eating
the produce. In talking with the “garden families” to find
out what they grow and what the children do in the garden,
I found that the parents were eager to send in a tomato or
zucchini from their gardens for the class to see and taste.
We did that first, and then made a trip to the garden. After
the trip, I encouraged the children to draw and write about
what they had seen, and I brought in library books like
The Carrot Seed (Krauss, 1945) and Whose Garden Is It?
(Hoberman, 2004) to share with them.
Here’s What I Was Thinking When children have
little experience with growing things, they eat fruits, veg-
etables, and other foods without understanding where they
come from. Even if an adult tells
them, “Tomatoes come from the
ground,” it doesn’t compute.
There’s a gulf between their ex-
perience and what someone tells them or shows them in
a book, and this gulf limits their understanding, interest,
and willingness to try new foods. Part of what should be
happening in preschool, and later in school, is bridging this
gulf, and sometimes the best way to do that is with di-
rect, hands-on experience. Other children in the group may
know about gardening and growing things but haven’t seen
pictures representing them or read stories about them, so
providing that experience is valuable in the early childhood
classroom too.
Reflection Many public school kindergartens today
are given a curriculum that prescribes certain topics of
study such as weather or animals. If you were a teacher
in such a situation, how could you apply the principles of
the Bank Street approach to make the experiences more
meaningful?
M02_BRED6702_03_SE_C02.indd 55 10/7/15 12:52 PM
http://www.preschools.coop
Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education56
the health of most poor children. Accordingly, they set up a health clinic, a nursery school
(they coined the phrase) for children under age 5, and teacher training.
The McMillan sisters developed a model open-air nursery that was unique in em-
phasizing outdoor play, nutritious food, cleanliness, and rest to promote healthy develop-
ment. The program was also educational. These centers for working families were called
day nurseries—the forerunner of present-day child care centers.
The McMillan sisters’ work was influential in the United States. Several Americans
studied with them in England, including Abigail Eliot (1892–1992), who subsequently
imported many of their ideas and founded one of the first nursery schools in the United
States in 1922.
As always happens, events in the larger context had a major impact on early child-
hood education and particularly on the history of child care. These included the Great
Depression and World War II.
Works Progress Administration Nurseries During the Great Depression of
the 1930s, the Works Progress Administration (WPA) was established to address the high
unemployment rate (25%) and to build needed public works throughout the country. One of
the WPA programs established in 1933 was the Federal Emergency Relief Nursery Schools.
The purpose of the WPA nurseries, which were open from 9 a.m. to 5 p.m., was to support
the economy by providing jobs for those who worked on the site and child care to families
seeking work (Nourot, 2005). Like the day nurseries of the McMillan sisters, WPA centers
focused on promoting physical care and healthy living habits (Nourot, 2005). But in con-
trast to the McMillan sisters’ vision, most WPA centers did not emphasize education.
The WPA nurseries had both positive and negative effects on early childhood educa-
tion. Because day nurseries served children from poor families, the idea of expanding
nursery education to all children was born (Nourot, 2005). However, the rapid expansion
of WPA nursery schools meant that teachers were hired with minimal training. This cycle
of expanding services without attention to ensuring qualified staff has plagued the child
care field throughout its existence. As the Depression ended, so too did the WPA nursery
schools. But a major national crisis—World War II—followed shortly, leading to another
important chapter in the history of child care.
The Lanham Act World War II necessitated full deployment of not only men into
the armed services but also women into the workplace to replace the men and support
industry. This massive workforce shift required immediate child care assistance, which
the federal government provided in the form of the Lanham Act. This legislation funded
emergency work-site child care centers, which operated for 10 to 12 hours per day.
One of the most famous centers was located at the Kaiser Shipbuilding company in Ore-
gon (MacKenzie, 2011). Kaiser was the largest of the Lanham Act centers, operating 24 hours
a day all year long. Lois Meek Stoltz was the director, and the manager was Jimmy Hymes,
who later became a professor and president of NAEYC (Anderson, 2013). The program, still
considered a model, provided health services and nutritious meals for children and mothers,
parent education, teacher training, and a play-based educational experience for children.
As happened with the WPA nurseries, the Lanham Act centers ended along with the
war. Child care was no longer supported because mothers left the workforce as fathers
reentered it. These high-quality centers remain an ideal for working families; yet it wasn’t
until the 1980s that employer-sponsored child care again became a major sector of the
early childhood field.
The stories related thus far of the kindergarten, nursery school, and child care move-
ments were lived and recorded by members of the majority group—white, European
Americans. However, various groups of Americans were also part of these stories and
have made significant contributions to the history of early childhood education, which we
discuss in the next section.
✓ Check Your Understanding 2.3: Early Childhood Movements in the United States
day nurseries Programs
designed to serve working fami-
lies in the late 19th and early
20th centuries; the forerun-
ner of present-day child care
centers.
WPA nurseries Federal
emergency relief nursery
schools, funded by the Works
Progress Administration (WPA)
during the Great Depres-
sion, designed to support the
economy by providing jobs
for those who worked on the
site and child care services to
families seeking work.
Lanham Act Federal legisla-
tion to provide emergency child
care and other services for
families employed in the war
effort during World War II.
M02_BRED6702_03_SE_C02.indd 56 10/7/15 12:52 PM
Chapter 2 Building on a Tradition of Excellence 57
A Wider View of Early
Childhood History
History is written by those who gain the largest amount of power. It is important to note
that the previous discussion is dominated by white European Americans because they
were the individuals with the most power in the society, and their work is most often
included in the “official” written history of the field. At the same time, however, parallel
stories were occurring among the many groups that populated the United States. That his-
tory is less well known primarily because historical sources are scarce, but also because
there is a strong oral rather than written tradition in these communities (Simpson, n.d.).
These stories deserve our attention and respect because they also have made the field
of early childhood education what is it today. Here we briefly describe historical events and
contributions from the perspective of African Americans, Native Americans, and Hispanic
Americans. It is essential to point out that there is huge diversity within these population
groups. In fact, they are hardly groups at all except as designated by the United States Cen-
sus Bureau. To further understand history from an even wider view, read the accompanying
Culture Lens: Early Childhood Education through the Lens of Non-Western Culture feature.
Ideas from non-Western, alternative histories have much
to offer early childhood education practices. One con-
temporary scholar who has written of diverse cultural
approaches to educating children is Timothy Reagan
(2005). He studies views from Africa, the Aztecs, North
American Indians, the Rom, Chinese Confucians, Indian
Hindus and Buddhists, and Islamic traditions.
Consider the African culture in which child-rearing prac-
tices and education are based on African people’s view of
the relationship between the physical and spiritual reality
(Mbiti, 1992). They believe that understanding children
requires understanding their spiritual purpose. Before a
child is born, the child is a complete spirit—in some
traditions, the child is an ancestor returning. At birth,
children are celebrated and the community is expected
to make room for this child’s purpose in the community.
Because the spirit has come home to a community, not
just to a biological set of parents, it becomes a com-
munity responsibility to take care of this child (Bunseki
Fu-Kiai & Lukondo-Wamba, 1988; Some, 1999).
According to Dr. Itihari Toure (C. B. Day, personal com-
munication, December 2008):
The view of the spirit returning for the sake of the com-
munity also informs the responsibilities for the child.
Child rearing is a collective process and children
in different traditions not only have specific family
responsibilities but partake in various community tradi-
tions as they must retain and transmit the values of the
specific community. Biological parents and community
members take care of all children. Exposure to various
crafts and skills needed for the community to thrive,
songs and dances that represent various stages of life,
and the countless stories that recall the history of the
people are part of the child-rearing experience.… When
children engage in formal schooling, the motivation is
not based on personal achievement alone; there is a de-
sire to bring pride and regard to the community through
the personal achievement. This perception of purpose
and success comes from a consistent socialization
about the value of one’s family and community interde-
pendent with the value of oneself. It is often referred to
as Ubunutu (I am because we are; we are because I am).
Understanding how other cultures rear children brings to
light a very important consideration for all educators: Ev-
ery child is a product of his or her own history. Knowing
that other cultures rear their children according to non-
Western beliefs deepens and broadens the possibilities for
educating children to their full potential, in ways that may
resonate with their own historical and cultural realities.
Sources: Kindezi: The Kongo Art of Babysitting, by K. K.
Bunseki Fu-Kiai and A. M. Lukondo-Wamba, 1988, New York:
Vantage Press; African Religions and Philosophy, 2nd edition,
by J. Mbiti, 1992, Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann; Non-Western
Educational Traditions: Indigenous Approaches to Education
Thought and Practice, 3rd edition, by T. Reagan, 2005,
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates; Welcoming Spirit
Home: Ancient African Teachings to Celebrate Children and
Community, by S. Some, 1999, Novato, CA: New World Library.
Early Childhood Education through the Lens
of Non-Western Culture
Culture Lens
M02_BRED6702_03_SE_C02.indd 57 10/7/15 12:52 PM
Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education58
African Americans in Early Childhood History
Throughout U.S. history, African Americans have been denied power beginning with
slavery, when it was illegal to teach enslaved people to read and write, much less attend
school. Once schooling became available, it was legally segregated by race until the 1954
Supreme Court’s Brown v. Board of Education decision banned the practice. But even
after desegregation became the law of the land, equal rights and equal educational op-
portunity for all racial groups were still denied.
Over the centuries of enslavement, a few formal, mostly religious schools provided
education for African American children (Cunningham & Osborn, 1979). By the 1830s,
however, such schools were prohibited. Educating enslaved people was a clandestine and
dangerous operation, requiring courage on the part of teachers as well as students. We saw
earlier how Patty Smith Hill’s mother was one of those who took that risk and what its
effects were on her daughter’s life choices thereafter.
African American Kindergartens and Teacher Training After the Civil
War, education became the vehicle for advancement of African Americans, propelled by
national leaders such as Mary McLeod Bethune (1875–1955), who founded Bethune-
Cookman College in 1904, and became an effective voice for civil rights and equal edu-
cational opportunity. Between 1865 and 1890, prominent African American institutions
of higher education were founded such as Howard University (1867), Hampton Univer-
sity (1868), Tuskegee University (1881), and Spelman College (1881). These and other
historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs) made important contributions to the
study of child development, then usually housed in Home Economics departments (Cun-
ningham & Osborn, 1979).
Early childhood education was seen as an important foundation for future advance-
ment. Many HBCUs operated teacher education programs and laboratory schools (Os-
born, 1991). These programs reflected the prevailing philosophies of Pestalozzi, Froebel,
and later Dewey and G. Stanley Hall. By 1873, Hampton Institute (now University) in
Virginia had a kindergarten teacher-training program and a children’s school that was
influenced by Montessori’s ideas about children learning practical skills (Cunningham &
Osborn, 1979). Tuskegee in Alabama offered training for parents in child-rearing meth-
ods. In the early 1900s, Howard University in Washington, D.C., awarded degrees in
kindergarten education, and Atlanta University operated a Froebelian kindergarten and
an elementary and high school for African American students (J. E. Hale, personal com-
munication, February 2009).
The National Association of Colored Women (NACW) was founded in 1896. Its first
president, Mary Church Terrell (1863–1954), was the daughter of enslaved parents and
one of the first African American women to earn a college degree and later a master’s.
She was a strong supporter of early education. Under her leadership, the NACW helped
establish kindergartens for African American children throughout the country (Cunning-
ham & Osborn, 1979).
African Americans and the Nursery
School Movement In 1927, five years after Abi-
gail Eliot started the first nursery school in the United
States, Dorothy Howard founded the “first Black nurs-
ery school” in Washington, D.C., to serve professional
families. She operated the school for more than 50 years
(Simpson, n.d., p. 262). Spelman College in Atlanta
opened the first laboratory school in an African Ameri-
can college in 1930, under the direction of Pearlie Reed
(Cunningham & Osborn, 1979). This school used the
“whole-child” philosophy of the larger nursery school
movement. Still in operation, the school is named for
Historically Black Colleges and
Universities have played impor-
tant roles in the study of child
development and the education
of future generations of teach-
ers. Although not well-known,
the contributions of African
American early childhood edu-
cators have been significant in
the field’s history.
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M02_BRED6702_03_SE_C02.indd 58 10/7/15 12:52 PM
Chapter 2 Building on a Tradition of Excellence 59
Marian Wright Edelman, founder and president of the Children’s Defense Fund, the na-
tion’s premier children’s advocacy organization (http://www.spelman.edu).
From 1929 to 1969, Oneida Cockrell (1900–1970) directed the Rosenwald-Garden
Apartment Nursery School and Kindergarten in Chicago (Simpson, 2012). This program
became a model for children’s centers in urban apartment dwellings, and also served
children with disabilities early on. Cockrell participated in the White House Conference
on Children and Youth in 1950. Cockrell also taught at the University of Chicago labora-
tory school.
Spelman College produced many future early childhood luminaries. Its first graduate
student, Ida Jones Curry, became head of teacher training at Hampton Institute in 1932
(Cunningham & Osborn, 1979). Curry worked with the McMillan sisters for a time in
London and was a leader in NANE.
Among Curry’s students at Hampton was Evangeline Ward (1920–1985), who made
significant contributions to the field (Simpson & McConnell-Farmer, 2013). Ward was
president of NAEYC from 1970 to 1974, and not only was she the first African American
president of the organization but also the only president ever to serve two terms. In the
mid-1970s, Ward (1977) was the first to take on the challenge of developing a code of eth-
ics for the profession. She was also the first executive director of the Child Development
Associate (CDA) national credentialing program.
Many other African American early childhood leaders played major roles in the
field’s history. Space does not permit citing all of their accomplishments. At a time when
their educational opportunity was severely limited, these professionals overcame huge
obstacles to earn doctoral degrees at major national and international universities, to edu-
cate and mentor future generations of teachers, and to voluntarily serve in professional
organizations. The harvest of their work is still being reaped, but was essential as the field
expanded tremendously.
Native American Early Childhood History
The native population of this country is highly diverse within and among various tribes—
each with its own cultural traditions, identity, and languages—and encompassing Ameri-
can Indians, Alaskan Natives, Native Hawaiians, and Pacific Islanders. Today, almost half
of Native Americans live in urban areas rather than on reservations. However, the history
of oppression, broken treaties, and removal from native lands has had a uniformly devas-
tating impact on our indigenous population.
Schooling for Indian Children Historically, education was part of the govern-
ment’s strategy of oppression and control. For example, in the 19th century, children
were often removed from the reservation to attend boarding schools in which they were
not allowed to wear native dress, speak their language, or practice their cultural traditions
(Wortham, 2002). Schools were also established on reservations but controlled by the Bu-
reau of Indian Affairs with the goal of assimilating native peoples into the larger society
and thus suppressing their cultural identity (Wortham, 2002). Surprisingly, one exception
was William N. Hailmann, Superintendent of Indian Schools both on and off reservations
from 1894 to 1898, who tried to implement Froebel’s ideas and methods and introduced
kindergarten teacher training (Lascarides & Hinitz, 2000).
In 1928, a government investigation resulted in the Meriam Report, which concluded
that previous policies toward Indians had been detrimental to their health, social, and
economic well-being. The report led to a shift in Indian education toward more progres-
sive practices—connecting education to family and the values of the community, and to
relevant skills and knowledge (Lascarides & Hinitz, 2000). However, schooling contin-
ued to be mostly segregated and inferior.
Federal legislation between 1965 and 1978 brought about significant change in the
education of Indian children. Funds became available to public schools to better meet
their needs and to provide bilingual education, enabling transmission of the culture and
M02_BRED6702_03_SE_C02.indd 59 10/7/15 12:52 PM
http://www.spelman.edu
Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education60
preservation of the languages, many of which were becoming extinct. In 1972, the Office
of Indian Education of the U.S. Department of Education was established. Regulations
began to require that parents and tribal leaders be involved in setting policies.
American Indian/Alaska Native Head Start Head Start had a major im-
pact on Native communities, bringing more emphasis on early education and compre-
hensive services. For example, Head Start played a significant role in ensuring that
Indian children with disabilities receive intervention (T. Dobrec, personal communica-
tion, August 2, 2011). Dr. James Wilson, an Ogalala Sioux, worked with tribal leaders
to get them to accept programs on reservations (T. Dobrec, personal communication,
August 2, 2011).
Today, American Indian/Alaska Native Head Start programs are located in 26 states
(Marks & Graham, 2004). Promoting home language and cultural identity are key goals
of families and tribal leaders. Some, like the Cherokee nation, are committed to tribal
language preservation, and many Pueblos have teachers who are fluent in the tribal lan-
guage. But generally, language preservation is a challenge because in many situations,
only a few tribal elders still speak the language, and there is no written form. Head Start
and foundations such as Kellogg have been instrumental in expanding teacher preparation
by providing grants to tribal colleges.
Native American Early Childhood Leaders The field and Native American
children and families have benefited from the contributions of many key leaders. One who
was particularly important in higher education was Alice Paul (1930–2005). A lifelong
educator in Tucson, she was the first Tohono O’odham woman to receive a Ph.D. from
the University of Arizona. She served on the faculty of the University of Arizona from
1986 through 1999 and became head of Teaching and Teacher Education. Paul helped
create the Tohono O’odham Community College and served on the Board of NAEYC in
the 1990s.
Winona Sample (1917–2008), another important role model and national leader, was
involved with Head Start from its beginning. Born on the Redlake Chippewa reservation
in Minnesota, Sample had to go away to school like many Indian children. She became
director of a large Head Start program and eventually head of Indian Health Services for
the state of California. She, too, served on the NAEYC Board. In her own words, “The
highlight of my life was being selected as the vice chair of the International Year of the
Child (1979–1980)” (Neugebauer, 1995, p. 57).
Helen Scheirbeck (1935–2010) has been described as one of the 20th century’s most
significant American Indian leaders. She was an untiring advocate for American Indian
civil rights, Indian children and families, Indian control of their own education, and the
sovereignty of her Lumbee Tribe of North Carolina. She served as director of the Office
of Indian Education, where she led efforts to pass the Indian Education Act of 1975. She
was the head of the Indian Head Start Program beginning in 1991. Notably, Scheirbeck
was a member of the first Board of Trustees of the Smithsonian’s National Museum of
the American Indian in Washington, D.C., for which she planned museum exhibitions,
cultural arts programs, and educational materials.
Latino Early Childhood History
As with African Americans and Native Americans, the history of early education
among Latinos has involved social injustices and shifting political winds. We use the
term Latino to describe a highly diverse population with countries of origin including
Mexico, Puerto Rico, Cuba, and various Latin and South American nations. Despite
recent controversies surrounding immigration, most Latinos in the United States are
American citizens and were born here.
In this brief overview of history from a Latino perspective, we address the two
most significant inf luences: bilingual education in the K–12 sector, and the history
of dual language programming in preschool and Head Start. Of course, the topic of
M02_BRED6702_03_SE_C02.indd 60 10/7/15 12:52 PM
Chapter 2 Building on a Tradition of Excellence 61
bilingual education is relevant to hundreds of lan-
guage groups in this country, but we discuss it
here because the Spanish-speaking population of
children is by far the largest group. Only Mexico
has a larger population of Spanish speakers than
the United States (Rumbaut, 2006). Also the
issue of bilingual education is central to the his-
tory of early education from a Latino perspective.
K–12 Bilingual Education Perhaps be-
cause the United States has always been a nation of
immigrants, bilingual education has always been
an issue. As far back as the colonial era, German,
French, and Scandinavian immigrants provided
bilingual schools (Cerda & Hernandez, 2006). In
the 1870s, William Harris, the Superintendent of Schools in St. Louis who helped Su-
san Blow found the first public kindergarten, also founded the first kindergarten taught
in German to help immigrant children get a “head start” on their education (Cerda &
Hernandez, 2006). By the 1920s, however, most bilingual schools were abolished and
children were expected to learn only English.
Modern bilingual programs began in the 1960s. The first two-way immersion pro-
gram (taught in both Spanish and English) was established in Miami in 1963. Several
important court cases in the 1970s, such as the Lau vs. Nichols decision in California and
Aspira vs. the City of New York on behalf of Puerto Rican children, established that meet-
ing linguistic and cultural needs, including providing bilingual education, was essential
for children to have equal educational opportunity.
The federal government has played an important albeit changing policy-setting role
in this history. Consider how names have changed in the U.S. Department of Education
over time. In 1973, the Office of Bilingual Education was established to implement the
first national Bilingual Education Act. From 1980 to 1995, the agency was called Office
of Bilingual Education and Minority Languages Affairs (OBEMLA). Eugene Garcia, a
highly respected scholar and advocate for early childhood education, was a director of the
agency. Another important early childhood advocate, Delia Pompa, also led the agency
and is now an executive at National Council of La Raza. OBEMLA’s mission included
helping school districts serve “limited English proficient” children (sadly called LEPs)
and administering provisions in the Elementary and Secondary Education Act that in-
cluded serving preschool children.
In the 1990s, bilingual programs came under attack as not effective and voters suc-
ceeded in banning them in California, Massachusetts, and Arizona. Emblematic of this
political shift, OBEMLA was renamed the Office of English Language Acquisition. Many
more states now have English-only laws for K–12 schools. These laws have not yet been
applied to preschool programs but certainly have an effect on how and by whom children
are taught. Despite research in support of dual language programs, strong public senti-
ment against them prevails. In the words of Antonia Lopez, Early Childhood Director at
the National Council of La Raza: “The history of Latinos in early childhood education is
tied into the history of not being seen as fully fledged Americans” (A. Lopez, personal
communication, March 30, 2012).
Preschool Level A slightly brighter picture of Latino history has prevailed at the
preschool level, with Head Start leading the way from its earliest days in support of chil-
dren and families who speak languages other than English. In 1972, The Head Start Pro-
gram Performance Standards required that programs help each child build cultural iden-
tity and that staff speak the primary language of the children and are knowledgeable about
their culture. As part of the Strategy for Spanish-Speaking Children in the 1970s, Head
Start funded development and dissemination of four Bilingual and Bicultural Curriculum
American schools have always
served large numbers of
children who speak a language
other than English at home.
Every early childhood teacher
needs to know and use effec-
tive strategies to teach dual
language learners.
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M02_BRED6702_03_SE_C02.indd 61 10/7/15 12:52 PM
Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education62
Models. These models provided an important foundation on which subsequent curricula
and professional development have been built.
In 1982, the Child Development Associate (CDA) Credential Bilingual Specializa-
tion was established for candidates who have a working knowledge of two languages
and to provide more well-prepared staff to work with dual language learners. In 1991,
Multicultural Principles for Head Start Programs were developed by a cadre of profes-
sionals such as Yolanda Garcia, who provided training on the four multicultural curricula.
In 1996, they were incorporated into the revision of the Head Start Program Performance
Standards. For decades, Head Start has served migrant and seasonal workers, most of
whom now are Spanish-speaking, which has stimulated much of the Bureau’s work on
linguistically and culturally responsive resources.
Despite these positive contributions to the field, historically, Latino children have
been underrepresented in Head Start. The prevailing view has been that Latino families
have a cultural preference for in-home care rather than formal programs for their children.
This view, which is not supported by research, masked the reality that Latino families did
not have adequate access to programs in their communities, nor were all programs cultur-
ally and linguistically responsive (M. Lopez, personal communication, January 26, 2012).
However, the expansion of Head Start and increase in Early Head Start programs led to
its population now being one-third Hispanic. In 2009, Yvette Sanchez Fuentes became the
first Latina director of the Office of Head Start.
Latina Early Childhood Leadership As we have seen throughout this chapter,
history is primarily the story of how people impact organizations. The efforts of a small
but committed group of leaders brought about real change within the early childhood
establishment. Leaders such as Antonia Lopez, Amie Beckett, Mary Margarita Contie,
Lily Wong Fillmore, Lourdes Diaz Soto, and Marlene Zepeda launched the Early Child-
hood Interest Group of the National Association of Bilingual Education. A handful of
people attended its first meeting, but before long, more than 400 people flocked to their
sessions (A. Lopez, personal communication, March 30, 2012). These advocates were
joined by many others, including Governing Board member Rebeca Barrera, to influ-
ence policy within NAEYC. As a result, in 1995, the association adopted a position state-
ment, Responding to Linguistic and Cultural Diversity, and also significantly revised its
position statement on developmentally appropriate practice to reflect their input.
In widening the lens on the history of early childhood education to include the per-
spective of African Americans, Native Americans, and Latino Americans, it is apparent
that Head Start has played a key role in providing services for these populations of chil-
dren and families. We conclude by describing how Head Start wound all the various
strands of early childhood history together.
✓ Check Your Understanding 2.4: A Wider View of Early Childhood History
Bringing the Stories Together
The separate stories described previously continue to influence early education today.
For example, we struggle with the large gap between preschool practices and what fol-
lows in kindergarten and primary grades. Similarly, child care and preschool continue to
be divided in terms of standards, funding, and populations they serve. But over time, the
stories began to converge, most notably in the national Head Start program and, more
recently, in the prekindergarten movement.
The Story of Head Start
The harvest of the work of diverse leaders in the past is still being reaped, but was essen-
tial as the field expanded exponentially with the launch of Head Start in the mid-1960s,
M02_BRED6702_03_SE_C02.indd 62 10/7/15 12:52 PM
Chapter 2 Building on a Tradition of Excellence 63
which brought together the strands of early childhood history (Hinitz, 2014).
The Civil Rights movement of the 1960s brought about real change in virtu-
ally every aspect of society. Early childhood education was no exception. In
response to the call for equal opportunity in this country, President Lyndon
Johnson launched the War on Poverty. One of the cornerstones of this effort,
and the only one that still exists, was the Head Start program. Head Start
represents a coming together of the nursery school movement, which had
previously served middle-class families, and the child care movement, which
originated to serve the indigent and working poor. The following sections
describe how the key elements of Head Start reflect the lessons learned from
early childhood history.
A Comprehensive Program Just like Patty Smith Hill, Maria Mon-
tessori, the McMillan sisters, and so many others, the framers of Head Start
believed in serving the whole child. Early childhood education has long been
a multidisciplinary field. Head Start reflects this history as a comprehensive program
providing health, mental health, social services, and parent involvement in addition to
education.
Head Start was also a pioneer in fully including children with disabilities, who
must constitute 10% of the population served. This mandate harkens back to the lessons
learned from Montessori about the benefits of early intervention. Early education for all
children with disabilities is a relatively recent phenomenon. For an overview of its history,
see the lens on Including All Children: Early Childhood Special Education in Historical
Perspective.
Classroom Connection
This video shows a quality Head
Start program. How does Head
Start today reflect the lessons
learned from early childhood
history?
When I first met my neighbor Clark—a large, friendly
man about my age—I was struck by his delightful
sense of humor and learned of his love of fishing and
television. Even a brief encounter with Clark revealed
that he had an intellectual disability, but spending
time with him was always great fun. One day, while
reading a book on my porch, I spied Clark watching
me. When I asked him to join me, he replied, “I’d like
to read a book.” An older neighbor who’d known Clark
since he was a child later explained, “Clark started
school like all the other kids, back in the mid-1950s,
but after a few days, they sent him home. They said,
‘It didn’t work out.’ ” Clark never returned to school.
If Clark had been born today, he would probably be di-
agnosed as having mild intellectual disability. His life
experience would have been quite different due to ma-
jor changes in special education services. In the lat-
ter part of the 20th century, parents of children with
disabilities who were unable to obtain services formed
organizations such as the Association for Retarded
Children (ARC) and United Cerebral Palsy and also
started preschools for the children. With the advocacy
of parents, special educators, and other profession-
als, public laws began to change. In 1972, the gov-
ernment mandated that 10% of Head Start’s student
population be children with special needs.
By far the most important event in the history of
special education was the passage of Public Law
94-142, the Education for All Handicapped Chil-
dren Act of 1975, which in 1990 was renamed the
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA).
This law established standards for how public
schools must serve children with disabilities, from
ages 3 to 21. A few years later, Public Law 99-457
extended services to children from birth to 3 years
of age with emphasis on the role of families in early
intervention. In addition, the Americans with Dis-
abilities Act (ADA) of 1990 requires that programs
be accessible for persons with disabilities, and pro-
hibits child care centers from discriminating on the
basis of disability.
Early childhood special education today is the result
of an amalgamation of traditional K–12 special educa-
tion, regular early childhood education, and compen-
satory education including federal programs such as
Head Start that were originally designed to “compen-
sate” for areas of need in children’s lives. The history
of special education goes back to well before Maria
Montessori demonstrated the power of early interven-
tion to change children’s lives. It is the story of many
people working together to make a difference on be-
half of children like Clark.
Including All Children
Early Childhood Special Education in Historical Perspective
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Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education64
An Educational Program The educational model for the Head Start program is
the nursery school, specifically the Bank Street model (Shapiro & Nager, 1999). Over the
years, Head Start’s educational program has changed as new knowledge has emerged. But
its core is developmentally appropriate practice, with its foundation going as far back as
Comenius and Pestalozzi.
Because it was based on the laboratory nursery school model, many Head Start pro-
grams were and still are half-day. This is changing as more families need full-day child
care, but Head Start has yet to completely merge the child care and nursery school threads
of the field.
The rapid launch and expansion of Head Start meant that, like the WPA and Lanham
Act centers, a large workforce was needed on short notice. As a result, minimal training
was required for teachers. In recent years, the program has raised qualifications signifi-
cantly but compensation remains a challenge.
A Parent Involvement Program A core component of Head Start’s mission
is parent involvement. Here we see the influence of Lucy Sprague Mitchell and Jimmy
Hymes, and the parent cooperative movement. In Head Start, however, parents are not
only involved in the classroom; they are also part of the governance of the program, acting
in major decision-making roles.
As part of the War on Poverty, Head Start’s mandate included hiring parents as teach-
ers and in other positions. At times, as many as one-third of the staff have been parents in
the program. As in the case of WPA nurseries, however, hiring parents has presented the
challenges of ensuring that the teachers are professionally qualified and has created the
need for a professional development system.
The National Laboratory An important part of Head Start’s mission is to act as
the national laboratory for the field. In this role, Head Start has funded seminal research
and contributed to the development of curriculum and teacher training models. Head Start
programs also partner with universities on research projects. In this capacity, Head Start
has supplanted the child study laboratory schools of the early 20th century.
Head Start programs are locally administered and controlled. But Head Start has
maintained its integrity and consistency despite its national scope because every grantee
must meet the Head Start Program Performance Standards. These standards address, at
least for Head Start, the recurring questions that confront the early childhood field.
The Prekindergarten Story
Leaders such as Susan Blow and Patty Smith Hill were deeply concerned about the po-
tential negative consequences of public school involvement in kindergarten and nursery
school. Some of their deepest fears have come to pass. With kindergarten an integral part
of the public school system, much of the child development focus they espoused has been
lost. Similarly, with the movement toward universal, voluntary preschool and more states
providing funding for pre-K programs, the rigid dividing line between preschool and
public education no longer exists.
On the other hand, bringing the nursery/kindergarten movements together with pub-
lic education has contributed to more children having access to early education. This
story is only beginning; the consequences have yet to be revealed. However, if Pre-K–3rd
grade curriculum were aligned in a developmentally appropriate way and comprehensive
services offered for all children from birth through age 8, all the stories could be brought
together in the best possible way.
Building on a Tradition of Excellence
The fundamental questions that have faced the field since its inception continue to domi-
nate the conversation: How is quality defined in programs for children? What should be
the qualifications for teachers and how should they be prepared? What are the goals for
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Chapter 2 Building on a Tradition of Excellence 65
children’s learning and development? What should be the content of the curriculum and
how should it be taught?
Looking back through history, we find that many ideas are revisited: stages of devel-
opment, active learning, children’s interests, sensory learning, positive guidance, image
of the child, the teachers’ role, and the role of materials and environments. But differences
emerge as well. Today we view the teacher’s role as more intentional than our predeces-
sors did, and we no longer see children’s development as a natural unfolding. Instead, we
better understand the interaction of environment and biology. In addition, developmental
stages are not rigid as previously assumed. Standards and approaches need to be flexible
and changing—based on new knowledge—unlike Maria Montessori and Susan Blow,
who refused to change their views.
The most basic history lessons that early childhood teachers should never forget in-
clude these:
• We all need to learn from children, as did all of the historical figures discussed in
this chapter and as Caroline Pratt wisely put it.
• We need to draw on science and the wisdom of experience, as Patty Smith Hill and
Lucy Sprague Mitchell modeled for us.
• And, as Patty Smith Hill believed, it is always valuable to listen to opposing points
of view and to learn from them.
✓ Check Your Understanding 2.5: Bringing the Stories Together
. . . the Preschool Classroom
Take a moment to revisit the classroom observations of the college students in the opening vignette
of this chapter. The traces of early childhood history should now be apparent. The students saw
Comenius’s picture books and alphabet books, evidence of Froebel’s gifts in the wooden cube and
parquetry blocks, and the legacy of Maria Montessori in the child-sized furniture and sandpaper
letters. They also observed children’s active play with Caroline Pratt’s unit blocks and Patty Smith
Hill’s beloved dramatic play. Their firehouse field trips are reminiscent of John Dewey’s call for ac-
tive learning and integrated curriculum as well as Lucy Sprague Mitchell’s Bank Street approach.
The woodworking tables and cooking are more evidence of Dewey’s influence. Finally, the students
saw the lasting contribution of Lucy Sprague Mitchell’s writer’s workshops in Margaret Wise Brown’s
Goodnight Moon and the enduring joy of singing Patty Smith Hill’s “Happy Birthday” on one child’s
most special day. ■
Revisiting the Case Study
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Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education66
• Studying history is valuable because it helps people
understand current issues, avoid getting stuck in the
past, aspire to make a difference for children, and
advocate for change.
• Different periods of history have had different perspec-
tives on children and childhood, which have implica-
tions for how children are treated and what kinds of
education they are provided.
• Early education in the United States was strongly
influenced by Western European ideas, such as those
of Comenius, Pestalozzi, Froebel, and Montessori.
Although European ideas are not the only, or necessar-
ily the best, educational concepts in the world, current
practices strongly reflect these early influences.
• The kindergarten movement in the United States was
based directly on the work of Froebel and led by Eliza-
beth Peabody, Susan Blow, and others who spread his
ideas widely through teacher training and founding the
International Kindergarten Union.
• The progressive education movement led by John
Dewey had a profound impact on education in the
United States, especially early childhood education,
whose principles of developmentally appropriate prac-
tice are congruent with progressive ideas.
• The nursery school movement, which grew out of the
child study movement, eventually launched the wider
field of early childhood education through the leader-
ship of Patty Smith Hill and Lucy Sprague Mitchell,
among many others.
• The child care movement grew out of social welfare
efforts for low-income families, focused on the need to
support working parents, and became associated with
physical care rather than education, although this divi-
sion is changing.
• African Americans, Native Americans, and Latino
Americans played significant roles in the history of
early childhood education, although their contributions
are not well documented.
• The launch of Head Start in the mid-1960s brought
together the various strands of early childhood
history, which are ref lected in its comprehensive
services, developmentally appropriate educational
program, parent involvement, and its role as a
national laboratory.
Chapter Summary2
Key Terms
■ absorbent mind
■ Bank Street approach
■ child-centered curricu-
lum
■ child study movement
■ competent child
■ constructivism
■ day nurseries
■ Froebel’s occupations
and gifts
■ integrated curriculum
■ Lanham Act
■ nursery schools
■ progressive education
movement
■ WPA nurseries
✓ Demonstrate Your Learning
Click here to assess how well you’ve learned the content in this chapter.
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Chapter 2 Building on a Tradition of Excellence 67
Readings and Websites
Hinitz, B. F. (2013). History of early childhood education
in multicultural perspective. In J. L. Roopnarine & J. E.
Johnson (Eds.), Approaches to early childhood education
(6th ed., pp. 3–24). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Wortham, S. (2002). Childhood: 1892–2002. Wheaton,
MD: Association for Childhood Education International.
American Montessori Society
Check this website for information about the history of
Montessori and also its present-day practices, profession-
al development opportunities, and other resources.
Association for Childhood Education International
Originally the IKU, ACEI now provides a global com-
munity of advocates for children from birth through early
adolescence.
Office of Head Start
The website provides many valuable resources for all
aspects of Head Start programming, which are also useful
for any early childhood program, and the list of Head
Start Program Performance Standards.
M02_BRED6702_03_SE_C02.indd 67 10/7/15 12:52 PM
3
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
3.1 Define developmentally appropriate practice.
3.2 Identify the behaviors of intentional teachers.
3.3 Describe how teachers make decisions about developmentally appropriate
practices.
3.4 Identify the key roles of early childhood teachers.
3.5 Apply principles of developmentally appropriate practice in planning learning
environments and daily schedules.
3.6 Discuss research about developmentally appropriate practices.
Understanding and
Applying Developmentally
Appropriate Practice
Learning Outcomes
© Christopher Futcher/E+/Getty Images
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69
T
oday is Olivia’s first day of preschool at the elementary school that her
older brothers also attend. They have been teasing her about how hard
school is, and she is a little fearful as well as excited. She hesitantly enters
the building clutching the postcard her teacher sent her to welcome her to school. Aware that several of the newly
enrolled children and their families speak Spanish at home, Olivia’s teacher, Mr. Washington, has arranged for a
translator to be present this morning. He has also learned a few key phrases in Spanish himself, including how to
say, “I’m sorry, I don’t speak Spanish, but Ms. Lopez is here to help.”
When Olivia’s grandmother arrives at the classroom door, Mr. Washington greets her in Spanish and pulls the
translator into the conversation. Olivia’s brothers and mother speak English but her grandmother speaks only
Spanish. Then Mr. Washington stoops down to Olivia’s eye level and greets her warmly with a smile, “I’m so
happy that you are here, Olivia. We’re going to have lots of fun playing, listening to stories, and making friends.”
Mr. Washington offers his hand to Olivia and escorts her to a cubby with her name on it where she can store her
belongings. He asks, “Would it be okay if I took a picture of you? We will print it and put it next to your name. Later
we can display a photo of your whole family on the wall with the other children’s families.” She shyly smiles for the
camera and then asks to see herself.
“Now we’re going to have some quiet play time while the children are arriving and
then we’ll eat breakfast together. Your grandmother says that you like to do puzzles, so
I’ll show you where we keep them,” Mr. Washington says. Olivia’s eyes sparkle as she
spies all the materials in the room, alighting on the iPad that two children
are using to listen to a song in Spanish. She is especially delighted by
the dress-up clothes, the painting easel, and the sand table. She feels
good already because her teacher is so nice and she likes
the chairs and tables that are just her size. The puzzles are
ones that she can put together all by herself, too.
Olivia is already feeling comfortable at school on
her first day because her teacher understands
and engages in developmentally appropriate
practice. ■
T
hroughout this book and throughout your studies and work as an early childhood
educator, you will hear the term developmentally appropriate practice. In this
chapter we discuss the evolution of this concept and examine how it is used in
the classroom. We also discuss the concept of becoming an intentional teacher. Next, we
address the question of how to decide what is developmentally appropriate and the multi-
faceted role of the early childhood teacher. We apply this decision-making process to how
teachers plan appropriate learning environments and daily schedules for children. Finally,
we briefly describe the research base for developmentally appropriate practice.
The concepts addressed in this chapter are part of the foundational knowledge of early
childhood education. These topics provide a basic framework for organizing much of your
beginning knowledge. A large body of literature exists about child development and its
application to early childhood practice (see Berk, 2012; Kostelnik, Soderman, Whiren, &
Rupiper, 2014). This chapter considers some of this literature, as well as the definition,
principles, and guidelines for developmentally appropriate practice as described by the
National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC, 2009).
Case Study
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Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education70
What Is Developmentally
Appropriate Practice?
Over time, the phrase developmentally appropriate practice (often abbreviated as DAP)
has been defined and used in different ways. Its definition has evolved as new research
and knowledge have become available.
Developmentally appropriate practice is teaching that is attuned to children’s
ages, experience, abilities, and interests and that helps them attain challenging and
achievable goals. The foundations of developmentally appropriate practice, as it is de-
fined today, lie in the history of early childhood education. Most fundamental is the
premise that teaching young children should be based on what is known about how they
develop and learn optimally.
Within the field of developmental psychology, the concept of developmentally ap-
propriate has been widely used for more than a century and refers to age-related and
individual human variation. Early childhood educators have long used the phrase devel-
opmentally appropriate to describe high-quality environments, materials, learning experi-
ences, or expectations for children of varying ages.
NaEyC’s Position statement on
Developmentally appropriate Practice
The concept of developmentally appropriate practice gained widespread recognition and in-
fluence in the mid-1980s when NAEYC published position statements on developmentally
appropriate practice (Bredekamp, 1987). A position statement is a document that articulates
a research-based stance that an organization is taking in response to an issue or a problem.
Based on new research, emerging controversies, and the changing contexts in which early
childhood education occurs, NAEYC revised its statement on developmentally appropriate
practice in the mid-1990s (Bredekamp & Copple, 1997) and again in 2009 (NAEYC, 2009).
NAEYC’s 2009 position statement describes principles and guidelines for teaching
young children from birth through age 8. NAEYC also presents recommended practices for
different age groups: infants and toddlers, preschoolers, kindergartners, and children in the
primary grades (Copple, Bredekamp, Korelek, & Charner, 2013a, 2013b, 2014a, 2014b).
The position statement is widely used as a summary of the field’s best thinking, a defense
of its valued practices, and an advocacy tool for improving programs for young children.
The position statement serves several purposes. Originally NAEYC sought to clarify
the term to help professionals consistently interpret its standards for early
childhood program accreditation. A second purpose that continues to be an
issue was to address the issue of age-appropriateness of expectations for chil-
dren, as well as curriculum and teaching practices. In addition, the 1997 re-
vision brought more attention to the critical role of culture and language in
development, the inclusion of children with disabilities, and the teacher’s role
as intentional decision maker (Bredekamp, 1997a, 1997b). The 2009 state-
ment continues these emphases and also responds to current issues such as
addressing the achievement gap and alignment from pre-K to grade 3.
Current Issues in Developmentally
appropriate Practice
The early childhood profession continues to raise concerns about what is de-
velopmentally appropriate as new issues arise in the lives of children. Three
issues are currently under serious debate: push-down curriculum, Common
Core State Standards, and appropriate practice in the digital age.
developmentally appropri-
ate practice (DAP) Ways of
teaching that engage children’s
interests and adapt for their
age, experience, and ability to
help them meet challenging
and achievable learning goals.
position statement a docu-
ment that articulates a stance,
usually research based, that
an organization is taking in
response to an issue or a
problem.
Classroom Connection
In this video, sue Bredekamp
discusses the achievement gap
within the framework of devel-
opmentally appropriate practice.
How do you think we can teach
most effectively when children
come to school with very different
levels of vocabulary or mathemat-
ics skills?
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Chapter 3 Understanding and Applying Developmentally Appropriate Practice 71
Push-down Curriculum Perhaps the most important motivation for defining de-
velopmentally appropriate practice over the years has been to counter the trend toward
push-down curriculum, in which content that was previously taught in first grade is
being taught in kindergarten or even preschool. This was one of the original motivations
for writing developmentally appropriate practice. However, the problem is even more
urgent today because the trend toward increased academic focus in kindergarten has ac-
celerated (Bassok & Rorem, 2014). For example, in 1998, about one-third of kindergarten
teachers believed that most children should learn to read in kindergarten. By 2005, 65%
of teachers held this expectation (Bassok & Rorem, 2014).
Not surprisingly, these increased academic expectations led to changes in the curricu-
lum. Time devoted to literacy in kindergarten has increased by 25% and social studies,
science, music, art, and physical education have decreased (Bassok & Rorem, 2014). In-
creased academic demands have resulted in many teachers using practices such as work-
sheets and whole-group, didactic instruction that are not developmentally appropriate
(Strauss, 2014). A related trend is that young children no longer are given time or materi-
als to play in school (Alliance for Childhood, 2010; Squires, 2014). As a result, increasing
numbers of children are experiencing stress, being judged not ready for kindergarten, or
struggling and failing in their earliest school experience (Almon & Miller, 2011; Bassok &
Reardon, 2013).
Push-down curriculum has been a trend for decades and is often attributed to the
accountability movement, whereby teachers are held responsible if children fail to
achieve certain standards. This trend was propelled by No Child Left Behind legisla-
tion in the early 1990s. More recently, a particularly troublesome trend is the require-
ment in many states that children read by the end of third grade or be held back. This
requirement puts additional pressure on teachers in the earlier grades, thus pushing
down curriculum even more.
push-down curriculum Con-
tent previously taught in a
higher grade in school being
expected to be learned in an
earlier grade
In developmentally appropriate classrooms, teachers get to know each child as an individual and build a
positive relationship. What is this teacher doing to “meet children where they are” as individuals?
©
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Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education72
Common Core State Standards Another controversial issue is the impact on
curriculum and teaching, and especially on children, of the Common Core State Stan-
dards (CCSS) (Common Core State Standards Initiative, 2011a, 2011b). The Common
Core establishes national standards in English Language Arts and Mathematics in kinder-
garten through grade 12 that were initially adopted by 45 states but subsequently became
politically controversial. Some early childhood educators have expressed deep concern
that the Common Core standards themselves are not achievable for most children in K–3,
that they will lead to developmentally inappropriate teaching practices, and that they will
narrow the curriculum further to the two subject areas (Defending the Early Years, 2014;
Miller & Carlsson-Paige, 2013).
NAEYC (2012) charges the field to approach the CCSS with caution but also to see
it as an opportunity. Many of the standards call for the kind of higher-order thinking and
problem solving that developmentally appropriate practices promote, and they should not
automatically lead to bad teaching. The fact is that Common Core establishes standards
for what children should know and be able to do, but does not address how teachers
should teach. These words appear in the English Language Arts standards: “The use of
play with young children is not specified in the Standards, but it is welcome as a valuable
activity in its own right and as a way to help students meet the expectations in this docu-
ment” (Common Core State Standards Initiative, 2011a, p. 6).
Nevertheless, some of the standards will be unattainable by many children in kin-
dergarten through grade 3, especially those children who have not had enriching prior
experiences. Therefore, it is important that early childhood educators remain vigilant as
the Common Core is implemented and children’s learning is assessed. Standards them-
selves are periodically reviewed and if they are found to not be achievable for the major-
ity of children (that is, are developmentally inappropriate), then they should be revised.
Appropriate Practice in the Digital Age A third issue that is often discussed
in the context of developmentally appropriate practice is technology. Some early educators
are troubled by the fact that children spend too much time engaged with “screens,” which
takes away time from important activities such as play, outdoor time, conversations with
other children and adults, and other joyful childhood experiences (Campaign for Commer-
cial-Free Childhood & Alliance for Childhood, 2012). The fact is that from 2011 to 2013,
the number of children under age 8 using mobile devices doubled, and the average amount
of time children spent on digital media tripled (Common Sense Media, 2013). A related
concern is the quality and value of the content that is provided via digital devices.
On the other hand, technology and interactive media permeate children’s lives
and have demonstrated great potential to support young children’s learning (Donohue,
2015). Rather than simply “protecting” children from technology by limiting screen
time, educators have a responsibility to promote the effective integration of high-quali-
ty, developmentally appropriate media (Donohue, 2015; Rogow, 2015). Lisa Guernsey
(2014), a national expert on children’s media, advises that the most important consid-
erations are the quality and appropriateness of the content on the screen, the context
within which it is used (how long, under what supervision), and the age and character-
istics of individual children.
The joint position statement on technology in early childhood programs by NAEYC
and the Fred Rogers Center for Early Learning and Children’s Media (2012) is an ex-
cellent guide for decision making in the digital age. The fundamental principle is that
“Technology and interactive media are tools that can promote effective learning and
development, within the framework of developmentally appropriate practice”(p. 5). In
short, interactive media require many professional decisions on the part of early child-
hood teachers and media developers to ensure that they are of the highest quality and are
used appropriately and effectively.
Undoubtedly other issues will arise as they have in the past. Over the years, the
position statement has generated controversies, including questions about whether the
recommended practices apply equally well to diverse groups of children (e.g., Dahlberg,
Moss, & Pence, 2007; Graue & Delaney, 2011; Woodhead, 2006). In turn, new research
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Chapter 3 Understanding and Applying Developmentally Appropriate Practice 73
and critiques will continue to stimulate productive discussions among early childhood
educators about what is best for young children.
Developmentally appropriate Practice
in the Classroom
Developmentally appropriate practice begins with early childhood educators’ knowledge
of how children learn and develop. Its ultimate goal is to promote the development and
enhance the learning of each individual child served. “Developmentally appropriate prac-
tice” is used by some as a shorthand term for the value of play or letting children be
children, not pushing them to grow up too soon. Play is an integral component of devel-
opmentally appropriate practice; however, it is only one facet. To better understand how
play relates to developmentally appropriate practice, read the feature entitled Promoting
Play: Does Developmentally Appropriate Practice = Play?
The term, developmentally appropriate practice, is used within the early childhood
profession to describe the complex work of the early childhood teacher. Knowing how
children learn and develop is essential for teachers of young children. The more they
Does Developmentally Appropriate Practice = Play?
For many early childhood educators, play is synony-
mous with developmentally appropriate practice.
There are many reasons why this is true. The pri-
mary reason is that a vast amount of research dem-
onstrates that play is critical to healthy development
and learning in the early years. To be developmen-
tally appropriate, teaching practices must reflect
what is known about how children develop and learn
most effectively. Therefore, play must be an integral
component of a developmentally appropriate pro-
gram for young children.
But play is complex. There are many types of
play that have different benefits for children and
children play differently depending on their age,
level of development, and experience. Observe
how babies play and you will notice that they tend
to play with objects and explore the world us-
ing their senses—especially touch and taste. as
toddlers gain mobility, their play involves their
whole bodies with running and climbing among
their favorite activities. They begin to play more
with toys, and occasionally with or near one other
child. The preschool years are prime time for play,
with children engaging in virtually every type of
play both alone and with friends such as block
building, table toys, pretend, or rough-and-tumble
play. Primary-grade children continue to need lots
of play, including active outdoor free play, games
with rules, and dramatization.
Children’s play also varies with their individual in-
terests and prior experiences. Girls and boys often
gravitate toward different types of play despite the
efforts of teachers and parents to discourage gen-
der stereotyping. some children prefer solitary play
while others take the lead in organizing a small
group to build a fort or set up an airport.
Finally, children play the culture in which they live.
Play is a natural context for children to practice
adult roles, and they mimic the activities, behaviors,
and language of the adults and older children in
their cultural group. For example, in a highly tech-
nological society such as ours, children play with
digital tools as well as the typical tools of daily life
such as cars or microwaves.
Like all other aspects of development and learning,
play varies in predictable ways by children’s ages,
individual characteristics, and the social and cultur-
al contexts in which they live. To fully benefit chil-
dren, teachers must intentionally promote children’s
play and use it to help children reach challenging
and achievable goals. Developmentally appropriate
practice is more than play, but play is developmen-
tally appropriate.
Promoting Play
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Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education74
know about and are sensitive to the way children think and learn, the more effective their
teaching and the more satisfying their work. To successfully engage in developmentally
appropriate practice (Copple, Bredekamp, Koralek, & Charner, 2013b), teachers need to:
• Meet children where they are, as individuals and as a group.
• Use a variety of intentional strategies to help each child attain challenging and
achievable goals that contribute to his or her ongoing development and learning.
Meet Children Where They Are Knowing what children, within a given age
range, are generally capable of and how they learn provides teachers with a starting
point for planning and organizing a program. But such a broad picture is not enough.
Teachers must go beyond what is “typical”; they must recognize that they will have
little success if they try to teach everyone the same way. They must also recognize that
if their expectations are too high, children become frustrated; if their expectations are
too low, their students will become bored. In either case—teaching only what is “typi-
cal” or having unrealistic expectations—children will fail to make learning progress.
Good teachers continually observe children’s engagement with materials, activities,
and people in order to learn about each child’s abilities, interests, and needs. Based on this
information, they plan curriculum and adapt their teaching strategies to help children make
continued progress. Meeting children where they are might look something like this:
Nathan knows only a few letters, he does not sit still during story time, and he is
significantly behind on many of the kindergarten literacy goals. His teacher knows,
however, that all kinds of transportation vehicles fascinate him. On a class visit to the
library, she helps Nathan locate several information books on transportation to read
with him and have him take home. He especially likes one book about all kinds of
trucks. To interest Nathan in learning letters and words, his teacher prints the names
of the different trucks on cards for him to match with the pictures. Soon, Nathan is
drawing pictures of the trucks and trying to write the words himself.
Four-year-old Jamal speaks Arabic at home and is learning English at school.
His teacher often reads to him in a small group, with other children whose home lan-
guage is not English, using books with limited vocabulary and clear correspondence
between the pictures and words. She also uses other cues to aid his understanding.
For instance, she uses real objects as props when she introduces new words such as
the kinds of food that the Very Hungry Caterpillar (Carle, 1969) is eating. She stays
in close contact with his parents, communicating through a translator, to learn about
the competencies he demonstrates at home, and she encourages the family to talk and
read with him in their own language.
These examples demonstrate how teachers meet children where they are by assessing
what they already know as well as learning about their interests. At the same time, teach-
ers keep in mind the teaching goals.
Help Children Reach Challenging and Achievable Goals
Meeting learners where they are is important, but it is just the beginning. As il-
lustrated in the preceding examples, learning is most effective when materials
or experiences not only build on what children already know and on what they
can do, but also require them to stretch toward new skills and understandings.
Developmentally appropriate goals for a given group of children need to
be realistic and attainable for most children within the age range of the group.
However, developmentally appropriate practice does not mean making things
easier for children. Instead, goals must be challenging but not so difficult that
children are unable to achieve them. Further, children need to have plenty of
opportunities to practice their newly acquired skills to the point of mastery.
Young children often initiate such practice on their own, such as when they re-
peatedly count the steps they climb or try time and again to balance on one foot.
Classroom Connection
as you watch this video, identify
the challenging goals that the
teacher has for the children and
how she intentionally uses play to
help them achieve those goals.
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Chapter 3 Understanding and Applying Developmentally Appropriate Practice 75
Once new skills have been mastered, children need new challenges to continue to
learn. These new challenges should provide children with a reasonable stretch that is “just
achievable.” For example, consider a group of kindergartners learning to play catch. If
the teacher consistently throws the ball way over children’s heads, they will soon give up
in frustration. But if she makes the task too easy—rolling the ball on the ground—most
5-year-olds would quickly grow bored and call it “baby stuff.” Instead, a teacher who
is taking into account what is developmentally appropriate will provide just the right
amount of challenge. One child will need the ball thrown right into her extended arms,
while another who has had more practice will joyfully leap to catch it over her head.
Teaching in a developmentally appropriate way brings together meeting the learner
where he or she is and helping children achieve goals. Teachers keep the curriculum’s
learning goals in mind as they determine where children are and what the next steps for-
ward are. What is challenging and achievable varies from one child to the next, depending
on each child’s level of development; prior experiences, knowledge, and skills; and the
context within which the learning takes place.
To be developmentally appropriate, teaching practices must be effective—they must
contribute to children’s ongoing development and learning. That is, if children are not learn-
ing and progressing toward important outcomes, then the practices and experiences in the
program are not developmentally appropriate. To ensure their practices are in fact effective
and developmentally appropriate, teachers need to be intentional in everything they do.
✓ Check Your Understanding 3.1: What Is Developmentally Appropriate Practice?
Intentional Teaching
To be effective in their work, teachers cannot leave important aspects of children’s develop-
ment and learning to chance. In everything early childhood teachers do—from organizing
Developmentally appropriate teaching practices must be effective. Intentional teachers don’t simply as-
sume that play is developmentally appropriate. They support children’s play so that it benefits children’s
development as much as possible.
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Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education76
the environment to planning the curriculum to choosing specific teaching strategies or
adapting their plans for individual children—effective teachers are intentional teachers.
Intentional teachers have a purpose for their actions; they make decisions for a reason. The
intentional teacher plans carefully in advance, but also has enough knowledge to make
thoughtful decisions throughout the day, even during the unplanned, spontaneous “teach-
able moments” that inevitably arise.
Purposeful Planning
Intentional teaching and developmentally appropriate practice go hand in
hand. Sometimes in early childhood classrooms where children spend sig-
nificant periods of time in exploration, play, and activities they choose and
pursue independently, uninformed observers may think that the situation is
“anything goes.” However, if the child is in a program that truly is develop-
mentally appropriate, teachers’ intentionality undergirds the entire program
and all of the experiences provided. The teacher carefully organizes the envi-
ronment and selects and arranges the materials to promote children’s active
engagement, both mental and physical.
In planning the learning experiences, the intentional teacher thinks care-
fully about what will foster children’s enthusiasm for learning and enable
them to reach important goals in all areas of their development and learning.
She regularly observes and assesses children and then uses the information
gleaned to gauge her interactions with the children, both individually and in small groups,
to promote ongoing learning and enable children to master new challenges.
Understand and Explain Practices
Intentional teachers are able to explain the rationale for their practices to administrators,
other teachers, and family members. Intentional teachers are also alert to the need to
modify plans, recognizing that there will be times when what they have planned doesn’t
work out. Perhaps the children master a skill sooner than expected and lose interest in the
activity; conversely, a task may be beyond the children’s current abilities and they become
confused or discouraged. In either case, an intentional teacher will have planned for such
possibilities and be prepared to modify the learning experience or shift to another strategy
that will be more effective in achieving the goal. Consider the following examples of
practices, which are generally thought to be developmentally appropriate, and light of the
additional criteria of intentionality and effectiveness:
Tiana Carstairs teaches 4-year-olds. Each day she reads a different Big Book (an
oversize picture book with limited text per page) to the class. The children enjoy the
readings and respond readily to Tiana’s questions about the letters in print or sounds
they hear. She also points out concepts of print by tracking the words on the page
left to right and noting how to turn the pages. An observer in Tiana’s class would
probably view her practice as developmentally appropriate. What the casual observer
would miss, however, is that 14 of the 16 children have mastered the print concepts
that Tiana continues to teach. In addition, 4 children already know all the letters.
Rather than use this same teaching strategy every day without reflection, Tiana
should regularly assess children’s learning so that she continually adds challenge as
children achieve new goals. Although the children enjoy the Big Book readings, the
limited vocabulary contained in the books is not helping them learn new words. Tiana
needs to be more intentional about building vocabulary in this group of children who
are already significantly behind in language development. She needs to employ effec-
tive practices such as reading more complex stories and information books in small
groups and engaging children in conversations about the readings.
Jana Baker teaches in a full-day kindergarten. She believes strongly in the value
of play for children’s learning and development, and she has been able to preserve
time and materials for play in her classroom. In the early days of Jana’s career, when
intentional teachers Teachers
who have a purpose for the deci-
sions they make and can explain
that purpose to others.
Classroom Connection
Observe how the teachers in this
video engage the children in
playful activities that are fun but
also thoughtfully planned to meet
learning goals.
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Chapter 3 Understanding and Applying Developmentally Appropriate Practice 77
parents or principals questioned her, she defended play by simply stating that it is
developmentally appropriate. But as pressures increased for literacy instruction in
kindergarten, Jana found herself thinking more critically about her practice. She ob-
served that during choice time, children’s play had become repetitive. Boys built the
same roads and towers in the block area. Few children engaged in dramatic play, and
those who did pretended to be characters they had seen on TV or in video games.
Other children wandered from one activity to another without engagement or sus-
tained interest.
Jana realized that she didn’t know enough about play; she couldn’t explain
clearly why it was valuable for children and didn’t know how to enhance children’s
involvement. After attending workshops and reading professional journals, Jana be-
came aware that there were many missed opportunities for learning in her classroom.
She learned ways to help children engage in mature, sustained, sociodramatic play
that builds social and emotional skills and language. She introduced board games to
help children learn mathematics while cooperating and having fun.
Jana began to see that choice time provided many opportunities for her to engage
in one-on-one, extended conversations with children or to build writing, reading, and
math into their play. In short, Jana became intentional in her interactions with chil-
dren during play and in the kind of play experiences she provided. As a result, play
became a more effective teaching and learning experience for the children in her
kindergarten.
Expanding Thinking and Communication Skills
Here’s What Happened after the 45-minute learning
center time in my preschool classroom, I asked each child
to tell what he or she had done. a few children just pointed
to where they had gone or ran back over there to show me.
I thought of these children as the “Pointers.” a few oth-
ers verbally identified the center they had played in, saying
something like, “I was in the block area” or just “Blocks.”
I’ll call them the “Namers.” Other children—the “Detail-
ers”—said more about what they had done and who they
played with, though their descriptions were often unclear to
anyone who hadn’t been there (“I tried to get it to stay, but
it fell”). There were variations, but basically the children
fell into these three groups.
after a few days, I began asking children to reflect in small
groups and added some more challenge. For example, with
children who were Pointers, I had a photo of each center,
and I asked the child to find the center where they had
worked. Then I said, “ah, you were building in the block
area.” I repeated the name of the center several times.
With the Namers, I asked them to tell me what they did in
the center they identified. sometimes I asked a question
such as, “What were you building today?” and if I got no
response, I added, “Were you building a road, or something
else?” I would also say things like “Hmm, let’s see, what
was I doing? I took my sick puppy to Mark and Bobbie’s
veterinarian’s office.”
With the Detailers, I used a variety of methods. sometimes
I paired two children who responded at similar levels and
had them tell each other what they had done that day. Often
children would ask each other ques-
tions like, “What fell? What were
you trying to build?”
Here’s What I Was Thinking I decided to start this
routine—asking the children what they had done in the
centers—for two reasons. First, it helps develop their abil-
ity to reflect, to think about the past rather than the pres-
ent. at their age, children are increasing in their capacity to
think back (or forward to the future) if they are encouraged
to do so. They’re very interested in their own activities, so
they are motivated, and this is a good way to extend their
oral language and communication skills.
I started wherever each individual child was and tried to
help each one go a little farther. sometimes I tried using a
visual support like the photos to see if that would help stim-
ulate more language. I also modeled both the language—for
instance, by repeating the center names—and the practice
of thinking back and reflecting on what one has done.
Having pairs of children talk to each other is useful be-
cause children want their peers to understand them and
will try hard to get their message across. I also model talk-
ing and asking questions, and the children pick it up and
do it themselves. Gradually the more verbal children who
at first give a lot of disjointed details get better at giving a
coherent account of their activities.
Reflection are there other intentional teaching strate-
gies this teacher could use to achieve her goals? What other
skills might these experiences help children develop?
Becoming an Intentional Teacher
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Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education78
As we can see in the previous scenarios, intentional teachers continually reflect on
their own decisions and gather evidence of how well children are doing. They may dis-
cuss their practices with colleagues and children’s families. They modify their practices
when these are not benefiting children. Read the feature titled Becoming an Intentional
Teacher: Expanding Thinking and Communication Skills for an example of a teacher’s
actions and the thinking behind them.
Intentional teaching requires constant decision making. Next we describe what teach-
ers need to consider when making good decisions.
✓ Check Your Understanding 3.2: Intentional Teaching
Developmentally Appropriate
Decision Making
Teachers of young children make hundreds of decisions every day: which book to read
to what size group, which questions to ask when, how to intervene with a child who is
struggling to enter a play situation, and so forth. They must be able to negotiate difficult
situations, such as what to do when a child shares a confidential family secret, how much
support to give two boys who are trying to fairly divide the blocks, and what intervention
to try with a first grader who is significantly behind in reading development. The list goes
on and on. Day after day and hour after hour, teachers are called on to determine what is
developmentally appropriate.
In many cases, decisions are the result of careful advance consideration and plan-
ning. For example, teachers must consider what kinds of learning experiences will help
the group achieve important learning goals. These decisions include planning curricu-
lum so that the learning goals established for the group are achievable and challenging
for the children. For instance, although the school district prekindergarten curriculum
calls for teaching the alphabet, Ms. Jonas determines which children in her class have
not yet achieved this goal and which children have already mastered the alphabet. The
curriculum plan as written may be appropriate for many children in the former group,
but the latter group can connect letters and sounds and use recognizable letters in their
own writing.
Other decisions include setting up the physical environment, which materials to place
where, how to schedule the day, or how to group children for various learning experi-
ences. Ms. Jonas ensures that the alphabet is displayed at children’s eye level as a model
for children’s writing, and that magnetic letters and alphabet puzzles are available for
children to manipulate in their work and play. She organizes the daily schedule to ensure
that children have ample time to write on their own and, during the day, she works in
small groups with children who need extra help.
Some situations require teachers to make immediate decisions. For instance, suppose
a dump truck pulls up outside the preschool window. The teacher may decide to interrupt
his prior plans and follow the children’s interest by taking them outside to observe the
truck unloading the gravel for a new driveway. Or he may see that most of the children are
engrossed in learning centers and decide not to interrupt. Likewise, if the story a teacher
is reading to a group doesn’t hold the children’s interest, she can readily switch gears and
select another book or engage children in an active song.
Primary-grade teachers must make numerous short- and long-term decisions as they
support children’s learning, particularly each child’s reading progress. Some teaching
decisions have lasting consequences for individual children. For example, identifying a
child for special education services or determining a plan to work with a child who is
extremely aggressive and disruptive has far-reaching consequences. When making such a
decision, the teacher needs to take into consideration many sources of information, obser-
vations over time, and the diverse perspectives of family members and other professionals
such as special educators or social workers.
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Chapter 3 Understanding and Applying Developmentally Appropriate Practice 79
Make Informed Decisions
Large or small, all decisions that teachers make should be informed decisions. NAEYC
(2009) identifies three fundamental considerations that guide teachers in making deci-
sions about what is developmentally appropriate for children:
1. Consider what is known about development and learning of children within a
given age range. Having knowledge of age-related human characteristics allows
teachers to make general predictions within an age range about what materials, in-
teractions, and experiences will be safe, interesting, challenging, and within reach
for children, and thus likely to best promote their learning and development. This
dimension is sometimes called age appropriate.
2. Consider what is known about each child as an individual. Gathering information
about the strengths, interests, and needs of each individual child in the group en-
ables teachers to adapt and be responsive to that individual variation.
3. Consider what is known about the social and cultural contexts in which children
live. Learning about the values, expectations, and behavioral and linguistic con-
ventions that shape children’s lives at home and in their communities allows teach-
ers to create learning environments and experiences that are meaningful, relevant,
and respectful of all children and their families.
Considering all this information is important because it reflects what we know about
how children develop. At each age, they share characteristics with other people within
that age range but also develop as individuals and as members of cultural groups whose
values and beliefs shape how their development occurs. Figure 3.1 depicts this model of
child development.
In each of these three areas, the knowledge to be considered is substantial and changes
over time. Intentional teachers make sure to stay informed both through ongoing profes-
sional development, which includes gaining information from new research, and through
those avenues that will provide necessary information about the children they teach, their
families, and their communities. Let’s examine each of these areas more closely and see
what each contributes to the decisions teachers make.
Consider What Is Known about Child Development and Learning
During early childhood, it is possible to make relatively accurate predictions about
children’s capabilities based on age ranges. Babies need constant care and careful
age appropriate age-related
human characteristics that allow
teachers to make general predic-
tions within an age range about
what materials, interactions,
and experiences will be safe,
interesting, challenging, and
within reach for children and,
thus, likely to best promote their
learning and development.
FIGURE 3.1 Model of Child Development This model illustrates the three core considerations of
developmentally appropriate practice—child development in general, individual variation, and social and
cultural contexts.
Unique
• Individual abilities,
strengths, needs
• Personality,
interests
•
•
Similar to children
of same age
Predictable
expectations
•
•
Values of cultural
group
Community
influence
Predictable
Context
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Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education80
supervision because they put everything in their mouths. Two-year-olds who
have mastered walking waste no time in running headlong into furniture and
walls. Preschoolers are fairly good communicators but need help to keep
expanding their vocabulary. Primary-grade children are reasonably indepen-
dent learners when motivated by the topic or activity.
Adults—especially parents, family members, and teachers—consider
what is developmentally appropriate every day without necessarily recog-
nizing it. For instance, when selecting a toy for 2-year-old Hudson, his aunt
chooses a schoolhouse with a handle for carrying. The toy has a label that
indicates there are no small parts that can be swallowed. She determines that
the toy is manageable for most toddlers whose fine motor skills are limited,
so they are unlikely to become frustrated. Because the toy is age appropriate,
it should hold Hudson’s interest. Like most 2-year-olds, Hudson is beginning
to engage in pretend play and also loves to carry his toys around with him.
At other times, adults fail to recognize what is inappropriate as when competitive soccer
leagues for 4-year-olds are organized.
Some characteristics that young children typically demonstrate are common knowl-
edge. For example, when a young panda cub makes his media debut, reporters observe that
he behaves “like a toddler.” Readers immediately get the picture even without the descrip-
tion—“He squirmed in the arms of his keepers, climbed and tumbled over a rock pile, and
walked through a small stream. He also showed a penchant for putting things in his mouth”
(Barker, 2005).
Knowing age-related characteristics helps guide teachers’ expectations of children’s
behavior and abilities, the organization of the environment, and the materials provided.
They also guide teachers’ planning and affect their interactions with children. One ex-
ample of age-appropriate interaction is how parents, teachers, grandparents, friends, older
children, and even strangers talk to babies differently from how they do to each other. All
over the world, people speak to babies in a high-pitched, repetitive voice, called moth-
erese or parentese, which infants consistently prefer hearing (Matychuk, 2005). Hearing
the exaggerated sounds of parentese apparently makes it easier for babies to learn the
sounds of their own language and is emotionally engaging.
Consider What Is Individually Appropriate One of the most basic principles
of child development is that there are individual differences. In fact, children demonstrate
a wide range of variability across every area of development—physical, cognitive, social,
and emotional—while remaining within the range of “typical” development.
The development of some children falls beyond the range of what’s predictable in one
aspect or another. For example, in some respects, children with disabilities or develop-
mental delays and children who are gifted add further diversity to the range of individual
differences. A developmentally appropriate program accommodates individual variation.
The expert lens feature, Including All Children: Developmentally Appropriate Practice
and Children with Disabilities, illustrates this point.
Averages or norms never tell more than a small part of the story. Far more informative
is the range; that is, the large variation of growth or performance across different individu-
als within the age (Copple & Bredekamp, 2006). Picture a group of 4-year-old children.
They range in height from 35 to 46 inches, and in weight from 30 to 55 pounds. One can
already skip, while another still takes the stairs two feet at a time. One can read, while
another knows only a few letters. One converses fluently in two languages, while another
has just mastered talking in complete sentences. One will play for extended periods with
two or more friends, while another struggles to play cooperatively for even a short time.
Children also have individual personality traits and preferences, some of which are
obvious even in early infancy. Some babies are feisty, while others are more passive.
Some children stand back and watch for quite a while before attempting something new,
and some plunge right in. Some children talk nonstop, while others cannot be enticed
to speak up. One preschooler rides a tricycle with abandon, while another prefers to sit
Classroom Connection
as you watch this video, observe
the diverse ways that children
play in early childhood programs
and listen as Dr. Jeffrey Trawick-
smith describes what we know
from child development research
about the important benefits of
play.
https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=vnH4Ijen7OI
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Chapter 3 Understanding and Applying Developmentally Appropriate Practice 81
quietly with a puzzle or pegboard. A second grader loves to read and spends all of her free
time with a book, while another struggles with reading but looks forward to math because
it’s her best subject.
The term individually appropriate refers to teachers using what they know about the
personality, strengths, interests, and abilities of each individual child in the group to adapt
for and be responsive to individual variation. Consider, for instance, two tricycle riders:
The fearless rider may need more careful supervision to prevent injury, while the warier
child may need extra encouragement and support to develop his large motor skills. Similar-
ly, some children will need enriched experiences to accelerate their language development,
while a few may need individual support to continue to build on their precocious reading
ability. A withdrawn, timid child may need a great deal of emotional support to cope with
life’s challenges, while another needs help controlling aggression to make friends.
With the individual differences that exist, teachers clearly cannot expect all children
in a group to learn the same thing in the same way at the same time. Even when the
teacher introduces a concept or reads a book to a whole group, each child will take away
something different from the learning experience. Therefore, to help children progress,
individually appropriate
Information about the strengths,
interests, abilities, and needs
of each individual child in the
group that enables teachers to
adapt to and be responsive to
individual variation.
People sometimes wonder if developmentally appro-
priate practices are effective for children with dis-
abilities. The fact is that the basic elements of de-
velopmentally appropriate practice are necessary for
inclusion to succeed. Consider the following example:
Isaac is 4 years old and has a diagnosis of autism.
He is sitting on a brightly colored carpet square
between two of his preschool peers at circle time.
His teacher is reading a book the class made called
Friends, Friends, Who Do You See? It is adapted
from Brown Bear, Brown Bear (Martin, 1996), but
features pictures of the children in the class paired
with their names. Isaac loves the book, and reads
along with the teacher. as the teacher reads each
child’s name in the story, he or she stands up and
moves. after the story, it is time for singing. Isaac
knows this because circle time happens in a similar
routine each day.
The teacher pulls out the “song chart” featur-
ing the pictures and titles of eight different songs.
One song is about a train. Isaac loves trains and
seems eager to hear the new song. He points to the
“Trains on the track.” The teacher helps Isaac re-
move the song card. Isaac holds the card while the
children sing. Then Isaac makes the sign for “play”
with his hands. The teacher says, “yes, Isaac, it is
time for centers.” she lets Isaac choose a center
first because she knows it is hard for him to wait.
Isaac brings the teacher the song card and then
points to the picture of the water table. His teacher
models, “I want to play at the. . . .” Isaac says,
“Water table.” His teacher, proud of his increasing
verbal skills, gives him a hug and says, “Off you go
to the water table.” When Isaac’s mother picks him
up from school, his teacher describes how often he
used his words and which friends he played with
during center time.
By contrast, when children with disabilities are included
in programs that are not developmentally appropriate,
it becomes difficult for the child with special needs—
indeed, for all of the children—to make meaningful
progress. Compare this child’s experience to Isaac’s:
Tara, also a 4-year-old with autism, is sitting next to
her teacher at circle time. The teacher is reading from
a small-sized book, and many of the children can-
not see the pictures very well, including Tara. Circle
time has been in progress for over 20 minutes and
many of the children are getting restless. Tara begins
rocking back and forth and looking at the door. With-
out warning, the teacher stops reading the book and
tells the children to stand up for a finger play. Tara
bolts from the circle and runs to the water table. she
begins splashing and yelling. The teacher stops and
asks Tara to return to circle. When Tara does not re-
turn on her own volition, the assistant teacher physi-
cally moves her back to the circle, and a 10-minute
struggle ensues. When Tara’s father comes to pick her
up, the teacher describes “her bad day” and asks him
to talk to Tara about listening at school.
a child with a disability acts like a magnifying glass on
the developmental appropriateness of an early child-
hood program. as is clear from Isaac’s case and by
contrast Tara’s experience, developmentally appropri-
ate practice provides the necessary foundation for his
successful inclusion in the program. But individually
appropriate adaptations are also essential for children
with disabilities and other special needs.
Developmentally Appropriate Practice
and Children with Disabilities
Including All Children
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Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education82
teachers must continually keep track of what children know
and are able to do, what they are struggling with, and what
is engaging their interest and meets their needs.
Consider Children’s Social and Cultural Con-
texts All learning and development occur in and are in-
fluenced by social and cultural contexts (Bronfenbrenner,
2004). In fact, appropriate behavior is always culturally
defined. The cultural contexts a child grows up in begin
with the family and extend to include the cultural group
or groups with which the family identifies. Culture refers
to the behaviors, values, and beliefs that a group shares
and passes on from one generation to the next. Because
children share their cultural context with members of their
group, cultural differences are differences between groups
rather than individuals. Therefore, cultural variation needs
to be considered as well as individual variation in deciding
what is developmentally appropriate.
Children learn the values, beliefs, expectations, and
habitual patterns of behavior of the social and cultural con-
texts in their lives. Cultural groups, for example, have char-
acteristic ways of showing respect; there may be different
rules for how to properly greet an older or younger person,
a friend, or a stranger. Attitudes about time and personal
space vary among cultures, as do the ways to take care of a
baby and dress for different occasions. In fact, most of our
experiences are filtered through the lenses of our cultural
group. We typically learn cultural rules very early and very
deeply, so they are not part of our conscious thought.
Social contexts of young children’s lives differ in ways
such as these: Is the child growing up in a large family, or
a family of one or two children? In a single-parent family,
a two-parent family, with same-sex parents, or in a house-
hold that includes extended family members? In an urban,
suburban, or rural setting? Has the child been in group care
from a young age, or is this the first time in a group pro-
gram? What social and economic resources are available to
the family? All of these situations frame the social context
and impact children’s lives in unique ways.
For young children, what makes sense and how they re-
spond to new experiences are fundamentally shaped by the
social and cultural contexts to which they have become ac-
customed. To ensure that learning experiences are meaning-
ful, relevant, and respectful to children and their families—that is, for those experiences to
be culturally appropriate or culturally responsive—teachers must have some knowledge
of the social and cultural contexts in which children live. Such knowledge helps teachers
build on children’s prior experiences and learning so they can help children progress.
All young children must adjust when they move from the security and familiarity of
their homes into schools or early childhood programs. The challenge is greatest, however,
for children whose cultural experiences at home differ sharply from those predominating
at the school or program. For these children, the transition can be confusing and frighten-
ing. Consider a Native American child, whose culture expects children to quietly listen
and observe adults, entering a classroom where the teacher expects everyone to speak up.
Think of how you feel, at least for a moment, when people around you are speaking a lan-
guage you don’t understand. Even as adults with all of our coping mechanisms intact, we
Because children’s needs,
interests, and abilities differ
as they grow and change, a
developmentally appropriate
environment for babies and tod-
dlers looks very different from
one for preschoolers or primary
grade children.
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Chapter 3 Understanding and Applying Developmentally Appropriate Practice 83
tend to feel uncertain, ignorant, and uncomfortable in environments different from those
to which we are accustomed. (Are they talking about us?)
For teachers, being responsive to all social and cultural variation can be challenging.
Our own cultural experience is so integral to us that we are rarely aware of it. If we are
in the position of power as a teacher, we must be especially careful to be aware of and
respectful toward those whose cultural backgrounds and accepted rules for behavior may
be different from ours. Most important, we must be careful not to assume that our own
cultural perspective is superior and make negative judgments based on our cultural varia-
tions. An example illustrates the potentially damaging result of such judgments:
A European American teacher is employed in a school serving a predominantly African
American community. One of her principal teaching strategies is questioning. But she
finds that her questions are often met with blank stares or disdain from the children
and she assumes they don’t know the answers. She doesn’t realize that within their
cultural community, people rarely ask questions that they already know the answers to.
To better accommodate the realities of cultural and linguistic diversity in schools and
early childhood programs, teachers today need to work at being especially sensitive and
responsive to the perspectives of children and their families that may be different from
their own. To broaden your own perspective, read the Culture Lens: The Role of Culture
in Development feature.
Consider all you Know When Making Decisions
The three considerations that teachers must take into account when making decisions—
knowledge about children’s learning and development, information about individual
children, and information about the social and cultural contexts of children’s lives—
culture The explicit and
implicit values, beliefs, rules,
and expectations for behavior
of members of a group that are
passed on from one generation
to the next.
culturally appropriate applying
knowledge of the social and cul-
tural contexts in which children
live, which helps teachers build
on children’s prior knowledge
and make experiences meaning-
ful and responsive.
Take a moment to think about what you understand
about culture. Do you tend to think about culture only
as characteristic of children and families who are
“culturally different”? Does the concept of culture ap-
ply only to some children? actually, it is important to
remember that every child is socialized in a cultural
group, and the most important elements influencing
children’s development are really aspects of their cul-
tural experiences that are often the hardest to observe.
What people sometimes think of as “cultural” are the
products that culture produces, such as dress or holiday
celebrations. These are the surface features of culture.
But culture produces more indiscernible behaviors and
attitudes that emerge from the same set of rules as the
surface features of culture. These deep structural as-
pects of culture act as much more powerful influences
on children’s development than the surface features do.
For example, if the cultural group believes that women
should not be seen by men except for those in the im-
mediate family, a woman’s mode of dress will reflect
this value. at the same time, this cultural belief will
have much farther reaching effects on her behavior and
life choices than simply how she dresses. Consider an
example in an early childhood classroom:
It is circle time in kindergarten and the children are
supposed to bring an object from home that has writ-
ing on it. Most of the children eagerly seek their turn,
waving their hands widely, and showing off how well
they can read the words. Jai has brought something
but is not eager to share. The teacher assumes that
he can’t read the words. so, she doesn’t call on him.
as in all developmental domains, culture influences
the expression of emotions. although emotions such
as fear, anger, and happiness are part of human inter-
action in all cultural groups, variations emerge in the
way they are expressed. Jai, who is from India, is from
a cultural group that avoids drawing too much atten-
tion to individuals or expressing emotions too openly.
Children from other, more individualistic cultures such
as the United states’ are generally encouraged to ex-
press their feelings openly. These cultural differences
account for Jai’s behavior and that of the other chil-
dren in his class more than their reading abilities do.
Cultural differences do not mean that one way is right
and the others wrong. They simply demonstrate that
there is a wide variety of developmental patterns that
can be explained best by understanding the cultural
context in which development occurs.
The Role of Culture in Development
Culture Lens
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Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education84
should not be viewed in isolation. All three considerations, in fact, interact with and
influence each other; they are always intertwined in shaping children’s development and
behavior. For example, children all over the world follow a similar developmental pat-
tern when learning language. They all progress from cooing, to babbling, to one-word
utterances, to telegraphic speech (“Daddy up”), to short sentences, and finally to more
complex sentences. However, a wide range of individual variation exists in language
acquisition of children who are roughly the same age, because of differences in language
experience as well as developmental variation. At age 3, Joey speaks in three-word ut-
terances, whereas his same-age cousin, Michael, expounds in paragraphs. Finally, each
child speaks the language, including the dialect, of his or her own cultural group. Six-
year-old Amelia speaks English to her mother and Spanish to her father. All of these fac-
tors influence children’s language development and how teachers think about supporting
it optimally for all children.
Now let’s look at how the meshing of the three considerations plays out in the deci-
sions of one primary grade teacher:
Frida Lopez has 22 children in her first-grade class. Her first challenge each year is to
get to know the children well. She meets with their families, engages in one-on-one
conversations with children, observes their behavior and skills throughout the day,
and sets up specific tasks to evaluate their skills such as literacy tasks or solving math
problems with counters.
As she gets to know her students, she regularly assesses their abilities and in-
terests in relation to what she knows from her study of child development, the cur-
riculum goals, and her experiences teaching other 6- and 7-year-olds. She finds that
a few children exceed her expectations in reading or social skills, whereas others are
significantly behind their peers in some areas. Each child has a unique personality
and profile of abilities, and Frida becomes more aware of these.
Neela has Down syndrome, and Frida has already met with her parents and the
team of special education professionals who create and implement an individualized
educational plan for her. After a few weeks, Frida becomes concerned that another
child, Almonzo, might have an undiagnosed language delay. In the case of the six
children whose home languages are not ones Frida knows, she recognizes that she
must take extra steps to find out about them. Using community volunteers and, in
one case, a paid translator, Frida connects with the families of her students to build
relationships and to learn what capabilities the children exhibit in their homes and
communities.
So we see that in meeting the children, Frida seamlessly draws on her knowledge
of child development and learning, as well as her knowledge of them as individuals and
members of cultural groups. Precisely because children are so different and their abilities
vary so greatly, Frida will need to draw from a wide repertoire of teaching strategies to
help them achieve developmentally appropriate goals.
So far we have described the areas of knowledge that teachers consider in making
decisions about developmentally appropriate practice—what teachers need to know and
think about. Now we turn to the work of the teachers—what do early childhood teachers
do? What are the dimensions of practice that describe the teacher’s role?
✓ Check Your Understanding 3.3: Developmentally Appropriate Decision Making
The Complex Role of the Teacher
According to the NAEYC’s (2009) guidelines for developmentally appropriate practice,
the complex job of an early childhood teacher has five interrelated dimensions: (1)
creating a caring community of learners, (2) teaching to enhance learning and devel-
opment, (3) planning curriculum to achieve important goals, (4) assessing children’s
learning and development, and (5) establishing reciprocal relationships with families.
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Chapter 3 Understanding and Applying Developmentally Appropriate Practice 85
One way to remember these dimensions is to visualize the five points of a star, as
depicted in Figure 3.2. Each of the five points is necessary for the star to be complete,
and they are all interrelated—take one away and the figure is no longer a star.
It may be helpful, in fact, to think of it as a “mariner’s star.” Seafaring people use the
stars to guide their way, but without considerable knowledge of the stars’ positioning and
their relation to navigation, mindlessly following a star won’t lead to a destination. So it
is with the mariner’s star of early childhood teaching. Each of the star’s points links to
a set of guidelines that represent a large body of knowledge about early childhood edu-
cation. Just as the stars guide seafaring people, the mariner’s star helps guide teachers’
professional behavior; but without that strong foundation of knowledge, the guidelines
themselves have little meaning.
In the following sections, we introduce each aspect of the teacher’s role in accor-
dance with NAEYC’s guidelines for developmentally appropriate practice. Each of these
aspects of the teacher’s role is described in later chapters.
Create a Caring Community of Learners
An early childhood setting—whether it serves infants and toddlers, preschoolers, kinder-
gartners, or second graders—needs to be a caring community of learners. The term caring
community of learners incorporates several key ideas that characterize early childhood
education: (1) Children’s care and education are equally important; (2) children learn
through positive relationships with adults and other children; and (3) the learning context
matters—the indoor and outdoor environments, how the environments are organized, and
the materials and equipment they contain.
caring community of learners
a group or classroom in which
children and adults engage in
warm, positive relationships,
treat each other with respect,
and learn from and with each
other.
FIGURE 3.2 Mariner’s Star: The Complex Role of the Teacher The image of the Mariner’s star
illustrates how the teacher’s many roles are integrally connected.
Source: adapted from Basics of Developmentally Appropriate Practice: An Introduction for Teachers of Children
3 to 6, by C. Copple and s. Bredekamp, 2006, p. 24, Washington, DC: NaEyC. Reprinted with permission from
the National association for the Education of young Children.
Plan
Curriculum
to Achieve
Important
Goals
Plan
Curriculum
to Achieve
Important
Goals
Assess
Learning and
Development
Assess
Learning and
Development
Teach to
Enhance Learning
and Development
Teach to
Enhance Learning
and Development
Create a
Caring
Community
of Learners
Create a
Caring
Community
of Learners
Build
Relationships
with Families
Build
Relationships
with Families
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Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education86
Children learn when they feel safe and cared for. They thrive in an en-
vironment in which they see positive images that reflect their own identity,
such as photos of themselves and their families; where they see their own
contributions to the community; and when they see their own work displayed.
They also see examples throughout the community that reinforce their cul-
tural identity. The messages are clear to each child: You belong here. We care
about and support each other. You have important things to contribute to this
group. You will thrive here.
The foundation of young children’s learning is in positive relationships
with other people who are responsive to them. At the same time, the early
childhood setting is a learning community where adults and children learn
with and from each other. Each child’s thinking can build on or challenge that
of another. When Josué tells Willa she can’t be the doctor because she’s a girl,
Willa promptly informs him, “I go to Dr. Ashai and she’s a lady, so there.” Josué has to
adjust his concept of doctor to include women as well as men.
In a caring community, children acquire the ability to regulate their own emotions
and behavior and to make friends. Teachers actively teach children social and emotional
skills and engage in individualized interventions for children who persistently demon-
strate challenging behaviors such as aggression.
Teach to Enhance Learning and Development
Teaching seems the most obvious aspect of the teacher’s role, but it isn’t simple at all.
Early childhood teachers typically do not conform to the images that come to mind for
many adults when they think of “teaching”—the teacher standing in front of a blackboard
or at a podium lecturing. Teaching simply looks different in the early childhood setting,
and it takes many forms.
Effective early childhood teachers know the children in their group very well. They
thoughtfully plan the learning experiences and environment with these children in mind
while also keeping in mind the learning goals. They use a variety of teaching strategies
to help each child develop and learn. And they guide young children to become socially
responsible, self-regulating, contributing members of the community.
Classroom Connection
Listen as these primary-grade
children describe what it means
to be part of a caring community
of learners. What other ways do
you think a caring school commu-
nity benefits children?
https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=zjrl2HqCTua
Intentional teachers use every possible opportunity to promote children’s learning, including preplanned
small group lessons, and conversations throughout the day.
©
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op
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F
u
tc
h
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/V
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http://https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zjrl2HqCTuA
Chapter 3 Understanding and Applying Developmentally Appropriate Practice 87
Teachers also use various learning contexts such as teacher-guided group work, in-
cluding large-group and small-group preplanned experiences, and periods of play and en-
gagement in which children primarily guide their own activity with the support of teachers
(Epstein, 2014; Pianta, Barnett, Burchinal, & Thornburg, 2009). Teachers use various ways
of grouping children for learning; they may gather a reading group of similar ability level or
organize a group of children with different language abilities to work together on a project.
Teachers’ behavior needs to vary with the setting as well. In addition, routines such as eat-
ing meals and transitioning from one place or activity to another are all potentially valuable
learning contexts if teachers use these activities as opportunities for one-on-one conversa-
tions with children or to reinforce a learning goal through singing a song or reciting a poem.
Plan Curriculum to achieve Important Goals
If developmentally appropriate practice tends to focus on the how of teaching, then curric-
ulum is the what—the content that children are expected to learn. Curriculum is a writ-
ten plan that describes the knowledge and skills to be taught in the educational program
and the learning experiences through which teaching takes place (Copple & Bredekamp,
2006, p. 61).
Currently, there is increased demand for scientifically based curriculum that is
based on research about important learning goals that predict later achievement, the se-
quences in which concepts and skills build on each other, and the teaching strategies
that have proven effective. Whatever the process through which a curriculum is selected,
developed, or planned, to be effective it must be implemented with attention to individual
differences and cultural variation among children (NAEYC & National Association of
Early Childhood Specialists in State Departments of Education [NAECS/SDE], 2003).
Good curriculum, whether published resources used in school districts or teacher
developed, offers teachers flexibility and ways of adapting, often providing many more
suggested activities or materials than teachers could possibly use. Thus, they have many
further decisions to make. Teachers need to be very familiar with the curriculum plan, es-
pecially the key learning and development outcomes for children—that is, what children
should know and be able to do as a result of their participation in this program.
assess Children’s Development and Learning
In the current era of educational accountability, assessment is often a controversial topic.
However, it is an integral component of developmentally appropriate practice. Assessment
is the process of observing and documenting the work children do and how they do it as
the basis for a variety of educational decisions. Assessment is important because teachers
must draw on assessment information about individual children in an ongoing, systematic
process to understand children’s learning and development.
Children, especially very young children, are moving targets. What they can’t do
today, they can do tomorrow. What they didn’t know or understand yesterday may gradu-
ally become clear, or they may have an “Aha!” moment of recognition. Their development
may follow a predictable though somewhat slower trajectory in one area, or they may be
in need of intervention for a serious developmental delay. To address any of these situa-
tions, teachers must use appropriate, accurate tools to assess children.
Each decision that teachers make about children has consequences. The more impor-
tant and lasting the consequence, the more vital it is that the decision is based on multiple
sources of information, including information from parents.
Build Relationships with Families
and Communities
Young children do not come with résumés; they come with families. NAEYC (2009)
guidelines emphasize the importance of teachers and administrators developing recipro-
cal relationships with children’s families. Reciprocal refers to a two-way relationship,
curriculum a written plan
that describes the goals for
children’s learning and develop-
ment, and the learning experi-
ences, materials, and teaching
strategies that are used to help
children achieve those goals.
scientifically based curriculum
Derives from research evidence
about what kinds of learning
outcomes relate to later achieve-
ment, and what types of teach-
ing and learning experiences
help children acquire those
outcomes. such a curriculum
has been evaluated and its ef-
fectiveness demonstrated.
assessment The ongoing
process of gathering evidence of
children’s learning and develop-
ment, and then organizing and
interpreting the information to
make informed decisions about
instructional practice.
reciprocal relationship a
two-way relationship in which
information and power are
shared evenly.
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Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education88
in which information and power are shared evenly. Such a relationship is based on mu-
tual respect, trust, cooperation, and shared responsibility. A reciprocal relationship re-
quires regular open communication and a willingness to negotiate differences toward
shared goals.
We’ve already seen that in order to teach young children effectively, teachers must
get to know each child well. The younger the child, the more teachers must rely on family
members as key informants about the child’s competencies, interests, needs, and cultural
experiences. Young children’s competencies are not always apparent, especially if they
have been acquired in a cultural context that is different from that of the teacher. For
example, a child may know colors and basic shapes and be able to count up to 20 in Rus-
sian, yet demonstrate none of this knowledge in English at school. Through a relationship
with the parents, however, this teacher can ascertain that she needs to help the child learn
the English words for concepts he already knows, rather than teach these concepts. This
allows both the teacher and child the opportunity to use what he already knows and move
on to other important concepts more efficiently.
The Teacher’s Role in Context
In each aspect of their work, whether creating a caring community, teaching, planning
curriculum, assessing, or working with families, teachers must draw on a broad base of
information to make useful decisions. The following example illustrates how the five
dimensions of the teacher’s role come together during a memorable experience for a
beginning teacher:
Scotty’s teacher, Gina, believes him to be the “bad boy” in his preschool class. Gina
feels she is constantly correcting what he has done wrong. One day, a fight breaks
out in the block corner and a chorus of voices arises, shouting, “Scotty did it!” Gina
sighs, not surprised by these events, until she remembers that Scotty isn’t there that
day. She realizes that her focus on Scotty’s misdeeds has made him the “bad boy” in
everyone’s eyes.
Developmentally appropriate practices are respectful of children’s cultural and linguistic backgrounds.
Intentional teachers build two-way, reciprocal relationships with families to get to know children as
individuals and to understand their cultural context.
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Chapter 3 Understanding and Applying Developmentally Appropriate Practice 89
Her realization forces Gina to reflect on her own and Scotty’s behavior. She real-
izes that she doesn’t really know Scotty, and spends time systematically observing
him. Soon she discovers strengths she can help him build on, such as his exceptional
fine motor skills, and comes to see that there is much Scotty can do well. She gives
him opportunities to use these skills (she allows him to cut up the oranges for snack
under her supervision), and finally catches him doing something right for a change.
Gina also meets with Scotty’s mother so that together they can begin to focus on his
positive behavior rather than his missteps. Gradually, Gina notices that Scotty’s be-
havior improves. As a result, both Gina and Scotty’s mother begin to enjoy him more.
With more support and a sense of accomplishment, he makes friends with several
other children.
Scotty’s teacher wasn’t named Gina. I was actually his teacher, and I learned a lot
about developmentally appropriate practice from this firsthand experience. In making
professional decisions, teachers should always consider strategies to broaden their own
perspective, as illustrated by Scotty’s situation. They need to take into consideration as
many points of view as possible—to “widen the lens” with which they see children, their
families, and the educational process.
Widening the Lens: Moving from Either/Or
to Both/And Thinking
Questions of educational practices in the United States are often dichotomized as either/
or choices (Bishop-Josef & Zigler, 2011; Zigler, Gilliam, & Barnett, 2011). Is phonics or
vocabulary more important in learning to read? Should preschool stress social-emotional
development or cognitive development? Should early childhood programs provide child-
initiated or teacher-directed experiences? These either/or choices oversimplify the com-
plex processes of becoming literate or developing the whole child. Either/or thinking
assumes that there is one right answer to a complex question. Instead, children would be
better served and educators more effective if the questions were addressed with both/and
thinking. Both/and thinking rejects simplistic answers to complex questions and requires
diverse perspectives and several possible answers to be considered.
To avoid either/or thinking, it is useful to use the analogy of widening the lens. Think
of yourself as holding a camera and altering the view by adjusting the lens. Depending on
how you adjust the lens, your view and, therefore, your perspective changes. You might
zoom in on one child’s expression, or you might zoom out to see the whole room arrange-
ment. If you use a video camera, you could gain more information about the context,
perhaps including the child’s friends, extended family, or community. In fact, to engage
in developmentally appropriate decision making, teachers must indeed widen their views.
Just as the camera lens adjusts to display different views, teachers allow their minds to
expand and accommodate several ideas at once.
As we have discussed, children of similar ages are both alike and different. Like-
wise, children of the same cultural group share some characteristics but not all. When
you widen the lens, you will find that your view broadens and you can incorporate more
information. As a result, you are less likely to get stuck in either/or thinking. When you
widen the lens through which you look at children, the curriculum, teaching practices, as-
sessment, and families—all aspects of your work—you begin to recognize the complexity
and interrelationships among the principles that guide early childhood practice.
When teachers are willing to look beyond the view they have held, they enhance their
effectiveness in their work with children and families. Consider the following example
that demonstrates the power of widening the lens:
Ms. Grantham is the director of a Head Start program. Several parents complain to
her that they aren’t seeing worksheets or similar products showing their children’s
learning coming home in the backpacks or displayed in the classroom. Her program
doesn’t use worksheets because their philosophy of developmentally appropriate
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Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education90
practice is based on children’s active engagement. Ms. Grantham believes that work-
sheets are just busy work for children and don’t really teach them anything.
At first, she thinks that the parents are just uninformed about good early child-
hood education. But she asks a few more questions to better understand their perspec-
tive. Ms. Grantham comes to see that both she and the parents want the children to
succeed—in the wider view, they are in agreement. And what the families are asking
for is evidence that the children are in fact learning and on track to succeed in school.
Reflecting on the parents’ legitimate desire, Mrs. Grantham realizes that she
could do a much better job of sharing with the families concrete samples of the chil-
dren’s work that show what they are learning and how they are thinking. She explains
that worksheets are not effective because instead of active learning, they simply call
for right answers (“circle the 4”) and busy work like coloring. Worksheets are more
like testing than learning. She begins to collect portfolios of children’s drawings and
writing, transcripts of their language, and photos of their project work and meets
with families regularly. She displays the children’s work, describes what they have
learned and will be learning next, and what she and the teachers are doing to help
build the children’s skills and knowledge. Along with the children, Mrs. Grantham
develops a class website through which they communicate to families about their
work in progress.
Now it’s your turn. What do you see when you widen your lens? Try to think of
several examples where widening the lens would help you be a better teacher or improve
your relationships with family members, college professors, or work colleagues. For an
example of the effectiveness of both/and practices, read the feature, What Works: How
Both Teacher-Directed and Child-Initiated Experiences Promote Learning.
✓ Check Your Understanding 3.4: The Complex Role of the Early Childhood Teacher
How Both Teacher-Directed and Child-Initiated
Experiences Promote Learning
One issue that is too often presented as a dichotomy in discus-
sions of developmentally appropriate practice is teacher-directed
vs. child-initiated experiences. as we have seen, both are impor-
tant components of intentional teaching. Considerable research
supports this finding, including data from the influential, longi-
tudinal study of the Chicago Child-Parent Centers. These centers
provided preschool and kindergarten for children from low-income
families with extensive parent involvement that continued into
early elementary school. strong positive effects on participating
children’s school achievement and life outcomes were found 25
years later.
To delve deeper into what accounted for the lasting effects,
researchers analyzed the curriculum and teaching practices that
teachers reported using most often. This analysis involved more
than 900 children in 20 centers. The researchers found that chil-
dren whose teachers used a blend of teacher-directed and child-
initiated activities were more likely to be ready for kindergarten,
have higher reading achievement in third and eighth grades, and
avoid being retained in grade. Moreover, they found that teaching
practices that emphasized only teacher-directed
or child-initiated activities were less related to
children’s school success over time.
One interesting pattern they found was that child-initiated
teaching in the early years was more associated with high school
completion by age 22 than approaches that were low in both
teacher directedness and child initiation (that is, a low degree of
intentionality among teachers), and those that were overly teacher-
directed.
The researchers concluded that this both/and approach to
early childhood teaching—intentionally providing teacher-initiated
and child-initiated learning experiences—along with a high degree
of parent involvement accounted for the long-term benefits of the
Chicago Child-Parent Centers.
Source: “More Than Teacher Directed or Child Initiated: Preschool Cur-
riculum Type, Parent Involvement, and Children’s Outcomes in the Child-
Parent Centers,” by E. Graue, M. a. Clements, a. J. Reynolds, and M. D.
Niles, 2004, Education Policy Analysis Archives, 12, retrieved from http://
epaa.asu.edu/ojs/article/viewFile/227/353.
What Works
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Chapter 3 Understanding and Applying Developmentally Appropriate Practice 91
Developmentally Appropriate
Learning Environments
How the learning environment and children’s daily schedules are organized
are the most obvious indicators of whether a program is developmentally
appropriate. The environment should be rich in equipment and materials that
are safe, healthy, interesting, and engaging for the age group of children for
which it is designed. Because children’s needs and abilities predictably vary
by age, to be developmentally appropriate, environments should look differ-
ent for infants, toddlers, preschoolers, or school-age children.
Organize the Physical space
Environments send messages, often subtle or even subconscious, about how
to behave or which behaviors are acceptable. Libraries convey the message
that soft voices and quiet reading are expected. Open spaces and playgrounds
invite children to run and chase one another around. With the knowledge that environ-
ments send messages, teachers need to consciously think about the messages they want
their classroom environments to send to children.
The classroom needs to be accessible to all children, including children with disabili-
ties, and organized so that children can interact positively, function as independently as
possible, and learn decision-making skills. For example, teachers should make sure there
is enough space for active play that is protected from traffic. They should also make sure to
provide enough age-appropriate materials and duplicates of popular toys so children do not
always have to share, which can lead to frustration and, ultimately, conflict.
A developmentally appropriate preschool or kindergarten environment should be or-
ganized into separate learning centers, which are defined areas of the classroom that
have a particular purpose and that contain relevant furnishings and materials. Learning
centers in a preschool typically include a library area, blocks, dramatic play, writing cen-
ter, art center, manipulative toys near tables, and a group meeting area. Learning centers
enable children to focus their attention, promote small-group interaction, and require
children to make choices and experience the consequences of those choices. Figure 3.3
depicts a room arrangement for a preschool or kindergarten classroom that is organized
with these guidelines in mind:
• Allow children to independently choose their own activities for part of each day.
• Establish clear boundaries between learning centers by using furniture, floor cov-
erings (carpet, tile), or shelves that help limit the number of children who work or
play in each area at one time.
• Locate quiet areas, such as the book, art, writing, and computer centers, next to
each other, separated from noisier and more active centers such as blocks, dramatic
play, or woodworking.
• Provide easily supervised places for children to be alone or with a friend.
• Locate messy activities such as sand and water play and art projects near a source
of water for easy access and cleanup.
• Provide a comfortable meeting space for the whole group to engage in music,
movement, book reading, and other large-group activities. Designate seating ar-
rangements so children are not crowded or distracted by toys within reach.
• Eliminate unnecessary clutter, which can distract and agitate some children.
• Avoid large open spaces or corridors that invite children to run.
An environment for babies and toddlers, on the other hand, should be more individu-
alized with large areas for active play and separate spaces for sleeping, feeding, and dia-
pering. There should be carpeting for crawlers and soft furniture for children to snuggle
with a teacher while looking at a book or pull themselves up on.
Classroom Connection
This video takes you on a tour of
a developmentally appropriate
preschool environment. Notice how
the furnishings, toys, and space
are organized to allow for chil-
dren’s independent use while also
encouraging them to stretch their
abilities.
learning centers Defined areas
of the classroom that have a
particular purpose and that
contain relevant furnishings
and materials.
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Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education92
A classroom for primary-grade children would have tables or desks arranged in clus-
ters so children can face each other and work collaboratively. Primary-grade children
should take an active role in designing the environment. Learning centers in a primary-
grade school are more closely linked to curriculum areas such as a reading corner or a
science observation area. Spaces for individual or small group work are also needed as
well as a whole class meeting area.
Organize the Day
Another way for teachers to ensure developmentally appropriate learning experiences
for children is to carefully plan how time is used. If the schedule is not carefully planned
with children’s developmental needs in mind, learning opportunities will be missed or
children’s valuable time will be wasted. Many of the difficulties that children exhibit in
school are related to how the day is organized. Teachers can alleviate these difficulties by
providing a consistent, predictable routine that children can rely on. At the same time,
teachers need to be flexible so they can easily change plans in response to children’s
interests or to unanticipated events.
Young children are often thought to have short attention spans; however, the amount
of time they engage in small-group activities that they have chosen is often considerably
longer than adults would expect. Children’s attention during activities that involve the
whole group, such as story reading or morning meetings, is usually more limited and
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Counter with StorageOverhead Teacher Storage SinkCots
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Carpeted Area
Small Group Work
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Library
Discovery Area
Plants, Pets,
Investigation Tools
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FIGURE 3.3 Preschool/Kindergarten Classroom Arrangement a developmentally appropriate en-
vironment for preschoolers or kindergarteners is organized into learning centers that support child-guided
and teacher-guided experiences.
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Chapter 3 Understanding and Applying Developmentally Appropriate Practice 93
difficult to maintain because there are so many distractions. So time should be planned
accordingly. Figure 3.4 provides an example of a daily schedule for a preschool or kin-
dergarten classroom.
Ideally, in an effective classroom, the schedule for the day is posted so that chil-
dren can predict what will happen throughout the day. At times, the schedule will
Approximate
Times (vary
by program or
school schedule) Activity
15 to 30 minutes
8:00–8:30
Arrival: Teachers greet children and families. Children store belongings, wash hands, fi nd
a quiet activity such as looking at books or drawing, or eat breakfast.
15 to 20 minutes
8:30–8:50
Morning meeting: Teachers and children gather in whole group to plan for the day and
encourage a sense of community and belonging in the group. They share music and
movement.
60 to 75 minutes
9:00–10:15
Center time and small groups: Children play and work in learning centers that the
teacher has prepared. Teachers observe and interact one on one with children and also
work with small groups on projects, book reading, and playing a math game. Children
clean up and wash hands.
15 minutes
10:15–10:30
Morning snack time: Teachers sit with children, engage in conversation, and model
mealtime behavior. Children serve themselves.
15-20 minutes
10:30–10:45
Group time: Children share/revisit experiences of the morning. Teachers lead music,
movement, and read and discuss a book.
30 to 45 minutes
10:45–11:30
Outdoor play: Teachers supervise children at play and as they make nature discoveries;
they interact with them one on one or in small groups.
10 to 15 minute
11:30–11:45
Half-day program, group meeting: Teacher and children refl ect on the day and plan for
tomorrow.
Full-day program, group meeting: Do a calming activity, prepare for lunch.
30 to 45 minutes
11:45–12:30
Lunch: Teachers sit with children, engage in conversation, and model mealtime behavior.
Children serve themselves.
60 to 90 minutes
(varies with age and
needs of children)
12:30–2:00
Full-day program, group meeting, nap, or rest time: Teachers help children relax. They
also supervise and provide quiet activities for those who do not sleep.
15 to 30 minutes
2:00–2:30
Afternoon snack and activities: Children have an afternoon snack and engage in quiet
activities such as putting puzzles together, book reading, drawing, or writing.
45 to 60 minutes
2:30–3:30
Full-day program: Children engage in outdoor play or large muscle experiences indoors.
Children continue projects from morning and/or make different choices or play
outdoors: Continue projects from morning and/or make different choices, or outdoor
play.
10 to 15 minutes
3:15–3:30
Group time: Refl ect on the day and plan for tomorrow.
60 to 90 minutes
3:30–4:30/5:30
Full-day program center time: Children play, continue projects from morning, and/or
make different choices.
FIGURE 3.4 Sample Daily Preschool/Kindergarten Schedule young children need a predictable
daily schedule designed to meet their developmental needs, but they also need flexibility.
Source: Based on The Creative Curriculum for Preschool, 5th ed., by D. T. Dodge, L. J. Colker, and C. Heroman,
2010, Washington, DC: Teaching strategies.
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Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education94
change for planned or spontaneous events, such as a celebration or finding a bird’s
nest on the playground. But for the most part, a regular schedule allows children to
thrive in predictable environments. If the schedule has to be changed, teachers need to
inform the children in advance. The daily schedule should be based on the following
guidelines:
• Plan for a balance of learning experiences: large group, small group, and
individualized; child initiated and teacher initiated; active and quiet; indoor and
outdoor.
• Allow 60 to 75 minutes for learning-center time so children can become deeply
engaged in play and projects. In a full-day program, allow at least 1 hour in the
morning and another in the afternoon.
• Limit whole-group meeting times to 10 to 20 minutes (allowing more time as chil-
dren get older) and give opportunities for children to be actively engaged during
these experiences.
✓ Check Your Understanding 3.5: Developmentally Appropriate Learning Environments
Research on Developmentally
Appropriate Practice
The basic research question regarding any educational practice is this: Does it work? Is
this educational practice effective in helping children achieve important learning out-
comes? Because developmentally appropriate practice involves many different teach-
ing behaviors and aspects of classroom organization, research on the broad construct
of developmentally appropriate practice is difficult to conduct. However, subsequent
chapters present the research base for each dimension of the teacher’s role and area of
the curriculum.
Research Reviews
Well-grounded research about learning and development is the foundation for NAEYC’s
work on developmentally appropriate practice and provides solid guidance for early
childhood educators. This knowledge is summarized in major scientific reports such as
Eager to Learn: Educating Our Preschoolers (Bowman, Donovan, & Burns, 2001), From
Neurons to Neighborhoods: The Science of Early Childhood Development (Shonkoff &
Phillips, 2000), Handbook of Early Childhood Education (Pianta, Barnett, Justice, &
Sheridan, 2012), and Handbook of Child Development and Early Education (Barbarin &
Wasik, 2009).
A vast amount of evidence demonstrates the lasting positive effects of high-quality
early childhood programs (see Diamond, Justice, Siegler, & Snyder, 2013; Weiland &
Yoshikawa, 2013; Yoshikawa et al., 2013). Although the studies reviewed were not de-
signed to evaluate developmentally appropriate practice per se, the practices employed
in effective programs are consistent with NAEYC’s guidelines. One large-scale review
identified the key components of effective early childhood education as “stimulating
and supportive interactions between teachers and children that support learning and are
emotionally supportive, and effective use of curricula” (Yoshikawa et al., 2013, p. 10).
That review found the most benefit from developmentally focused curricula, meaning
curricula that are not intended to be completely comprehensive, but rather that focus
on a developmental area such as social skills or an academic topic such as mathematics
or literacy.
One review of research identifies the key components of effective early childhood
education as a blend of “explicit instruction, sensitive and warm interactions, respon-
sive feedback, and verbal engagement or stimulation intentionally directed to ensure
children’s learning while embedding these interactions in a classroom environment
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Chapter 3 Understanding and Applying Developmentally Appropriate Practice 95
that is not overly structured or regimented” (Pianta, Barnett, Burchinal, & Thornburg,
2009, p. 50). They point out that this type of teaching is also related to children’s
achievement in K–12.
The Oklahoma universal prekindergarten program, which is the largest state-
funded voluntary pre-K program in the country, found substantial improvements in
school readiness for children from all racial and ethnic groups. The largest gains,
however, were for Hispanic children and boys. When the children were followed
through third grade, the most lasting benefits were found in mathematics (Hill, Gorm-
ley, Adelstein, & Willemin, 2012). Similarly, a large-scale effort to address inequity
in the quality of education in the Abbott School District in New Jersey focused on
providing excellent prekindergarten programs for low-income children. The children
who participated made strong gains in language, literacy, and math at kindergarten
entry that persisted into second grade. Researchers followed the children through
fifth grade and found that the program helped close the achievement gap, and fewer
children were assignment to special education or retained in grade (Barnett, Jung,
Youn, & Frede, 2013).
Research on Elements of Developmentally
appropriate Practice
Some studies examined effects of developmentally appropriate practice in preschool or
kindergarten compared to “inappropriate” practices. These studies typically have defined
appropriate classrooms as those characterized by child-initiated activity, active learning,
problem solving, and positive, warm relationships between teachers and children. On the
other hand, inappropriate classrooms are characterized by didactic lessons, heavy reli-
ance on whole-group instruction, and emphasis on seatwork and rote learning. Much of
the feedback in such classrooms tends to be teachers’ correcting of children rather than
expanding on their thinking and understanding.
Several studies compare the effects of such practices on children’s social or emo-
tional outcomes. For example, studies relating teaching practice to stress behaviors in
children found significantly fewer stress-related behaviors in preschool and kindergarten
children in more developmentally appropriate classrooms compared to children in less
appropriate classrooms (Honig, 2010; Miller & Almon, 2009; Shanker, 2012). Children in
less appropriate classrooms have also been found to score lower on measures of motiva-
tion (Stipek, 2011).
Over the years, a number of observational measures have been used to evaluate the
quality of early childhood classrooms and the effects on children’s outcomes. These tools,
such as the CLASS and ECERS-R, are based on the same principles of child development
and learning as developmentally appropriate practice. Children enrolled in classrooms
that score higher on these measures are more likely to demonstrate positive outcomes
including language, early literacy, mathematics, and social and cognitive skills (Bryant,
2010; Pianta et al., 2009).
Effects of Positive Teacher–Child Interactions A large body of research
supports the efficacy of one of the key aspects of developmentally appropriate practice—
warm, responsive relationships between teachers and children (Diamond et al., 2013). In
observing numerous preschool and kindergarten classrooms, Stipek (2011) found that
positive affect among teachers and children seemed to go along with developmentally
appropriate practice, whereas negative affect was more likely to be found in classrooms
using more inappropriate practices.
Observational research in preschool and primary classrooms has also found that
positive, warm relationships with teachers that are developmentally appropriate pro-
mote academic success, social competence, and fewer behavior problems (Hamre &
Pianta, 2005, 2007, 2010; Mashburn et al., 2008). Research following children from
infancy to age 4 in child care programs also found that high-quality, developmentally
M03_BRED6702_03_SE_C03.indd 95 10/7/15 1:11 PM
Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education96
appropriate experiences and interactions with teachers contribute positively to chil-
dren’s development (NICHD Early Child Care Research Network, 2003).
Effects of Teaching Practices In the last decade, more research has increas-
ingly become available on the effectiveness of developmentally appropriate teaching
strategies. A large number of studies using the CLASS have found that teachers’ scores
on instructional climate (which measures the quality of their language modeling, concept
development, and feedback that engages children’s higher-order thinking) predict chil-
dren’s language, literacy, and mathematics ability and their on-task behavior (Mashburn
et al., 2008; Rimm-Kaufman, La Paro, Downer, & Pianta, 2005).
The Boston public schools are engaged in a highly successful early childhood initia-
tive to close the achievement gap by instituting high-quality prekindergarten programs
that are NAEYC accredited and use the same developmentally appropriate mathematics
and literacy curricula with professional development for teachers. A rigorous evaluation
found substantial gains in language, literacy, mathematics, and executive function for
all groups of children, but the largest gains were for Hispanic children (Weiland & Yo-
shikawa, 2013).
A large-scale observational study in England (Sammons et al., 2008) used an expand-
ed version of the ECERS that incorporated curriculum content items. The study found
that by age 5, children who attended developmentally appropriate, high-quality programs
scored better on measures of early literacy, math, reasoning, and social-emotional skills.
This study also found that the most effective preschools provided both teacher-initiat-
ed small group work and child-initiated play activities that were supported by teachers
(Sylva, Melhuish, Sammons, Siraj-Blatchford, & Taggart, 2004). A similar balance of
child-directed, free-choice activity and teacher-directed group activities was found to im-
prove low-income children’s language development in U.S. preschools (Fuligni, Howes,
Huang, Hong, & Lara-Cinisomo, 2012).
A classic, longitudinal study compared the effects of the HighScope curriculum or
child-centered nursery school experience with a highly scripted, teacher-directed curricu-
lum called Direct Instruction (Schweinhart, Weikart, & Larner, 1986). The HighScope cur-
riculum is a blended approach incorporating child-centered, active learning and intentional
Developmentally appropriate classrooms function as caring communities of learners where each child is
valued, and families are welcomed.
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Chapter 3 Understanding and Applying Developmentally Appropriate Practice 97
teaching. A longitudinal follow-up study (Schweinhart & Weikart, 1997) found that at age
23, the Direct Instruction group had three times as many felony arrests per person, espe-
cially those involving property crimes, while 47% of the Direct Instruction group exhibited
emotional problems during their schooling, as compared to only 6% in the other groups.
Researchers attributed these results to the emphasis on planning, social reasoning, and
other social objectives in the developmentally appropriate HighScope and nursery school
curricula, but not in the Direct Instruction curriculum.
A more recent study demonstrated the effectiveness of building on a developmentally
appropriate framework such as HighScope with additional research-based teaching strate-
gies (Bierman et al., 2008), such as those we describe in this book. This Head Start inter-
vention program involved brief lessons on literacy and social skills, hands-on activities,
and specific teaching strategies designed to promote children’s social-emotional compe-
tencies, language development, and emergent literacy skills. Materials were also provided
to parents to enhance children’s development at home. The program significantly im-
proved children’s vocabulary, emergent literacy, emotional understanding, social problem
solving, social behavior, and learning engagement.
The Future of Developmentally
appropriate Practice
One of the most important functions of NAEYC’s work on developmentally appropriate
practice has been to further discussion and debate in the field about teaching practices.
Given the history of the field, it is likely that this topic will continue to be debated. What
aspects are most likely to continue to provoke thought? Undoubtedly the realities of diver-
sity and changing cultural contexts in our country will continue to raise questions about
what is culturally responsive as well as developmentally appropriate. Increased demands
for accountability and the challenge to close the achievement gap raise the stakes over
which practices can be successfully defended (Bassok & Rorem, 2014; Graue, 2009).
Likewise, debates about curriculum have been a constant and will continue in the future,
but are likely to be driven more by research than in the past.
The word appropriate is a culturally laden term and thus will continue to provoke
controversy. Similarly, it is difficult to counteract the tendency of teachers and other pro-
fessionals to emphasize “typical development” over individual differences and cultural
variations (Graue, Kroeger, & Brown, 2003). After all, the first can be learned by read-
ing books and journals, whereas the latter two require ongoing assessment of children,
building relationships with families, and reflecting on how our own cultural perspectives
influence our judgments and behavior.
To be developmentally appropriate, practices must contribute to children’s learn-
ing and development. Therefore, this book focuses on recommended teaching practices,
which must be responsive to children’s individual development and cultural variation to
be deemed appropriate. At the same time, we also focus on whether those practices help
children achieve important learning goals. By definition, developmentally appropriate
practices should be effective practices. To be effective, teachers must know children, they
must know how to teach, and they must know what to teach. Each of these areas of knowl-
edge must be informed by research. The following equation describes these components
of effective, research-based practice.
Effective Practice = Knowing Children + Knowing How to Teach
+ Knowing What to Teach
Ultimately, the truest measure of developmentally appropriate practice is seeing chil-
dren joyfully, physically, and intellectually engaged in meaningful learning about their
world and everyone and everything in it (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009).
✓ Check Your Understanding 3.6: Research on Developmentally Appropriate Practice
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Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education98
. . . Mr. Washington’s Classroom
At the beginning of this chapter we met Olivia, who was somewhat timidly experiencing school for the
first time. Having explored the basic premises of developmentally appropriate practice, we can now
see Olivia’s experience with a more informed eye. Her classroom, with its age-appropriate materials,
furnishings, and environment, not only made Olivia feel comfortable but also encouraged her involve-
ment. Furthermore, her teacher, Mr. Washington, drew on his knowledge of how children develop and
learn by working to establish a warm, positive relationship with Olivia right from the start. He also pro-
vided Olivia with a learning experience that would build on what she was already able to do, such as
her proficiency with puzzles.
At the same time, Mr. Washington demonstrated the importance of paying attention to what is
individually appropriate. He made Olivia feel welcome by sending her a personal postcard, speaking
with her at eye level, designating her cubby with her name and photo, and piquing Olivia’s interest in
puzzles. Finally, Mr. Washington was culturally appropriate—sensitive to the cultural context in which
Olivia lives—using his own language attempts and a skilled translator to communicate with and reas-
sure Olivia’s grandmother. He also plans to display a family photo so Olivia’s identity will be honored.
In so doing, he demonstrated that he values and respects Olivia’s family, their language, and cultural
background. Taken together, the actions in that brief scenario demonstrate the teacher’s broad base of
knowledge and bode well for Olivia’s successful transition to school. ■
Revisiting the Case Study
Chapter Summary3
• Developmentally appropriate practice is teaching that
is attuned to children’s ages, experience, abilities, and
interests, and that helps them attain challenging and
achievable goals.
• Intentional teachers have a purpose for everything that
they do, are thoughtful and prepared, and can explain
their decisions and actions to other teachers, adminis-
trators, or parents.
• Decisions about developmentally appropriate practice
are based on knowledge of child development and
learning (what is age appropriate), knowledge about
children as individuals, and knowledge of the social
and cultural contexts in which children live (what is
culturally appropriate).
• The role of the early childhood teacher has five
interrelated dimensions: (1) creating a caring com-
munity of learners, (2) teaching to enhance learning
and development, (3) planning curriculum to meet
important goals, (4) assessing children’s learning and
development, and (5) establishing reciprocal relation-
ships with families.
• “Widening the lens” is a metaphor to help teachers
remember to consider diverse perspectives and move
beyond either/or thinking to both/and thinking when
solving problems or making decisions about practice.
• How the learning environment and children’s daily
schedules are organized are the most obvious indica-
tors of whether a program is developmentally ap-
propriate and therefore, they should look different for
infants, toddlers, preschoolers, and school-age children
because abilities and needs predictably vary by chil-
dren’s ages.
• Well-grounded research about learning and develop-
ment is the basis for NAEYC’s position statements
on developmentally appropriate practice and provides
solid guidance for early childhood educators.
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Chapter 3 Understanding and Applying Developmentally Appropriate Practice 99
Key Terms
■ age appropriate
■ assessment
■ caring community of
learners
■ culturally appropriate
■ culture
■ curriculum
■ developmentally appro-
priate practice (DAP)
■ individually appropriate
■ intentional teachers
■ learning centers
■ position statement
■ push-down curriculum
■ reciprocal relationships
■ scientifically based
curriculum
Carter, M., & Curtis, D. (2014). Designs for living and
learning: Transforming early childhood environments.
St. Paul, MN: Redleaf Press.
Copple, C., & Bredekamp, S. (Eds.). (2009). Devel-
opmentally appropriate practice in early childhood
programs serving children from birth through age 8
(3rd ed.). Washington, DC: National Association for the
Education of Young Children.
Epstein, A. S. (2014). The intentional teacher: Choosing
the best strategies for young children’s learning (Rev.
ed.). Washington, DC: National Association for the Edu-
cation of Young Children.
ASCD Whole Child Initiative
This website provides resources promoting elementary
education that supports all areas of children’s develop-
ment and learning.
National Association for the Education of Young
Children
NAEYC’s website has a special section on resources for
developmentally appropriate practice and play, plus cop-
ies of all their position statements.
ZERO to THREE—National Center for Infants,
Toddlers, and Families
This website provides resources and practical tips for
working with infants, toddlers, and their families.
Readings and Websites
Demonstrate Your Learning
Click here to assess how well you’ve learned the content in this chapter.
✓
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4
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
4.1 Distinguish the meanings of development and learning and describe the
relationship between the two.
4.2 Discuss how knowledge of brain development in early childhood informs
teaching practice.
4.3 Identify key components of developmental theories (Erikson, Maslow, Piaget,
Vygotsky, and Bronfenbrenner) and apply them to early childhood practice.
4.4 Identify key components of learning theories (Behaviorism and Social Cogni-
tive theories) and apply them to early childhood practice.
4.5 Explain the role of play in children’s development and learning, and describe
ways teachers can support play in early childhood settings.
4.6 Apply theories of development and learning to early childhood practice.
Applying What We Know
about Children’s Learning
and Development
Learning Outcomes
© Rawpixel/Fotolia
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101
Y vonne Donati is a prekindergarten teacher in an inclusive public school. One of her goals is to create a caring community in which her energetic youngsters learn how to get along and work together. Yvonne’s
approach to guiding children’s behavior is to engage the children in lively discussions of the classroom rules and
how to solve conflicts that arise with their classmates.
In planning curriculum, Yvonne draws on the children’s interests to integrate literacy instruction with science
study of plants or animals, and children often work on small-group projects such as making a terrarium. She
and the children have large-group meetings and she sometimes reads to the whole group, but she keeps these
periods brief. She tries to find ways to make sure the children are physically active such as doing motions to
songs or fingerplays. She also actively engages children’s minds, as when she gives clues for the children to
guess what object is hidden in a paper bag or has them take turns figuring out what a new word means in a story.
When children encounter challenges in their play, Yvonne helps them to come up with their own solutions
rather than solving the problem for them. She asks probing questions: “Why do you think your tomato plant didn’t
grow tall?” “Let’s compare your plant and Juana’s—why is hers taller?”
Because some children in Yvonne’s class have identified disabilities, she regularly meets with the special
education team and cooperates in implementing the children’s individualized education programs (IEPs). Maya has
severe behavior problems, and the team works together to plan and implement a positive behavior support program
to reinforce her desirable behaviors. After a few weeks of systematically working with Maya, Yvonne observes that
the new strategy is working and Maya is less aggressive.
After a month of school, Yvonne observes that every day the block area is dominated by boys, while girls prefer
the dramatic play center. She isn’t sure if this is just reflecting typical gender differences or if there is another
reason. Yvonne knows from studying the importance of play that children benefit from both block building and
pretend play and that the benefits differ. She contemplates assigning children to areas,
but then she designs an experiment. One week she closes the dramatic play center,
and the next week she closes the block center, observing and recording children’s
behavior. Yvonne finds that without the availability of the dramatic play
center, girls freely enter the block area; some boys play with them while
others go elsewhere. On the other hand, when the block center is closed,
the girls continue to play in the dramatic center, but the boys
seem at loose ends and do not choose pretend play. Based on
the results of her experiment, Yvonne institutes a play planning
session each morning to make sure that girls
have block-building opportunities. She also adds
themes and props, such as creating a car wash,
to interest more boys in pretend play. ■
Case Study
T
his brief visit to Yvonne’s classroom reveals several things about her approach to
teaching. Although Yvonne may not be fully aware of it, the decisions she makes,
like those of every teacher, actually reflect various theories of how children learn
and develop. The purpose of this chapter is to help you understand and apply the prevail-
ing theories of child development and learning. At times, beginning as well as experi-
enced teachers wonder why theories matter or what relevance theories have to their work.
We begin by describing how theories of child development and learning are most
useful in informing and inf luencing practice. Next, we describe research on brain
development and its implications. Then, we discuss all the major theories and how
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Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach102
they apply to early childhood practice. Next, we explain the critically important role
of children’s play, which is supported by the key developmental theories. We conclude
the chapter with a summary of the main principles of child development and learning
derived from research and theory that guide early childhood practice.
Understanding Development
and Learning
Intentional, effective teaching requires that teachers understand how children think and learn,
and how best to support their healthy development at various ages in all areas—physical,
social, emotional, and cognitive. Both development and learning are complicated processes
requiring that teachers not only study research and theory but also study children themselves.
What Is Development?
If you spend any time with early childhood educators, you are likely to hear that it is im-
portant for teachers to understand child development. This is true. But what do they need
to know about development and why is it important? To answer these questions, we must
first define terms. Development refers to age-related change that results from an interac-
tion between biological maturation and physical and/or social experience.
Development occurs as children grow, adapt, and change in response to various ex-
periences. Consider how language develops. Biology plays a role, with babies all over
the world producing similar sounds at about the same age. But language development re-
quires more than maturation. Babies need social interaction with adults and older children
who talk to them. As they grow physically and are able to get around on their own, infants
and toddlers encounter more examples of language interaction, and their speech starts to
take off around age 2 (just as their legs do).
Domains of Development Different areas of human functioning, including phys-
ical, cognitive, social, and emotional, are often described as domains of development.
Physical development refers to biological growth and acquisition of fine motor skills, such
as drawing, and gross motor skills, such as running. Cognitive development is a broad term
encompassing thinking, intelligence, and language abilities. Social development refers to
interpersonal relationships such as the ability to make friends, cooperate, and resolve con-
flicts. Emotional development is the ability to regulate and appropriately express feelings.
Discussions of child development inevitably address these domains as if they were
separate. In reality, of course, human development does not occur in different categories.
Our brains do not have separate compartments for cognition or social development. As-
pects of development are inextricably linked, which is one reason we often talk about
social-emotional development as though it were a single construct. Domains of develop-
ment are an artifact of how researchers study development, rather than how development
actually occurs. The integrated nature of development requires that teachers maintain
their awareness of the whole child at all times.
Recently, researchers and educators have begun to focus less on skills related to specific
domains and more on abilities that cut across traditionally defined developmental domains,
such as executive function and self-regulation (Jones & Bailey, 2014), which we discuss
later in this chapter. Bolstered by new findings from brain research, we now know that such
broad domain-general processes strongly predict children’s success in school and life. For
example, Galinsky (2010) identifies seven essential life skills that every child needs: focus
and self-control, perspective taking, communicating, making connections, critical think-
ing, taking on challenges, and self-directed engaged learning. A similar list is promoted
by the Partnership for 21st Century Learning (n.d.): critical thinking, communication, col-
laboration, and creativity. Another way of describing these skills is children’s approach-
es to learning—motivation, interest, persistence, curiosity, engagement, and enthusiasm
development Age-related
change that results from an
interaction between biological
maturation and physical and/or
social experience; development
occurs as children grow, adapt,
and change in response to vari-
ous experiences.
domains of development
Areas of human development
and functioning that include
cognitive, social, emotional,
and physical.
physical development
Biological growth and acquisi-
tion of fine motor and gross
motor skills.
cognitive development Think-
ing, intelligence, and language
abilities.
social development The
ability to establish positive
relationships with adults and
peers, make friends, cooperate,
and resolve conflicts.
emotional development The
ability to regulate and appropri-
ately express feelings.
domain-general processes
Broad abilities that cut across
traditionally defined develop-
mental domains.
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Chapter 4 Applying What We Know about Children’s Learning and Development 103
(Hyson, 2012). These lists of goals are overlapping and consistent, and they demonstrate
the connection between development and learning, which we define in the next section.
What Is Learning?
Learning is a change in knowledge or skill that results from experience or instruction.
Learning and development are not the same things, although they affect each other. Learn-
ing is a similar, though not identical, process whether a person is 3 years old or 33. For
example, for a first grader, learning to read isn’t completely different from the way it is
for an older person.
Because experience plays a role in both development and learning, there is a close
connection between these processes, especially in the early years of life when chil-
dren are growing and changing so rapidly. Sometimes development leads to learning
(Piaget, 1952). For example, when a baby develops the ability to grasp objects and
begins to put them in her mouth, she learns a lot about the objects in her
world. Some are hard, others soft; some taste good, others don’t. In this
case, her development fosters her learning. Children’s developmental level
can also put limitations on what they are capable of learning. For example, preschoolers
can do some abstract thinking, but they won’t fully understand complex, abstract con-
cepts such as chronological time until they are older.
Learning also drives development. As children participate in the activities of their
cultural groups and come to understand more complex concepts, their cognitive devel-
opment is affected (Rogoff, 2012; Vygotsky, 1978). What children learn at home and
in their cultural community powerfully affects their development. Consider the devel-
opmental differences between a 5-year-old child in America, whose primary “job” is to
attend kindergarten, and a 5-year-old in rural Africa, whose primary responsibility is to
transport water for the family.
The Role of Theory
Centuries ago, human beings thought that the world was flat. No one wanted to venture
too far out onto the sea for fear of falling off the edge. Slowly, more people traveled farther
from shore, and others observed that the tops of arriving ships appeared first and then grad-
ually the rest. If the earth were flat, the entire ship would appear at once. These observa-
tions and experiences led to the conclusion that the earth is not flat, but is actually a sphere.
This simple example illustrates the power of theories. A theory is an explanation of
how information and observations are organized and relate to one another. As we can see,
theories are important because they affect how people think and behave. In education,
theories of learning and development affect how people treat children, how they structure
environments, and how they teach.
The Relationship between Theory,
Research, and Practice
Where do theories come from? Theories usually evolve from research, which can take the
form of systematic observations over time or scientifically controlled experiments. In fact,
a theory derives from a hypothesis, which is a tentative explanation for a phenomenon.
The more research is available to support the “truth” of a theory, the more useful the the-
ory becomes in guiding practice. Yvonne had a theory about why girls and boys play dif-
ferently. She tested and then revised her theory by conducting an informal research study.
When research findings contradict earlier conclusions, theories evolve, are discarded,
or are replaced with new ones. In the early part of the 20th century, the prevailing theory
of child development was maturationist. According to this theory, derived from research
by Arnold Gesell (1940; Ames & Ilg, 1979), the sequence of changes in abilities and be-
havior is largely predetermined by children’s biological growth processes rather than by
their experiences or learning.
learning A change in knowl-
edge or skill that results from
experience or instruction.
theory An explanation of how
information and observations
are organized and relate to one
another.
During early childhood,
children’s development and
learning are closely connected.
Right from the start, babies put
things in their mouths, which
teaches them about objects in
the world—how they feel and
what they do.
hypothesis An assumption
about or tentative explanation
of a phenomenon.
maturationist Theory of
development that assumes that
the sequence of changes in
abilities and behavior is largely
predetermined by children’s
biological growth processes
rather than by their experiences
or learning.
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M04_BRED6702_03_SE_C04.indd 103 10/7/15 1:27 PM
Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach104
Maturation theory led to the notion that teachers needed to wait until children were ready
for experiences to be effective. Because it was assumed that children were not ready to read
until first grade, few literacy experiences were provided in preschool or kindergarten. Re-
search in the intervening years demonstrated that differences in children’s abilities are heav-
ily influenced by their experiences (Sameroff, 2009; Tierney & Nelson, 2009). As a result,
maturationist theory has been displaced by other theories. Nevertheless, maturationist theory
continues to influence some practices such as kindergarten “redshirting”—holding children
out of kindergarten until they are a year older and presumably more ready to learn.
Theories can also drive the way research is conducted and findings are interpreted. For
example, if a theory is assumed to be universally true for all children, then research that sup-
ports the theory is assumed to apply to all children. Even if the research has been conducted
only with white, middle-class children, the findings are applied to children of color or children
of different socioeconomic, linguistic, or cultural backgrounds. Understanding the role of cul-
ture in development and learning requires that theory and research be more cautiously inter-
preted through these lenses. Therefore, despite the frequent claim that theories are “universal”
and apply equally well to all children, they need to be evaluated from a broader perspective, as
described in the Culture Lens: The Effect of Culture on Research and Theory feature.
Culture Lens
The Effect of Culture on Research and Theory
An especially important consideration in evaluating theo-
ries is the cultural background of the children and fami-
lies who participated in the research. For decades, one
theory of how parental child rearing affects preschool
children’s development has been assumed to apply to
all children and families (Baumrind, 1971). The theory
identifies three parenting styles:
• Authoritative. Loving, nurturing, involved, and sensitive
parents who explain their reasons for discipline have
children who are motivated to learn and are well ad-
justed socially and emotionally.
• Authoritarian. Restrictive, punishing, rejecting, and
controlling parents have children who lack initiative
and are inhibited.
• Permissive. Parents who are warm and accepting of
children but minimally involved and laissez-faire
about discipline have children with the lowest levels
of motivation and achievement.
Authoritative parenting is found to be the most effective
style of child rearing. Most research on the theory, how-
ever, has been conducted with Caucasian middle-class
families. More recent research with Head Start families
(McWayne, Owsianik, Green, & Fantuzzo, 2008) using
culturally familiar language and behaviors identified sim-
ilar but not identical types of parenting:
• Active-responsive (e.g., tell child “I’m proud” when he
tries to be good).
• Active-restrictive (e.g., I spank the child when she is
disobedient).
• Passive-permissive (e.g., tell child “I’ll punish,” but don’t).
Research with low-income, urban, African American families
found no relationships between these different parenting
styles and preschool children’s social- emotional skills.
What might account for these contradictory findings
between diverse cultural groups? When children grow up
in poverty-stricken, dangerous communities and face possi-
ble discrimination and prejudice, parents’ priorities reflect
these conditions. They may express their love by focusing
on survival skills and making sure that their children behave
maturely and competently in situations where people are
biased against them. With these goals in mind, the effec-
tiveness of restrictive parenting makes more sense.
In addition, compared to Caucasian middle-class fami-
lies, African American child rearing tends to be spread
among a number of people in the extended family and
community. The mother may be relatively passive and
permissive, for example, whereas others in the child’s
circle such as a grandmother or aunt may be more re-
strictive or actively responsive.
What can we conclude from revisiting a widely accept-
ed child development theory like Baumrind’s parenting
framework? Research that leads to a new theory needs to
be conducted with diverse populations of children and fami-
lies. Otherwise, the theory simply can’t be said to apply
to them. In addition, research needs to be interpreted
through a wide lens that considers the social and cultural
contexts in which children live—in this case, the realities
of life for low-income, urban, African American families.
Sources: “Current Patterns of Parental Authority,” by D. Baumrind,
1971, Developmental Psychology, 4, 1–103; “Parenting Behaviors
and Preschool Children’s Social and Emotional Skills: A Question
of the Consequential Validity of Traditional Parenting Constructs for
Low-Income African Americans,” by C. M. McWayne, M. Owsianik,
L. E. Green, and J. W. Fantuzzo, 2008, Early Childhood Research
Quarterly, 23, 173–192.
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Chapter 4 Applying What We Know about Children’s Learning and Development 105
Why Study Child Development and Learning?
Understanding theories of learning and development is particularly important for early
childhood teachers for several reasons. During the first eight years of life, children grow
and change more rapidly than at any other period of the life span. As a result, development
and learning are more closely connected in early childhood, making the developmental
accomplishments and learning that take place at this point critically important founda-
tions for what follows.
Understanding child development and learning helps teachers in many ways,
including:
• Setting and evaluating goals that are achievable for most children within a given
age range and that also challenge children to go on learning
• Accurately interpreting children’s behavior as predictable for their age or in need
of intervention
• Knowing predictable sequences of development and learning to plan curriculum
and adapt teaching to accommodate where individual children are in the sequence
• Predicting the kinds of topics and experiences that will be interesting and meaning-
ful to children of different ages
• Understanding how children’s social and cultural contexts affect their learning and
development
• Using information about typical and atypical development to identify and diagnose
potential disabilities or developmental delays in children, as well as to determine if
children’s development is advanced
In previous sections, we defined and described the relationships between develop-
ment and learning, and between theory, research, and practice. Teachers have much to
learn about these topics, but we begin with the most current area of new knowledge, brain
development.
✓ Check Your Understanding 4.1: Understanding Development and Learning
Brain Development
and Implications for Practice
Some of the most exciting discoveries about human development ever made have occurred
in the past 30 years as advanced technologies have enabled scientists to directly study
how the brain grows and changes. Tools such as positron emission tomography (PET)
scans and functional magnetic resonance imagery (fMRI) open windows into how the
brain functions when people perform different tasks and how the brains of children and
adults compare (Fusaro & Nelson, 2009). An explosion of brain research has captured the
imagination of the general public and policy makers, in addition to educators and parents.
A major conclusion of this research is that brain development results from an interaction
between what is happening in children’s minds and their experiences in the world (Center
on the Developing Child at Harvard University, 2010). In other words, experiences, both
positive and negative affect brain development, and brain growth and change affect learning.
How the Brain Promotes Learning
The brain is the most complex of human organisms, the most important to overall func-
tioning, yet we know the least about it. But we are learning more.
The Physical Brain The brain is composed of a massive number of nerve cells, or
neurons, that receive information through the senses or from other neurons and then
communicate information back to other parts of the body (Fusaro & Nelson, 2009). One
neurons Nerve cells in the
brain that receive information
through the senses or from
other neurons, and then com-
municate information back to
other parts of the body.
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Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach106
connection might alert the baby to look at a human face; another might signal a smile in
response to mommy’s face. These connections that carry information between neurons
are called synapses.
In utero, the baby’s brain undergoes astonishing growth. Neurons are produced at a
rapid rate, and they migrate (or move) to the places in the brain where they will develop
and be used. They also begin the process of differentiation—specialization for particular
functions. The processes of neuron production, migration, and differentiation are mostly
directed by genes. However, they are also affected by maternal health, nutrition, and en-
vironmental risks such as alcohol or drug use.
The adult brain has about 100 billion neurons, about the same number that babies
have at birth. The major difference between the newborn brain and adult brain, however,
is the intricate network of connections (synapses) between the neurons, the brain’s wiring
system (Fusaro & Nelson, 2009). During the first 2 to 3 years of life, babies’ brains over-
produce synapses, going from about 2,500 at birth to 15,000—many more than adults
have. After that, the brain starts pruning unnecessary or unused synapses. Throughout
life, new synapses are formed and others are pruned away.
Pruning is important because it contributes to efficient brain operation, aids learning and
memory, and increases the brain’s flexibility, actions that neuroscientists term plasticity.
Plasticity is the brain’s ability to develop and change in response to experiences. After prun-
ing, fewer and stronger connections among brain cells strengthen those that remain. This
process is similar to pruning a bush that has grown too large; cutting off unneeded branches
strengthens those that remain and may mean more blossoms in the future.
The Role of Experience in Brain Development During early childhood—a
period of rapid brain growth—the brain is most receptive and responsive to experience
(Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University, 2010). Children’s relationships
with the family and community impact brain development and influence how well the
neurological system works. Both positive and negative experiences modify
the brain architecture, with the most emotionally intense and most meaning-
ful experiences having the greatest effects (Levitt, 2008). For these reasons,
highly stressful experiences during early childhood can have lasting negative
consequences (Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University, 2010).
Although too little stimulation can lead to poor outcomes, exposing
young children to overstimulating environments is not supported by brain re-
search (Thompson, 2008). Babies and toddlers in particular become stressed
when they are overstimulated. They either tune out (usually by going to sleep)
or act out (usually by crying). Either way, they aren’t learning.
Brain research indicates that the years up to age 10 are the prime time for
learning. Instead of critical periods, researchers use the term windows of
opportunity to suggest that there are times in life when the brain is most open to certain
types of experiences. One such example is language development, as described in the
feature What Works: Exposing Babies to Different Languages.
Young children’s brains are much more active, connected, and flexible than are
adults’ (Thompson, 2008). However, this does not mean, as some people have concluded,
that the first few years of life are such a critical period that after age 3 or 5, the window for
learning closes. On the contrary, brains remain flexible throughout life, as demonstrated
when an 80-year-old learns to knit or a 58-year-old learns Italian.
Implications for Children
Fostering optimal early brain development is essential for positive outcomes for children.
Reviews of brain research (Fusaro & Nelson, 2009; Tierney & Nelson, 2009) conclude
that:
• The brain’s most significant development occurs before birth, placing great impor-
tance on prenatal care.
• Early experiences change and organize the physical structure of the brain.
synapses Connections in the
brain that carry information
between neurons.
pruning The process whereby
the brain eliminates unneces-
sary or unused synapses, which
contributes to efficient brain
operation, aids learning and
memory, and increases the
brain’s flexibility.
plasticity The brain’s abil-
ity to develop and change in
response to experiences.
windows of opportunity
Periods of time during which
human brains are particularly
susceptible and responsive to
certain types of experience.
Classroom Connection
Watch this video to learn more
about how the young child’s
experiences and interactions
influence the architecture and
health of the developing brain.
https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=m_5u8-QSh6A
M04_BRED6702_03_SE_C04.indd 106 10/7/15 1:27 PM
http://https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m_5u8-QSh6A
http://https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m_5u8-QSh6A
Chapter 4 Applying What We Know about Children’s Learning and Development 107
• Different parts of the brain are more responsive to experiences at different times.
There are windows of opportunity for particular types of learning.
• Neglect, abuse, and stress pose serious threats to healthy brain development. Pre-
vention and early intervention become even more important in light of the poten-
tially lasting negative consequences for brain development.
• Brains develop best when children experience loving relationships, play, oppor-
tunities to explore their world, interesting and engaging things to learn about, and
healthy, safe environments.
• Brain development is integrated; as children get older, the areas within the brain
become better connected.
During preschool and the primary grades, considerable growth and change take place
in the frontal lobes of the brain, the areas that are responsible for regulating thought and
action (Obradović, Portilla, & Boyce, 2012). As a result, the following skills improve
considerably during these years: attention, impulse control, planning, reasoning, problem
solving, and memory.
Implications for Practice
Brain research has electrified public interest in early childhood education. Nevertheless,
neuroscience provides clearer guidance about the kinds of experiences that harm develop-
ment, such as prolonged stress, rather than those that enrich it (Center on the Developing
Child at Harvard University, 2010). Learning to handle the typical stresses of childhood
is a normal part of growing up, such as when children go to the doctor or start a new
What Works
Exposing Babies to Different Languages
One of the conclusions from research on brain development is that
there are windows of opportunity during which human brains are
particularly susceptible and responsive to certain types of expe-
riences. One of those windows relates to language development
among very young children.
Patricia Kuhl is a leading authority on speech development.
She has conducted numerous studies with very young infants to
test babies’ ability to discriminate the sounds of diverse languages.
Using MEG (magnetic) technology to view stimulation of different
areas of the brain, Kuhl and colleagues found that the auditory
(hearing) and motor areas of the brain were activated when hearing
speech syllables of any language, including those they had never
heard. This means that American babies reacted when new sounds
were introduced, whether in English, Spanish, or other languages.
Kuhl next investigated what would happen after babies were a little
older and had more experience hearing the language around them.
At 11 months of age, babies showed more auditory reaction to sylla-
bles from their own language, and more motor reaction to syllables
from another language. This suggests that by 11 months, babies
already know the sounds from their own language, and that they
are attempting to understand and make the sounds from their non-
native language. Apparently, long before babies can talk, the brain
is practicing the sounds, especially those of their native language.
This research supports the value
of intensive social interaction for learn-
ing language for infants, for building the brain’s
capacity to learn and use language. Previously,
Kuhl and others have found that if children are introduced to a
second language before 7 years of age, they are able to speak it
like a native—that is, without an accent. After about age 10, how-
ever, people who learn another language are never able to speak it
like a native speaker. Contrary to this finding, most “foreign” lan-
guage instruction in U.S. schools doesn’t occur until high school,
long after this window of opportunity has closed, making learning
a new language more difficult.
What brain research tells us is that when babies are born, a
great deal of neurological capacity is in place. But during the first
few years of life, the brain changes in major ways in response to
experience—the brain learns, especially from human interaction.
Which leads to another conclusion: The brain—and the baby, of
course—learn best from interaction with people.
Source: “Infants’ Brain Responses to Speech Suggest Analysis by Synthe-
sis,” by P. K. Kuhl, R. R. Ramirez, A. Bosseler, J. L. Lin, and T. Imada,
2014, Proceedings of the National Academies of Sciences, 111(31),
11238–11245.
M04_BRED6702_03_SE_C04.indd 107 10/7/15 1:27 PM
Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach108
school. At other times, children may experience more long-lasting stressful experiences,
such as an injury or death in the family, which are difficult but tolerable as long as a caring
adult is there for support. The biggest threat to children’s developing brains is toxic stress,
which occurs when children experience intense, frequent, and/or prolonged anxiety such
as abuse, neglect, violence, or economic deprivation without adult support to help them
cope (Shonkoff, Garner, & the Committee on Psychological Aspects of Child and Family
Health, 2012). Such prolonged stress can impair brain growth and have lasting negative
consequences for physical and mental health.
Threats to brain development reinforce the need to prevent child abuse and neglect
and to eliminate risk factors such as poor nutrition and exposure to toxic substances. Like-
wise, evidence from brain research supports the need for Head Start–like comprehensive
family services to minimize stress and trauma in children’s lives and improve the mental
and physical health of caregivers.
At least at the present time, brain research is not precise enough to provide guid-
ance about specific ways to optimize development (Center on the Developing Child at
Harvard University, 2010). In general, it validates the importance of positive relationships
with parents and teachers. And because the areas of the brain that contribute to social-
emotional and cognitive development are connected, early childhood programs should
focus on both (Thompson, 2008).
However, we have much less knowledge of specific curricula, products, or teaching
practices that enhance brain development; therefore, teachers should be wary of products
that claim to be based on brain research (Center on the Developing Child at Harvard
University, 2010). It appears that the best course is to use educational practices that have
been shown to be effective. Neuroscience is most useful when coupled with the larger
body of knowledge about theories of development and learning, which we describe in the
sections that follow.
✓ Check Your Understanding 4.2: Brain Development and Implications for Practice
Child Development Theories
In this section, we present the theories of child development that are influential in early
childhood education today. One of the most debated aspects of human development has
been whether biology or experience (nature or nurture) plays the bigger role in explain-
ing individual differences. Some theories place greater emphasis on inborn, biologically
driven changes, whereas others consider the environment to be the primary influence.
Most of the prominent theories, however, reflect the prevailing view that human develop-
ment is a product of both biology/heredity and environment/experiences.
Multiple theories exist because of the various dimensions of development, such as
social, emotional, and cognitive. The work of Erik Erikson and Abraham Maslow, which
we describe in the sections that follow, has been influential in guiding practice in social
and emotional development and motivation to learn. We follow with a description of two
developmental theories that explain how children develop cognitive skills, Piaget’s Cog-
nitive Developmental Theory and Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory. The section closes
with a comprehensive theory of human development that explains how characteristics of
the individual child and the settings interact, Bronfenbrenner’s Bio-Ecological Systems
theory.
Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory
of Human Development
Psychologist Erik Erikson (1902–1994) was influenced by cultural anthropologists and
came to see the importance of culture and social experience in shaping development.
toxic stress Children’s experi-
ence of intense, frequent, and/
or prolonged anxiety such as
abuse, neglect, violence, or
economic deprivation without
adult support to help them
cope.
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Chapter 4 Applying What We Know about Children’s Learning and Development 109
Based on extensive investigations conducted with his wife, Joan, Erikson published his
seminal book, Childhood and Society (1950/1963).
He proposed an eight-stage theory of personal and social development in which at
each stage of life an individual confronts a major challenge or “crisis.” Successful nego-
tiation of the crisis requires achieving a balance between two possible extremes. If crises
are not resolved positively at particular points in the life span, Erikson postulated that later
problems will ensue. Table 4.1 provides an overview of Erikson’s eight stages, the typical
crisis, and successful resolution.
Stages of Personal and Social Development in Early Childhood
Erikson hypothesized the following four stages of psychological and social development
in the lives of children. He assumed that mothers and other family members are the
principal actors in children’s lives during the first three stages. However, children today
participate in out-of-home child care from birth. Therefore, teachers also play signifi-
cant roles in helping young children negotiate these critical life events. Following are
examples of how features of Erikson’s stages can be seen in young children’s behaviors
and relationships.
Stage 1: Trust versus mistrust (birth to 18 months). Eight-month-old Martin is stand-
ing up in his crib sobbing and bouncing on his chubby legs. His family child care pro-
vider, Joanne, comes in and soothingly says, “I can tell you are wet and hungry. Let’s
change your diaper now.” Martin sighs as she picks him up lovingly. Joanne knows
Martin well enough to interpret his cries and respond accordingly; in turn, Martin is
comforted by the fact that when he cries, Joanne is there for him.
The major task of infants and their caregivers is to develop a sense of trust in the
world, a feeling that their needs for food and love will be met. Babies’ trust develops
through responsive relationships with caregivers. If adults are inconsistent or rejecting,
the baby learns that the world is an untrustworthy place and that he has little power to
influence what happens to him.
TAble 4.1 Erikson’s Stages of Personal and Social Development
Approximate Age Stage Lessons Learned from Life’s Challenges
Infants Birth to 1 year Trust vs. mistrust Gaining feelings of security and positive attachment, learning to
trust other people to meet needs as well as exert some control over
environment
Toddlers 1 to 3 years Autonomy vs. doubt Becoming aware of increasing competence, strong will to
practice new skills without restriction, and growing sense of
self as individual
Preschoolers 3 to 5 years Initiative vs. guilt Becoming more purposeful in initiating play with other children
and toys, increasing power and ability to act without taking too
many risks
Elementary School-age 6 to
12 years
Industry vs. inferiority Becoming confident in school work, mastering challenging tasks,
and acting responsibly
Adolescence 10 to 20 years Identity vs. role confusion Finding sense of self and building relationships with peers
Young adulthood Intimacy vs. isolation Building close relationships with sexual partners, friends, and
colleagues, beginning career
Middle adulthood Generativity vs. self-
absorption
Gaining satisfaction from life’s work and contributing to larger
society, nurturing next generations and caring for others
Late adulthood Integrity vs. despair Reflecting on life with contentment, engaging in rewarding
activities, coping with loss and end of life challenges
Source: Based on Child Development and Education (5th ed.) by T. M. McDevitt and J. E. Ormrod, 2013, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
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Stage 2: Autonomy versus doubt (18 months to 3 years). Belinda is 22 months old.
She has been in the same child care center with the same primary caregiver, Sandy,
since she was 5 months old. She and Sandy have a warm, loving relationship. But
lately, Belinda has begun to resist just about everything Sandy wants her to do. As
soon as Sandy finishes dressing her, Belinda starts pulling off her shoes or shirt. She
yells, “I want red shirt.” Sandy calmly says, “Okay, you can choose. Do you want
your red shirt or your yellow one (the one she is already wearing)?” Belinda pumps
up her chest and says, “Yellow one.”
Belinda’s behavior may seem like a step backward toward infancy, but actually it is
evidence of her advancing development. By 18 months, most babies are mobile and are
soon able to communicate their wants and needs in words. They begin to separate from
primary caregivers, try to do things for themselves, and assert their autonomy with state-
ments like “Me do it!” or “Mine.” This desire to break away from caregivers is sometimes
called the “terrible twos” because it can lead to power struggles. One minute the child
wants to hold onto the adult, and the next minute she wants to push away. But becoming
a more autonomous human being is a major task of growing up. If adults are too harsh
or restrictive with children at this age, children can feel powerless and doubt their own
competence. One effective strategy is giving a toddler a manageable amount of power,
such as Sandy did by offering a choice of two shirts.
Stage 3: Initiative versus guilt (3 to 6 years). Donald teaches 4-year-olds. He loves
this age group because he finds that most 4-year-olds can do many things on their
own, while at the same time expressing their unbridled joy at every new accomplish-
ment. He sets up his classroom and daily schedule to allow for as much choice as
possible, while also being available to assist children during these periods of child-
initiated activity. Dorcas especially needs his help because her parents have been
somewhat overprotective and she is hesitant to try new experiences.
The preschool and kindergarten years are marked for most children by an increasing
sense of their own abilities, especially improved motor skills and exploding language
capacity. This sense of confidence, at times unwarranted, leads children to initiate their
own activities. When children’s initiatives are regularly punished or thwarted, they may
begin to feel guilty and withdraw. The resolution for negotiating this stage is making sure
that encouraging children’s initiative and risk-taking is balanced by ensuring their safety.
Stage 4: Industry versus inferiority (6 to 12 years). Melodie’s second-grade class is
working in small groups on subtraction problems. One group works feverishly, argu-
ing over the correct answers and giving each other high fives when they figure them
out. Another group of children is quieter, appearing frustrated and unsure. Looking
over at the others, Max says, “We’re the dumb group. We’ll never do good in math.”
During the elementary school years, children’s spheres expand, and the opinions of
teachers and peers become more important and parents’ less so. School work becomes
a major part of children’s lives, and they begin to find satisfaction in achievement and
in mastering new skills. They also begin to compare themselves to others and are more
capable of judging their own performances. When children’s accomplishments are not up
to their standards, they may develop a sense of inferiority.
Erikson emphasized that development does not end during childhood but continues
throughout the life span. Adults—students, teachers, and parents—will see themselves in
the later stages (see Table 4.1). Understanding the struggles of the later stages—identity
versus role confusion, intimacy versus isolation, generativity versus self-absorption, and
integrity versus despair—can provide teachers with insight into the behavior of adoles-
cents (who may be parents) and other adults, including parents and colleagues. However,
the first four stages are most relevant to the work of early childhood educators.
Implications for Teaching Erikson’s theory has important implications for the
social-emotional climates of early childhood programs, as we can see from visiting the
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Chapter 4 Applying What We Know about Children’s Learning and Development 111
Love and Learn Child Care Center. In this center, babies and toddlers have primary care-
givers who stay with them for 2 or 3 years so teachers get to know them well and can
provide consistent, responsive care. The preschool and kindergarten classes are structured
with extended periods of time for children to initiate their own activities within the op-
tions that the teacher provides. Teachers encourage children to voice their opinions and
ideas. The after-school program provides time, space, and materials for primary-grade
children to pursue and master hobbies and interests such as photography, computers,
painting, sports, and writing stories.
In this book, we advocate a both/and approach to many questions regarding early
childhood practice. Erikson’s theory is an example of this approach because each of the
crises that children must negotiate is resolved by achieving a balance between the two
poles. Trust is essential, for example, but children also need to develop a healthy sense of
caution when interacting with strangers. Similarly, preschool children’s initiative should
be encouraged, but they also need to learn limits.
Erikson’s theory emphasizes the role of the sociocultural context on children’s per-
sonal and social development, but parts of his theory assume particular cultural perspec-
tives. For example, his emphasis on the singular role of the mother during the first three
stages doesn’t reflect the value that some cultural groups place on multiple caregivers
(see the Culture Lens feature on page 104).
Maslow’s Self-Actualization Theory
Abraham Maslow (1908–1970) was part of a group of psychologists, called humanists,
who studied healthy personality development rather than mental illness, as psychologists
had done previously. Maslow (1954) developed self-actualization theory, which identi-
fies a hierarchy of needs, as depicted in Figure 4.1, that motivate people’s behavior and
goals that are necessary for healthy personality development.
Hierarchy of Human Needs Maslow’s hierarchy is a pyramid depicting the
relationship between needs and goals. The bottom two layers represent the basic
physical needs required to sustain life, such as food, water, and shelter, and the
fundamental psychological needs for safety and security. Maslow postulated that
unless these needs are met, humans cannot move up the hierarchy to achieve the
next goals: love and a sense of belonging and then self-esteem. The top of the
pyramid represents self-actualization, which is achievement of life’s goals in
many individual forms. Goals that contribute to self-actualization are things
that make life meaningful and satisfying. Maslow speculated that self-actu-
alization is not achieved by everyone, although most people strive for it.
Implications for Practice Maslow’s theory is useful as a
framework for understanding how people are motivated. If children
are hungry, it follows that they cannot focus their attention on any-
thing else. Similarly, if children are frightened or emotionally in-
secure, they cannot learn effectively. Meeting children’s basic
physical needs as well as their need for psychological safety
and emotional security is at the heart of good early childhood
practice. Consider free school lunch programs and state li-
censing standards that set requirements for operating a child
care center—these mandates are designed to protect chil-
dren’s health, safety, and security.
Effective early childhood programs go beyond meeting
children’s basic needs, however. Their goals include estab-
lishing positive, affectionate relationships among children
and adults (the need for love and belonging) and building
children’s competence in all areas and, therefore, their self-
esteem. Meeting children’s needs and helping them achieve
self-actualization theory
Maslow’s view that behavior
and learning are motivated by a
hierarchy of needs.
FIGURE 4.1 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Maslow’s
Hierachy of Human Needs graphically depicts how successful
relationships, positive self-esteem, and learning depend on a strong
foundation of physical safety and security.
Source: Maslow, A., Motivation and personality. © 2013. Reprinted and
electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc.,
Upper Saddle River, NJ.
Ba
sic
Ne
ed
s
Gro
wt
h N
eed
s
Self-
actualization
Self-esteem andrespect for others
Sense of belonging and love
Psychological safetyand security
Physical needsAir, water, food, shelter, sex
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Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach112
these goals contributes to life satisfaction and successful learning. Although children will
not reach the pinnacle of Maslow’s hierarchy—self-actualization—the foundations are
laid during those early years. Adults might want to consider that a career teaching young
children can be a self-actualizing experience, especially for those who find this work
meaningful, playful, rewarding, and contributing to a better world.
The theories of both Erikson and Maslow apply primarily to social and personality
development and the motivation to learn. Next, we turn to two theorists—Piaget and
Vygotsky—whose work applies primarily to cognitive development. Because all domains of
development are so integrally connected, however, these theories also have implications
for social-emotional development.
Piaget and Cognitive Developmental Theory
The cognitive-developmental theory of Jean Piaget (1896–1980) has had enormous im-
pact on early childhood education. Although parts of his theory—particularly the stages
of cognitive development—have been criticized, he remains a towering and influential
figure decades after his death.
Swiss-born, Piaget spent the greater part of his life observing and listening to chil-
dren of various ages, beginning with detailed observations of his own children as infants.
Piaget’s wife, Valentine, did most of the minute-by-minute, day-by-day observing and
recording of the children’s behavior beginning at birth using the only tools available at the
time, pen and paper (Gopnik, Meltzoff, & Kuhl, 1999).
Several aspects of Piaget’s theory readily apply to education. The following sections
present key concepts for teachers: constructivism, the process of learning (adaptation),
types of knowledge, and the general idea of stages of cognitive development.
Constructivist Learning Theory Piaget’s relatively complex theory can be
summed up in a simple sentence: Children think differently from adults. Einstein called
this discovery by Piaget “so simple that only a genius could have thought of it” (Papert,
1999). Piaget believed that children’s minds are not empty vessels to be filled with knowl-
edge by adults; instead, children actively make sense of their experiences by building or
constructing their own knowledge. Piaget’s theory of how children learn is called
constructivism.
From his own perspective as a scientist, Piaget viewed children as little scientists who
hypothesize about how the world works, and continually test and refine their own theories
(Piaget, 1955). The following example illustrates how Piaget (1930) did his work and how
a young child thinks:
Piaget: Where does the wind come from?
Ost (age 4): From outside.
Piaget: How is it made outside?
Ost: By the motor cars.
Piaget: What else can make the wind?
Ost: Bicycles, trams, carts, dust.
Piaget: What else?
Ost: When you blow, when you sweep. (p. 35)
This dialogue demonstrates Piaget’s idea that children develop their own theories of how
the world works. With their experiences, children test their theories and eventually either
strengthen, change, or discard them.
How Development Occurs: The Process of Adaptation One way we
can tell that children construct their own knowledge is that they come up with their own
ideas about or explanations for events. This is one reason why young children can be so
enchanting. Five-year-old Pearson arrives at kindergarten one morning and proudly an-
nounces to his teacher, “I know what A + A is—B!” Pearson hasn’t discovered algebra, but
he does apply what he has learned about how numbers work (1 + 1 = 2) to the alphabet.
constructivism Learning
theory derived from the work
of Jean Piaget; assumes that
children actively build their
knowledge from firsthand
experiences in stimulating
environments.
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Chapter 4 Applying What We Know about Children’s Learning and Development 113
However mistaken Pearson is at this point, he is clearly thinking and trying to connect what
he is learning to what he already knows.
Piaget believed that all children, like Pearson, have an inborn ability to organize and
make sense of their experiences. Piaget coined the term scheme or schema for the orga-
nizing structures people use to think or guide behavior. Schemes develop and change with
experience. Toddler Veronica has a big German shepherd dog named Darby. When Ve-
ronica meets the Labrador next door, she calls him Darby, too. Her mom responds, “He’s
a doggie, but his name isn’t Darby. It’s Milo.” Then, Veronica sees a pony at the petting
zoo and exclaims with glee, “Doggie!” But when she goes to pet the pony, she realizes he
is much taller than either Darby or Milo. Again, her mother clarifies: “No, he has four legs
like Darby and Milo, but he’s a pony, not a doggie.”
After many such experiences, Veronica changes her scheme for dogs (including the
fact that dogs are not all the same) and another scheme for ponies. This process of chang-
ing schemes in response to experiences is called adaptation, and occurs in two ways:
through assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation occurs when new information or
experience is understood in connection with an existing scheme. Veronica assimilated her
experience with Milo into her scheme for dogs.
By contrast, if the new information doesn’t fit within an existing scheme, the child
must modify that scheme or construct a new one, a process called accommodation.
In Veronica’s case, the pony couldn’t be assimilated into her doggie scheme, so a new
scheme for pony had to be created. As Veronica gets older and has many more experi-
ences, she will create different schemes to organize this basic information. Pony will be
connected with the general scheme of animals, as well as the narrower scheme of animals
you can ride.
When Veronica touched the pony and her mother gave her new information, she ex-
perienced disequilibrium, which is an imbalance in thinking that occurs when new in-
formation or physical experience cannot be understood in terms of what is already known
(i.e., cannot be assimilated). Piaget believed that human beings seek equilibrium—we
want the world to make sense, so we try to restore balance by creating new schemes or
adapting existing ones, the process of equilibration.
Piaget theorized that learning depends on this process of adapting schemes through
assimilation and accommodation in order to achieve equilibrium. He also believed that
scheme or schema The orga-
nization of mental structures
people use to think or guide be-
havior; the structures develop
and change with experience.
adaptation The mental
process of altering concepts
(schemes) in response to
experience, which occurs in
two ways: through assimilation
and accommodation.
assimilation When new
information or experience is
understood in connection with
existing knowledge (schemes).
accommodation When new
information or experience
doesn’t fit within an existing
concept (scheme), the child
must modify it or construct a
new scheme.
disequilibrium An imbalance
in thinking that occurs when
new information or physical ex-
perience cannot be understood
in terms of what is already
known (cannot be assimilated).
equilibration The process
whereby humans try to make
sense of new experiences by cre-
ating new concepts (schemes) or
adapting existing ones.
As young children play and interact with objects and other people, they construct their own understanding
about the world, such as what a crayon can do and how paper is used.
©
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Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach114
to change schemes, or accommodate, children need hands-on physical experience (they
need to act on objects) and social interaction with peers and adults who help clarify their
thinking. In the case of Veronica, her pony scheme was constructed through her real-life
encounter at the zoo as well as her conversations with her mother.
Types of Knowledge Another important point of Piaget’s theory is that there are
different kinds of knowledge. Piaget believed that children’s minds develop as the result
of interactions between experience and biology. But the process is not identical for every
type of learning. In fact, Piaget (1952) identified three types of knowledge—physical,
logico-mathematical, and social-conventional—each acquired in different ways.
• Physical knowledge is understanding how objects move and function in space—
how the physical world works. Two-year-old Evan loves to watch the rubber ball
roll down the ramp, and repeats the action over and over. Then he tries using a rub-
ber block. Even though the block is soft like the ball, it doesn’t cooperate. Evan’s
hands-on experience with the ball and block adds to his knowledge of how different
objects function in the physical world.
• Logico-mathematical knowledge is the relationships that are constructed in our
minds between objects or concepts. Unlike physical knowledge, logico-
mathematical knowledge is not directly observable. While playing with his ramp,
Evan sees that Delia has two small balls and he has one big one. He decides that he
wants a second ball. The idea that two balls are more than one ball is an example of
logico-mathematical knowledge. Evan created the relationship between the objects
in his mind; it does not exist otherwise. He could just as easily have focused on the
relationship of size instead of quantity and decided to keep the big ball.
• Social-conventional knowledge is the culturally agreed-on names and symbols
that need to be transmitted to the learner directly. For example, the letters of the
alphabet, number names, and the meaning of the colors on the stoplight are all ar-
bitrary. This kind of knowledge can’t be reinvented by every learner. Usually,
children learn these symbols by repeated exposure (hearing and seeing them
frequently) or being directly taught.
A challenge for teachers is that different types of knowledge require different types
of teaching and learning. Just because social-conventional knowledge is most efficiently
learned through instruction does not mean that other types of knowledge can be easily
acquired this way. Complex concepts such as counting, which is logico-mathematical
knowledge, require much deeper understanding than simply reciting the number names.
At the same time, children can’t learn to count if they don’t know the number sequence,
just as they can’t learn to read if they don’t know the alphabet. Therefore, in constructing
their understanding of concepts, children often draw on all three kinds of knowledge.
Cognition and Biology: Stages of Cognitive Development Piaget be-
lieved that biology plays a key role in cognitive development, with specific cognitive
abilities changing in significant ways as children get older. His theory identifies four
stages of cognition, as listed in Table 4.2. Piaget theorized that although the ages were
approximate, the order of the stages is fixed and that every child goes through each stage.
Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to Age 2) During the years from birth to about age 2,
children learn about the world through a combination of their sensory abilities—sight,
hearing, taste, touch, smell—and their motor skills. Newborn and young infants rely on
reflexes such as sucking and grasping to build schemes. When baby Sonia grasps her
rattle and brings it to her mouth, she finds out lots of things about the rattle—it makes a
noise she likes, and it feels hard and cold. Another characteristic of the sensorimotor pe-
riod is that babies lack object permanence, which means that when an object is no longer
in their sight, it ceases to exist for them. For example, if Mommy hides the favorite rattle
under a blanket, Sonia won’t look for it. Then when the blanket is removed, Sonia will
inevitably be surprised to find the rattle there.
physical knowledge Under-
standing how objects move and
function in space and how the
physical world works.
logico-mathematical
knowledge The relationships
that are constructed in our
minds between objects or
concepts.
social-conventional
knowledge The culturally
agreed-on names and symbols
that need to be transmitted to
the learner directly.
object permanence A concept
that babies lack early in the
period of sensorimotor develop-
ment, so that when an object
is no longer in their sight, it
ceases to exist for them.
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Chapter 4 Applying What We Know about Children’s Learning and Development 115
As children get older and are able to move on their own, crawling and toddling, they
use more conscious movements to find out how things work. But their learning occurs
through their actions; they don’t yet think or plan in advance. Consider 18-month-old
Ronde, who stacks his blocks in front of the cabinet door. When he opens the door, the
blocks fall over, much to his surprise and dismay. Nevertheless, Ronde keeps stacking and
knocking over the blocks, not realizing that if he moved the toys before opening the door,
they wouldn’t fall down.
Very young children also tend to see everything from their own point of view, what
Piaget called egocentrism. Their experiences, such as shaking the rattle or making milk
flow by sucking, convince them that they are the center of their world and can cause
events to happen.
By about age 2, young children begin to be able to use symbols such as words, in-
stead of relying on actions and objects to learn about the world, and they move into
Piaget’s second stage of cognitive development—preoperational.
Preoperational Stage (Ages 2 to 7) Several major cognitive developments occur dur-
ing this stage. First, children’s language development explodes, which provides symbols
that enable children to think (that is, hold a mental representation) of an object or event.
Ronde can now picture the door knocking down his blocks and, therefore, thinks ahead to
building in a safer place. As a result of this new thinking ability, children are less depen-
dent on sensorimotor learning, although active learning is still most effective.
Piaget did many classic experiments with preoperational children, trying to gauge their
ability to solve various prearranged tasks. What he concluded from these studies is that
preoperational children rely on their perceptions or intuitions about solutions rather than on
logic. For example, at snack time, 4-year-olds Isela and Ruth each have one graham cracker.
Isela breaks hers into four pieces and tells Ruth, “Look! I have more crackers than you do!”
Nothing her teacher says will convince Ruth that they have the same amount. Ruth is not
content until the teacher resignedly breaks her cracker into four pieces as well.
From his observations, Piaget concluded that there are several specific limitations to
the thinking of preoperational children. Ruth and Isela’s situation demonstrates that they
were unable to conserve quantity. Conservation is the concept that the quantity of objects
or liquids does not change just because their physical appearance is transformed. If Ruth
had a tall glass of milk and her teacher poured the milk into a short fat one, no doubt she
would think that she had less milk and feel cheated once more. Ruth is unable to reverse
the operation of pouring the milk in her mind and figure out that the amount has not
changed. The same phenomenon—judging by appearances rather than logic—is observed
when preschool children are presented with two equal rows of checkers. After one row is
spread out and appears longer, even though no checkers have been added or removed,
preoperational children will assume that the spread-out row has more checkers.
egocentrism The process
whereby very young children
tend to see everything from
their own intellectual and emo-
tional point of view.
conservation The understand-
ing that the quantity of objects
stays the same regardless of
changes in appearance.
Stage Approximate Age Characteristics
Sensorimotor Birth to 2 years Learns through senses and physical movement, gradually moving
from reflexes to conscious activity.
Preoperational 2 to 7 years Develops ability to learn through symbols—language and mental
representations of thoughts; thinking is controlled more by
perceptions than logic.
Concrete operational 7 to 11 years Able to think and solve problems more logically, through concrete
experience; abstract thinking is limited.
Formal operational 11 years to adulthood Can think and solve problems abstractly, using symbolic thought
and systematic experimentation.
Source: Based on Educational Psychology: Theory and Practice, 11th edition, by R. Slavin, 2015, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
TAble 4.2 Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
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Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach116
Preoperational children also continue to be egocentric—interpreting the world from
their own point of view, though less so over time. During a visit to the Gettysburg battle-
field, 3-year-old Ryan declares to his Nana, “I was too little to fight in the battle. I had to
stay in the van.”
Concrete Operational Stage (Ages 7 to 11) During the elementary school years,
children’s thinking becomes more logical, and they are able to solve problems mentally
and reverse operations. They are no longer fooled by a conservation problem. Children
are capable of carrying out mental actions. Piaget used the word concrete to refer to this
stage of cognition because this age group is not yet capable of thinking about and fully
comprehending complex, abstract concepts such as historical time or death. Instead,
they are most successful at solving problems they can directly experience. Piaget be-
lieved that abstract reasoning is not possible until the stage of formal observations in
adolescence and adulthood, and that some people never reach this stage of cognitive
development.
Criticisms of Piaget’s Theory Piaget’s theory was first widely disseminated in
the United States in the 1970s and had a major impact on views of how children learn
and appropriate ways to teach. Parents, toy manufacturers, and publishers were also in-
fluenced by Piaget’s ideas about the competence of children, leading to an explosion in
educational products for babies.
Piaget’s stage theory emphasized the limitations of children’s thinking at each stage,
leading some educators to focus more on what children were not able to do rather than
on their developing competencies. Preschool classrooms provided an interesting environ-
ment for children to “discover,” with little interaction with adults to support expanding
children’s thinking. And most educators assumed that mathematics and literacy, which
are based on understanding symbols, were too abstract for preoperational children and,
therefore, not taught until children were older.
In recent decades, researchers and educators have challenged some of the funda-
mental tenets of Piagetian theory. Researchers have found that Piaget overestimated the
role of biologically based stages and discovery in children’s development and underes-
timated the role of the environment and teaching. For example, researchers have found
that Piaget underestimated children’s abilities to think in more complex ways (Case &
Okamoto, 1996; Gelman, 2000; Gelman & Baillargeon, 1983; Mix, Huttenlocher, &
Levine, 2002). Using carefully designed experiments, researchers have found that
infants have object permanence much younger than Piaget theorized. With support, chil-
dren can begin to understand the perspectives of other people at a much younger age
than Piaget assumed. In addition, the inability to conserve quantity does not interfere
with some preschool children’s learning basic mathematics concepts, as Piaget assumed
(Clements & Sarama, 2009).
Researchers today agree that a major, though gradual, transformation occurs in chil-
dren’s cognitive abilities around kindergarten age, known as the 5- to 7-year shift (Berk,
2006; Sameroff & McDonough, 1994). Children don’t pass through sharply drawn stages;
rather, their brain development and experiences contribute to their expanded memory and
more logical reasoning (Bauer, 2009; Ornstein, Coffman, & Grammer, 2009).
Contributions of Piagetian Theory to Practice Despite the criticisms of
Piagetian theory, the contributions of his work are enormous. Visit any good-quality early
childhood program and you will see evidence of these contributions. Children are actively
engaged in learning—not sitting still and listening to a teacher talk most of the time.
There are concrete learning materials, and children have time to use them on their own.
The environment itself is designed to promote learning. While Piaget underestimated in-
fant and toddler understanding, he was the first to suggest—correctly—that infants have
an active intellectual life. Knowledge of the sensorimotor state of development literally
launched the industry of toys and equipment for babies—mobiles over cribs, noise-making
toys that babies control, and board books.
5- to 7-year shift Major transi-
tion in cognitive abilities that
gradually occurs between 5 and
7 years of age, resulting in
increased ability to think logi-
cally, self-regulate, and solve
problems.
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Chapter 4 Applying What We Know about Children’s Learning and Development 117
Piaget changed the way we view young children and how they learn.
Piaget believed that children developed understanding by interacting with
objects and people in the environment. He relied on observing and interview-
ing to understand what children thought. However, he overestimated the role
of exploration and discovery in children’s cognitive development and un-
derestimated the important role of the teacher. Piaget also thought cognitive
development was essentially the same across cultures. Lev Vygotsky, a Rus-
sian psychologist, studied Piaget’s theory and expanded our understanding of
children’s development in important ways.
Vygotsky and Sociocultural Theory
Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934) was born in Russia the same year as Piaget. Al-
though he died young, he was a prolific writer, and after his death his theories
were further developed and disseminated by his students. Because his work
was not translated into English until 1962, it was unknown in the West until
long after his death. The Stalinist regime also suppressed his work in his
native country.
Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory is based on his belief that children
learn from social interaction within a cultural context. He emphasized that
what children learn is determined by the culture in which they grow up, such
as an urban child learning to negotiate dangerous street crossings, or a rural child learning
to milk a cow. In recent years, Vygotsky’s views on learning and teaching have become
more influential than Piaget’s, although the theories are actually complementary (Copple
& Bredekamp, 2009).
Vygotsky’s Theory of How Development Occurs Among developmental
theorists, Vygotsky provided the greatest amount of guidance for educators (Stetsenko
& Vianna, 2009). He viewed development as a continuous process driven by learning. At
particular ages, the primary learning task differs. Babies learn through their senses and
by manipulating objects (similar to Piaget’s view). Relationships with adults, who talk
and play with babies and often use objects when doing so, drive learning during the first
2 years of life.
From ages 2 to 5, children’s development is dominated by their perceptions and re-
actions. They pay attention to what is interesting and meaningful to them, rather than to
what adults prefer. They act and react without prior thinking or reflecting on past actions.
For example, when Ms. Broyles says, “It’s time to go outside, so put away your toys and
get your coats,” most 3- and 4-year-olds will run to the door. Much to Ms. Broyles’s dis-
may, they still have this reaction after weeks of school. Vygotsky believed that a major
goal of preschool is to help children move from such reactive thinking to the ability to
think before they act (Bodrova & Leong, 2012b).
During the preschool years, children need to acquire cognitive and social-emotional
competencies that shape their minds for all further learning—language, memory, focused
attention, and self-regulation (Bodrova & Leong, 2012b). If these important foundations
are in place, in the primary grades children acquire the ability to “learn on demand,” as
Vygotsky called it. They are more likely to cooperate with the school’s agenda—learn-
ing to read, calculate, and follow group rules—even when they would rather be doing
something else.
According to Vygotsky, cognitive development involves the zone of proximal de-
velopment, scaffolding, social construction of knowledge, language and other symbol
systems, self-regulation, and play. These concepts, discussed in the sections that follow,
have important implications for practice.
Zone of Proximal Development Twenty-month-old Ave is trying desperately to
get on the pony riding toy. Her teacher, Khari, observes that she is about to cry in frustra-
tion. He could pick her up and put her on it, but instead he gently lifts her leg so that she
sociocultural theory
Vygotsky’s theory that children
learn from social interaction
within a cultural context.
Classroom Connection
See constructivism in action in
this primary school classroom.
Observe how the teacher supports
children as they construct their
own knowledge. He asks questions
and encourages experimentation.
How do you think questioning
supports children’s scientific
understanding better than just
telling them the information?
M04_BRED6702_03_SE_C04.indd 117 10/7/15 1:27 PM
Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach118
gets over the last hurdle herself. Ave gives him a big smile as she pushes off with her feet
and makes a circle around the room.
By giving Ave “a leg up,” Khari helped her accomplish a goal that she couldn’t do on
her own, but could achieve with his assistance. Vygotsky (1978) identified this as the
zone of proximal development (ZPD)—the distance between the actual developmental
level an individual has achieved (their independent level of problem solving) and the
level of potential development they could achieve with adult guidance or through
collaboration with other children. The assistance, guidance, and direction teachers pro-
vide children in their ZPD is called scaffolding. To gain deeper understanding of how
children learn in their ZPD, read the feature Becoming an Intentional Teacher: Teaching
in the “Zone.”
Social Construction of Knowledge Scaffolding does not mean that teachers
control or shape learning, as behaviorists believe (see p. 124). Instead, children learn by
solving problems collaboratively with the teacher’s support or by working with peers,
which is called co-construction, or social construction of knowledge.
zone of proximal development
(ZPD) The distance between
the actual developmental level
an individual has achieved (her
independent level of problem
solving) and the level of po-
tential development she could
achieve with adult guidance
or through collaboration with
other children.
scaffolding The assistance,
guidance, and direction teach-
ers provide children to help
them accomplish a task or
learn a skill (within their ZPD)
that they could not achieve on
their own.
co-construction Children
learning by solving prob-
lems collaboratively with the
teacher’s support or by working
with peers; also called social
construction of knowledge.
Becoming an Intentional Teacher
Teaching in the “Zone”
Here’s What Happened In my kindergarten, we are
working on the basic mathematical number operations—
adding and subtracting. In our classroom, children work in
centers for part of the morning. Through assessments that I
do during center time, I learned that Miguel can add two sin-
gle-digit numbers on his own. I also learned that he is strug-
gling with subtracting single-digit numbers, but is successful
when I talk through the subtraction activities with him. I also
observed that Miguel is able to subtract more successfully
when the problem is applied, such as when he is playing
cashier and giving “change” in our Home Improvement Store
center. Miguel especially likes to play there because his Dad
works in construction. I decided on a three-pronged approach
to support his understanding and application of subtraction:
1) I set aside 5–10 minutes twice a week to work individ-
ually with Miguel. Using manipulatives, including an
abacus and small counting trains. Miguel loves trains!
During this time, I verbally support Miguel’s grouping
and counting, using short word problems and number
cards.
2) I also intentionally join Miguel and other children in
the Home Improvement Store at center time. I intro-
duce the concept of “Supply Lists” to the center, using
cards with pictures and labels of the different supplies.
Children can add nuts, bolts, and tools to their baskets,
according to the list, and return (subtract) things they
no longer need for their building projects. As Miguel
purchases and returns items for his building project, I
support and make explicit his adding and subtracting,
pointing out to Miguel how successfully he uses math
for his project.
3) Finally, during the morning math challenge, I pair
Miguel with a friend who understands subtraction con-
cepts well, and is very verbal. I have them work together
to solve the problem, ex-
plaining each of their steps.
After about two weeks of this more
intensive approach, Miguel demonstrates ability to subtract
single-digit numbers on his own, and begins to experiment
with double-digit numbers. He insists on being the employee
at checkout in the Home Improvement Store to showcase his
adding and subtracting.
Here’s What I Was Thinking As a kindergarten teach-
er, I know that understanding and applying these founda-
tional mathematical concepts is essential for building chil-
dren’s later competence in math. I also understand that
children learn best in the context of supportive relation-
ships, and I structure interactions in my classroom to in-
tentionally support each learner. I do this by: (1) assessing
each child’s level of independent performance on a skill,
(2) assessing each child’s level of supported (with help)
performance on a skill, and (3) developing lessons that al-
low a child to practice in their supported level, until the
child can do the skill independently. I then set the next
higher level of skill as the child’s goal skill.
Vygotsky used the term zone of proximal development
(ZPD) to describe the child’s skill level when supported by
an adult or more experienced peer. He believed that by as-
sessing only what a child knows, a teacher does not have
information on how to support the child’s progress. But by
assessing a child’s ZPD, I am able to structure for progres-
sive development and learning.
Reflection How did this teacher use assessment to
guide her intentional teaching? What other strategies could
she have used to teach Miguel in his Zone of Proximal
Development?
M04_BRED6702_03_SE_C04.indd 118 10/7/15 1:27 PM
Chapter 4 Applying What We Know about Children’s Learning and Development 119
Seven-year-olds Lucrezia and Gloria are drawing a map of their school. Lucrezia is
working on the classrooms and Gloria is drawing the entrance area, lunchroom, and
offices. They have the following exchange:
Lucrezia: You are making them too big. There won’t be room for my part.
Gloria: Well, they are bigger. See all the stuff we have to put in.
Lucrezia: But the lunchroom is the biggest. How can we make this work?
Each girl has a different perspective on the problem. As they continue to work on it,
they try different solutions, none of them satisfactory to both. Finally, they determine
the following:
Gloria: We need to figure out how to measure the rooms.
Lucrezia: My brother showed me on the GPS that one inch means one mile.
We need to figure out something like that.
They then proceed to address the new problems of finding a way to measure the
school and creating a scale for their map.
In this example, peers work collaboratively to construct understanding. They chal-
lenge each other’s ideas and alter their perspectives as a result. Lucrezia, the more accom-
plished peer, introduces some cultural knowledge—what she has learned about a GPS.
In other situations, the teacher plays the role of provocateur, challenging the children’s
thinking and thus, promoting their learning.
Language and Thought Because Vygotsky (1962) believed that learning depends
on interaction with other people, he also believed that speech is the most important tool
for learning. Babies begin by communicating through gestures, as when they learn that
holding up their arms means “pick me up.” Then they connect sounds and words with
their meanings; saying “Da Da” gets a different result from saying “Ma Ma.” Language
growth during the preschool years enables children to learn through conversation. Speech
gradually becomes internalized and used for thinking.
Think of a situation, such as learning a psychology concept or solving a mathemat-
ics problem, which you didn’t really understand until you talked about it with some-
one else or at least stated your ideas out loud. According to Vygotsky, articulating an
idea is necessary for real understanding. He described the relationship between language
and thought as moving from interpersonal (between people) to intrapersonal (inside the
child). Learning begins in conversation between people and then becomes part of an in-
dividual’s thinking.
Interpersonal understanding or socially constructed knowledge is turned into intrap-
ersonal knowledge through private speech (Vygotsky, 1962). For preschool children,
private speech can look like thinking out loud. As 3½-year-old Ivor stands in front of the
easel contemplating the next color to use, thick paint starts running down the paper. Ivor
says, “Whoa, don’t do that. I’m gonna get you with my brush,” and proceeds to do so. By
age 6 or 7, private speech becomes silent and is used for thinking and problem solving.
To summarize, children first use language for conversation. Then, through the vehicle
of private speech, they literally use language to talk to themselves and to control their own
behavior—that is, for self-regulation (Bailey & Brookes, 2012).
Self-Regulation Vygotsky considered the development of self-regulation the pri-
mary task of the years before formal school entry. Self-regulation is the ability to adapt
or control behavior, emotions, and thinking according to the demands of the situation
(Bodrova & Leong, 2012b). Preschool children’s self-regulation ability, more so than
their intelligence or family background, predicts their academic success in the early
grades (Blair & Razza, 2007; McClelland, Acock, & Morrison, 2006). By contrast, early
problems in self-regulation are strongly related to later problems in school and life
(Calkins & Williford, 2009). Teachers or parents may understand self-regulation as “the
private speech The process
whereby interpersonal under-
standing or socially constructed
knowledge is turned into
intrapersonal knowledge (think-
ing aloud becomes thinking to
oneself).
self-regulation The ability to
adapt or control behavior, emo-
tions, and thinking according to
the demands of the situation.
gets over the last hurdle herself. Ave gives him a big smile as she pushes off with her feet
and makes a circle around the room.
By giving Ave “a leg up,” Khari helped her accomplish a goal that she couldn’t do on
her own, but could achieve with his assistance. Vygotsky (1978) identified this as the
zone of proximal development (ZPD)—the distance between the actual developmental
level an individual has achieved (their independent level of problem solving) and the
level of potential development they could achieve with adult guidance or through
collaboration with other children. The assistance, guidance, and direction teachers pro-
vide children in their ZPD is called scaffolding. To gain deeper understanding of how
children learn in their ZPD, read the feature Becoming an Intentional Teacher: Teaching
in the “Zone.”
Social Construction of Knowledge Scaffolding does not mean that teachers
control or shape learning, as behaviorists believe (see p. 124). Instead, children learn by
solving problems collaboratively with the teacher’s support or by working with peers,
which is called co-construction, or social construction of knowledge.
zone of proximal development
(ZPD) The distance between
the actual developmental level
an individual has achieved (her
independent level of problem
solving) and the level of po-
tential development she could
achieve with adult guidance
or through collaboration with
other children.
scaffolding The assistance,
guidance, and direction teach-
ers provide children to help
them accomplish a task or
learn a skill (within their ZPD)
that they could not achieve on
their own.
co-construction Children
learning by solving prob-
lems collaboratively with the
teacher’s support or by working
with peers; also called social
construction of knowledge.
M04_BRED6702_03_SE_C04.indd 119 10/7/15 1:27 PM
Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach120
capacity to control one’s impulses both to stop doing something that is unnecessary (even
if one wants to continue doing it), and to start doing something that is needed (even if one
does not want to do it)” (Boyd, Barnett, Bodrova, Leong, & Gomby, 2005, p. 4). This is
why self-regulation is so strongly related to success. Every day preschool teachers require
children to stop playing (which they usually want to continue) and start cleaning up
(which they don’t want to do). Similarly, children in primary grades must attend to the
reading lesson when they would rather go outside for recess.
The activities of the prefrontal cortex region of the brain that allow us to self-
regulate—to manage our emotions, focus and shift attention, and regulate behavior to
meet our goals—are known as executive functions (EF) (Jones & Bailey, 2014;
Obradović, Portilla, & Boyce, 2012). They are some of the most important skills for
learning and development (Galinsky, 2010; Gilpin, Boxmeyer, DeCaro, & Lochman,
2014). Children who have ADHD typically have developmental delays in their executive
functions. They are often impulsive, and have trouble paying attention. They also may
have difficulty with working memory, the brain ability that allows us to remember infor-
mation in the short term and use the information to understand and solve problems. While
some children are identified with ADHD in preschool, children are typically diagnosed in
early elementary school, when the demands of formal schooling highlight children’s EF
skills of attention and regulation.
Teachers can support EF in development of children with ADHD in several ways
(Murphy, 2014). To help children focus better, teachers can break instructions and tasks
into structured pieces, give individualized instructions, and check for un-
derstanding of instructions. Teachers can help children regulate their own
behavior by providing positive reinforcement for positive behavior, and by
avoiding negative feedback, which can lead to poor self-image in children
with ADHD. Many children with ADHD take medication to help them attend
and regulate in the school setting; however, research suggests that the sup-
ports families and teachers can provide may help as much as medication in
helping children experience school success.
Children with ADHD benefit from an environment that allows for play
and exercise. Recent research has examined the role of physical activ-
ity in children’s attention and EF. Physical exercise enhances sustained
executive function The ability
to control emotions, focus
attention, plan and think
ahead, and monitor cognitive
processes.
Effective teachers draw on all the relevant theories to support children’s learning progress. What strategies
do you think this teacher is using to help this young girl accomplish a new skill?
Classroom Connection
In this video, learn more about
how executive function develops,
why it is important, and how
adults can support its develop-
ment in early childhood.
https://www.youtube.com
/watch?v=efCq_vHUMqs
©
E
rn
a
Va
d
er
/E
+
/G
et
ty
I
m
ag
es
M04_BRED6702_03_SE_C04.indd 120 10/7/15 1:27 PM
http://https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=efCq_vHUMqs
http://https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=efCq_vHUMqs
Chapter 4 Applying What We Know about Children’s Learning and Development 121
attention in preschoolers (Palmer, Miller, & Robinson, 2013) and EF in elementary
school children with ADHD (Gapin & Etnier, 2010). In the feature Promoting Play:
Incorporating Playful Exercise into the Curriculum, you can learn how one teacher
integrates playful movement to support all the children in her classroom, including
children with ADHD.
Incorporating Playful Exercise into the Curriculum
Tamara has 22 children in her combined
kindergarten-first grade class. She enjoys their
energy and enthusiasm, but has noticed that
several children have been struggling with main-
taining attention during math and literacy work
blocks. A few children have even started to act
silly when they are supposed to be working. Two
of the children who struggle with attention, Mabel
and Nassim, have diagnoses of ADHD. Tamara
knows that they are intelligent, but sees that they
are falling into patterns of not finishing their work.
Mabel is acting a bit anxious, possibly in response
to frequent redirection and reminders. Nassim’s
disruptive behavior is escalating during large
group activities, and he is wandering during center
time and teasing his classmates. Tamara consults
with her co-teacher and the school resource teach-
er, and together they come up with a plan that will
support Mabel, Nassim, and all of the children in
the class.
Before implementing any changes in the class-
room, Tamara, her co-teacher, and the resource
teacher take turns observing the children during the
course of classroom routines and activities. They
notice that children are more attentive after morn-
ing recess, lunchtime recess, and physical educa-
tion. Conversely, they notice that before recess
and lunch, the children have the most difficulty
attending, following directions, and working inde-
pendently. Although Tamara and colleagues cannot
add more recess time to the children’s day, they
decide to: (1) introduce physical activities into large
group time, (2) shift activities in the daily schedule,
(3) introduce an exercise area at center time, and
(4) adjust learning environments for children who
need more activity.
First, Tamara shifts the most demanding aspects of
the daily schedule. She starts the day with a large
group activity that ends in a “dance time”—the
children pick the music and they spread out across
the room—and dance playfully. Children may move
as they wish or follow a leader. Literacy block fol-
lows, and Tamara ensures that Mabel and Nassim
complete their most demanding tasks at the begin-
ning of the literacy block. Tamara schedules other
demanding lessons such as math and science after
morning and lunch recess.
Next, Tamara and her co-teacher arrange for a move-
ment center, and choose animals for the first theme.
Using cue cards and a flip-video camera, children in
the center tape each other moving like animals. The
teachers plan themes for future movement centers,
including yoga, calisthenics, and dance party. They
discuss how to introduce rules for this center and
monitor for safety, and include the children in think-
ing of fun ways to move in the center.
Finally, Tamara makes accommodations for Mabel
and Nassim, observing any other children who might
benefit. Because she knows that children with
ADHD often benefit from being able to move while
learning, Tamara arranges for Mabel and Nassim to
stand while doing work, if they choose. She provides
“fidget toys” for them to hold during large group
time, and identifies special classroom jobs for them
to move and help during the day.
Tamara knows that she can’t let children play all
day, but by thinking about playful movement and
exercise in her daily routines and curriculum, Ta-
mara and her co-teacher witness dramatic increases
in engagement and attention for Mabel, Nassim,
and the entire class.
Promoting Play
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Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach122
Play and Vygotsky’s Theory According to Vygotsky (1978), make-believe play is
the leading activity in children’s development from about ages 2 through 5. Play creates a
zone of proximal development in which a child behaves “as though he were a head taller
than himself” (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 102). When children pretend to be adults—parents,
teachers, or workers, as they often do—they use more sophisticated language than usual
and model grown-up behavior.
Pretend play in small groups is especially valuable for promoting self-
regulation because it is the one activity that requires children to regulate their
own behavior, be regulated by others, and regulate others all within the same
context (Bodrova & Leong, 2007; Boyd et al., 2005). Picture 5-year-olds
playing restaurant. Each child, whether playing customer, waiter, or cook,
has an assigned role and must stick to the script. The customer can’t say,
“Can I take your order?” That’s the waiter’s role. If the customer begins serv-
ing the food, the play breaks down. The waiter says, “You can’t do that. You
have to sit down, look at the menu, and eat.” The rules have to be renegoti-
ated. The customer may say, “Okay, but I get to be the waiter next.” So we
see that the customer has to regulate herself (stay in her role and follow the
rules), be regulated by others (the waiter), and regulate others (place her or-
der so the waiter can do his job).
As is evident in the foregoing example, sociodramatic play promotes
children’s ability to take another person’s perspective (Vygotsky, 1977).
Assuming a pretend role—being another person for a while—helps chil-
dren move to another perspective and then back to their own. This ability
to take another’s perspective—to go beyond egocentrism—is necessary in
school where children need to see the perspectives of teachers and other
children.
Elena Bodrova, who studied with Vygotsky’s students, and her colleague Deborah
Leong developed a Vygotskian curriculum model, Tools of the Mind (Bodrova & Leong,
2007, 2012b). The model focuses on teachers building self-regulation in children through
mature sociodramatic play.
Implications for Practice Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory has many implica-
tions for early childhood practice. Teaching in the zone of proximal development requires
that children experience a challenging curriculum—not content that is meant for older
children, but content that moves them ahead in thinking and problem solving.
Similarly, the role of the teacher becomes more important than ever, not as controller
of the classroom, but as a collaborator with children. Teachers need to scaffold children’s
learning and set up situations where groups of children work together to solve problems
and have the freedom to think out loud. During preschool and kindergarten, teachers need
to intentionally support mature sociodramatic play to promote self-regulation, a topic we
will return to later in this chapter.
Major contributions of Vygotsky’s theory were his emphasis on (1) the role of adults
in children’s development, and (2) the transmission of cultural understandings as a part
of children’s development. We’ll next consider a model that expands theory to a systems
level, in which children develop in the context of many environments and interactions
over time.
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems
Theory of Development
One of the most useful theories for understanding the interactive influence of social and
cultural contexts on human development is the ecological systems model proposed by
psychologist Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917–2005). Figure 4.2 illustrates Bronfenbrenner’s
ecological systems theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1979, 2004), which describes the diverse,
interactive contexts that influence children’s development over time.
ecological systems theory
Bronfenbrenner’s theory that
describes the diverse, interac-
tive contexts that influence
children’s development over
time.
Classroom Connection
Observe these two instances of
sociodramatic play in a preschool
classroom. What are some things
you notice about the children’s
play? How might the different
theorists view the learning and
development supported in the
context of the children’s dramatic
and block play?
M04_BRED6702_03_SE_C04.indd 122 10/7/15 1:27 PM
Chapter 4 Applying What We Know about Children’s Learning and Development 123
At the center of the model is the individual whose development is influenced by their
own biological factors, social interaction, and experiences in a variety of contexts. The
environments, or systems, surrounding an individual from birth and beyond plays signifi-
cant interactive roles in a child’s development. The systems in which the child directly
participates on a regular basis are known as microsystems, and include the family, child
care, school, and faith-based settings. The child’s daily interactions, which Bronfen-
brenner called proximal processes (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006) have the most im-
pact on a child’s development, due to their frequent, ongoing nature, often over extended
periods of time. Thought of as “drivers” of development, proximal processes include the
physical care children receive, daily conversations with parents and teachers, and play-
ground interactions with peers.
The next level of system that impacts a child’s life is the mesosystem, which refers to
the interaction of different microsystems in a child’s life. Parent-teacher interactions, in-
cluding conferences, phone calls, home visits, and back-to-school nights are examples of
a mesosystem—where the child’s microsystems of home and school come together—and
interact and influence each other. Bronfenbrenner believed that the strength of these me-
sosystems—the degree to which the systems worked together—is important for support-
ing the child’s positive development.
The exosystem consists of systems that affect the child’s microsystems, but in which
the child doesn’t directly participate. This includes parents’ employment, child care
microsystem System in which
the child directly participates
on a regular basis and include
the family, child care, school
and faith-based settings.
proximal processes Interac-
tions in the context of daily liv-
ing that have the most impact
on a child’s development,
due to their frequent, ongoing
nature, often over extended
periods of time.
mesosystem Interaction of
different microsystems in a
child’s life.
FIGURE 4.2 Model of Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory
Source: McDevitt, Teresa M., Ormrod, Jeanne Ellis, Child Development and Education, 5th Ed., © 2013.
Reprinted and electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ
Biology
Temperament
Abilities
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Exosystem
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ia
Law
Cultural context
Government policies
Beliefs and values
(Mesos
ystem)
Interactions
in Mic
rosystem
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ily
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om
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ity
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Reli
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Chrono system
(changes in
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Over time)
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im
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exosystem Systems that affect
the child’s microsystems, but
that the child doesn’t di-
rectly participate in, including
economic, media, eduation,
health, legal and political
entities that directly affect a
person or circumstance in the
child’s microsystem.
M04_BRED6702_03_SE_C04.indd 123 10/7/15 1:28 PM
Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach124
regulations, religious traditions, and school board decisions. When a teacher experiences
stress in her home life, she may carry that stress into the classroom, impacting the quality
of her relationships with students and the impact of her teaching. On the other hand, a
teacher whose school board institutes policies that support good working conditions may
be more likely to interact positively with children and provide effective instruction. An
exosystem can include economic, media, education, health, legal, and political entities
that directly effect a person or circumstance in the child’s microsystem.
The outermost level of Bronfenbrenner’s model is the macrosystem, which refers to
the overarching cultural context of the values, beliefs, laws, and policies of a society.
American society, for example, is strongly influenced not only by values of freedom and
individual rights and responsibilities, but also by the value of collective responsibility for
its neediest members. As a result, our institutions and social policies reflect these values,
such as laws regarding provision of public assistance for families living in poverty. While
it may not seem that macrosystems effect a child’s daily life, they can exert a powerful
influence over time. Bronfenbrenner uses the term chronosystem to refer to effects of
circumstances over time. According to Bronfenbrenner, children who experience home-
lessness for a short period of time will likely suffer fewer negative outcomes than a child
who is homeless for their entire childhood.
Bronfenbrenner’s theory has helped educators and child development researchers re-
alize the importance of considering the multiple, complex systems that impact children’s
development. Bronfenbrenner believed that society needs to attend carefully to support-
ing children by supporting all of the systems needed for a child to develop. Especially
committed to supporting children and families who live in poverty, Bronfenbrenner was
one of the key conceptual founders of the Head Start program. The comprehensive ser-
vices (education, health, and family engagement) that are the hallmark of Head Start can
be attributed, in part, to the influence of Bronfenbrenner’s thinking.
In the previous sections we described the developmental theories of Erikson, Maslow,
Piaget, Vygotsky and Bronfenbrenner. Erikson’s work, as well as that of Maslow, pro-
vides insights into children’s social and personality development and their motivation.
The theories of Piaget and Vygotsky cast considerable light on the processes of cogni-
tive development and have much to teach teachers. Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems
theory attempts to connect children’s social and cognitive development with the many
influential systems that are involved in children’s development. In the next section, we
turn to descriptions of the most influential theories of learning.
✓ Check Your Understanding 4.3: Child Development Theories
Learning Theories
In contrast to developmental theories, which are linked to age-related changes in chil-
dren, learning theories are assumed to apply in the same way regardless of the age of the
learner. In the following sections, we describe the work of two major learning theorists:
B. F. Skinner and Albert Bandura. (Another learning theory is Howard Gardner’s multiple
intelligences theory, which we discuss in the chapter on individual differences.)
B. F. Skinner and Behaviorism
One of the most influential learning theories of the last half century is behaviorism or
behavioral learning. According to this theory, learning is reflected in changes in behav-
ior that are controlled by the consequences, either positive or negative, that follow the
behavior. Using pleasant or unpleasant consequences to control behavior is called operant
conditioning.
Psychologist B. F. Skinner (1904–1980) developed the theory of operant condi-
tioning through systematic experiments. Skinner discovered that he could train rats to
press a lever by rewarding them with food. From experiments with animals and people,
macrosystem System that in-
cludes the overarching cultural
context of the values, beliefs,
laws, and policies of a society
chronosystem System that
refers to effects of circum-
stances over time.
behaviorism or behavioral
learning Theory that learning
is a change in behavior that is
controlled by the consequenc-
es, either positive or negative,
that follow the behavior.
operant conditioning The
process of using pleasant or
unpleasant consequences to
control behavior.
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Chapter 4 Applying What We Know about Children’s Learning and Development 125
Skinner developed the core principles of operant conditioning, an example of which
follows:
During center time in her prekindergarten, teacher Nessa Stokes observes as Jemma
struggles to print her name next to her artwork. As Jemma tires and looks as though
she will give up, Nessa says, “You’ve almost got it, Jemma, J-E-M—two more letters
and you will have written your name!” Jemma smiles proudly and continues her task.
Nessa is reassured that her encouraging praise will keep Jemma working on a task
that is difficult.
Nessa also understands how technology can provide reinforcement to keep chil-
dren motivated on difficult learning tasks. In the Tech Center, three children gather
around a math game on the computer that has the boys distinguishing “more” and
“less” in groups of dinosaurs. “More!” shouts Jessica, and Brian presses the button
that indicates there are more dinosaurs in the new array than the previous. With the
correct answer button pressed, the dinosaurs break out into a dance on the screen, leav-
ing the children laughing. “Let’s try the next one—a harder one” says Azim. “They get
even funnier with harder ones.” Nessa smiles, as in this activity she witnesses children
cooperating, learning important math concepts, and getting positively reinforced for
practicing their skills and also doing progressively more difficult math problems.
Although Nessa’s actions in this brief scenario may seem relatively simple, she is in fact
implementing several key principles of operant conditioning.
Operant Conditioning The most important principle of operant conditioning is
that behavior changes as a result of its immediate consequences. Positive consequences
strengthen the frequency of specific behaviors; unpleasant consequences decrease the
frequency. Reinforcers are consequences that increase or strengthen behaviors. There are
two kinds of reinforcers: positive and negative.
Positive reinforcement is a reward or pleasant consequence that follows a behav-
ior, causing that behavior to be repeated. In the previous example, Nessa reinforced or
rewarded Jemma’s writing efforts with a smile and positive words of encouragement.
As a result, Jemma kept working at a difficult task. While Jessica, Brian, and Azim were
sufficiently reinforced by the dancing dinosaur math game, she knows to monitor their
engagement in the activity to keep the learning and interactions positive and productive.
Negative reinforcement also increases the frequency of a desired behavior, but in a
different way. A negative reinforcer is an unpleasant consequence that is avoided if the
person performs a behavior more frequently. For example, an annoying bell or buzzer—a
negative reinforcer—signals when the seat belt is still unfastened after a car is started.
To avoid the sound, most people fasten the seat belt as soon as they can. If Nessa had
observed the children arguing over the computer game, she may have pointed out that
they would lose computer time if they did not find a way to cooperate. Azim may have
responded, “Let’s take turns pressing the button, Brian.” In this circumstance, negative
reinforcement would have changed the children’s behavior in positive ways.
Negative reinforcement is sometimes confused with, but is not the same thing as,
punishment. Punishment is an unpleasant consequence that stops or decreases the
frequency of a behavior. Many people, teachers as well as parents, think punishments are
effective in changing behavior and use them often. However, the problem with punish-
ment is that it may temporarily stop an undesirable behavior, but it does not teach the
child what to do instead. As a result, repeated punishment soon becomes ineffective in
changing behavior. For example, in Tiffany’s first-grade classroom, when children misbe-
have they get a red card and their name goes on the board, while those who behave well
get a green card. But day after day, the same children get the red card. Receiving the
card—a punishment—does not improve their behavior.
Teachers need to understand that punishment only decreases an undesirable behavior
temporarily. To increase a desired behavior, reinforcement is needed. In fact, in some
cases, punishment actually serves as a negative reinforcer and increases the behavior.
Consider the situation where a first-grade teacher decides to punish a disruptive child by
punishment An unpleasant
consequence that stops or
decreases the frequency of a
behavior.
consequences Principle of
operant conditioning that
behavior changes as a result
of what occurs immediately
afterward.
reinforcer Consequence—
either positive or negative—
that increases or strengthens a
behavior.
positive reinforcement
A reward or pleasant
consequence that follows a
behavior, causing that behavior
to be repeated.
negative reinforcement An
unpleasant consequence that is
avoided if the person per-
forms a desired behavior more
frequently.
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Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach126
making him miss recess. If the child wants to avoid recess because he doesn’t get chosen
for a team or is bullied, then removing him from recess is not a punishment but a reward
and, thus, will have the opposite effect from the one the teacher intended. When reinforc-
ers are removed, the conditioned behavior diminishes and eventually disappears, a pro-
cess called extinction.
What to Reinforce: Shaping Behavior Most human behavior is complex,
much more so than that of the hungry rats Skinner studied. Children learn to take turns,
follow classroom rules, or ride a bike over time and after many tries, some successful and
others not. It would be impossible to wait to reinforce a highly complex behavior until a
child performed it well. What if a kindergarten teacher only reinforced a child’s writing
when the letters were formed perfectly on the line? Many children would give up. Instead,
an effective teacher recognizes the child’s attempts, each step on the way to mastering
writing the letters correctly. Teaching a new skill or behavior by rewarding each step to-
ward the goal is called shaping.
Shaping requires the teacher to carefully observe the successive approximations—
not the actual desired behaviors, but each approximate behavior that is closer to the
goal. For example, when 3-year-old Lola’s scribbles begin to look like (approximate) a
circle or straight line, her family child care provider Titia says, “Oh, look, Lola, you
made an O like in your name.” Lola didn’t intend to draw an O, but it is likely that Ti-
tia’s praise will result in Lola producing pages of O’s to get more of Titia’s positive
attention.
Implications of Behaviorism for Practice Research supports the effective-
ness of principles of behaviorism, especially for children with special needs (Division
for Early Childhood of the Council for Exceptional Children, 2014). Some disabilities,
such as cerebral palsy or Down syndrome, affect children’s ability to perform functional
behaviors (e.g., eating or dressing) that typically developing children learn relatively easily
through imitation and repetition. Children with autism benefit from behavioral techniques
to support learning social communication skills (Wong et al., 2014). In these situations,
using behavioral learning techniques can be effective, as Yvonne learned in the opening
vignette of this chapter. For another example of the application of behavioral principles,
extinction The process
whereby a conditioned behavior
diminishes and eventually
disappears when reinforcers
are removed.
shaping Teaching a new skill
or behavior by rewarding each
step or successive approxima-
tion toward the goal.
successive approximations
Behaviors that are reinforced
(shaped) that are not the actual
desired behaviors, but each
approximate behavior that is
closer to the goal.
When teachers use positive reinforcement such as smiling or commenting on what a child is doing well,
children are more likely to continue to stay engaged in learning.
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Chapter 4 Applying What We Know about Children’s Learning and Development 127
read the feature Including All Children: Teaching Self-Help and Social Skills to Children
with Disabilities.
Behaviorism is a learning theory, not a theory of development. Therefore, the prin-
ciples apply regardless of the age of the learner. However, as the name implies, the ef-
fectiveness of behaviorism is limited to teaching or changing observable behaviors. Even
with this limitation, the important thing to remember is that behaviorism can be highly
effective. At times, the wrong behaviors get reinforced, such as when an aggressive child
gets what he wants by bullying.
Behaviorism, as epitomized by Skinner’s work, is often pitted against developmental
theories and teaching approaches. This is usually because behaviorism is connected to spe-
cific instructional practices, such as when teachers tell children facts and reward their correct
answers. Another strong criticism of behaviorism is that overreliance on external rewards un-
dermines children’s internal motivation (Kohn, 2014; Reineke, Sonsteng, & Gartrell, 2008).
Including All Children
Teaching Self-Help and Social Skills to Children
with Disabilities
Children with disabilities may have difficulty making
friends and being accepted by other children in the
group. Peer rejection is harmful for every child, but es-
pecially painful for children with disabilities, who face
multiple developmental challenges. And many parents
of children with disabilities want most of all for their
children to have friends and be treated like their typi-
cally developing peers. To achieve these goals, chil-
dren with special needs often need adults—teachers
and parents—to intervene, as the following example
illustrates.
Tommy is a 5-year-old child with Down syndrome.
He has attended preschool for the past 2 years and
is now in kindergarten. Tommy’s social relation-
ships with the other children have been generally
positive, especially with several children from his
preschool. Recently, however, both Tommy’s par-
ents and teachers have noticed that other class-
mates have begun to tease him, and former play-
mates are less interested in including him in their
play unless he takes on the role of the baby. In fact,
one playmate says, “Tommy still wets his pants, so
he has to be the baby.”
Tommy’s teacher, Ms. Wasky, was trained in
early childhood education and has little experi-
ence in or knowledge about special education. She
strives to provide interesting learning experiences
that keep children engaged. She believes strongly
in activating children’s intrinsic motivation to learn
rather than using external reinforcements like
stickers or happy faces. She talks with the children
and encourages them to include Tommy. Under
Ms. Wasky’s supervision, a few children grudgingly
let Tommy join them, but then they ignore him. She
is concerned that Tommy’s social development is
regressing.
Ms. Wasky and Tommy’s parents discuss ways
to help him become more accepted by his peers.
The parents and teacher believe that Tommy is
physically capable of self-toileting and, in fact, the
pediatrician agrees. All adults involved want to al-
low Tommy to achieve this important developmen-
tal task on his own terms rather than rely too heav-
ily on external reinforcement.
The dilemma they confront is weighing the
risk of waiting longer while Tommy continues to
be rejected by his peers against the risk of Tommy
possibly becoming dependent on extrinsic rein-
forcement. Their growing concern about the social
costs of peer rejection or infantilization of Tommy
leads them to decide on a behavioral intervention.
Tommy’s teacher and parents, in consultation with
the special education team members, decide to
initiate a behavioral intervention that uses operant
conditioning. They begin with concrete reinforc-
ers for appropriate toileting behavior (in this case,
stickers that Tommy selected). Eventually the rein-
forcement shifts to tokens that Tommy can trade
for extra time on the computer or other experiences
he especially likes.
As a result of this intervention, Tommy becomes more
aware of and gradually learns to anticipate and re-
spond appropriately to his toileting needs. As a result
of this explicit teaching strategy, Tommy not only ex-
periences the intrinsic satisfaction of controlling his
own toileting practices, but this functional achieve-
ment also significantly contributes to an improvement
in his social status in the classroom. No longer is he
relegated to the role of the baby on every occasion.
Source: Adapted from “Developmentally Appropriate
Practice: The Early Childhood Teacher as Decision-Maker,” by
S. Bredekamp, 1997, p. 48, in Developmentally Appropriate
Practice in Early Childhood Programs, revised edition, edited
by S. Bredekamp and C. Copple, Washington, DC: NAEYC.
Reprinted with permission from the National Association for
the Education of Young Children.
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Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach128
For example, paying children to read books may make them less motivated to read on their
own when the payment isn’t available.
But effective teaching is not an either/or choice between constructivism and behav-
iorism. These theories each apply best to different phenomena. Behaviorism may work to
change observable behaviors, but it does not explain, nor is it effective in influencing the
less visible but essential processes of thinking, concept development, and problem solving.
To explain this kind of learning, we must look to the theories of Piaget or Vygotsky, as de-
scribed earlier. Building on the work of behaviorists and bridging the gap between behav-
iorism and cognitive theory is the work of Albert Bandura, described in the next section.
Albert Bandura and Social Cognitive Theory
Developed by psychologist Albert Bandura (born in 1925), social cognitive theory (also
called social learning theory) is both a behavioral and cognitive theory and therefore
serves as a bridge between those two views of learning. Whereas Skinner’s work
emphasized that a person’s behavior needs to be directly reinforced to change, Bandura
demonstrated that people can learn more efficiently from observing the consequences of
another person’s behavior. This theory has important implications for classroom teaching.
Bandura theorized that observational learning depends on learners having an image
in their mind of the behavior they observed and its consequences—a memory of an event
captured in pictures and/or words. This theory explains an important way that children
learn—they observe and then model the behaviors they observe. Bandura’s emphasis on
the importance of a mental image adds a cognitive dimension to the learning theory and
separates it from Skinnerian behaviorism.
To test his hypothesis that children would model observed behaviors, Bandura (1973)
conducted hundreds of studies. In now famous research, he filmed situations in which
an adult or another child were complimented or rewarded for beating up a plastic in-
flated clown “Bobo.” Then, given the opportunity, kindergarten children who watched
the demonstration not only beat up Bobo but also used the exact motions and expressions,
“Sockeroo!”
Modeling and Observational Learning The basic principles of social cogni-
tive theory are (1) children learn by modeling—that is, imitating the behavior of
social cognitive theory
Bandura’s theory that people
can learn efficiently from
observing the consequences of
another person’s behavior.
modeling Teacher showing
children a skill or desirable way
of behaving or speaking; also
children imitating the behavior
of others.
According to Bandura, children learn from watching what other children do and the consequences that
follow. What do you think the teacher should do if one of the children is hurting other people?
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Chapter 4 Applying What We Know about Children’s Learning and Development 129
others—and (2) they can learn vicariously. Vicarious learning is based on observing the
effects of other people’s behavior rather than experiencing the rewards or punishments
directly. Consider the following example of modeling:
Mr. Evans’s group of 3-year-olds is getting louder and louder as they boisterously
encourage each other to jump up and down and scream at the top of their lungs.
Wanting to scream himself, Mr. Evans chooses instead to tiptoe around the group,
take Bettina by the hand, and whisper softly to follow him. One by one, the children
stop their jumping and begin imitating Mr. Evans’s toe walking. Gradually, their
voices quiet, in hopes of getting a turn to be the teacher’s partner.
The children in Mr. Evans’s group observed his behavior and saw that Bettina gained
his favor by following his lead. According to Bandura (1986), observational learning has
four phases:
1. Attention. The first step in observational learning is paying attention. Children pay
attention to role models who are interesting, novel, or seemingly powerful. This is
why action figures on television garner a lot of children’s attention. Teachers use
many fun and interesting ways to get and hold children’s attention, such as talk-
ing through a puppet, having them guess what is hidden in a bag, or simply being
excited themselves. Mr. Evans surprised the children with the novel behavior of
walking on his tiptoes.
2. Retention. During this phase of the process, the teacher models the behavior and
gives children a chance to practice it. Mr. Evans’s goal was to get the children to
lower their voices, so he modeled whispering and got the children talking softly.
3. Reproduction. The next step is for children to try to reproduce the behavior on
their own. Mr. Evans and Bettina step aside from the group and observe as the
other children take their turns whispering and tiptoeing.
4. Motivation. Observational learning works because children find that they will be
rewarded in some way for imitating the desired behaviors. Such motivation can be
based on something that happened in the past or is promised in the future. Or, as in
Mr. Evans’s class, the potential reward can be vicarious. Seeing Bettina rewarded
with the teacher’s positive attention encouraged the others to follow her lead.
Self-Regulated Learning Bandura’s theory goes even further as a cognitive the-
ory in his concept of self-regulated learning. Bandura (1997) postulated that people
learn not only by modeling the behavior of others, but also by observing and evaluating
their own. Self-regulated learning requires that individuals have internalized standards
and that they have the ability to reflect on their own performances and to reward or punish
themselves. Bandura’s emphasis on self-regulation is similar to Vygotsky’s. Both theories
view self-regulation as essential for cognitive and social-emotional development.
These high-level cognitive abilities are developing in preschoolers but are further
along in most primary-grade children. Teachers can promote self-regulated learning by
engaging children in setting goals, evaluating their own performances, and celebrating
their successes. For example, Ms. Ross’s first-graders do a lot of writing. Periodically she
sits down with one child to discuss various pieces of work. The child chooses a few to
scan into the computer and preserve in a portfolio. When parents come for a conference,
the children talk about why they chose this special piece of work.
Children in the primary grades become capable of setting standards for their own
behavior and comparing their performance to that of others. Eight-year-old Melissa is
unhappy with herself because she watched TV last night instead of studying, and today
she got a failing grade in science.
We have now described the major theories that explain how children develop and
learn. Table 4.3 summarizes the theories and their implications for effective teaching.
In the following section, we discuss how play contributes to all areas of children’s lives.
✓ Check Your Understanding 4.4: Learning Theories
vicarious learning Learning by
observing the effects of other
people’s behavior, rather than
experiencing rewards or punish-
ments directly.
self-regulated learning
Bandura’s theory that people
not only learn by modeling the
behavior of others, but by ob-
serving and evaluating their own.
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Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach130
Theorist and Theory Summation of Theory Implications for Practice
Erik Erikson: Stages
of Personal and Social
Development
Through a hypothesis of four stages of psychologi-
cal and social development in the lives of children,
Erikson identifies how children might typically
negotiate personal challenges and resolve them
dependent on their age and stage of development.
Erikson’s theory emphasizes the role of the socio-
cultural context on children’s personal and social
lives. Erikson provides useful observations of devel-
opmental patterns so teachers can anticipate and
respond to children’s needs appropriately.
Abraham Maslow: Self-
Actualization Theory
Maslow identified a hierarchy of needs that mo-
tivate people’s behavior and their ability to reach
a hierarchy of personal goals. Maslow pointed out
that if basic needs are not met, it is not possible for
people to actualize personal satisfaction and suc-
ceed at a higher level of growth and learning.
The foundations for self-actualization of goals are
laid early in life. Teachers may need to ensure
that basic needs—food, water, shelter, safety, and
security—are met to assist in helping children to
develop a sense of community and belonging, self-
esteem, and respect for others.
Jean Piaget: Cognitive
Theory
According to Piaget, children learn by constructing
their own understanding based on their direct expe-
riences with people and objects. Piaget identified
four age-related stages of cognitive development
that describe how cognitive abilities change as
children get older.
From birth, children are viewed as competent actors
in constructing their own understanding. Teach-
ers need to provide an enriching environment and
hands-on materials for children to explore and
investigate. Teachers facilitate children’s engage-
ment in projects.
Lev Vygotsky: Socio-
cultural Theory
Vygotsky described learning as the result of social
interaction within a cultural context. He identi-
fied the zone of proximal development (ZPD)—the
distance between the actual developmental level a
child has achieved (their independent level of prob-
lem solving) and the level of potential development
they could achieve with adult guidance or through
collaboration with other children. The support
teachers provide children is called scaffolding.
What children learn is determined by the needs of
the culture in which they live. Children learn by
solving problems collaboratively with the teacher’s
support or by working with peers, which is called
co-construction or social construction of knowledge.
Teachers use many strategies to scaffold learning—
gradually providing less assistance as children
become more capable of performing on their own.
Play is essential for children’s development of self-
regulation.
Urie Bronfenbrenner:
Ecological Model
Bronfenbrenner proposed that the child develops
in interaction with many environmental systems—
some in which the child doesn’t even participate.
Family life, parents’ employment, state laws, and
national culture all influence how each child de-
velops. The most important influences on develop-
ment, though, are the proximal processes, or daily
routines, that children experience in their microsys-
tems of family, school, and community.
Children do best when connections in the mesosys-
tem are strong—when family, child care, and school
communicate and work collaboratively to support
children’s development. The quality of children’s
daily experiences, though, is most important for
development. Teachers emphasize building strong
relationships with children and family members—
strengthening the child’s daily experiences in
childcare and school, as well as collaborating with
the family to help the child develop and learn.
B. F. Skinner:
Behaviorism
Skinner developed the theory of operant condition-
ing that defines learning as a change in behavior
that is controlled by the consequences that follow
the behavior. Positive consequences strengthen
the frequency of specific behaviors; unpleasant
consequences decrease the frequency. Punishment
temporarily stops a behavior but does not teach a
new one.
Teachers use reinforcement to increase children’s
positive behavior and decrease their challeng-
ing behavior. They use shaping to teach a new,
complex skill or behavior by rewarding each
step— successive approximation—toward the
desired goal.
Albert Bandura: Social
Cognitive Theory
Bridging behaviorism and cognitive theory, Bandura
demonstrated that people can learn more efficiently
from observing the consequences of another per-
son’s behavior rather than having to directly experi-
ence them. Children learn by modeling the behavior
of others. They also learn vicariously, whether the
behavior of other people is rewarded or punished.
Teachers model and demonstrate the kinds of
behaviors they want children to perform. They draw
children’s attention to other children’s behavior and
its positive consequences. Children are motivated
to perform behavior that they see rewarded in other
people.
TAble 4.3 Comparing Theories of Child Development
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Chapter 4 Applying What We Know about Children’s Learning and Development 131
The Role of Play in Development
and Learning
Psychologists and educators have studied children’s play for a very long time. Despite the
large body of research supporting its benefits, however, child-initiated play is becoming
less valued and is disappearing from children’s lives today (Alliance for Childhood, 2010;
Hirsh-Pasek, Golinkoff, Berk, & Singer, 2009; Zigler & Bishop-Josef, 2004). Many fac-
tors conspire against play: television and digital media, lack of safe playgrounds, overem-
phasis on direct teaching of literacy and mathematics, and highly structured activities or
lessons such as sports or ballet (Elkind, 2008; Hirsh-Pasek et al., 2009).
Early childhood educators deeply value play. But to use play effectively in teaching
children, and to advocate for its value, it is important to be clear about what types of play
matter and why it is worth defending. In the sections that follow, we describe what play
is, how it develops, and how it benefits children.
Types of Play
Play is complex and difficult to define because there are different kinds of play: play with
toys, movement play, rough-and-tumble play, make-believe play, and play with games
and computers. Most often, play is defined as activity that is freely chosen, initiated and
controlled by children, and enjoyable. Despite the lack of definitional clarity, most people
would say, “You know it when you see it.” And more important, children know when they
are playing.
Different types of play have different benefits for children. Definitions for different
types of play follow:
• Functional play. Children play with and manipulate objects, such as when a baby
shakes a rattle or a toddler bangs a drum.
• Constructive play. Children use toys or objects to create something new, such as
making a puppet from a sock, a design on a computer screen, or a castle out of
Legos.
• Symbolic play. Children use one thing to represent or stand for another. Pretend
play is a form of symbolic play. A stick becomes a magic wand. A piece of cloth
becomes a veil or a cape.
• Games with rules. Children follow prescribed rules for playing together toward a
common goal. Games include simple ones such as Candyland or Chutes and Lad-
ders, as well as complex ones such as chess or baseball.
Piaget related types of play to stages of development (Johnson, Christie, & Wardle,
2005). He theorized that functional play dominates the sensorimotor stage (birth to
2 years) and that the preoperational stage (2 to 7 years) is characterized by symbolic and
constructive play. Children in the concrete operational stage (7 to 11 years) tend to play
games with rules. Children’s pretend play becomes more complex over time, especially if
people play with them and provide props. The following sections describe this sequence.
Functional Play Babies and toddlers engage in functional play, focusing on objects
and then on the people who use the objects with them. Toddlers enjoy repetition and prac-
tice as they play—for example, when they bang a toy hammer over and over.
If parents or teachers pretend with young children during functional play, toddlers
will begin to pretend, too. Ms. Morgan sits next to 2-year-old Hester, picks up a cup, and
pretends to drink. “This is delicious tea,” she says. Soon Hester takes a cup and says,
“Yum.” This type of pretense is the foundation for later symbolic play.
Constructive Play Constructive play begins as functional play and becomes more
symbolic as children use objects to create new ones. For example, children act out pretend
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Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach132
roles during block building. Constructive play aids logico-mathematical learning and can
be as basic as a 2-year-old stacking three blocks or as complex as a second grader build-
ing a model airplane.
Symbolic Play Play helps build symbolic representation—using one thing to mean
something else—such as when letters are used to represent sounds or number symbols
represent quantities. At first, toddlers use real objects or toys in their pretend play, such as
picking up the cup and pretending to drink. If adults encourage this type of play, children
use other objects in their play. They might pretend that a block is a cup. Finally, children
who have lots of experience with pretend play no longer need an object to pretend, using
their hands to represent drinking from a cup or stomping their feet and saying, “I’m an
elephant.” This type of play helps children move from thought that is linked to physical
actions to the ability to use words and other symbols to represent concepts (Piaget, 1962;
Vygotsky, 1962).
By the time most children turn 4 years old, they begin to develop more complex play
with roles and symbolic uses of props. Many preschool- and even kindergarten-age chil-
dren, however, still play at the toddler level. Bodrova and Leong (2012b) define this kind
of repetitive, unimaginative play as “immature play” to distinguish it from the “mature
play” that is expected of 4- and 5-year-olds. Mature play promotes self-regulation, execu-
tive function, and other skills (Diamond & Lee, 2011).
Games with Rules As children move into primary grades, they spend less time
in pretend play and more time playing games with rules (e.g., sports and board or
computer games). Games, including well-designed digital games, can build turn- taking
skill, delay of gratification, problem-solving, strategizing, and motivation to learn
(Lieberman, 2006).
Games require children to follow the established rules; they rarely get a chance to
discuss, negotiate, or change the rules—which would contribute to the development of
social competence and self-regulation (Bodrova & Leong, 2012a). When pretend play is
replaced by sports or other organized activities during the preschool years, these impor-
tant foundational skills might not develop fully (Bodrova & Leong, 2012a).
symbolic representation The
process of mentally using one
thing to stand for something
else.
Vygotsky saw play as the leading activity of the preschool years. Socio-dramatic play—when children dress
up and play parts in a scenario—builds many skills such as language and self-regulation.
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Chapter 4 Applying What We Know about Children’s Learning and Development 133
The Benefits of Play
Research demonstrates that play contributes to language development, self-
regulation, attention, creativity, problem solving, and social and emotional
skills (Berk, Mann, & Ogan, 2006; Bodrova & Leong, 2012b; Diamond &
Lee, 2011). Play has been found to help prepare children for school (Frost,
Wortham, & Reifel, 2012). Research also links play to children’s literacy and
mathematics skills (Ginsburg, 2006; Zigler, Singer, & Bishop-Josef, 2004).
Children’s play can be enhanced through adult intervention, as in the Tools
of the Mind curriculum described previously. Sara Smilansky (1968), an Israeli
psychologist, conducted seminal studies of play among children living in poverty.
She found that they did not engage in the same kind of mature sociodramatic
play favored by their middle-class peers and were behind in other areas as well. Smilansky
trained children to play in more complex ways—using modeling and other techniques—
which significantly improved their language and social and cognitive development, findings
that have been replicated with other populations (Smilansky & Shefatya, 1990).
Play and Motivation
Although it is very important for children’s development, play is not the only way that
children learn, as we have seen from examining several different theories. If so, why is
it so important for teachers to defend and use play as a major context for teaching and
learning? One reason is that preschool children themselves are intrinsically motivated to
play. Play is so enjoyable for children that teachers don’t need to coerce or cajole them to
participate (Bredekamp, 2004).
In one study (Wiltz & Klein, 2001), preschoolers were asked what they like to do at
school. Ninety-eight percent of the children said play was their favorite activity. When
asked what they did not like about school, nearly a third of the children said meanness by
teachers or peers, and others did not like naptime and time-out. But many also disliked
circle time, especially in poorer-quality programs where it lasted 30 to 40 minutes and in-
volved repetition of calendar, letters, and numbers. Even in high-quality classrooms where
circle time was more interesting and engaging, many children reported disliking it primarily
because it takes too long. As one little boy, Don, said, “Well, I don’t really like . . . you
know, like sit in circle and listen . . . I don’t like that part [because] I think it’s too long
for me. I’d rather be playing” (Wiltz & Klein, 2001, p. 225).
✓ Check Your Understanding 4.5: The Role of Play in Development and Learning
Connecting Theory and Practice
Too often, teachers think that theories of child development and learning have little
relevance to their daily work with children, but the opposite is true. Theory and practice
are, or should be, integrally connected. We conclude the chapter with an overview of
the research-based and theory-derived principles that are the basis for developmentally
appropriate practice.
Looking across theories and research, teachers can become confused. As we have
seen, theories explain different aspects of children’s learning or development, and at times
they may seem contradictory. How can teachers make sense of diverse theories? To ad-
dress these questions, we provide a framework for thinking holistically about develop-
ment and learning.
NAEYC (2009) summarizes the research and theory undergirding developmentally
appropriate practice in a list of principles. Although these principles do not cover every-
thing teachers need to know about development and learning, they highlight some of the
key concepts that have implications for practice. In Table 4.4 the principles are listed and
illustrated with a few examples.
Classroom Connection
Children love to play and so do
animals. Learn more in this video
about how play is hard-wired into
our brains and why it is important
for development.
https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=4Z_hMYGAQ6k
M04_BRED6702_03_SE_C04.indd 133 10/7/15 1:28 PM
http://https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4Z_hMYGAQ6k
http://https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4Z_hMYGAQ6k
Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach134
Principle of Development
and Learning Implications for Practice Example
Principle 1: Domains of children’s de-
velopment—physical, social, emotional,
and cognitive—are closely related.
Development in one domain influences
and is influenced by development in
other domains.
Curriculum should be comprehensive, ad-
dressing development and learning of the
whole child.
During a project on animals, 4-year-olds
learn science concepts about animals’
natural environments, use language and
literacy to tell and illustrate stories about
their favorite animals, and act out those
animals’ movements.
Principle 2: Many aspects of children’s
learning and development follow well-
documented sequences, with later abili-
ties, skills, and knowledge building on
those already acquired.
Teachers need to know the predictable, but
not rigid, sequences of development and
learning so they can assess children ac-
curately and plan for children’s continued
progress.
Ms. Rodriguez is familiar with the scope
and sequence in the first-grade reading
curriculum, so she adjusts her expectations
and work with children individually and in
small groups at their various levels of read-
ing ability.
Principle 3: Development and learning
proceed at varying rates from child to
child, as well as at uneven rates across
different areas of a child’s individual
functioning.
Teachers need to get to know each child
well, regularly observing and assessing
each child’s abilities, skills, knowledge,
and dispositions.
Josh is 3 years old and very verbal, while
Jon, also 3, seldom speaks. Jon has excel-
lent fine motor skills that Josh lacks. Their
teacher pairs them to play with interlocking
blocks, where they practice and improve
their language and motor skills.
Principle 4: Development and learning
result from a dynamic and continuous
interaction of biological maturation and
experience.
Teachers recognize that although there are
inborn individual differences and limits on
children’s learning based on maturation,
experience plays a large role in children’s
development. Teachers know the benefits
of early intervention for preventing later
problems.
Kindergarten teachers explain to parents
that the “gift of time”—holding children
out of school until they are older—is not a
good policy because children will ben-
efit more from the experience of attend-
ing school rather than simply waiting to
mature.
Principle 5: Early experiences have
both cumulative and delayed effects
on individual children’s development.
Optimal periods exist for certain types of
development and learning.
Teachers need to know research on the
short- and long-term effects of early
experience.
In her family childcare home, Mrs. Pickett
rarely uses TV because too much exposure
can harm children’s long-term attention
spans and doesn’t build language the way
real conversation does.
Principle 6: Development proceeds
toward greater complexity, self-regula-
tion, and symbolic or representational
capacities.
Teachers add greater complexity to learning
experiences over time. Teachers engage
children in conversations about thinking
and problem solving.
Because young children often “think out
loud,” preschool teachers don’t expect
silent classrooms. They organize activities
for children that encourage conversation.
Principle 7: Children develop best when
they have secure, consistent relation-
ships with responsive adults and
opportunities for positive relationships
with peers.
Teachers develop a warm, positive, trust-
ing relationship with each child. Teachers
protect the physical health and safety of
each child.
At the beginning of the school year, Ms.
Vargas conducts a home visit or meets with
parents to get to know each child and fam-
ily. She takes time to talk with each child
every day.
Principle 8: Development and learning
occur in and are influenced by social
and cultural contexts.
Teachers recognize that children’s compe-
tence acquired in their home culture may not
be apparent in the school culture, and know
that what is meaningful to children varies,
depending on their culture and language.
Concerned about Marta’s language devel-
opment, Ms. Kamp works with a Spanish
bilingual teacher, Ms. Gonzales, to obtain
an accurate assessment of Marta’s vocabu-
lary and grammar in her home language.
Principle 9: Always mentally active in
seeking to understand the world around
them, children learn in a variety of ways;
a wide range of teaching strategies and
interactions are effective in supporting
all of these kinds of learning.
Teachers use a variety of teaching strate-
gies—both teacher-guided and child-
guided—to meet the needs of individual
children. Teachers use a variety of learning
contexts—large group, small group, and in-
dividual, carefully considering each child’s
unique learning needs.
Ms. Hayes demonstrates and instructs the
children in how to move the images on the
computer screen for a new math program.
The children take turns experimenting with
the program, with Ms. Hayes close by to
provide assistance as needed.
(Continued)
TAble 4.4 Principles of Development and Learning to Guide Practice
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Chapter 4 Applying What We Know about Children’s Learning and Development 135
In promulgating this list of principles, NAEYC (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009,
pp. 10–11) offers several caveats. First, while the list is comprehensive, it is not exhaus-
tive; other principles could be added. In addition, just as all domains of development
and learning are interconnected, so too are the principles. For instance, cultural and
individual variations are addressed in separate principles, and yet they play a role in
all of the other principles. In other words, decisions about applying any given principle
should consider children as individuals and as members of cultural groups. Despite
these limitations, the principles ref lect a solid base of research to guide teachers’
decision making.
✓ Check Your Understanding 4.6: Connecting Theory and Practice
Principle of Development
and Learning Implications for Practice Example
Principle 10: Play is an important
vehicle for developing self-regulation as
well as promoting language, cognition,
and social competence.
Teachers purposefully plan time and mate-
rials for children’s educationally valuable
play. Teachers observe children at play and
interact constructively with them.
Ms. Phillips models customer behavior
in the grocery store center in her kinder-
garten, while children engage in counting
money, reading labels, making lists, and
using vocabulary as they play.
Principle 11: Development and learning
advance when children are challenged
to achieve at a level just beyond their
current mastery, and also when they
have many opportunities to practice
newly acquired skills.
Teachers provide children with experiences
at which they can be successful as well
as providing them with some experiences
that are at the “just achievable” level of
challenge to stretch their learning and
development.
Mr. Durkin observes that many children are
interested in writing only their own names.
He suggests that friends write each other’s
names and provides name cards as models.
Principle 12: Children’s experiences
shape their motivation and approaches
to learning, such as persistence,
initiative, and flexibility; in turn, these
dispositions and behaviors affect their
learning and development.
Teachers draw on and cultivate children’s
interests to get their attention and keep
them engaged in learning. Teachers
encourage positive approaches to learning
such as curiosity and creativity.
Ms. Elias’s kindergartners show little
interest in the required reading workbooks.
She encourages the children act out the
stories, make up songs, and write their
own stories—experiences that encourage
engagement with the literature.
Source: Based on Developmentally Appropriate Practice in Early Childhood Programs Serving Children from Birth through Age 8, revised edition,
edited by C. Copple & S. Bredekamp, 2009, Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.
TAble 4.4 Principles of Development and Learning to Guide Practice (Continued)
. . . Ms. Donati’s Classroom
We began this chapter by visiting Yvonne Donati’s classroom. Having examined various theories of
learning and their applications, we can see her practices in a clearer light. Yvonne operates from a
constructivist perspective. She sees children as active learners and structures her classroom and plans
curriculum accordingly. Yvonne also implements sociocultural theory as she scaffolds children’s learn-
ing in the zone of proximal development through appropriately timed prompts, questions, and assis-
tance. She applies brain research, building positive relationships, and research on play.
Although Yvonne’s teaching practices primarily reflect cognitive theories, she also applies prin-
ciples of operant conditioning—reinforcements to increase positive behaviors. Yvonne discovers that
Revisiting the Case Study
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Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach136
behavioral principles can be particularly effective under certain circumstances, such as when she ap-
plies them for a limited period of time in working with Maya’s special need.
Finally, Yvonne does some theory building of her own by testing her hypotheses about children’s
play with an informal research study. Theories are born, grow, or die from research that often begins in
informal observations of children such as Yvonne’s. ■
• Development is age-related change that occurs as the
result of an interaction between biological matura-
tion and physical and/or social experience. Learning
is a change in knowledge or skill that results from
experience or instruction.
• A theory is an explanation of how information and
observations are organized and relate to one another.
Theories are important because they affect how people
think and behave. In education, theories of learning
and development affect how teachers treat children,
how they structure environments, and how they teach.
• Early experiences change and organize the physical
structure of the brain. Neglect, abuse, and stress pose
serious threats to healthy brain development. High-
quality, developmentally appropriate early childhood
education can contribute to healthy brain development.
• The most inf luential theories of social-emotional
development are Erikson’s psychosocial theory and
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. The most prominent
theories of cognitive development are Piaget’s theory
of constructivism and Vygotsky’s sociocultural
theory. A theory for understanding the interactive
inf luence of social and cultural contexts on human
development is Bronfenbrenner’s ecological sys-
tems model.
• The most prominent learning theories are B. F. Skin-
ner’s theory of behaviorism and Albert Bandura’s
social cognitive theory.
• Research demonstrates that play contributes to lan-
guage development, self-regulation, attention, creativ-
ity, problem solving, social and emotional skills, and
literacy and mathematics skills.
• Effective early childhood education is based on knowl-
edge of child development and learning. NAEYC sum-
marizes the key concepts of that knowledge base in 12
principles that can be used to guide practice.
Chapter Summary4
Key Terms
■■ accommodation
■■ adaptation
■■ assimilation
■■ behaviorism or
behavioral learning
■■ chronosystem
■■ cognitive development
■■ co-construction
■■ consequences
■■ conservation
■■ constructivism
■■ development
■■ domains of development
■■ domain-general
processes
■■ disequilibrium
■■ ecological systems theory
■■ egocentrism
■■ equilibration
■■ emotional development
■■ executive function
■■ exosystem
■■ extinction
■■ 5- to 7-year shift
■■ hypothesis
■■ learning
■■ logico-mathematical
knowledge
■■ macrosystem
■■ maturationist
■■ mesosystem
■■ microsystem
■■ modeling
■■ negative reinforcement
■■ neurons
■■ object permanence
■■ operant conditioning
■■ physical development
■■ physical knowledge
■■ plasticity
■■ positive reinforcement
■■ private speech
■■ proximal processes
■■ pruning
■■ punishment
■■ reinforcer
■■ scaffolding
■■ scheme or schema
■■ self-actualization theory
■■ self-regulated learning
■■ self-regulation
■■ shaping
■■ social cognitive theory
■■ social-conventional
knowledge
■■ social development
■■ sociocultural theory
■■ successive
approximations
■■ symbolic representation
■■ synapses
■■ theory
■■ toxic stress
■■ vicarious learning
■■ windows of opportunity
■■ zone of proximal devel-
opment (ZPD)
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Chapter 4 Applying What We Know about Children’s Learning and Development 137
Demonstrate Your Learning
Click here to assess how well you’ve learned the content in this chapter.
✓
Copple, C. (Ed.). (2012). Growing minds: Build-
ing strong cognitive foundations in early childhood.
Washington, DC: NAEYC.
Mooney, C. G. (2013). Theories of childhood: An
introduction to Dewey, Montessori, Erikson, Piaget, and
Vygotsky (2nd ed.). St. Paul, MN: Redleaf Press.
Nell, M. L., Drew, W. F., & Bush, D. E. (2013). From
play to practice: Connecting teachers’ play to children’s
learning. Washington, DC: NAEYC.
Mind in the Making website
Ellen Galinsky’s book, Mind in the making: The seven
essential life skills every child needs, and website of the
same name, provide a useful description for families and
teachers of how to support children developing life skills
that are essential for healthy development and learn-
ing and success in life, including executive function and
self-regulation.
Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University
This website has rich resources about brain development
and explains how early relationships and experiences
shape the brain and behavior of the child. There are sev-
eral videos and powerpoints to use for teaching adults
about the importance of healthy brain development, as
well as activities to use with children and families.
ZERO to THREE
Explore this website for information on the development
of infants and toddlers. You’ll also find information for
supporting brain development and young children’s men-
tal health, and resources for teachers and families.
National Association for the Education of Young
Children (NAEYC)
The NAEYC website has a section dedicated to Play
and Learning including research, books and teach-
ing resources. Information on gender in play, how to
choose toys, and how to support play at different ages is
included.
Readings and Websites
M04_BRED6702_03_SE_C04.indd 137 10/7/15 1:28 PM
5
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
5.1 Identify the kinds and sources of individual differences among children.
5.2 Describe what teachers need to know about variation among children, and
identify ways to accommodate individual differences.
5.3 Restate Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences, and discuss its implica-
tions for teaching practices.
5.4 Compare ways of differentiating instruction to adapt for individual differences
in ability, interest, and personality among children.
5.5 Explain practices that are required by law for children with disabilities and
special needs.
5.6 Apply your knowledge of effective practices for teaching children with special
needs to teaching all children.
Adapting for Individual
Differences
Learning Outcomes
© Kali9/E+/Getty Images
M05_BRED6702_03_SE_C05.indd 138 10/7/15 1:39 PM
139
Lindsay Creighton is ready for open house night. When Shira arrives with her mom in tow, she greets Lindsay with an exuberant hug and turns to see Rohan coming down the hall. “Rohan! It’s the open house!” Rohan
clings to his father’s leg. He is painfully shy and seems unnerved by Shira’s enthusiastic greeting. His father says,
“Go play with Shira.” But Rohan retreats and shakes his head “no.”
The next to arrive are Cal and his grandmother. “Cal!” screams Shira, and the two embrace. Cal runs by his
grandmother on his way to play, and she speaks sternly to him in Chinese. He stops running. Slowly he moves to
the block corner with Shira. When she hands him a pink car, Cal sighs, “This is for girls. I need a boy car.”
Carter and his parents arrive. Shira says hello to Carter, but then speaks to his parents, “Carter can play if he
wants.” Carter flaps his arms and repeats a favorite phrase from a children’s movie. He moves closer to Shira and
grabs her cheeks. His parents intervene and say, “Too close, Carter.” Behind Carter and his parents are the twins,
Alice and Alexandra. Shira’s mom, Beth, greets them, “Hello, Alice. Hello, Alex.” Alice rolls her eyes and says,
“You got us mixed up again!” Beth apologizes, but the twins’ mom says, “Even I get them mixed up sometimes,
until they are in a place like this. Just watch. Alice will try to take over, and Alex will stay in a quiet corner until the
open house is over.” Ruby is the last to arrive. Her father immediately asks Lindsay if any of the food has nuts.
When Lindsay says, “No, I made sure,” he still asks to see the ingredient labels due to Ruby’s severe allergy.
Later, Lindsay reflects on the evening. Although the children are all about the same age, they are so different.
She marvels at the fact that even the identical twins have such different personalities. She wonders if Rohan’s
shyness is exacerbated by his father’s insistence on participation. And what about Shira—how did she get to be
such a social butterfly? Is it in her genes, or did her parents cultivate that, too?
Lindsay’s thoughts turn to Carter, who has autism. She considers how well his parents coordinate with his
teacher and other specialists to reinforce what he’s learning in school. Lindsay also
thinks of 5-year-old Cal, living with his grandmother after his mother’s parental rights
were revoked as a result of neglect. How is it that he is such a positive and vivacious
boy given all he has had to deal with in his young life? Lindsay smiles
when she thinks about Cal wanting a “boy car.” How and when do these
gender stereotypes crystallize?
Finally, her thoughts turn to the challenges she faces. How
will she be able to meet the needs of these children? How will
she provide experiences that challenge Shira and Cal but don’t
overwhelm Carter? How will she make Rohan
and Alex feel at ease in social situations? And
how will she create a strong sense of belonging
and friendship among these children? ■
Case Study
I
ndividual differences abound in every group of young children. As is evident from
the open house vignette, even children of the same chronological age differ from one
another in many ways. The purpose of this chapter is to examine what is known about
the range of individual differences among children and how teachers can effectively adapt
the curriculum and teaching strategies to help all children participate, develop, and learn
to their fullest potential. Understanding individual differences is a critical dimension of
developmentally appropriate practice.
We begin with a discussion of the range of individual variation that exists among all chil-
dren and some of the origins of these differences. Next we describe Howard Gardner’s theory
of multiple intelligences, which is a useful framework for thinking about individual children’s
strengths, needs, interests, and abilities. Then we discuss differentiating instruction and present
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Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach140
a framework for responding to the diverse learning needs of all children. We conclude with a
discussion of effective practices for teaching children with disabilities and special needs.
The Importance of Individual
Differences
Anyone who has been a parent or a teacher is aware of the fact that every child is unique. Even
people who do not have parenting or teaching experience have been children themselves and
know that we are all different. Try to remember your earliest school experience and picture
the children in your class. Were all the boys or girls alike? Did everyone enjoy and excel at
the same activities? Did all of your classmates learn at the same pace and in the same way?
Was anyone exactly like you? Of course, the answer to all of these questions is “No.”
Acknowledging the uniqueness of each child is only the beginning. Effective early child-
hood teachers understand typical and atypical child development; they also understand the
importance of knowing each child as an individual. They use this knowledge to plan and
adapt curriculum and to help each child meet important learning goals (NAEYC, 2009).
Why Pay Attention to Individual Differences?
One of the most well-known facts about child development is that there is a wide range of
individual variation (Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000). But what does “wide range” mean and what
are the implications for teachers? The concept of a range of variation is based on an average;
for example, we might say that, on average, men are 5 10 tall. This average was calculated
based on the heights of a huge number of men. When we consider their heights individually,
however, they may range from 4 8 to 7 1. Now, consider a range of variation in relation
to children’s development. On virtually every characteristic we could measure—saying first
words, balancing on one foot, knowing the alphabet—the pace and timing of children’s per-
formance vary. The average age at which most children master a skill, for example, doesn’t
tell us much without knowing the range, which gives us a far clearer picture of reality.
In general, teachers need to be cautious about focusing too much on averages. Many
aspects of schooling, including the graded structure and power of standardized tests, tend
to reflect the assumption that all children will achieve certain skills and knowledge at the
same time. As a result, the tendency is for schools to ignore the range of variation and to
try to teach all children the same way.
But if we want every child to achieve the same goals, we must treat them and teach
them as individuals. Acknowledging that individual differences exist does not mean low-
ering expectations for some children. In fact, high expectations for children’s learning are
necessary if they are to succeed. In the sections that follow, we describe some important
aspects of variation among children. But first we discuss theories about the origin of indi-
vidual differences—the question of nature versus nurture.
Where Do Individual Differences Come From?
One of the most enduring debates in psychology is the degree to which development is the
product of biology (nature) or environment (nurture). The question is often framed as whether
nature or nurture is more influential in determining who we become as individuals. Although
we know that physical characteristics are inherited, the genetic markers are less clear when it
comes to an individual’s behavior, intelligence, and personality. Consider the twins in Lind-
say Creighton’s classroom at the beginning of this chapter. Is Alice more outgoing and Alex
more cautious because these personality traits are not part of the genetic pattern they share?
Or does this difference result because their parents encouraged the girls in different ways?
The Influence of Biology on Development In the past, some psycholo-
gists (Jensen, 1980) proposed that people behave as they do because of inborn char-
acteristics. This belief emphasizes the inf luence of nature, the hereditary or genetic
nature The hereditary or
genetic contributions to human
development.
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Chapter 5 Adapting for Individual Differences 141
contributions to human development. Whether we
are male or female, have freckles, black hair, or a
certain type of personality can be inf luenced by
genetic factors.
Nature also refers to the biological and neu-
rological drivers of development. For example,
physical growth and advances in motor skills for
most humans develop in a predictable sequence.
Newborn reflexes soon give rise to voluntary move-
ments and the development of abilities such as roll-
ing over, crawling, walking, and running. Similarly,
language development has a biological component.
The fact that most infants, regardless of culture, be-
gin to coo and babble at approximately the same
ages provides strong evidence that nature indeed
affects development.
Whereas some aspects of nature influence a similar course of development for most
children, genetics also affects individual differences. For example, most children take
their first steps by about 1 year of age, but there is a wide range of variation among in-
dividuals. David took his first steps at 7 months; his brother Jeffrey wasn’t mobile until
18 months.
The Role of the Environment Although biology influences individual differ-
ences, some scientists (Skinner, 1953, 1968) believe that people behave in certain ways
more as a result of their experiences in the environment or because they are taught to do
so. This belief stresses the influence of nurture on human behavior.
Heredity may play a role in inf luencing personality traits, but according to the
nurture perspective, environmental factors ultimately determine who we become. Par-
ents’ discipline methods, for example, might have more inf luence on their children’s
behavior than the parents’ genetic contributions. Other dimensions of the environment
also inf luence children’s development, such as the family’s economic resources, the
quality of their child care setting, the number of siblings in the home, and the safety of
the community.
The Transactional Relationship between Nature and Nurture Although
the nature versus nurture debate continues, the current thinking is that “nature and nur-
ture are partners in how developing people interact with the surrounding environment”
(Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000, p. 39). The transactional theory of development (Sameroff,
2009) explains that development is the result of both biology and experience and the ways
in which they influence each other.
To illustrate how nature and nurture interact, consider the following
examples. Myra, a highly verbal and inquisitive 6-year-old, seems to in-
spire her teacher to engage her in intellectually stimulating projects, such as
finding out what causes earthquakes, which in turn further Myra’s already
accelerated development and learning. By contrast, Alyssa, who is deaf, is
withdrawn and rarely joins in activities even though her teacher uses sign
language. Alyssa’s lack of responsiveness may provoke her teacher to initiate
communication with her less often.
Both biology and experience play critical, interrelated roles in children’s
development. Therefore, the kinds of experiences children have become
vitally important. As the Center on the Developing Child at Harvard Uni-
versity (2010) reports, “Experiences children have early in life—and the
environments in which they have them—shape their developing brain archi-
tecture and strongly affect whether they grow up to be healthy, productive
members of society” (p. 1).
nurture Environmental factors
and experiences that influ-
ence human development and
behavior.
transactional theory of
development Theory that de-
velopment is the result of both
biology and experience and how
they influence each other.
Classroom Connection
Understand more about how biol-
ogy and environment interact to
influence how individuals develop
in different ways in this video
“What is Nature vs. Nurture?”
What does the presenter say
about the importance of environ-
ments for how young children
develop? What can teachers do to
provide positive environments?
https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=P-D33oWiOEg
Every class of young children is
made up of unique individuals.
Intentional teachers must find
ways to meet the needs of every
child while also challenging
each one to make continued
learning progress.
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http://https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P-D33oWiOEg
Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach142
How Experience Affects Outcomes
for Children: Risk or Resilience
According to the transactional theory of development, children’s experiences impact their
overall development. Accumulation of certain kinds of experiences can place children at
risk for negative outcomes. Similarly, if children have repeated positive experiences, their
development is likely to be enhanced.
Understanding Risk Factors Risk factors are inherited or experiential condi-
tions that potentially contribute to negative outcomes for children (Huffman et al., 2001).
Among the most frequently identified risk factors are living in poverty, living with a
single parent, low education level of parents, disability, and child abuse (Moore, 2006).
The concept of risk factors has led to the use of the term children at risk of school failure.
When risk factors multiply in children’s lives, they produce a growing number of poor
developmental outcomes (Burchinal & Willoughby, 2013). That is, the more risk factors chil-
dren have, the more likely they are to experience developmental delays and social or health
problems. These conditions, in turn, can lead to a host of poor outcomes such as peer rejec-
tion, academic failure, dropping out of school, mental health disorders, or criminal behavior.
Promoting Resilience Research on children with multiple risk factors demon-
strates that exposure to risk and adversity does not necessarily result in negative outcomes
for some children (Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University, 2010). Positive,
supportive experiences can mediate risk and help children become resilient (Masten &
Powell, 2003). Resilience refers to a child’s ability to overcome, adapt to, or minimize the
damaging effects of adversity (Werner & Smith, 2001).
Mechanisms—called protective factors—exist that may minimize the potentially
negative effects for children living in identified high-risk situations. Like risk factors, pro-
tective factors are both inherited (nature) and experiential (nurture). A continuous, posi-
tive parent-child relationship has been found to be one of the most important contributors
to the development of resilience (Thompson & Goodman, 2009). Other protective factors
include a variety of external social supports such as extended family, membership in a
church or spiritual group, and close friends and neighbors.
Children’s inherent characteristics also contribute to resilience. For example, resilient
children often possess temperaments in infancy that elicit positive responses from their care-
givers (Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000). For example, Stefano is a happy, easily soothed baby who
draws positive attention from everyone. Timothy, on the other hand, cries all night and doesn’t
nurse readily. His mother begins to feel inadequate and has difficulty attaching to him.
In short, risk and resilience are not the result of either biology or environment alone.
Rather, the interactions between children’s biological makeup and their experiences
contribute to the wide variation among children and families (Gest & Davidson, 2011).
Teachers must remember that a child’s genetic inheritance or environmental circumstanc-
es should never limit their expectations of children. In fact, one of the most important
sources of resilience in children is positive relationships with teachers (Hamre & Pianta,
2010; Howes & Ritchie, 2002; Sabol & Pianta, 2013).
✓ Check Your Understanding 5.1: The Importance of Individual Differences
What We Know About
Individual Differences
Children whose development is well within the typical range differ from one another in
many ways. Gender is a key area where biology and environment interact to influence
development, as described in the next section.
risk factors Inherited or
experiential conditions that
potentially contribute to poor
developmental outcomes for
children, such as peer rejection,
academic failure, juvenile delin-
quency, and school expulsion.
resilience A child’s ability to
overcome, adapt to, or mini-
mize the damaging effects of
adversity.
protective factors Mechanisms,
both inherited and experien-
tial, that may minimize the
potentially negative effects for
children living in identified
high-risk situations.
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Chapter 5 Adapting for Individual Differences 143
Gender Differences
“Is it a boy or a girl?” seems to be the first question asked about a new baby. From the
first moments of life, and even prenatally, powerful assumptions are made about children
on the basis of their sex. These assumptions are soon influenced by experience. When
3-year-old Lucienne receives a soccer ball and goal, she insists that she cannot play with
them because “It’s for boys.” Her belief was reinforced by the fact that the packaging
showed two boys playing soccer. Indeed, stereotypes about girls and boys are durable
and pervasive, which raises questions about what the actual differences are, if any, in the
development and characteristics of boys and girls.
Physical Development There is little evidence of gender differences in most
domains of development and learning. In some domains, however, the characteristics
of females and males have been found to differ. Physically, for example, females are
typically more mature at birth, and males are more likely to be miscarried, die in in-
fancy, or develop hereditary diseases (Jacklin, 1989). On average, females also reach
developmental milestones, such as talking earlier, than do males (Bukatko & Daehler,
2003). Current research is beginning to reveal some sex differences in brain structure,
but much remains to be learned before definite conclusions can be drawn (Woolfolk &
Perry, 2015).
Cognitive Skills Although there are no significant gender-based differences in
overall intelligence, tests of cognitive abilities find some specific differences between
girls and boys. Notably, boys demonstrate a slight but consistent advantage in the do-
main of visual-spatial rotation (Woolfolk & Perry, 2015), the ability to visualize and
mentally transform or rotate figures or objects. While this ability is related to success
in other mathematics areas, evidence suggests that early experience and attitudes to-
ward mathematics may play a more important role in mathematical learning (Krinzinger,
Wood, & Willmes, 2012).
Some evidence suggests, however, that gender differences in visual-spatial ability
are to some extent a product of children’s experience (Clements & Sarama, 2008). For
example, during the preschool years, boys tend to spend more time than girls do involved
in the kinds of activities that build visual-spatial skills: building with blocks, playing
with Legos, and putting puzzles together. When girls engage in such play and teachers
make the experience meaningful, such as talking with them about what they are doing or
reading a story about shapes, girls perform as well as boys on these visual-spatial tasks
(Casey, Erkut, Ceder, & Young, 2008).
Social Behavior Popular culture suggests that vast differences exist in social be-
havior between females and males; however, scientific research suggests that few broad
gender differences exist in the area of social behaviors (Eliot, 2009). There are, however,
subtle differences. Girls engage in more imaginary play than boys do, while boys tend
to play in slightly larger groups and their play generally takes up more space (Woolfolk
& Perry, 2015). Girls tend to form more intimate play and friendships (Dolgin & Kim,
1994), whereas boys’ friendships are more geared toward a mutual interest in activities
(Erwin, 1998). And even as early as 2 years of age, girls talk more about emotion than
boys do (Cervantes & Callanan, 1998).
Perhaps the most notable gender difference is that boys are more overtly aggres-
sive than girls beginning in the preschool years. Possibly as a result of male hormones,
boys are also more physically active and more likely to engage in rough-and-tumble
play (Woolfolk & Perry, 2015). They display more physical aggression, try to dominate
peers, and subsequently display more antisocial behaviors than females (Woolfolk &
Perry, 2015).
Although it is tempting to think these gender differences are innate, the reality
is more complicated. Current thinking is that sex differences in social behaviors are
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Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach144
heavily inf luenced by the situation (Zakriski, Wright, & Underwood, 2005). Because
boys and girls are often observed playing with their same-sex peers, differences be-
tween the sexes can appear to be greater than they really are and similarities less obvi-
ous (Maccoby, 2002). For example, preschooler Leo gets into frequent fights with his
peers and appears to be more aggressive than Johanna. But this difference might have
more to do with Leo’s rough-and-tumble play than any innate tendency to aggressive
behavior.
In addition, gender differences in aggression are largely a function of where the be-
havior occurs and how aggression is defined. The largest gender differences are found in
less structured, natural environments such as on the playground. However, when aggres-
sion consists of attempts to hurt another person through manipulation, gossip, or exclu-
sion from a social group, it is called relational aggression. When we consider relational
aggression, girls are more aggressive than boys starting in the preschool years (Burr,
Ostrov, Jansen, Cullerton-Sen, & Crick, 2005; Crick, Casas, & Mosher, 1997). If Johanna
were to be picked on as often as Leo is, she might be perceived as being aggressive, too.
There is also the possibility that Johanna would react differently from Leo. Rather than
using physical aggression, she would probably resort to relational aggression, such as
name-calling or saying, “I won’t be your friend.”
Gender-Related Expectations Although gender is a biological trait, much gen-
der-related behavior is learned. From very early ages, children receive messages about
what is expected of girls and boys that influence their behavior. By preschool age, chil-
dren are beginning to firmly establish their gender identity, although they may still think
that changing their clothes or activity can affect it. Sex-role stereotyping can play a pow-
erful role in the classroom.
Among the individual differences that have the greatest significance for teachers
are variations in cognitive development and abilities, social and emotional development
(including temperament), approaches to learning, physical development, and interests.
These topics are discussed briefly in the sections that follow.
Cognitive Development and Abilities
A major contributor to individual differences is variation in language development. Con-
sider the fact that although, on average, babies say their first word at 11 months, the range
is from 8 to 14 months (Hart & Risley, 1999). In addition, although the average age at
which half of what children say is understandable is 19 months, the range is from 15 to
30 months (Hart & Risley, 1999), making teaching toddlers a challenging task indeed.
As children get older, variation only increases. Observations of 2-year-olds demon-
strate that, on average, children produce 134 different words per hour, but the range is
from 18 to 286 words (Hart & Risley, 1999). Such wide variation makes it challenging for
teachers and parents to determine whether a child’s development is just at the slow end of
the range or is actually delayed.
By the time children reach kindergarten, their language, literacy, and mathematics
abilities vary widely, and the achievement gap is already apparent (Hart & Risley, 2003;
West, Denton, & Germino-Hausken, 2000). However, it is important to remember our
earlier caution about averages when thinking about a large group of individuals such as
children from low-income families. A wide range of variation exists within this group as
well; although many children will be far behind, others will not. A large national study
found that although Head Start children on average score below national norms, especial-
ly in vocabulary, the top one-quarter of the children scored at national averages on letter
recognition and writing skills (Tarullo, Aikens, Moiduddin, & West, 2010).
Emotional and Social Development
Social skills and emotional self-regulation are among the most important skills for success
in school and life. Positive social skills include the ability to make friends, join in play,
M05_BRED6702_03_SE_C05.indd 144 10/7/15 1:39 PM
Chapter 5 Adapting for Individual Differences 145
and comfort other children in distress (Bowman, Donovan, & Burns, 2001). Children
who have poor social skills are more likely to be angry and to argue and fight or withdraw
from others.
Individual differences in social and emotional development are often related
to temperament, and can often be observed when children are infants and toddlers.
Temperament refers to individual differences in reactivity and self-regulation as shown
in children’s emotions, activity level, and attention (Rothbart, 2011). While tempera-
ment has genetic and biological roots, research has shown that warm relationships with
family members and teachers help all children develop positive social skills, regardless
of their temperament type (Bates, 2012; Stright, Gallagher, & Kelley, 2008). One impor-
tant aspect of temperament is how children react to new situations and people. Recall
the twins, Alexandra and Alice, in the chapter-opening vignette. Alice confidently joins
in and becomes the life of the party, whereas Alex is fearful and inhibited in the new
situation.
Some studies have shown that children with certain temperament characteristics
struggle in school (Gartstein, Putnam, & Rothbart, 2012); however, warm and respon-
sive relationships with caregivers help children to be successful in academics and so-
cial relationships (Bates, 2012; Rudasill, Gallagher & White, 2010). Teachers who learn
about and understand their children’s different temperaments will learn how to adapt the
learning setting to meet children’s individual needs (Bates, 2012). Instead of assuming
that a shy child has poor social skills or that an outgoing, energetic child is too aggres-
sive or out of control, teachers should adapt to each child’s needs. Alex’s teacher will
need to help her feel comfortable in new surroundings and teach her skills for making
new friends (Gallagher, 2013). Alice’s teacher may need provide gentle guidance for
following structured routines, redirecting her energy, and paying attention when needed.
Temperament is one dimension of a larger topic, approaches to learning, which is dis-
cussed next.
Approaches to Learning
Early childhood educators are becoming increasingly aware that children’s approaches to
learning are critically important determinants of their success in school (Fantuzzo, Perry, &
McDermott, 2004; Hyson, 2008). Approaches to learning are “behaviors, tendencies
or typical patterns that children use in learning situations” (Hyson, 2008, p. 10). These
include both how children feel about learning—their level of enthusiasm, interest, and
motivation—and how children engage with learning. Do they pay attention? Do they per-
sist when tasks are challenging or frustrating? If one solution doesn’t work out, are they
flexible and creative in trying something new?
As with all other aspects of learning and development, there are individual differ-
ences in children’s approaches to learning, which vary depending on the situation. For
example, 7-year-old Wes enjoys taking things apart and putting them together; he will
persist for hours working on his simple machines
project for science. But during reading class, Wes
loses interest and his attention wanders; his reading
progress suffers. In response, his teacher brings in
several books on machines and Wes’s enthusiasm for
reading improves.
Even a brief visit to a classroom during choice time
reveals the diversity of children’s approaches to learn-
ing. Dontrelle can play with Legos for an hour. Ivy loves
music, especially songs with movements, but wanders
from one area to another, never alighting on one activity.
Becca prefers painting but is perfectly happy if it is not
available. The challenge for teachers is to foster chil-
dren’s positive approaches to learning and build on their
strengths to help them acquire new abilities.
temperament The pattern of
arousal and emotionality that is
characteristic of an individual.
approaches to learning
Behaviors, tendencies, or
typical patterns that children
use in learning situations that
include both how they feel
about learning—their level
of enthusiasm, interest, and
motivation—and how they
engage with learning.
There are individual differences
in children’s approaches to
learning. As you can see, this
child hesitates to join in play,
while others may be enthusi-
astic and engaged right from
the start.
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Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach146
Physical Development
Children of the same chronological age vary considerably in height and weight. Teach-
ers sometimes inaccurately judge children’s maturity based on their physical character-
istics. For example, boys who are small for their age may be thought to be less mature
than taller boys and inaccurately judged as not ready for kindergarten. At the same time,
taller children, girls as well as boys, are often assumed to be older and more capable
than they are.
Physical development is largely determined by biology; however, experience also
plays a role in how physical skills and abilities develop, as when childhood malnu-
trition or chronic illness stunts growth. On average, girls develop fine motor skills
earlier than boys do, but cultural expectations for girls’ behavior may contribute to
these differences (Woolfolk & Perry, 2015). Girls, for instance, may be given dolls to
dress with miniature clothes and shoes that require fine motor skills, and they may be
encouraged by teachers or parents to play in a more restricted way than boys. Simi-
larly, because boys may be less adept with pencils or unable to sit still for group time,
teachers might think they are less competent. Just as teachers must understand each
child’s temperament, they must also come to understand each child’s physical skills
and capabilities in order to provide a wide range of learning opportunities to find the
best match.
Seeing Each Child as an Individual
There is a scene in the movie Mary Poppins when Ms. Poppins meets her charges, Jane
and Michael, for the first time. The star nanny pulls out her “magical measuring tape.”
The special tape measurer allows her to instantaneously surmise important and unique in-
formation about the children that helps her to plan how she will best care for them. While
this type of measuring tape does not exist in reality, it illustrates a necessary first step in
working with children: getting to know them.
For teachers to build positive relationships and teach effectively, they need to under-
stand children’s preferences, interests, background, and culture. For children, this infor-
mation is most often accessed by carefully and purposefully observing what they do, and
by speaking with parents and other caregivers. The task of knowing children involves
observing and assessing on a regular basis.
Some teachers find it helpful for parents to complete surveys about their child.
Items on these surveys include family members; pets; fears; favorite foods, toys, or
activities; how to tell when their child is upset; or what
other special needs a child may have. With this informa-
tion, teachers can help ensure that children are motivated to
get involved, that the content of conversations and level of
instruction are relevant, and that they communicate respect
for children’s families and cultural background.
As we have seen in previous sections, individual differ-
ences result from both heredity and experience. A key deter-
minant of children’s experience is their culture. For example,
cultural groups differ in their views about appropriate behav-
ior for males and females. Cultural differences and individual
differences are not the same thing, but they are connected.
The Culture Lens feature will help you understand the re-
lationship between individual and cultural differences, and
respond effectively.
The connection between interests and abilities is the
foundation of an important theory relevant to individual
differences in human beings. This theory of multiple intel-
ligences is described in the section that follows.
This All About Me interview
helps the teacher get to know
each child in her class.
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Chapter 5 Adapting for Individual Differences 147
✓ Check Your Understanding 5.2: What We Know about Individual Differences
Multiple Intelligences: A Theory
of Individual Differences
A useful framework for thinking about individual differences among children is the theory
of multiple intelligences developed by Howard Gardner (2004). Rather than thinking
about intelligence as one score that can be measured by an intelligence test, Gardner
identified eight different intelligences, which are listed and described in Table 5.1. Gard-
ner believes that people have different profiles of strengths and weaknesses among these
intelligences. His theory challenges teachers to think of the many different ways children
are intelligent and can demonstrate their competence.
Gardner (2004) points out that traditional schooling typically focuses on only two of the
intelligences: logical/mathematical and linguistic. Consider the fact that college entrance
theory of multiple intelligences
Theory developed by Howard
Gardner that identifies eight
different intelligences as op-
posed to a single score on an
intelligence test; this theory
is useful for thinking about
variation among children and
teaching to their strengths.
Culture Lens
Responding to Cultural and Individual Differences
Early childhood teachers must respond to both individual
differences in children and to cultural differences. Why
both? When teachers respond to the individual child,
aren’t they also responding to the cultural child? The an-
swer is yes and no.
Every child is unique and develops an individual personal-
ity as a result of her or his personal history. At the same
time, everyone develops some behaviors that are shared
with members of his or her cultural group. Because culture
is a group characteristic, the rules of a culture are shared
by group members and are not unique to individuals. When
teachers think of children only as individuals, they risk
missing important information about what children have
learned about group expectations. Consider this example:
Edwin comes in from outdoor play crying; he is soaked
and covered with sand and mud. His teacher, Ms.
Amos, starts to undress him to help him get cleaned
up and he cries harder. When she tries to help him
remove his shoes, he forcefully pulls away. Ms. Amos
knows him to be stubborn and tries to coax him into
letting her help and consoles him while attempting to
undress him, but to no avail. What his teacher doesn’t
know is that in Edwin’s cultural group, you don’t get
your school clothes dirty, boys don’t cry, and boys
dress and undress themselves in private.
Had this teacher known more about Edwin’s cultural
group, she could have responded in a more appropriate
way. She might have offered him a change of clothes and
let him go to a private place to change himself. On the
other hand, what teachers know about group differences
when blindly applied to all individuals in a cultural group
may be equally inappropriate because individuals within
groups differ from one another.
After the incident with Edwin, Ms. Amos decides to
learn more about his background. She talks to col-
leagues and becomes a more careful observer of Edwin
and his family, as well as of other children from his
cultural group. One day Edwin’s cousin Sammy comes
in soaked and covered with mud. Ms. Amos decides
not to help him clean up, but offers him a change of
clothes. When he takes the clean clothes, returns to
the playground, and throws them in the sandbox, his
teacher is stunned because she expected him to go
in the bathroom and change. Sammy, however, was
not at all upset by the wet clothes and enjoyed acting
contrary to expectations.
So why did the two boys—both from the same cultural
group—behave so differently? Because culture is learned;
it can be well learned by some people in the group and
less well learned by others. Some families are tradition
oriented, others less so. Further, even though families
and individuals learn the cultural rules, some people con-
form to what they have learned, while others don’t.
Thus, members of a cultural group will behave differently
depending on how deeply embedded they are within the
core of a culture. Thinking about differences in behavior
in this way helps teachers understand why, for instance,
all Japanese people don’t always “act Japanese.” And it
helps teachers avoid stereotyping groups and applying
untested assumptions about individuals.
An important thing to remember is that knowing who
children are as members of cultural groups provides
more information than simply knowing them as individu-
als. But the most important point is that children are
both individuals and cultural beings at the same time
and in the same place.
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Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach148
exams result in scores for math and verbal ability. When educators test only children’s ver-
bal and math abilities, as is often the case, they miss children’s strengths in other important
areas such as sociability or psychomotor skills. Gardner also believes that attention to the
full range of children’s capabilities could help more children succeed in school, thus nar-
rowing the achievement gap for children from low-income families and children of color.
What are the implications of Gardner’s theory for teachers? Consider the following
example of teaching with multiple intelligences in mind. Hanita Blume teaches a mixed-
age group of 4- and 5-year-olds. One of the primary goals of the math curriculum is to
develop children’s concept of number, which includes counting and beginning operations
such as adding and subtracting. The range of ages and experiences among children within
her group affects their levels of math ability. She takes these differences into account as
well as the fact that each of these children has different capabilities and interests.
Hanita does not try to evaluate individual children’s “intelligences.” Instead, she
plans a variety of learning opportunities to draw on children’s strengths and interests to
help them all achieve the math goals. Following are some of the learning experiences she
provides relevant to each of the multiple intelligences:
• Logical/mathematical. Hanita engages children in solving real-world problems
with numbers, such as “We have nine children and only five chairs. How many
more chairs do we need?”
• Linguistic. Hanita reads a counting book in small groups and engages children in
counting the objects on each page.
• Musical. In large and small groups, Hanita sings counting songs and does fingerplays
such as Five Little Monkeys to engage children in counting forward and backward.
• Naturalist. During outdoor play time, Hanita works with children to make col-
lections of natural objects such as leaves or stones. Children place the objects in
categories (large or small, according to color), count the number in each category,
and determine which has more or fewer.
• Spatial. Hanita provides many different kinds of blocks and small manipulative
toys for children to count and categorize, and talks with them, supplying the count-
ing words for those who need the help.
• Bodily/kinesthetic. Hanita engages children in using their bodies to learn the count-
ing sequence and concept of number. Children stomp their feet or clap their hands
three times, four times, and so on.
• Interpersonal. Hanita organizes small cooperative groups of children to work on
math games such as Chutes and Ladders; children roll the die, read the number of
dots, and count the number of spaces. There is no competition.
Intelligence Definition
Children’s Possible Interests in School
and Later Life
Logical/mathematical Ability to reason, analyze, solve logical problems Earth, space, and physical sciences; mathematics;
computers
Linguistic Ability to communicate; sensitivity to words and
functions of language
Reading, writing, teaching, public speaking
Musical Ability to produce and appreciate music Singing, playing instruments, composing,
listening to music
Naturalist Sensitivity to the natural world, plants, animals Outdoor play, nature, biology, environmental science,
gardening
Spatial Ability to perceive the visual-spatial world Visual arts, photography, architecture, graphic design
Bodily/kinesthetic Ability to control body movements and objects Dancing, physical education, sports, movement exploration
Interpersonal Sensitivity to the feelings and desires of others Making friends, collaborative learning, social studies
Intrapersonal Awareness of own feelings and strengths Keeping a diary, reading, writing poetry, meditation
Sources: Based on Gardner (2004, 2006).
Table 5.1 Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences
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Chapter 5 Adapting for Individual Differences 149
• Intrapersonal. Hanita works one-on-one with some children in tasks such as calcu-
lating attendance, and then asks them to reflect on what they know about counting.
As we can conclude from the example of Hanita’s classroom, seeing children as
individuals with multiple intelligences does not mean that every child must be taught
differently. Instead, individual variation among children requires using various teaching
practices to be responsive to the abilities of all learners, including children whose devel-
opment is well above the typical range, as discussed next.
Gifted and Talented Children
A small percentage of children may display highly specialized talents at a young age.
Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences is helpful in adapting instruction for these chil-
dren. What is giftedness? The National Association for Gifted Children (2010) defines it
as: “Individuals who demonstrate outstanding levels of aptitude or competence in one or
more domains.” However, there is no universally accepted definition; giftedness, intel-
ligence, and talent may look different in different contexts and cultures (Heward, 2014).
Traditionally, giftedness was determined by a high IQ score, but today broader concep-
tions are used to identify a child as gifted and talented. A child may be gifted in music,
drama, or sports, for instance.
One way to identify young gifted children is to focus on a range of behaviors and char-
acteristics that occur in daily activities as well as in school (Heward, 2014). Some common
abilities of gifted young children include (National Association for Gifted Children, 2008):
• Curiosity and thoughtful questions about many things
• Solving problems in unique ways and using prior knowledge in new contexts
• Sustained attention span, willingness to persist on challenging tasks, and good
memory
• Especially original imagination, wit, and humor
• Keen observation skills and rapid mastery of new learning
• Desire to work independently and take initiative
• Talent in making up stories and reading
However determined, for their talents to flourish, gifted children need challeng-
ing educational experiences and individualized instruction (Coleman & Johnsen, 2011;
National Association for Gifted Children, 2010). When interesting, engaging experiences
are provided for all children, the needs of gifted children are more likely to be met in a
regular classroom.
For example, Melvin’s second-grade teacher, Ms. Dell, thinks he is “very preco-
cious.” He reads well above grade level and has a large vocabulary. One day he announces
to her that his brother is funny. She asks, “How so?” and he answers, “You know, strange,
odd, peculiar.” Melvin exhibits an intense curiosity, asking high-level questions such as,
“Where does gasoline come from?” Ms. Dell modifies the curriculum to challenge him.
She sets up a time for Melvin to read to preschoolers. She orders National Geographic to
satisfy his voracious curiosity about geography. She is also patient with Melvin’s persis-
tent questioning that would bother most other adults.
Ms. Dell understands the importance of recognizing early signs of giftedness in
young children—particularly in children like Melvin from low-income families who are
more often considered at risk than gifted—and nurturing the gift so that it may flour-
ish. She also understands that gifted children’s development can be uneven, in that they
may have great strengths in many areas but still be at age level or below in others. For
example, cognitively gifted children may be very good at articulating school rules and
the reasons behind them but at the same time be less able to follow rules in action. A
gifted child may also stand out from peers as different and may struggle to make friends.
✓ Check Your Understanding 5.3: Multiple Intelligences: A Theory of
Individual Differences
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Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach150
Responsive Education
for All Learners
In this section, we first describe how intentional teachers adapt their teaching practices in
response to individual variation among all children. Then we describe a specific frame-
work for systematically addressing the needs of all learners—Response to Intervention.
Differentiating Instruction
In every classroom, teachers need to differentiate instruction so that they support the
engagement, interest, full participation, and success of every child (Tomlinson, 2014).
Differentiated instruction refers to creating multiple paths so that children
of different abilities, interests, and learning needs experience equally appro-
priate ways to achieve important learning goals. Equally appropriate does
not mean the same or uniform. Nor does differentiated instruction mean that
children receive their own assignments or that they receive a private, one-
on-one lesson. Rather, it means that teachers provide interrelated learning
opportunities that help facilitate children’s mastery of new skills and content
knowledge.
Differentiated instruction is a cyclical process that is illustrated in
Figure 5.1. First, teachers must get to know each child in the classroom. They
must also know the curriculum. Both of these components influence how
teachers plan and differentiate instruction. Planning must take into account
the learning environment and materials, the content, the teaching strategies,
and the products that demonstrate what children have learned (Tomlinson,
2014), each of which is described next.
differentiated instruction
The creation of multiple paths
so that children of different
abilities, interests, and learn-
ing needs experience equally
appropriate ways to achieve
important learning goals.
FIGURE 5.1 Model of Differentiated Instruction As illustrated here, differentiated instruction is a
cyclical process that enables teachers to meet the needs and support the learning of each individual child.
Classroom Connection
In this video, the teacher imple-
ments a math lesson that takes
the form of a game with dominos.
How is this game an example of
differentiated instruction?
Plan
curriculum
using learning
standards
and children’s
interests
Prepare
learning
environment
Meet children
where they
are: abilities,
interests, prior
knowledge
Assess
products that
demonstrate
children’s
learning
Adapt
learning
environment,
what to teach,
and how to
teach
M05_BRED6702_03_SE_C05.indd 150 10/7/15 1:39 PM
Chapter 5 Adapting for Individual Differences 151
Plan the Environment The environment refers to the overall look and feel of the
classroom. A differentiated environment provides various spaces throughout the class-
room for learning to occur. For example, soft, cozy spaces allow some children to work
alone. Other spaces are designed for intrapersonal learners to work together in small
groups. A differentiated environment also provides a variety of materials. For example, a
reading center includes books at different levels on various topics for children. A writing
center might have sandpaper letters or plastic magnetic letters for tactile learners. Chil-
dren who learn best while moving may have places to stand and work at tables.
Differentiate Content Differentiating the content involves meeting children where
they are and focusing instruction on what they need to learn next. For example, a child
who knows letters can begin to map letter sounds to the alphabet and is also ready to re-
ceive instruction on blending letters to make sounds. A child who is skilled at decoding
words can focus on fluency and comprehension.
Adapt Teaching Strategies Strategies are the ways teachers provide specific
content instruction. The intentional teacher considers the child’s abilities and interests
when planning content instruction. For example, when teaching science, the teacher pro-
vides hands-on tools for children to observe, measure, and record their observations. A
computer program or mobile app is motivating for many children. Other examples in-
clude providing information books for linguistic learners and cooperative learning activi-
ties for the intrapersonal learners.
Assess Learning Products The product that results from differentiated instruction
is the demonstration of learning. When content and processes are differentiated for children,
the products they produce will be different, too. Consider Josh Peters, a kindergarten teach-
er in an inclusive classroom. As he is reading a story, he stops occasionally to ask questions.
The purpose of asking questions is so the children can demonstrate what they have learned
(the product). He asks some children to recall the events of the story and others to predict
what will happen next. One child may even be asked to simply point to an illustration of a
character in the story. Josh takes each child’s level of literacy into account and targets their
engagement to successful participation and extending learning.
Response to Intervention
As we have seen, every early childhood classroom is composed of diverse
learners—children of widely varying abilities and interests. Although every
classroom teacher is responsible for differentiating instruction for the chil-
dren in her class, in recent years, greater emphasis has been placed on
preventing learning problems and intervening earlier for all children,
rather than waiting until a child falls too far behind or is labeled as
having a learning disability. To accomplish this goal, one frequently
used approach is Response to Intervention (RTI), a three-tiered,
comprehensive framework for bridging assessment and instruc-
tion that is intended to prevent school failure, especially in the
areas of reading and mathematics (Allington, 2009; National
Center on Response to Intervention, 2010; National Profes-
sional Development Center on Inclusion [NPDCI], 2012).
Figure 5.2 depicts the three-tiered RTI framework for
early childhood.
Response to Intervention is not a special educa-
tion framework or approach; when well implement-
ed, it yields effective results for children with and
without disabilities as well as dual language learners.
Compared to differentiated instruction, RTI is a more
systemic approach that is implemented by a program
Some Children
Targeted small group interventions/
supports
A Few
Children
Intensive
individualized
interventions/supports
Core curriculum and intentional teaching
All Children
Response to Intervention (RTI)
A three-tiered framework
intended to prevent learning
delays in primary grades from
becoming learning disabilities.
FIGURE 5.2 Response to Intervention (RTI) in Early Childhood
Source: National Professional Development Center on Inclusion, 2012,
Response to intervention (RTI) in early childhood: Building consensus on defin-
ing features, Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina, FPG Child Develop-
ment Institute, Author. Reprinted with permission.
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Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach152
or school system. It requires collaborative participation by teachers, administrators, spe-
cialists, and families.
The three tiers of the RTI framework are:
1. Research-based curriculum, differentiated instruction, and ongoing assessment for
all children (typically meets the needs of 80% of the children).
Tier 1 of the framework provides a foundation of high-quality education for
all children, including a comprehensive, evidence-based curriculum and inten-
tional teaching. Tier 1 involves universal screening, assessment, and monitoring
of children’s progress to obtain information about each child and to determine
whether a child would benefit from additional support.
2. Screening for learning difficulties, focused instruction, and ongoing progress
monitoring for those who are not making expected learning progress (approxi-
mately 15% of children).
Tier 2 provides developmentally appropriate, large- and small-group in-
terventions for children who need more focused learning experiences. For ex-
ample, some children may need regularly scheduled small-group reading to
improve vocabulary and other literacy skills. To complement the more explicit
activities and build on children’s strengths and interests, teachers also embed
learning opportunities in daily activities and routines. With these children,
teachers monitor their learning progress more frequently and use the informa-
tion to guide instruction.
3. Intensive instructional intervention for those children who need it (approximately 5%).
Tier 3 focuses on the approximately 5% of children who do not make expected
progress via the Tier 1 and Tier 2 interventions. At Tier 3, children receive in-
tensive, individualized interventions. These include effective strategies to scaf-
fold children’s learning such as prompting and modeling (described later in this
chapter). Progress monitoring and collaborative problem solving continue to guide
decisions about the child.
Although it is a general-education model, RTI can bridge the gap between general
and special education by ensuring that children with special needs fully access and par-
ticipate in the regular curriculum. This framework looks at all students with the goal of
preventing learning delays from becoming learning disabilities (Coleman, Roth, & West,
2009). It is important to note that children with already identified disabilities are expected
to be found at all three tiers of the model. For children who show signs of struggling, this
framework provides additional supports such as more focused time, content, scaffolding,
and/or one-on-one attention.
Benefits of RTI RTI is a framework that applies to all children. It is very important
that RTI tiers are not misinterpreted or misused to categorize or label children. In reality,
the tiers are flexible, and individual children move between them based on ongoing as-
sessment of their progress.
Successful implementation of RTI depends on accurate, ongoing assessment of
children, which can be challenging for teachers of dual language learners. An Eng-
lish language learner or a child who speaks a variation of English may have a well-
developed vocabulary and understand many concepts, but may not be well understood
at school (Espinosa, 2010a). In such a situation, it can be difficult to accurately assess
either the child’s competence or his or her needs, as illustrated in the Language Lens
feature.
The value of such prevention/intervention models is becoming more widely recog-
nized. A growing body of research demonstrates the effectiveness of RTI in preventing
and addressing learning disabilities (Coleman et al., 2009). As of 2004, the Individuals
with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) permits schools to use special education funds for
RTI, which may reduce the number of children who are identified for special education.
Nevertheless, there will always be a small percentage of children with identified disabili-
ties and special needs, a topic we discuss next.
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Chapter 5 Adapting for Individual Differences 153
✓ Check Your Understanding 5.4: Responsive Education for All Learners
Individual Differences in Ability
For several reasons, all teachers must be prepared to work with children who have spe-
cial needs. First, federal laws require that children with special needs be included in
classrooms and programs where their typically developing peers are found, and that their
learning progress be reported for accountability purposes. Second, effective practices ex-
ist that can positively alter the course of children’s development and their success in
life. Third, many of the strategies proven effective for children with special needs can
be equally effective in addressing the individual variation among typically developing
children. In short, early childhood educators who are familiar with the expertise of early
childhood special education can be more effective teachers of all children.
To understand how to work with children with special needs, we next address the
language of special education. In the sections following, we introduce principles that
teachers should know about children with disabilities, describe the laws regulating special
education, and the benefits of serving children with disabilities in settings with their typi-
cally developing peers.
Language Lens
Accurate Assessment of Linguistically Diverse Children
Accurately assessing the abilities of children who speak a
home language other than English or whose cultural back-
ground varies from the majority of children and teachers
can be a challenging task. Cultural and linguistic diversity
are not learning delays or disabilities. However, cultural
and linguistic diversity can have a significant impact on
identification and diagnosis of children’s special needs,
as the following example illustrates:
The student body of Rosa Parks Elementary School is
about 30% Latino, 30% European American, and 40%
African American. Scott James is an African American
first-grade teacher. The school’s speech therapist, Tess
Brooks, is a white, European American. Scott meets
with Tess because he is concerned about two students,
Reynoldo and Patrizia, who are behind in reading. Both
children speak Spanish at home but speak both Eng-
lish and Spanish at school. Reynoldo is quite verbal;
Patrizia hardly speaks at all. Scott thinks that Reyn-
oldo’s reading problem is related to a language delay
but, because Scott doesn’t speak Spanish, he can’t be
sure. However, the other children, even the Spanish-
speaking children, don’t seem to understand Reynoldo,
either. As for Patrizia, Scott thinks she may have an
undiagnosed hearing loss.
Scott’s bigger concern is that the screening tools aren’t
very accurate for assessing language delays in Spanish,
and Tess shares his concern. She thinks the best strat-
egy is to get more information from Reynoldo’s family
about his communication at home. Using an interpret-
er, Tess and Scott meet with Reynoldo’s mother. She
is clearly alarmed. She tells the translator that these
teachers think Reynoldo is stupid because he doesn’t
speak English, but she knows that there is nothing
wrong with her son.
Scott privately meets with Patrizia’s grandmother,
again using a translator. Her reaction is different from
Reynoldo’s mother’s reaction: “I’ve been worried, too,
because she hardly talks at home either. But I under-
stand her when she talks, and so does her brother.”
In these situations, Scott and Tess must walk a fine line.
They can easily make a mistake. In this case, Reynoldo’s
speech problems were real and not a product of learning
a second language. Without an accurate assessment of
the problem, Reynoldo did not receive therapy and his
language delay worsened. Patrizia, on the other hand, did
not have a hearing loss. What her grandmother and Scott
thought was a language delay was actually shyness.
When assessment tools aren’t sensitive to language differ-
ences, or when professionals do not understand a child’s
language, they can inaccurately diagnose a delay. In this
case, a child may be mislabeled as “delayed,” which can
negatively affect teachers’ and parents’ expectations for
him. On the other hand, if professionals assume that a
language difference is the only cause, they can miss a
real problem. The latter error has lasting consequences
because the child may not receive needed intervention
services.
Source: Based on Cross-Cultural Considerations in Early
Childhood Special Education (Technical Report #14), by T.
Bennett et al., 2001, Urbana-Champaign, IL: University of
Illinois, Culturally and Linguistically Appropriate Services
(CLAS), retrieved December 15, 2011, from. http://clas.uiuc.
edu/techreport/tech14.html#4b.
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http://clas.uiuc.edu/techreport/tech14.html#4b
Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach154
The Language of Early Childhood
Special Education
One of the challenges for generalist early childhood educators is learning special educa-
tion terminology. Because each field tends to have its own vocabulary, communicating
effectively across these related fields requires a common vocabulary.
Defining Terms Children with special needs is a broad term used to describe chil-
dren who may have multiple risk factors, specialized health care needs (such as asthma),
mental or emotional health concerns, severe allergies, or physical and/or cognitive dis-
abilities. The more specific term children with disabilities refers to children who have
been identified as having a specific category of disability, such as autism or cerebral palsy.
However, the terms children with special needs and children with disabilities are often
used interchangeably.
Another all-encompassing, though less frequently used, term is exceptional children.
This term is used to communicate inclusion of gifted and talented children as well as chil-
dren whose development is below the expected range. In fact, the professional associa-
tion for special education professionals is called the Council for Exceptional Children
(CEC). Early childhood special education professionals are members of the Division for
Early Childhood (DEC) of the Council for Exceptional Children. Table 5.2 lists and
defines some of the most common categories of exceptionality.
Using Person-First Language A standard for professionals who work with
individuals with special needs is that they use what is called person-first language.
Person-first language recognizes that a child is a child first, whether or not he or she has a
disability. Consider the difference between describing 4-year-old Zain as “a special needs
child” and describing him as “a child with special needs.” The former phrase emphasizes
person-first language
Language that recognizes that
a child is a child first, whether
or not he or she has a disability
(e.g., saying “child with special
needs” as opposed to “special
needs child”).
Category Definition
Attention deficit/hyperactivity
disorder (ADHD)
Diagnosis describing children who display a pattern of severe inattentive, hyperactive, and/or impul-
sive behavior that interferes with the child’s learning.
Autism spectrum
disorder (ASD)
Condition in which child has impairments in social communication and interactions, and demon-
strates restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior and interests.
Down syndrome (DS) Condition in which extra genetic material causes the child to exhibit developmental delays and/or
intellectual disability. Children with DS tend to share physical features such as a flat facial profile,
an upward slant to the eyes, small ears, a single crease across the center of the palms, and an
enlarged tongue.
Cerebral palsy (CP) A neurological disorder that appears in infancy or early childhood and permanently affects the
child’s body movement, motor development, and muscle coordination.
Deafness and hearing
impairment
A condition in which hearing is impaired, either permanently or temporarily, and negatively impacts
a child’s academic performance. Deafness is a severe hearing impairment that prevents a child from
hearing and processing language and other sounds.
Visually impaired or blind Condition describing loss or partial loss of vision.
Intellectual disability Disability in which the child has limitations both in cognitive functioning and in social and adaptive
behavior.
Developmental delay Diagnosis describing a child whose development is behind expectations for his or her age group as
measured by appropriate diagnostic instruments and procedures. Occurs in one or more areas of
development: physical, cognitive, communication, social, emotional, or adaptive.
Gifted Term applied to children with outstanding talent who perform or show potential for performing at
remarkably high levels of accomplishment when compared with others of their age, experience, or
environment.
exceptional children An
all-encompassing term used to
communicate inclusion of gifted
and talented children as well as
children whose development is
below the expected range.
Council for Exceptional
Children (CEC) The national
professional association for
special educators.
Division for Early Childhood
(DEC) Subdivision of the Coun-
cil for Exceptional Children
that is the national professional
organization for early childhood
special educators and early
intervention specialists.
children with disabilities
Children who have been
identified as having a specific
category of disability, such as
autism or cerebral palsy.
children with special needs
A broad term used to describe
children who may have multiple
risk factors, specialized health
care needs, mental or emo-
tional health concerns, severe
allergies, or physical and/or
cognitive disabilities.
Table 5.2 Some Types of Exceptionality
M05_BRED6702_03_SE_C05.indd 154 10/7/15 1:39 PM
Chapter 5 Adapting for Individual Differences 155
the disability, whereas the latter communicates that Zain is first and foremost a child,
whose special needs are only part of his identity.
By contrast, placing the adjective first modifies the entire noun to which it is refer-
ring; this can place undue emphasis on inability. For example, if you hear a traffic reporter
describe a “disabled car,” you think of a car that cannot be driven at all. Compare this to
what you may think when you hear “a car with a flat tire.” For similar reasons, we refer
to a “child with Down syndrome” or “a child with autism,” instead of saying a “Down’s
child” or “an autistic.” A fundamental tenet of inclusion is that children are children re-
gardless of disability status, and the use of person-first language reflects this principle.
Admittedly, using person-first language can sometimes feel cumbersome. But lan-
guage matters. How we describe people and conditions communicates our attitudes about
them. Currently, person-first terms begin with the word individuals, thus emphasizing the
uniqueness of each person regardless of an identified disability.
What Teachers Should Know
about Children with Disabilities
Children with disabilities display a variation in skills beyond what is considered typical; as a
result, in many instances, these children qualify for special education services. These services
are provided by professionals and therapists who have specialized knowledge about childhood
disabilities and disorders. Therefore, it is neither necessary nor reasonable for early childhood
educators to know everything about every disorder that might affect a child. Yet, they do need
to understand several key principles about children’s disabilities (Wolery & Wilbers, 1994):
1. Children with disabilities are diverse and distinct from one another. All children have
unique skills, interests, dislikes, and talents. Therefore, it is essential that teachers
recognize each child as a distinctive individual. Children with disabilities share simi-
larities with other children, but they may need more specialized and/or individualized
instruction and care than children without special needs. However, it is vitally impor-
tant for teachers to remember that no child is defined by their disability; children are
diverse in countless ways including culturally, linguistically, and socioeconomically.
2. Some children may have more than one disability. For example, a child with a
hearing impairment may also have low vision or a seizure disorder. Moreover,
children may develop additional disabilities as a result of their primary disability.
For example, a child with a visual impairment may not be able to explore his
environment and may develop motor or cognitive delays. Early identification and
effective intervention can sometimes prevent secondary disabilities.
3. A diagnosis rarely leads to specific educational interventions. Educational prac-
tices and therapies, such as speech and language therapy, are not selected by the
diagnosis. The selected interventions need to align with the child’s current skills
and abilities, family concerns, needs and resources, and what works best for the
child. Teachers should not assume that a particular diagnosis will automatically
respond to a specific intervention (Wolery & Wilbers, 1994).
Seeing Children with Disabilities
as Individuals: The Case of Autism
Even with the same diagnosis, a great deal of individual variability exists, as in the case
of autism spectrum disorder (ASD), one of the fastest-growing serious developmental
disabilities in the United States today. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
(2014a) estimates that 1 out of every 68 children has been identified with ASD, and boys
are five times as likely as girls to receive the diagnosis. Thus, early childhood teachers
will likely encounter a child with autism at some point in their careers.
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD), also known as autism, is a diagnosis associated with
impairments in social interaction and communication and restricted, repetitive behaviors
autism spectrum disorder
(ASD) complex developmental
disabilities that impact the
normal development of the
brain processes related to so-
cial interaction and communi-
cation skills.
The Language of Early Childhood
Special Education
One of the challenges for generalist early childhood educators is learning special educa-
tion terminology. Because each field tends to have its own vocabulary, communicating
effectively across these related fields requires a common vocabulary.
Defining Terms Children with special needs is a broad term used to describe chil-
dren who may have multiple risk factors, specialized health care needs (such as asthma),
mental or emotional health concerns, severe allergies, or physical and/or cognitive dis-
abilities. The more specific term children with disabilities refers to children who have
been identified as having a specific category of disability, such as autism or cerebral palsy.
However, the terms children with special needs and children with disabilities are often
used interchangeably.
Another all-encompassing, though less frequently used, term is exceptional children.
This term is used to communicate inclusion of gifted and talented children as well as chil-
dren whose development is below the expected range. In fact, the professional associa-
tion for special education professionals is called the Council for Exceptional Children
(CEC). Early childhood special education professionals are members of the Division for
Early Childhood (DEC) of the Council for Exceptional Children. Table 5.2 lists and
defines some of the most common categories of exceptionality.
Using Person-First Language A standard for professionals who work with
individuals with special needs is that they use what is called person-first language.
Person-first language recognizes that a child is a child first, whether or not he or she has a
disability. Consider the difference between describing 4-year-old Zain as “a special needs
child” and describing him as “a child with special needs.” The former phrase emphasizes
person-first language
Language that recognizes that
a child is a child first, whether
or not he or she has a disability
(e.g., saying “child with special
needs” as opposed to “special
needs child”).
M05_BRED6702_03_SE_C05.indd 155 10/7/15 1:39 PM
Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach156
(American Psychiatric Association, 2013). The first signs of autism often appear between 2
and 3 years of age. Young children with autism often have delays in language and communica-
tion, including nonverbal communication such as pointing and gesturing. They may display
repetitive motor behaviors, and are often inflexible in their routines and play. For example, a
child with autism may have a severe emotional reaction to a change in schedule or inability to
find a favorite toy. The thinking and learning abilities of children with autism can vary—from
gifted to a more significant intellectual disability. Consider the following examples:
Jeffrey is two and a half years old with a head of curly brown hair. He does not talk
yet, but if he wants something he will pull an adult by the hand to what he wants.
Sometimes it is easy for his teacher to guess what he wants, but lately he has started
crying, screaming, and falling on the ground if she is not able to get him what he
wants right away. He spends most of his time wandering around the classroom hold-
ing his favorite toy. When another child or teacher tries to play near him, he will
quickly leave the area. He will often cry when changing from one activity to another,
and once he starts crying it is very difficult to calm him down. Other children and
teachers are starting to avoid interacting with him, afraid it may trigger his crying.
Nathan is 3 years old and can climb higher and faster than most other 3-year-
olds. He has known his letters and numbers since age 2 and can read a variety of
words and phrases. He cannot, however, consistently answer simple questions from
adults, interact with children his own age, or tolerate changes to his routine. His
parents are extremely concerned because they have been asked to stop bringing him
to music lessons at the local community center. They were also told to find a “more
appropriate” placement than the local co-op preschool. His grandparents wonder if
there is anything “really wrong” with him or if his parents are simply overindulgent.
Cherish is 30 months old and has beautiful blue eyes. Her parents report that she
used to walk around the house, point to objects, label them, and laugh. She does not
do that anymore. In fact, these days she rarely speaks except to request certain apps
or preferred foods. She rarely looks at people or things, unless she can find something
that is spinning, and then she is mesmerized by it. Her parents cannot remember the
last time that they heard her laugh.
These children are some of the characteristics of ASD. Each child is a reminder that
ASD is a spectrum disorder, which means that children who receive this diagnosis differ
Inclusion means that every teacher must be prepared to work with children with disabilities and special
needs in the regular classroom. The first step is for teachers to remember that children with disabilities
are children first and, like every child, they are unique.
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M05_BRED6702_03_SE_C05.indd 156 10/7/15 1:39 PM
Chapter 5 Adapting for Individual Differences 157
dramatically in their abilities, preferences, needs, and areas of delay. As Jeffery, Nathan,
and Cherish remind us, there is no “typical” child with ASD. Every child and family
brings a unique set of strengths and challenges that must be considered when planning
an educational program. Early identification and intervention for children with ASD can
dramatically improve educational outcomes (Dawson et al., 2010).
Often, the first adults to notice some of the early signs of autism are teachers and
caregivers. It can sometimes be difficult for caregivers to articulate developmental con-
cerns when autism is the question, because many of the behaviors associated with ASD
can seemingly be explained by other factors such as “He just needs to be disciplined,” “He
is just like his father,” or “It is a phase he or she is going through.” As a result, teachers
are often the first to recognize that a child’s behavior may be a red flag for a more serious
developmental delay and may need to recommend to the family to take action by seeking
out a trained professional in this area who can help. Red flags for autism in early child-
hood (http://www.autismspeaks.org) include:
• No big smiles or other warm, joyful expressions by 6 months or thereafter
• No back-and-forth sharing of sounds, smiles, or other facial expressions by
9 months or thereafter
• No babbling by 12 months
• No back-and-forth gestures, such as pointing, showing, reaching, or waving, by
12 months
• No words by 16 months
• No two-word meaningful phrases by 24 months
• Any loss of speech or babbling or social skills at any age
The foundation of any program for a child with autism should be the practices that are
important for all children, including supportive, caring adults, activities that promote high
levels of active engagement, and meaningful interactions with peers. While a common
goal is for all children to have opportunities to interact successfully with children and
adults, children with autism may require special supports and strategies to be successful in
social interactions. Fortunately, researchers have identified many practices that work well
for supporting learning and social development for children with autism; some of these
practices are described later in this chapter (Wong et al., 2014). One of the most valuable
of these strategies is using pretend play to engage children with autism, as described in
the feature, Promoting Play: Supporting Pretend Play for Children with Disabilities.
In addition to understanding how to work effectively with children with special
needs, all teachers must be familiar with special education laws. These laws are discussed
in the next section.
What Teachers Should Know about Legal
Requirements for Children with Disabilities
Federal laws govern how special education services are delivered in the United States.
First, we describe the legislation generally. Then we discuss in more detail the require-
ments for individualized planning for children with special needs.
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act Many children with dis-
abilities are eligible for early intervention and early childhood special education services.
Both early intervention (EI) and early childhood special education (ECSE) are regulated
under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), formerly the Education of
the Handicapped Act. IDEA was designed to provide protections for children to ensure
their right to a free appropriate public education (FAPE). The principle of the law is
that children with disabilities should not be denied the same opportunities offered to ev-
eryone else. To receive specially designed instruction, at no cost to parents, to meet the
unique needs of a child with a disability, children must meet eligibility guidelines accord-
ing to IDEA. These guidelines are determined on a state-by-state basis.
free appropriate public
education (FAPE) Education
for children with disabilities
that is required by IDEA, so that
children with disabilities are not
denied the same opportunities
offered to everyone else.
eligibility guidelines Guide-
lines established on a state-
by-state basis according to
IDEA that determine whether
children may receive special
education services.
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Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach158
Part B of IDEA is a federal program that provides funds to states and local school
districts to support education for children with disabilities from ages 3 to 21. The most
relevant part of the law for early childhood teachers is Section 619 of Part B (also known
as Early Childhood Special Education), which applies specifically to preschoolers with
disabilities. To meet all children’s individual needs, the law requires that a team of educa-
tors and family members create an individualized education plan for each student.
Part C (Early Intervention) provides funds for states to provide services for infants
and toddlers who have disabilities or developmental delays. Some states provide early
intervention services for infants and toddlers who are at risk of developmental delay and
their families. Early Intervention services are discussed in more detail later in the chapter.
Individualized Education Programs When a child meets the disability re-
quirements of the law and is identified as needing special education and related services,
school districts are obligated to prepare and implement an individualized education
program (IEP), which is designed to meet the unique needs of the child. The IEP is a
written plan for services that is developed, reviewed, and revised by an IEP team. Click
here to see a sample IEP. An IEP must contain the following information:
1. A statement of the child’s present levels of academic achievement and functional
performance
individualized education
program (IEP) A written
plan designed to meet the
unique needs of a child with
a disability or special need; it
is developed, reviewed, and
revised by an IEP team during
meetings for each child who is
eligible for special education
services.
Supporting Pretend Play for Children with Disabilities
Play is an important learning activity for all chil-
dren, and an important context for teachers to ob-
serve what and how children are learning. Pretend
play skills are associated with later language and
social skills, self-regulation, and even reading skills.
Children with disabilities, and especially children
with autism, often have difficulty engaging in social
and pretend play. Since pretend play is an impor-
tant context for learning and development, teachers
should carefully plan and support play activities and
opportunities for children with disabilities.
Pretend play skills are excellent functional goals for
children with disabilities: children learn to play with
peers in a natural setting, and can learn important
cognitive and motor skills embedded in the context
of play. Furthermore, teachers can learn about chil-
dren’s skill strengths and challenges by watching
children play.
Teachers can support growth in children’s pretend
play by modeling (showing how) and prompting
children to engage in more sophisticated levels
of pretend play. At the most basic level, children
engage in functional play with some pretense, in
which a child might pretend to pour milk into a
cup and drink it. At the next level, substitution,
the child uses an object in some symbolic man-
ner, such as using a block as a pretend cell phone.
Teachers can support children in using sequences
of pretend play and add vocalization. As an ex-
ample, Adele enjoys playing with dolls, and her
teacher, Alec, has noticed that she uses the toy
spoon to feed the doll. Alec takes the opportunity to
encourage a higher level of pretend play, and uses
a small block as a bottle to “feed the baby” (substi-
tution). He then encourages Adele to feed the baby,
offering the block “bottle,” saying, “It’s your turn
to feed the baby.” As Adele’s play becomes more
sophisticated, Alec can continue to add more play
sequences with the baby doll and include Adele’s
peers in the pretend play.
Sources: “Teaching Pretend Play to Children with
Disabilities: A Review of the Literature,” by E. E. Barton
and M. Wolery, 2008, Topics in Early Childhood Special
Education, 28, 109–125; and “Children’s Play: Where
We Have Been and Where We Could Go,” by K. Lifter,
E. J. Mason, and E. E. Barton, 2011, Journal of Early
Intervention, 33, 281–297.
Promoting Play
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Chapter 5 Adapting for Individual Differences 159
2. A statement of measurable annual goals, including academic and functional goals
designed to:
• Meet the child’s needs that result from the child’s disability to enable the child
to be involved in and make progress in the general education curriculum
• Meet each of the child’s other educational needs that result from the child’s
disability
3. A description of benchmarks or short-term objectives
4. A description of:
• How the child’s progress toward meeting the annual goals will be measured
• When periodic reports on the progress the child is making toward meeting the
annual goals (such as through the use of quarterly or other periodic reports,
concurrent with the issuance of report cards) will be provided
5. A statement of the special education and related services and supplementary aids
and services, based on peer-reviewed research to the extent practicable, to be pro-
vided to the child, or on behalf of the child
6. A statement of any individually appropriate accommodations that are necessary
to measure the academic achievement and functional performance of the child on
state- and district-wide assessments
The IEP Team The IEP is developed by a team that consists of educators, therapists
and medical professionals, and family. By law, the team members must include:
• The child’s parent(s) or guardian(s)
• The child’s early childhood teacher
• The child’s early childhood special education teacher
• A representative of the community program who has certain specific knowledge
and qualifications
• An individual who can interpret the instructional implications of evaluation results
(this may be one of the other listed members, such as an occupational therapist or
speech language pathologist)
• Other individuals, who are chosen at the discretion of the parent or the agency, who
have knowledge or special expertise regarding the child, including related services per-
sonnel such as the speech language pathologist or physical therapist, as appropriate
A universal design element, such as this automatic sink, eliminates a barrier for children who might have
difficulty operating the handles while also achieving the goal of teaching proper hand washing to all children.
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Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach160
Early Intervention for Infants and Toddlers Children from birth to 3 years
old who have a developmental delay, a diagnosed condition, or, in some states, who are
identified as at risk for developing a developmental delay may qualify for early inter-
vention (EI) services. These children will have an individualized family service plan
(IFSP). An IFSP documents and guides the early intervention process for children with
disabilities and their families. The IFSP contains information about the services neces-
sary to support a child’s development and enhance the family’s capacity to facilitate the
child’s development. Some parents learn that their child has a disability before or imme-
diately after birth, and the hospital may initiate EI soon after. For other children, delays
or disabilities emerge later. In these cases, a parent, other family member, pediatrician,
teacher, child care provider, or family friend initially may raise concerns about the child’s
development.
Children with developmental delays enter EI services following diagnostic testing
or developmental evaluation administered in partnership with the family by a team of
specialists. Through the IFSP process, family members and service providers work as a
team to plan, implement, and evaluate services tailored to the family’s unique concerns,
priorities, and resources.
According to IDEA, the IFSP, like the IEP, is a written plan that must contain specific
information, including:
1. The child’s present levels of physical, cognitive, communication, social or emo-
tional, and adaptive development
2. The family’s resources, priorities, and concerns relating to enhancing the develop-
ment of the child with a disability
3. The major outcomes to be achieved for the child and the family; the criteria, pro-
cedures, and timelines used to determine progress; and whether modifications or
revisions of the outcomes or services are necessary
4. Specific early intervention services necessary to meet the unique needs of the child
and the family, including the frequency, intensity, and the method of delivery
5. The environments in which services will be provided, including justification of the
extent, if any, to which the services will not be provided in a natural environment.
The natural environment refers to settings that are natural or normal for the child’s
same-age peers without disabilities
6. The projected dates for initiation of services and their anticipated duration
7. The name of the service provider who will be responsible for implementing the
plan and coordinating with other agencies and persons
8. Steps to support the child’s transition to preschool or other appropriate services
Differences between IFSPs and IEPs Unlike the IEP, the IFSP
(Bruder, 2001):
• Revolves around the family, because the family is the constant in a
child’s life
• Includes outcomes for the family, as opposed to focusing only on the child
• Includes activities involving multiple agencies to integrate all services
into one plan
• Names a service coordinator to help the family during the develop-
ment, implementation, and evaluation of the IFSP
• Involves the notion of natural environments, which create opportu-
nities for learning interventions in everyday routines and activities,
rather than only in formal, contrived environments
The laws that dictate services for children with disabilities and special needs
reflect research demonstrating the benefits of such services for children with
special needs and the larger society. The laws also reflect underlying values
about what life should be like for all children. However, laws and procedures
related to services can be confusing for families. Community organizations,
individualized family service
plan (IFSP) Documents and
guides the early interven-
tion process for children with
disabilities from birth to age 3
and their families; contains
information about the services
necessary to facilitate a child’s
development and enhance the
family’s capacity to facilitate
the child’s development.
Classroom Connection
In this video, a parent describes
her experience with early inter-
vention and early childhood spe-
cial education services. In what
ways have these services helped
her daughter and supported her
family?
M05_BRED6702_03_SE_C05.indd 160 10/7/15 1:39 PM
Chapter 5 Adapting for Individual Differences 161
schools, and teachers are responsible for understanding and communicating to families how
educational systems work for children with special needs.
Embracing Natural Learning Environments
and Inclusion
One of the primary goals of federal laws governing services for children with disabilities
is to make sure that these children lead lives that are as similar as possible to those of chil-
dren who do not have disabilities. To achieve this goal, professionals need to understand
the rationale and embrace the values that led to the law being passed in the first place.
Benefits of Natural Learning Environments Part C requires that EI ser-
vices be embedded in everyday routines and activities, and occur in the children’s natural
learning environments. Settings where infants, toddlers, and their families would be
spending time if the child did not have a disability, natural learning environments can be
child care centers, parks, a neighbor’s house, or the zoo. Natural learning environments
are important because for young children, learning occurs most effectively in the contexts
where children will need to use the new skill (Dunst, 2011; Dunst, Hamby, Trivette, Raab,
& Bruder, 2000).
So, what is not a natural environment? Places children go because they have a
disability, such as hospitals, clinics, and therapy offices, are not optimal places for
children to learn new skills. Young children, especially those under age 3, do not easily
learn a skill in one setting and transfer it to another. Furthermore, just because a setting
is natural does not insure that a child with a disability will be able to access and ben-
efit from what the environment offers. Teachers can use principles of universal design
to plan for curriculum, assessment, and environmental adaptations to accommodate
the individual needs of all learners (http:// ectacenter.org/ topics/atech/udl.asp). Learn
more about how early childhood teachers can use materials and technology to accom-
modate the individual needs of all learners in the feature What Works: Principles of
Universal Design.
Benefits of Inclusion Inclusion is based on the same principle as natural learning
environments—that children with disabilities need to be with their peers without dis-
abilities. Although most images of inclusion involve school settings such as preschool or
public schools, inclusion is also important in home and community environments such as
parks, recreation, and faith settings.
Inclusion requires more than just access to set-
tings; children need to participate as fully as possi-
ble and receive the supports they and their teachers
need to ensure they make progress toward impor-
tant learning goals (Division for Early Childhood
[DEC] & National Association for the Education
of Young Children [NAEYC], 2009). Successful
inclusion means that all children in the classroom
participate, learn, and thrive. Many, but not all,
children with special needs will need individual-
ized instruction to achieve positive learning and
developmental outcomes in inclusive programs.
But it is also important to cultivate a culture of
inclusion that provides children with and without
disabilities a sense of belonging and membership
in the peer group (DEC & NAEYC, 2009).
It is important for teachers to understand that
inclusion benefits all of society, in addition to the
children with disabilities. Children with disabilities
natural learning environments
Settings that are natural or
normal for the child’s same-age
peers without disabilities such
as child care centers, parks, a
neighbor’s house, or the zoo, as
opposed to hospitals, clinics,
and therapy offices.
Intentional teachers foster
friendships between children
with special needs and their
typically developing peers.
What are some ways teachers
can build positive relationships
among children in inclusive
classrooms?
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Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach162
develop opportunities to share in the daily life of their community, and they do as well or
better than children in specialized programs, particularly with respect to social develop-
ment (NPDCI, 2007). Children without disabilities benefit by developing positive attitudes
toward individuals with diverse abilities. Families of children with and without disabilities
benefit from developing strong, supportive relationships that enhance the quality of life.
In the sections that follow, we describe what teachers need to do for children with special
needs if inclusion is to be effective.
✓ Check Your Understanding 5.5: Individual Differences in Ability
Effective Practices for
Children with Diverse Abilities
The purpose of inclusion is to ensure that the individual needs of all children are be-
ing met in shared settings. However, identifying what practices are best for children
of varying abilities may be challenging for an early childhood teacher. The Division
for Early Childhood (2014) has established a set of recommended practices designed
to improve outcomes for children with disabilities, birth to 5 years of age. They in-
clude practices associated with assessment, environment, family, instruction, inter-
action, teaming and collaboration, and transitions. All professionals who work with
What Works
Principles of Universal Design
Universal design is the creation of products and environments that
are accessible to all people—individuals with and without disabili-
ties. Obvious examples of universal design are sidewalk curb cuts
and ramps that are essential for people in wheelchairs. However,
ramps also benefit travelers with roller-bag luggage, parents with
strollers, elderly people, and even toddlers who haven’t mastered
steps. Examples abound in today’s world, including Velcro, auto-
matic doors, nonslip surfaces, closed captioning, and signs with
universally recognizable symbols.
Planning environments based on principles of universal de-
sign from the beginning prevents the need to modify at a later
time. Successful inclusion in early childhood programs requires
three major components: access to the learning environment and
curriculum, participation in activities and routines, and adequate
support for teachers—all of which are facilitated by attention to
universal design. Intentional planning and implementation of uni-
versal design enables teachers to promote development and dif-
ferentiate instruction for every child. Following are examples of
practices based on universal design principles:
• Provide toys and learning materials that have a variety of tex-
tures, scents, and sounds, as well as visual stimuli. For example,
an assortment of balls of different colors, sizes, and textures
(squishy, soft, or rubbery) facilitate engagement for children
with sensory impairments. Some balls make noise or light up as
they roll or bounce, providing extra cues for children with special
universal design The creation
of products and environments
that are accessible to all
people—individuals with and
without disabilities.
needs and also making the toys more inter-
esting for all children.
• Blocks are an excellent example of universal de-
sign because there is no right or wrong way to play
with them. Wooden unit blocks come in various shapes and
sizes, enabling children to engage with them in multiple ways.
Blocks that have textured sides and make noise add additional
sensory clues as well as challenges for children.
• Colorful, magnetic plastic blocks or table toys can be stacked
and rearranged easily without frustrating children who have
physical or sensory disabilities. Originally invented by Maria
Montessori, puzzle pieces with knobs enable children with vi-
sual impairments to use their sense of touch to successfully
play with others.
• Books with easy-to-turn pages, and various sizes of pictures
and text, facilitate children’s independent literacy learning.
Those with textures, cutouts, and sound effects engage chil-
dren’s interests. Sturdy board books make page-turning easier.
Books on iPad or audiotape help children with hearing disabili-
ties participate in the language and literacy curriculum.
Sources: Based on “Learning Materials for Children of All Abilities: Begin
with Universal Design,” by K. Haugen, 2005, Exchange, 161 (January/
February), 45–47; and About UDL: What Is Universal Design for Learning,
National Center on Universal Design for Learning, retrieved September 22,
2012, from http://www.cast.org/udl.
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Chapter 5 Adapting for Individual Differences 163
children with disabilities should be familiar with and adhere to this set of recom-
mended practices.
Children with disabilities often require environments that are “organized and ad-
justed to minimize the effects of their disabilities and to promote learning of a broad
range of skills” (Wolery, Strain, & Bailey, 1992, p. 95). They also may need special-
ized instruction, as with Tier 3 interventions in RTI (NPDCI, 2009). Such specialized
instruction involves teachers matching an individual child’s goals and objectives with
appropriate teaching methods and materials. In addition, teachers need to decide what
amount of assistance each child with special needs requires, provide the assistance, and
then determine whether the instruction was effective. Most often, a team of specialists
is available to help the early childhood teacher achieve these goals. Three types of prac-
tices that early childhood teachers can employ to support children with special needs
are described below: team collaboration, assessment, and planning and implementing
individualized strategies.
Work on a Team
Working collaboratively with a team is critical to the success of including young children
with special needs in the classroom. Each member of the team has different expertise in
areas such as early childhood, special education, motor development, and communication
development. Additionally, all members possess specific knowledge about the particular
child. The child’s family plays an important role in the collaborative team. They (1) pro-
vide information about their child’s strengths and needs, (2) help assess functional skills
and develop the IFSP or IEP with the team, (3) implement intervention strategies at home
and in the community, and (4) provide critical information about the effectiveness of
interventions.
At the IEP or IFSP team meeting, professionals and family members collaborate to
(1) identify and prioritize individualized goals, (2) determine if modifications to the en-
vironment or curriculum are needed, (3) design specialized instructional strategies, and
(4) monitor the child’s progress toward the goals. Teamwork and collaboration goes be-
yond team meetings. Many people, including family members, teacher assistants, and
community partners, work to facilitate children’s learning beyond the classroom, into
home and community settings.
Assess Young Children of Diverse Abilities
The effectiveness of individualized instruction for children with disabilities depends in
large part on accurately assessing their needs and progress. Throughout this book we ad-
dress the topic of assessment as related to all children. In this section, we discuss types
of assessment that are used in order to best accommodate children with special needs.
Screening, diagnostic, and eligibility assessments, are used by specialists to determine
whether the child has a developmental delay or disability and is eligible for services.
Curriculum-based assessment and routines-based assessment are the most appropriate
and useful to early childhood teachers for planning what children with special needs
should be learning.
Curriculum-Based Assessments Curriculum-based assessments trace a child’s
progress along a continuum of functional skills within a developmentally sequenced
curriculum organized by developmental domain. Functional skills are those that are
useful and meaningful to children in their everyday lives. For example, it is generally
useful for children to learn to use the toilet, feed themselves, communicate and play
with peers, and count objects. A developmental domain is an area of development such
as fine and gross motor skills, cognitive abilities, self-help capabilities, and social and
communication skills. Curriculum-based assessments serve to link assessment, interven-
tion, and evaluation, as the following example illustrates:
specialized instruction
Involves teachers matching an
individual child’s goals and
objectives with appropriate
teaching methods and materi-
als, deciding what amount
of assistance each child
with special needs requires,
providing the assistance, and
then determining whether the
instruction was effective.
functional skills Skills that
are useful to children in their
everyday lives.
developmental domain An
area of development such as
fine and gross motor skills,
cognitive abilities, self-help
capabilities, and social and
communication skills.
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Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach164
Corwin (age 3½) has experienced an eligibility evaluation for special education
based on a recommendation from his pediatrician. According to the multidisciplinary
team, he qualifies for early childhood special education because he has a moderate
communication and social skills delay. Consequently, Corwin’s parents are referred
to the local preschool special education program near their house. After his parents
observe the inclusive program, they enroll Corwin. During his first week at school,
Corwin’s teachers use a published curriculum-based measure to identify his needs
and develop functional goals and objectives for his IEP. Test items list functional
skills in predictable developmental sequence. The assessment is conducted within the
context of the preschool routines and activities.
When Taiya Stoner, Corwin’s teacher, observes him independently perform
items that are on the test, these tasks are noted as “mastered” and listed as his cur-
rent levels of performance on his IEP. For example, Corwin mastered one goal—uses
simple problem-solving strategies—because he said “NO!” when a child took his
crayon. Behaviors he had difficulty displaying or did not display over the course of
a few observations, such as initiating play activities with another child, were consid-
ered targets for intervention and added as goals for his IEP. After his teachers and
therapists provide instruction to Corwin on the identified goals, they administer the
assessment again to determine whether their guidance was effective and to establish
new goals for Corwin.
In this example, all of the steps of the linked system are in place. First, the teachers
use the assessment to determine what the child needs to learn and then they teach the
skills identified. Finally, the team reassesses, using the same tool to determine whether
Corwin is making progress.
Routines-Based Assessment Another approach for determining goals for a
child is called routines-based assessment, which is used to determine which functional
skills a child should be taught. In a routines-based assessment, those who know the child
well (e.g., family members, teachers) describe how their child participates in the typical
routines of daily living (McWilliam, 2010). For example, Gwynneth’s kindergarten teach-
er, Tamara Calhoun, is asked by the special education teacher to complete a routines-
based assessment of Gwynneth’s performance throughout the day in order to identify
some functional learning goals for her. Tamara lists classroom activities in chronological
order, such as arrival, circle time, centers, clean up, snack, and so on. She then observes
Gwynneth’s behavior during these routines and sets goals to work on with her, such as
“Gwynneth will get off bus; walk to the classroom with group; put coat and backpack in
cubby.” Using routines-based assessment at home, her parents’ list includes typical daily
routines such as wake up, eat breakfast, and get dressed.
To ensure accurate information as well as follow-through, parents of children with
special needs must participate in the assessment process. After the team gathers informa-
tion to determine the child’s functional goals, the next step is to plan for individualized
instruction.
Plan Individualized Instructional Strategies
Every early childhood teacher needs a repertoire of teaching strategies to be effective with
all children. Sometimes, however, in order to learn new skills, children with special needs
require more explicit teaching than do typically developing children. In these instanc-
es, teachers use strategies that are carefully planned and implemented more frequently
throughout the day. Individualizing instruction involves identifying specific goals, creat-
ing learning opportunities, providing teacher support, reinforcing children’s learning, and
monitoring their progress.
Identify Goals for Children Either of the assessment approaches described
previously can be used to determine learning goals. The ECSE teacher on the team
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Chapter 5 Adapting for Individual Differences 165
can help write objectives that are functional and generative. Generative skills are
those that can be used across settings, people, events, and objects. For example, one
of the skills identified for Damon is “uses two fingers to pick up objects.” To be gen-
erative, Damon needs to learn to use the skill across settings such as during mealtime
to pick up Cheerios, or in the bath to pick up the soap. He also needs to use the skill
across objects, such as crayons or beads, and under various conditions, such as when
the items are mushy or hard. If an identified skill is too limited, such as “uses a finger
and thumb grasp to put beads into a bottle,” it is difficult to create enough learning
opportunities to be effective and the skill is less likely to be useful in different
situations.
Create Learning Opportunities Effective teachers create learning opportuni-
ties in daily routines and activities that provide the child with multiple tools for learning
a new skill (McWilliam, 2010). These opportunities may be more focused but are not
essentially different from those provided for every child. One strategy is to introduce
unexpected events, as when the teacher says or does something that the child does not
anticipate. These events may be funny or interesting things the adult says. For example,
when teaching 6-year-old Miguel to use prepositions, his teacher walks over to where
he is sitting and sits backwards next to him. Then she asks, “Miguel, where are you?”
Miguel, giggling, says, “Right here.” His teacher says “Right where? Are you behind me
or in front of me?”
Use Helping Strategies To help children learn skills, teachers use helping strate-
gies called prompts. These are gestural, model, physical, pictorial, or verbal supports
that help children use a specific skill (Neitzel & Wolery, 2009; Sandall & Schwartz,
2008):
• Gestural prompts. Movements that teachers use to let children know what behavior
is expected. For example, when the teacher wants Julia to ask for more raisins, she
waits and looks expectantly at Julia until Julia says, “I want more raisins.”
• Model prompts. Involves the teacher saying or doing the behavior he wants the
child to do. The teacher says “please” and “thank you” when he passes food during
lunchtime.
generative skills Skills that
can be used across settings,
people, events, and objects.
prompts Gestural, model,
physical, pictorial, or verbal
clues that elicit responses from
children to assist them in using
a specific skill.
All children have different abilities and interests that teachers can use to help them meet learning goals.
With minor adaptations, this teacher provides support for every child to learn early literacy skills.
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Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach166
• Physical prompts. Gentle touching and guiding of children by the teacher to
help the children accomplish a skill. When teaching Larisha to wash her hands,
the teacher places her hands over Larisha’s hands and helps her to turn on the
faucet, get soap, rub her hands together, dry her hands, and turn off the faucet
with the towel.
• Pictorial prompts. Visual cues that help children accomplish a skill. To help Owen
play independently at center time, his teacher places pictures of each center on a
piece of construction paper, and Owen refers to a picture when he moves to another
activity area.
• Verbal prompts. Teacher language strategies that help children accomplish a skill.
When it is time for Dushawn to come to the group for story time, his teacher
gives him a verbal prompt: “Dushawn, please come sit on your carpet square next
to me.” This may be enough for Dushawn to learn that he is expected to join the
group.
Reinforce Children’s Learning When children receive positive reinforcement
following performance of a new skill, they are more likely to try the new skill again. In
educational settings, positive reinforcement can be very simple and natural. Naturally
occurring reinforcers are consequences that are likely to occur whenever the child per-
forms the skill and are therefore highly effective. For example, when Raven puts on her
coat independently, the teacher says, “Raven, you zipped up your coat all by yourself.
Now you can go outside to play.” Some examples of naturally occurring reinforcers
include the child using the paint after making a request to do so; playing with friends
after asking to join the group; and being acknowledged by a teacher for trying hard at a
difficult task.
Monitor Progress The effectiveness of instruction depends on the team monitoring
the child’s progress to determine if the child has met a goal and is ready to move on to
learning a new skill, or if the IEP needs modification. Information about children’s prog-
ress can be collected in many ways. One data collection system used by many teachers is
to observe and document the child’s learning using a checklist of skills or a rating scale
of the child’s performance. A rating scale allows the teacher to indicate the level of a
child’s skill along a continuum. For example, the lowest level might be “child refuses to
perform the skill” and the highest “child performs the skill independently,” with several
steps in between.
States must also monitor Early Childhood Outcomes (ECO) for children who receive
services for special needs, whether through Part C (Early Intervention) or Part B (Pre-
school). They must report the percentage of infants and toddlers with Individualized Fam-
ily Service Plans (IFSPs) or preschool children with Individualized Education Programs
(IEPs) who demonstrate improved:
a. Positive social-emotional skills (including social relationships)
b. Acquisition and use of knowledge and skills (including early language/
communication [and early literacy for preschoolers])
c. Use of appropriate behavior to meet needs
Because these outcomes apply to all children, they can help professionals and families
communicate effectively regarding children’s goal progress and needs (http://ectacenter.
org/eco/pages/faqs.asp).
All early childhood teachers need to learn how to teach children with special needs
in inclusive settings. In addition, when general early childhood educators learn some of
the important skills of early childhood special education, they can apply these skills to
teaching all children. Read the Becoming an Intentional Teacher: Individualizing Group
Time feature for an example of applying this special education knowledge with typically
developing children.
naturally occurring reinforcers
Consequences that are likely
to occur whenever the child
performs the skill and are,
therefore, highly effective.
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http://ectacenter.org/eco/pages/faqs.asp
http://ectacenter.org/eco/pages/faqs.asp
Chapter 5 Adapting for Individual Differences 167
Having explored the topic of individual differences among typically developing
children as well as children with special needs, we now see that teachers can draw on a
large body of effective practices to achieve their goals for all children. Successful inclu-
sion of children with disabilities and special needs involves much more than the children’s
presence in the classroom. Teachers need to get to know all of the children and continu-
ally assess their learning and development. They must plan and implement individual-
ized instructional strategies. Most important, teachers must create a classroom climate in
which every child is valued and fully included.
✓ Check Your Understanding 5.6: Effective Practices for Children
with Diverse Abilities
Becoming an Intentional Teacher
Individualizing Group Time
Here’s What Happened Halfway through the kinder-
garten year, there was a child in my class, Tasha, who con-
tinued to have difficulty with large-group instruction times.
She would touch the other children, sometimes even lean-
ing her whole body against them and touching their hair or
faces. She was easily distracted and stood up to look out
the windows several times during story time. She also would
leave circle time before it finished and wander around.
So, here is what I did. I gave each child a carpet square to
use during circle time, placing Tasha farthest away from
the window but closest to me. I started circle time with an
active movement song. When the children sat down, I gave
Tasha a card to hold that had pictures of the expected be-
haviors when sitting in a large group (keep feet and hands
to self; look and listen to the action; raise a quiet hand to
ask a question). Tasha and I had made the card together.
She drew the pictures and I wrote the words for each re-
minder. I also used Tasha’s favorite puppet, Whiskers, to
greet and excuse children at circle time.
Here’s What I Was Thinking Tasha has difficulty
attending in large groups and is easily distracted. Young
children in general can have difficulty remembering ex-
pected behaviors and directions. I also realized that Tasha
wasn’t as motivated as other children were to listen and
participate at circle time. At first, I thought that perhaps
I should let Tasha wander when she didn’t want to be at
circle time. But she is already 6 years old and, although
she has some difficulties with attention, her parents and I
believe that she can be success-
ful at circle time. Starting with
an active song helps get some
energy out before sitting. The
carpet squares help Tasha, and other children, remember
where to keep their bodies during circle time. Placing Ta-
sha’s seat away from the windows minimizes distractions,
and seating her close to me allows for some gentle remind-
ers to pay attention.
I wasn’t completely sure that I should single Tasha out by
giving her a “reminder card,” but then I figured Tasha was
already being singled out by her peers as the one who al-
ways disrupted their story. I could explain to the children
that everyone in the class has their individual needs met—
for example, children with allergies, special diets, adap-
tive pencils, and so on. The reminder card is helping Tasha
remember what we all are supposed to be doing at group
time. The card also keeps Tasha’s hands busy, making it
less likely that she will touch her peers. Beginning and end-
ing circle time with Whiskers, the cat puppet, motivates
Tasha to come to circle right away and stay through the end.
These easy-to-implement modifications help Tasha to learn
more and spend more time with her peers.
Reflection Even though all children are not alike, teach-
ing in whole group can be an efficient and effective strat-
egy at times. Do you think it’s fair that some children are
treated differently during group times? What other strate-
gies could the teacher use to engage all the children fully?
. . . Ms. Creighton’s Classroom
At the beginning of this chapter, we met some of the children in Lindsay Creighton’s preschool class and
wondered how she could possibly meet the needs of these diverse children. Now that we have explored the
topic of adapting for individual differences, we can see how Lindsay successfully teaches all of the children.
Revisiting the Case Study
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Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach168
Lindsay’s study of child development helps her to understand that children’s personalities and
behaviors are the result of an interaction between their genetic makeup and their experiences in the
environment. Therefore, she is aware of how important her work is in helping them achieve their full
potential. Lindsay has high goals for each child’s learning. But she realizes that because children are
unique, she needs to use differentiated instruction to help them achieve the goals.
For Cal, whose grandmother does not speak English, Lindsay works with a translator as well
as a team that includes a social worker. Lindsay recognizes that Rohan and Ruby, who both seem
painfully shy, are also very different. They each have different interests and abilities. Because
Rohan likes quiet activities and playing with one other child, Lindsay encourages him in that direc-
tion and he gradually becomes more confident. Ruby is hesitant until she is assured that Lindsay
will protect her from an allergic reaction. The other children soon become comfortable with that
fact as they say, “Ruby’s body was born not liking peanuts.” They all embrace the need to protect
Ruby’s health.
Although at first Lindsay and the other children mix up the twins, Alex and Alice, they soon
become aware that each is an individual. Lindsay focuses on working with each girl separately and
engaging them in different activities so their uniqueness becomes evident to all. Carter’s needs
are more severe and specific. Working as a member of his IEP team and supported by his parents,
Lindsay becomes more confident in her ability to teach Carter and to help him achieve his indi-
vidualized goals.
After several months of working with this class, Lindsay decides that adapting for individual varia-
tion is the most interesting part of her work. At first, she was concerned when confronted with such
diversity. But now, she finds that children’s individuality is what makes her days most interesting and
unpredictable. As she expands her repertoire of skills for working with diverse children, she finds that
seeing individual children’s progress is richly rewarding. ■
• Children differ from one another in many ways,
including rate and timing of cognitive and language
development, social skills and temperament, and inter-
ests. The transactional theory of development explains
that development is influenced by both biology and
experience, and how they interact with each other.
• Effective early childhood teachers understand the
importance of knowing each child as an individual.
One of the most useful frameworks for thinking about
the variation among children is Gardner’s theory of
multiple intelligences.
• Differentiating instruction means to create multiple
paths so that children of different abilities, interests, or
learning needs experience equally appropriate ways to
achieve important learning goals.
• All teachers need to be prepared to work with children
who have special learning and developmental needs
because federal law requires it, effective practices exist
to alter the course of children’s learning, and many of
these practices can be used with typically developing
children.
• Specialized instruction involves teachers matching
an individual child’s goals with appropriate teaching
methods and materials, deciding what amount of assis-
tance is needed by the child, providing the assistance,
and determining whether the instruction was effective.
Of equal importance to specialized instruction is culti-
vating a culture of inclusion, which provides children
with disabilities with a sense of belonging and mem-
bership in the peer group.
Chapter Summary5
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Chapter 5 Adapting for Individual Differences 169
Key Terms
■■ approaches to learning
■■ autism spectrum
disorder (ASD)
■■ children with disabilities
■■ children with special
needs
■■ Council for Exceptional
Children (CEC)
■■ developmental domain
■■ differentiated instruction
■■ Division for Early
Childhood (DEC)
■■ eligibility guidelines
■■ exceptional children
■■ free appropriate public
education (FAPE)
■■ functional skills
■■ generative skills
■■ individualized education
program (IEP)
■■ individualized family
service plan (IFSP)
■■ natural learning
environments
■■ naturally occurring
reinforcers
■■ nature
■■ nurture
■■ person-first language
■■ prompts
■■ protective factors
■■ resilience
■■ Response to Intervention
(RTI)
■■ risk factors
■■ specialized instruction
■■ temperament
■■ theory of multiple
intelligences
■■ transactional theory of
development
■■ universal deign
Demonstrate Your Learning
Click here to assess how well you’ve learned the content in this chapter.
✓
Division for Early Childhood of the Council for Excep-
tional Children. (2014). DEC Recommended practices
in early intervention/early childhood special education.
Available on DEC website.
Gadzikowski, A. (2013). Challenging exceptionally
bright children in early childhood classrooms. St. Paul,
MN: Redleaf Press.
Sandall, S., & Schwartz, I. (2008). Building blocks for
successful early childhood programs: Strategies for
including all children (2nd ed.). Baltimore: Paul H.
Brookes.
Center for Response to Intervention in Early Children
Visit this website for more information and resources on
differentiating instruction for young learners.
Division for Early Childhood (DEC) of the Council
for Exceptional Children
On the DEC website, you can find numerous resources,
and can also download and read DEC Recommended
practices in early intervention/early childhood special
education.
Early Childhood Technical Assistance Center (ECTA)
This website at FPG Child Development Institute offers
resources about early childhood outcomes, universal
design, Response to Intervention, early intervention,
Preschool 619 services, and a variety of other topics.
National Professional Development Center on
Inclusion
At this website at FPG Child Development Institute, you
will find research and resources for supporting the inclu-
sion of children with disabilities in settings with peers.
Project Zero
View the Project Zero website at Harvard University to
learn more about application and research studies related
to multiple intelligences and learning.
Readings and Websites
M05_BRED6702_03_SE_C05.indd 169 10/7/15 1:39 PM
6
Learning Outcomes
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
6.1 Define culture and explain how cultural contexts influence children’s learning
and development.
6.2 Describe how the rules for behavior differ among various cultural groups and
how they are similar.
6.3 Describe how your own cultural background influences your thinking and
behavior.
6.4 Analyze why teachers need to understand and be sensitive to children’s
linguistic and cultural diversity.
6.5 Discuss effective cross-cultural communication strategies.
6.6 Apply principles of culturally responsive, developmentally appropriate
practices.
Embracing a Culturally and
Linguistically Diverse World
© Ariel Skelley/Blend Images/Getty Images
M06_BRED6702_03_SE_C06.indd 170 10/7/15 1:42 PM
171
W
ith her newly achieved associate’s degree in early childhood
education, Stacey Griffin is excited about her first job as a teacher
of 18- to 30-month-old children in a child care center. Even though
the center is located in a neighborhood close to where Stacey grew up, the population of the area has changed
considerably in recent years. An influx of immigrants from Latin America is apparent in the number of families
with young children who have displaced the elderly, white, European American, long-term residents, as well as in
the goods available and language spoken in local markets. Despite these changes, Stacey feels confident that she
knows enough about child development and early childhood practice to be a good teacher.
By the end of the first month, however, Stacey is feeling frustrated and less sure of herself. In the mornings,
most of the families arrive late. They continue to carry their children into the classroom even though Stacey has
informed them (gently, she thinks) that the children are capable of walking on their own and need to practice their
developing motor skills. Similarly, she disapproves of the parents’ continuing to spoon-feed the children rather
than giving them finger food that they can manage on their own.
Mrs. Arguenta is unhappy that Stacey isn’t cooperating in toilet training 18-month-old Ilsia. Stacey thinks Ilsia is
too young because she can’t verbalize her need to use the potty. Mrs. Arguenta says that Ilsia is already using the
potty at home and wants Ilsia to be dry. To make matters worse, Mrs. Arguenta sends
Ilsia to child care wearing her best clothes and buckle shoes. Stacey thinks toddlers
need to move about in comfort and should go barefoot to help them with their walking.
Besides, the floor is carpeted.
Stacey tries to build a relationship with Mrs. Arguenta. She asks
Mrs. Arguenta to call her Stacey instead of Miss Griffin, but Mrs. Arguenta
ignores this friendly overture. Every time Stacey tries to meet
with her to discuss Ilsia, Mrs. Arguenta is late or doesn’t come.
One day, Mrs. Arguenta sends Ilsia’s 10-year-old sister to pick
her up, which is a violation of center policies.
Stacey can’t understand why Mrs. Arguenta and
the other families are being so difficult when she
works so hard to communicate with them. ■
Case Study
S
ome readers may think that Stacey’s struggles as a new teacher are caused by the
fact that she is working with difficult or uninterested parents. Others may think that
Stacey is too inflexible to respond to legitimate concerns of families. In fact, Stacey
and Mrs. Arguenta are operating from two different, albeit equally legitimate, cultural
perspectives on appropriate child rearing. In the example above, we see the conflicts
entirely from Stacey’s perspective. But if the story were told from Mrs. Arguenta’s view
or that of other families, we might question Stacey’s skills as a teacher; we might also
question her sensitivity to the families’ perspectives. In this situation, whatever appears to
be happening on the surface, the underlying reality is an encounter between individuals
from different cultural contexts.
The United States is becoming an increasingly diverse country. In the last decade,
the number of white students in public schools decreased from 60% to 52%, and the His-
panic population of students increased from 17% to 24% (National Center for Education
Statistics, 2014c). Most early childhood programs serve children from diverse linguistic
and cultural groups or will do so in the future. Therefore, it is essential for teachers to
understand and embrace the realities of a culturally and linguistically diverse world.
But culture and its influences are subtle. Moreover, the majority cultural group of the
United States—predominantly individuals of Anglo-European descent—tends to define
M06_BRED6702_03_SE_C06.indd 171 10/7/15 1:42 PM
Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach172
culture and linguistic diversity as issues or challenges to be dealt with or solved. In fact,
the word diverse means different, which raises the question, “Different from what?” The
implication is that people whose cultural identity is not white European American or who
are not native speakers of English are different from the norm.
In this book, we talk about the realities of culture and language because these forces
influence the learning and development of all children. At the same time, we use the verb
embrace when discussing culture and language to create a classroom climate that is cul-
turally and linguistically supportive and responsive for all children. We believe that such
a perspective is a precursor to helping all children achieve their full potentials.
In this chapter, we define the term culture and identify the basic principles of the role
of culture in development and learning. We also describe a framework for thinking about
contrasting cultural beliefs, values, and practices. We discuss effective teaching and learn-
ing strategies for working with all children, beginning with awareness of one’s own cultural
perspective.
Understanding Cultural Diversity
The United States has always been a nation of immigrants, its diversity being a hallmark
of American society. Recent waves of immigration and higher birth rates among certain
groups have made the nation even more diverse. The U.S. Census Bureau projects that by
2020, approximately 51% of the children in the United States will be Latino, Asian, or
African American/African (Child Trends, 2014), and 26% of children will be Hispanic. In
many parts of the country, the majority of children are members of a so-called “ minority”
group. In the future, the concepts of majority and minority status are likely to become
confusing if not meaningless.
Given the diversity of children and families served in programs, as well as changing
demographics, every teacher will work with diverse groups of children and families. Even
if differences are not outwardly apparent, individuals differ from one another in many
ways: religion, national heritage, language, traditions, and many more. Therefore, all
teachers must be committed to making it part of their ongoing education to learn about
the diverse populations of their classrooms.
What Is Culture?
Culture refers to explicit and implicit values, beliefs, and patterns of behavior that are
passed on from generation to generation (National Association for the Education of
Young Children [NAEYC], 2009). Culture encompasses customs, rituals, ways of inter-
acting and communicating, and expectations for behaviors, roles, and relationships that
are shared by members of a group (Olsen, Bhattacharya, & Scharf, 2007).
To understand the concept of culture, it is crucial to understand that culture is a charac-
teristic of groups, not an aspect of individual variation. Children learn the values, beliefs,
and expectations for behavior from their cultural group.
In Chapter 4, we learned how young children are similar
to other children of the same age. In Chapter 5, we dis-
cussed how each child is unique and different from every
other child. In this chapter, we describe how children share
similar characteristics with other children of their cultural
group. Although each of these three chapters focuses on a
distinct principle of development, it is important to recog-
nize that these principles are interrelated. All three of the
following statements are equally true:
• Every child is like all other children in some ways.
• Every child is like some other children in some ways
(those who are members of the same cultural group).
• Every child is like no other child.
culture Explicit and implicit
values, beliefs, and patterns
of behavior that are passed on
from generation to generation;
customs, rituals, ways of in-
teracting and communicating,
and expectations for behaviors,
roles, and relationships that are
shared by members of a group.
The population of young
children in the United States
is becoming ever more diverse.
Effective teachers embrace the
realities of cultural and linguis-
tic diversity to help all children
reach their full potentials.
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M06_BRED6702_03_SE_C06.indd 172 10/7/15 1:42 PM
Chapter 6 Embracing a Culturally and Linguistically Diverse World 173
Sometimes discussions of culture are limited, focusing on superficial characteristics
such as those that can be observed. For example, we judge cultural origin based on the
clothing that people wear, the holidays they celebrate, the accents with which they speak,
or the music they enjoy. Although these external cues reveal something about children
and their families, they neglect or ignore the deeper structures of culture—the values
and rules—that truly influence behavior and decisions. Figure 6.1 illustrates the reality
of culture, in which the surface characteristics are only the “tip of the iceberg” while the
fundamental elements tend to be invisible.
The Role of Culture in Development
Why is culture so relevant for early childhood educators? The simplest answer to this
question is that culture shapes and influences every child’s development and learning
(Bronfenbrenner, 1979, 2004; Trawick-Smith, 2013). In fact, all aspects of human life are
touched and affected by people’s cultural contexts. This includes how people communicate,
think, behave, solve problems, and organize communities and governments (Lynch, 2011).
Although the biological factors that influence maturation are similar for all human
beings, culture has a huge influence on how children experience their growth and
Visible
Surface
Aspects
Invisible
Deep
Structure
Norms
Assumptions
Beliefs
Expectations for Behavior
Values
Rules and Roles
History
Language Foods
Clothing
Material Artifacts
Celebrations
Music
FIGURE 6.1 Model of Culture The complexity of culture is like an iceberg—the visible elements are
only a small part while the deeper structures truly influence behavior and decisions.
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Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach174
development—on how they are nurtured (Trawick-Smith, 2013). In general, cultural rules
influence how children behave and how they make sense of their experiences.
Culture Influences Behavior Acculturation is the process whereby children
learn expected rules of behavior. From their cultural group, children learn such critical
lessons as how to show respect and how to properly greet an older or younger person, a
friend, or a stranger (Rogoff, 2003).
Consider the range of child-rearing practices among various cultural groups. Are
babies carried on mother’s backs or pushed in strollers? Does the family remain silent
during meals or talk openly? Do parents feel comfortable playing with their children or
find this behavior embarrassing? Are mothers primarily responsible for a baby’s care or is
that care shared among different members of the extended family? These are only a few
examples of the many ways cultural practices begin to shape children’s development from
the earliest moments of life.
Some cultural rules are explicitly taught, such as “hold the fork in your right hand and
the knife in your left,” or vice versa. In most countries, mixing up these rules would be
of little consequence. By contrast, in Middle Eastern cultures, people eat with their right
hand and use their left hand for toileting. Therefore, offering your left hand to someone
is interpreted as a grave insult.
Children learn many cultural rules from adults or other children through modeling.
From observation, children learn when to smile or look someone in the eye (Gonzalez-Mena,
2008). They also learn when to speak up and when to listen (Ramsey, 2004). They learn
whether people shake hands or bow in greeting. In fact, what is considered appropriate
behavior, thinking, or problem solving in a given situation is always culturally determined
(Lynch, 2011). Consider how different cultural perspectives on appropriate child rearing
come into play in the following situation:
Patty Briggs is so excited because she has finally been approved to adopt a child from
Costa Rica. She is prepared to stay there for several weeks to get to know her little boy,
who is 12 months old, and for his foster family to get to know her. Even though Patty
has studied child development and taken care of many young children, after a few days
in Costa Rica, she starts to feel uncertain. Whenever she puts the baby down to crawl on
the floor, the foster mother frowns and immediately picks him up. Patty is concerned
because the baby is always so warmly dressed in a tropical climate. She finds that he has
diaper rash and wants to remove some of his warm clothing to help him heal. However,
it’s clear that the foster mother thinks he will get cold and become ill. During the time that
Patty is in Costa Rica, she respects the foster mother’s mode of caring for the baby, but
also treats his diaper rash. After the adoption, she sends photos of him to his foster fam-
ily to reassure them that he is well cared for. (P. Briggs, personal communication, 1990)
Culture Creates Meaning Cultural rules determine the meaning attached to par-
ticular behaviors. Therefore, teachers need to be aware of how different experiences can
carry different meanings for children. Consider the example of physical touch. Touch is
an important aspect of human behavior, but different cultural groups attach different inter-
pretations to the same kinds of touch (Lynch, 2011). In the United States, it is not unusual
for opposite-sex couples to hold hands or lock arms as outward signs of affection. In other
parts of the world, these behaviors between men and women might not be tolerated. Simi-
larly, in some countries, members of the same sex walk arm in arm as a sign of friendship,
but in the United States, same-sex public displays of affection are interpreted as a sign of
sexual orientation. Accordingly, we see that the same behavior—holding hands or taking
someone’s arm—means something different, depending on the cultural context.
How does this concept affect teachers and children? When the same behaviors mean
different things or different behaviors mean the same thing, mixed messages can result, as
occurred in Stacey’s classroom at the beginning of this chapter. Stacey thinks that using
one’s first name signals a positive relationship, whereas Mrs. Arguenta interprets it as a
sign of disrespect.
acculturation The process
whereby children learn
expected rules of behavior.
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Chapter 6 Embracing a Culturally and Linguistically Diverse World 175
How Culture Functions: Principles
to Keep in Mind
As you continue your professional journey, you will probably find that the more you learn
about culture, the more you need to know. This is not a comfortable position for most
educators. While you may think that you should know all the answers, this is not realistic;
the most effective stance is to acknowledge what you don’t know and remain open to new
learning. This will serve you well throughout your teaching career and in all areas of your
professional journey.
In the meantime, it is useful to understand several key principles about how culture
affects human development. These principles are listed and briefly described here (Day,
2006; Hanson, 2011):
1. Everyone is rooted in one or more cultural groups. This first principle is the founda-
tion of all understanding about culture (Head Start, 2010b). Accepting this principle
requires going beyond respecting diversity to deeper understanding; it requires that
European American teachers reject the tendency to see white, European American
children as exhibiting ordinary behaviors, while thinking about children of other
ethnic ancestries as exhibiting cultural behaviors (Day, 2006; Head Start, 2010b).
Members of the majority cultural group in any country tend to have more difficulty
recognizing that their cultural background influences their thinking and behavior.
2. Cultures are dynamic. Culture is not a fixed, static entity. Because it is born of
traditions and historical experiences, intervening events can affect and change cul-
tural rules. When groups immigrate, they take aspects of their culture with them;
however, as they interact with members of other cultural groups, they may change.
Similarly, the cultural traditions in the country of origin may diverge as a result of
differing circumstances.
New information and changing political situations may also challenge cul-
tural assumptions, such as appropriate roles for men and women. In the 1960s,
for instance, the women’s movement and other political events led to rapid shifts
in expectations for women and men in America. Similarly, female candidates for
president and vice president of the United States altered perceptions about women
as leaders, especially for young girls.
Because culture is dynamic, teachers need to be careful not to make assump-
tions about students’ and families’ behaviors based on outdated information or
even prior experience with members of a particular group. A teacher might as-
sume, for example, that European American parents reject gender stereotyping,
but change that assumption when several families send in princess costumes for
their daughters to play with.
3. Culture, language, ethnicity, and race are aspects of experience that influence
people’s beliefs and values. Culture is only one determinant, albeit a strong one, of
people’s values, beliefs, and behaviors. Ethnicity refers to the shared characteristics
and experiences of a group of people, such as nationality, race, history, religion, and
language. Ethnicity is usually connected to the geographic origin of a group, as with
Greek or Chinese people. Additional factors, including socioeconomic status, educa-
tion, occupation, ability/disability, sexual orientation, personality, and events in the
larger society influence how people behave and how groups function (Lynch, 2011).
All of these factors interact to influence the values and behavior of various
groups and of individuals within groups. History in particular plays a key role. For
example, the history of slavery, racism, and discrimination in the United States
and other countries has had a significant, differential effect on people’s lives and
opportunities and continues to do so. Racism persists as new groups become its
target, including Arabic people and immigrants from Spanish-speaking countries.
In addition, gay and lesbian people have been and continue to be discriminated
against. Although considerable progress has been made toward equality of all
groups of Americans, the struggle continues.
ethnicity The shared charac-
teristics and experiences of a
group of people, such as na-
tionality, race, history, religion,
and language.
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Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach176
4. Differences within a cultural group may be
as great as, or greater than, differences be-
tween cultural groups. Assuming that chil-
dren who share the same culture or language
are all alike is like assuming that all 3-year-
olds are alike. Although there are some sim-
ilarities, there are many differences in their
skills, abilities, and behaviors. Likewise,
children from the same cultural group share
some attitudes, beliefs, and values, but there
are many that they do not share. Children
from one cultural group are both alike and
different from children of another. African
American children growing up in low-in-
come, urban areas will share some but not
all of the culturally determined behaviors of African American children whose fam-
ilies have been middle-class professionals for generations. Therefore, it is vitally
important not to stereotype individuals who are members of particular groups even
while learning some of the common practices, values, or beliefs of those groups.
5. Culture is defined in terms of differences among groups and is complicated by is-
sues of power and status. Think for a minute about words like mainstream, domi-
nant, majority, and minority. In the United States, each of these words is used to
describe group differences in relationship to white European Americans. But to
members of other cultural groups such as Latinos, Native Americans, or African
Americans, European Americans are the diverse group. When one group, such as
European Americans, becomes the reference point against which other groups are
compared, that group is the one with the most power and privilege in the society
(Delpit, 2006; Lynch & Hanson, 2011).
The practices of the cultural group that has the greatest power and sta-
tus become the standard or norm against which other behaviors are judged
(Lynch & Hanson, 2011). Cultural groups that have less status and power
are perceived as deficient in some way (Delpit, 2006). Understanding how
issues of power and privilege affect relationships and communication among
cultural groups is critically important.
The election of President Barack Obama was hailed as a significant indi-
cator of the nation’s progress toward racial equality. Although that historical
event did not negate the continued reality of racism and discrimination in
many people’s lives, it did challenge implicit assumptions about power and
status in the society—not only for African Americans and other people of
color, but for European Americans as well. There can be no question that, to
some extent, the face of power was changed.
Relationship of Race and Culture An overview of the principles just dis-
cussed reveals that there is a complex relationship between race, ethnicity, and culture
that knowledgeable teachers need to understand. Because race is a sensitive topic in the
United States, the words culture and race are sometimes inaccurately used synonymous-
ly, but they are not the same thing (Wardle, 2008b).
Scientists argue that a person’s race cannot be determined by examining her or his
biological makeup (Wardle, 2008a, 2008b). Nevertheless, race is associated with a per-
son’s biology and is determined by who their parents are, whereas culture is learned. As
evidenced by how census data are collected, racial classifications are complex and, for
the most part, politically determined (Banks, 2012). For example, the same person might
be considered racially black in the United States, colored in South Africa, and brown in
Brazil. Moreover, according to the 2010 U.S. Census, almost 5% of children are multira-
cial, mostly likely an underestimate.
Classroom Connection
This video describes how experts
currently define culture. What are
some of the ways that defining
culture is a complex task?
Individual children within the
same cultural group can be as
different from each other as
they are from those in other
groups. In what ways might
these children be similar
to each other? How might
they differ?
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M06_BRED6702_03_SE_C06.indd 176 10/7/15 1:42 PM
Chapter 6 Embracing a Culturally and Linguistically Diverse World 177
Teachers need to understand that although a very limited number of racial catego-
ries, such as Asian or Caucasian, are identified based on skin color and other physi-
cal characteristics, hundreds of cultural/ethnic groups exist. Asian peoples include
Chinese, Japanese, Koreans, Vietnamese, Hmong, and many others, some of which
have been historical enemies (Wardle, 2008a). Similarly, Hispanic is not an actual
racial, cultural, or even linguistic group, despite its designation as such by census tak-
ers. The term Latino/a is currently used to refer to people of Mexican, Cuban, Puerto
Rican, South or Central American, or other Spanish culture or origin (Derman-Sparks
& Edwards, 2010). Given these complex realities, the increasing diversity of immi-
grants, and the growing number of biracial and multiracial children, it is essential that
teachers not make assumptions about children and families’ racial and cultural identi-
ties (Wardle, 2008a).
The most useful strategy is for responsive teachers to create a classroom climate in
which it is safe to talk about and notice racial and cultural differences (Derman-Sparks &
Edwards, 2010). Reading books such as Colors around Me (Church, 1997) or Shades of
People (Rotner & Kelly, 2010) can start a conversation about how people with different
shades of black skin are a part of the same race because their ancestors originally came
from Africa.
In the previous sections, we described principles for understanding culture and how
they interrelate. In the next section, we discuss similarities and differences among diverse
cultures and how they govern various cultural groups’ thinking and behavior.
✓ Check Your Understanding 6.1: Understanding Cultural Diversity
A Framework for Thinking
About Culture
To help you understand the role of culture in the lives of children and families, and your
own life, we examine a framework for thinking about values, beliefs, and practices among
various cultural groups. In using this framework, it is important that you develop an
awareness of similarities and differences among groups (Lynch, 2011).
Different cultural groups have different sets of values and beliefs, but beyond that,
they have different ways of connecting with each other and functioning as a group. In
some cultural groups, individual members put their needs first before those of the group;
other cultures are group-oriented, putting the group’s needs before their own individual
needs. This framework classifies cultural groups in terms of two general orientations:
(1) individualistic and (2) interdependent (Gonzalez-Mena, 2008).
Individualistic Cultural Orientation
The values of individualistic cultural groups include focusing on the needs of the indi-
vidual, independence, self-expression, and personal property and choice. In individual-
istic cultures, the primary goal is individual achievement and fulfillment. These cultures
emphasize the rights of the individual over the rights of the group. With its history of
individual rights and focus on personal achievement, this is the dominant cultural orienta-
tion in the United States.
Picture an individualistic-oriented classroom. All of the children have their own cub-
bies marked with their names in which to store their belongings. Developing indepen-
dence in children is an important goal. The children’s individual work is displayed and
carefully identified. Children are praised for their achievements and graded in comparison
to one another. When parents visit, they look carefully to find their child’s contribution.
The focus on individual children and their accomplishments is evident.
individualistic cultural groups
Cultural groups that focus on the
needs of the individual, inde-
pendence, self-expression, and
personal property and choice.
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Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach178
Interdependent Cultural Orientation
By contrast, interdependent cultural groups focus on the needs of the group rather
than on those of the individual. These cultural groups, also called collectivist, value
interdependence, cooperation and mutual assistance, shared property, and social respon-
sibility. Interdependent cultures stress respect for tradition and authority over the rights
of the individual. Among cultural groups that exhibit an interdependent orientation are
Latinos, Asians, and people in West African and Middle Eastern countries. Because the
United States is a nation of immigrants, many cultural groups within this country, as well
as Native Americans and African Americans, are oriented more toward interdependence
than individualism (Hanson, 2011).
In an interdependent-oriented classroom, individual children do not draw attention
to themselves. Children readily share their possessions with each other. Group work is
displayed. A colorful mural representing the contributions of scores of children adorns
the entrance to the school. These two classrooms are described in overly simplistic terms.
Most classrooms would evidence both cultural orientations because, in reality, they are
not polar opposites but rather points on a continuum.
Continuum of Common Cultural Values
Instead of classifying cultural groups as either individualistic or interdependent, a more
useful strategy is to think of values that are common across all cultural groups as varying
along a continuum. Such a continuum is depicted in Figure 6.2.
Individuals within cultural groups vary all along the continuum; families are more
or less inclusive, just as they are more or less traditional rather than either traditional
or not. In addition, the ends of the continuum can be seen from a both/and perspec-
tive. For example, in the United States, schools and society emphasize both individual
achievement and cooperation, working together to solve problems, and taking care of
those in need.
Consider how misunderstandings can occur when teachers and family members oper-
ate from different points on the interdependent and individualist continuum,
as in the following example:
Mr. Wu is late for a team meeting to discuss his son’s IEP. The disabilities
coordinator, Ms. Armstrong, impatiently taps her foot, repeatedly looks at her
watch, and gets more and more irritated as minutes tick by. Ms. Garcia, the
classroom teacher, seems less concerned. When Mr. Wu arrives, he doesn’t
apologize for being late, but he does tell Ms. Garcia that his mother is taking
care of his son and she has questions to ask about her grandson. Ms. Garcia
understands that Mr. Wu’s respect for his mother took precedence over arriving
at the meeting on time.
When the meeting ends, Ms. Garcia reviews her notes with Ms. Armstrong.
She politely states, “I could see that you were concerned about the meeting
running overtime. I know that you are very busy, but I believe that Mr. Wu did
not intend to inconvenience us by being late. His greatest priority was to show
respect for his mother, and I’m glad he consulted her because with her input
we can do a better job of helping her grandson.” In this way, Ms. Garcia did
not tell Ms. Armstrong that her cultural views are wrong; instead, she clarified
her own cultural views and those of Mr. Wu.
Applying the Continuum in Practice
Conceptualizing variations in cultural values along a continuum helps teachers in several
ways: (1) It reduces the tendency to stereotype groups; (2) it reduces the likelihood that
differences will be categorized as right or wrong, that is, an us versus them mentality; and
(3) it has the potential to increase understanding and communication among teachers and
families who may differ in their perspectives (Lynch, 2011).
interdependent cultural groups
Cultural groups that focus on
the needs of the group rather
than those of the individual,
also called collectivist.
Classroom Connection
This video provides some specific
examples of the continuum of
cultural values and its impact on
children’s behavior. How could
teachers use this information to
teach more effectively?
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Chapter 6 Embracing a Culturally and Linguistically Diverse World 179
Ultimately, cultures may tend toward one end of the continuum or the other, but
the values of most people fall somewhere in between. All cultures value families, for
instance, but they define family membership differently. Similarly, rigidly categorizing
groups is likely to lead to inaccurate assumptions. For example, Japanese cultural values
are typically viewed as traditional (on the interdependent end of the continuum) and yet
Japan readily embraces new technologies.
Following is an example of what might happen during an encounter between mem-
bers of individualist and interdependent cultural groups:
To help children feel comfortable in their new surroundings, kindergarten teacher
Alisha Watson created a bulletin board to display photos of children’s families so
that there would be something familiar to the children in the room. She asked for
children to bring in pictures of themselves with their siblings and parents, and
couldn’t understand why some of the families never responded to her request.
She thought perhaps families didn’t have cameras or didn’t want to participate in
school activities. In frustration, she finally gave up the idea of the family bulletin
Families value the welfare of the group—the extended
family—over the achievements of individual members.
Contributions to the community are valued.
Respect for elders, traditions, and the past is a strong focus.
Respect for adult authority is expected; teacher-child
relationships are formal.
Time is flexible; people are more important than time.
Extended families—grandparents, aunts, uncles, older siblings—
care for and help raise children.
Calling attention to oneself—standing out from the group—
may be seen as selfish and rejection of family. Cooperation is valued.
Children are expected to contribute to the family functioning.
Children are encouraged to help each other, older ones help younger.
Activity focuses on relationships, not objects; babies are carried and
children engage in daily routines with family members.
Ownership is shared.
Children share family and community spaces, activities, and events.
Gender and age determine rights and roles.
Interdependent Orientation Individualistic Orientation
Families value the welfare of the nuclear family
and its individual members.
Individual accomplishments are valued.
The future, youth, and technological advances are
valued.
Relationships with adults are relatively informal;
children are encouraged to engage in conversation
with teachers.
Time is valuable; schedules are important. Being
late or wasting time is considered disrespectful.
The nuclear family is primarily responsible for
childrearing and may live far away from relatives.
Children’s individual achievement and self-esteem
are highly valued. Competition is encouraged.
Children are expected to achieve on their own.
Children are encouraged to do things for
themselves such as toileting, feeding, dressing at
an early age.
Activities often focus on objects; children play on
floor and with own toys and materials.
Individual ownership is valued.
Children have their own separate spaces (for
example, their own rooms) and child-centered
activities.
Individual freedom and rights are highly valued.
FIGURE 6.2 Continuum of Cultural Values
Source: Based on “Perspectives in Childrearing Values,” by J. Bromer, K. Modigliani, and C. Callahan, no date,
The Family Child Care Accreditation Project, Boston, MA: Wheelock College; and “Developing Cross-Cultural
Competence,” by E. W. Lynch, 2011, in Developing Cross-Cultural Competence: A Guide for Working with
Children and Their Families, 4th edition, edited by E. W. Lynch and M. J. Hanson, Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
M06_BRED6702_03_SE_C06.indd 179 10/7/15 1:42 PM
Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach180
board. Alisha never imagined that some parents weren’t comfortable limiting the
photo to just the immediate family. To many of them the extended family, which
includes neighbors and friends, is what matters. One mother was upset that grand-
parents would not be included, but didn’t want to alienate the new teacher.
As we can see, Alisha’s concept of “family” represents a more individualistic orienta-
tion than that of many families in her classroom. Alisha could have avoided the problem
by respecting the families’ own definitions of their members.
The continuum of cultural values (Lynch, 2011) is intended to help you concentrate
on common values—how cultural groups are similar as well as different. At the same
time, effectively working across cultural groups requires looking inward and analyzing
your own cultural perspective, as we describe next.
✓ Check Your Understanding 6.2: A Framework for Thinking about Culture
Understanding Your Own
Cultural Perspective
As you read about interdependent and individualistic cultural values, how did you feel?
Did you identify with one end of the continuum or the other? Did you find yourself judg-
ing people whose values and practices reflect the other extreme?
Teachers, like all human beings, view the world through their own cultural lenses. To
be effective, you will need to overcome any potential biases about children’s behavior in
order to establish positive relationships, build on their prior knowledge and current levels
of ability, and to help children make sense of their experiences. The first step in accom-
plishing this goal is to examine your own cultural perspective. Figure 6.3 will help you
focus your reflections.
Become Aware of Your Own Cultural Experiences
Begin by reflecting on the origins of your family. Here are some questions to stimulate
these reflections (Lynch, 2011):
• What stories have you heard about your an-
cestors or relatives living in other parts of the
world?
• How do you identify yourself culturally?
Do you feel a connection to your cultural
background?
• Do you or does anyone in your family
speak a language other than English? What
language(s) do you speak?
• Are there rituals, traditions, or holidays that
reflect your family’s heritage?
• How does your family express affection or
disapproval?
• How do your family members communicate?
Are they more likely to listen and think before
speaking, or do they jump into conversation
eagerly, even talking over one another?
• Can you think of advice or sayings that guided
behavior in your family?
Questions like these help you become aware of
how your own values, beliefs, and practices affect
your behavior. Now think about how your cultural
Interactions
and
Communication
Ideas
and
Thinking
Culture
Goals
Beliefs
and Values
Child Care
Practices
Materials
FIGURE 6.3 Reflecting
on Your Own Cultural
Experiences
Source: Based on Revisiting and
updating the multicultural prin-
ciples for Head Start programs
serving children ages birth to
five, Office of Head Start, 2010,
Washington, DC, retrieved from
http://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/hslc/
tta-system/cultural-linguistic.
M06_BRED6702_03_SE_C06.indd 180 10/7/15 1:42 PM
http://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/hslc/tta-system/cultural-linguistic
http://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/hslc/tta-system/cultural-linguistic
Chapter 6 Embracing a Culturally and Linguistically Diverse World 181
perspective affects your views of appropriate child-rearing practices. Ask yourself the
following questions and compare your answers with those of colleagues:
• What are your thoughts regarding infant feeding practices? Should the goal be for
children to learn as toddlers how to independently feed themselves? Or do you
believe that adults should feed babies as long as possible?
• What do you think are appropriate discipline techniques? Should children be given
time-outs, spanked, or lose privileges when they misbehave? Should parents ex-
plain their reasoning to children?
• Should young children be directed by adults and their movements controlled? Or
should they be allowed to explore and make choices?
• What behaviors are acceptable for girls? For boys?
• How should children behave around adults?
Finally, examine how your cultural beliefs and biases affect your behavior and emotions.
Reflect on these questions:
• Have you ever felt uncomfortable or surprised in another part of the United States
or in another country? What was the situation? Perhaps you felt that people invaded
your personal space? Or weren’t respectful of your possessions?
• Have you ever felt awkward or embarrassed by something you said or did when
you were traveling or among another cultural group? Did you think about why you
might have felt that way?
• Have you ever done or said something that was culturally inappropriate? For
example, did you fail to offer an appropriate greeting? Did your behavior embarrass
or offend other people?
Finding yourself in another group and experiencing what it feels like not to be cer-
tain of the rules is an excellent way to gain deeper understanding of your cultural views
and those of other groups. I (the author) have had many such experiences when speaking
about early childhood education throughout the United States and in other countries.
I remember specifically telling a story about the struggles I encountered during my early
days of teaching. I often said, “I knew that I was smart, but I also knew that I didn’t know
enough about teaching young children and I had a lot to learn.” Much to my surprise (and
subsequent embarrassment), I later learned that some audiences were so stunned to hear
me call myself smart that they couldn’t hear anything else I said! Pointing out individual
achievement even with self-deprecating humor is simply not considered appropriate be-
havior in many groups.
A part of reflecting on your own cultural experience includes comparing your per-
spective with that of other people. Therefore, the next step is to learn about other cultural
groups and how your views and behaviors compare and contrast with theirs.
Learn about the Perspectives of Various
Cultural Groups
To fully understand your own cultural perspectives, it is useful to learn as much as
possible about how various groups think and respond to different situations and events.
This knowledge will help overcome the tendency to impose your values and beliefs on
the children that you teach and their families. To learn more about the values of various
cultural groups:
• Read widely about children and families of diverse cultures and backgrounds.
• Seek out and read what has been written about diversity by researchers and theorists
from a wide variety of cultural backgrounds.
• Identify key informants—family members, community elders, neighborhood
leaders—who are willing to talk openly with you about their beliefs, values, and
practices. To get as much accurate information as possible and to avoid stereotyp-
ing, don’t rely on one person to be your cultural translator.
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Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach182
• Read books and magazines, watch movies, or search websites produced by mem-
bers of diverse cultural groups.
• If possible, immerse yourself in another culture and experience the discomfort of
not knowing exactly what to say or how to behave.
• Most important of all, observe carefully and listen closely to learn how various
cultural groups communicate and nurture their young.
Learning generalities about cultural groups is a useful starting point, but it can easily
lead to stereotyping—making assumptions that all children who appear part of a group
share similar backgrounds. For example, a Cuban American father was dismayed to learn
that his daughter’s teacher kept telling her what she knew about the young girl’s “His-
panic” culture and how the teacher was being responsive to it. None of the teacher’s ac-
commodations were meaningful to the little girl, whose family had lived in Minnesota for
three generations.
Now that we have discussed the complex concept of culture and identified several
key principles that describe how culture functions in children’s development, consider
how this knowledge can be applied to the classroom. How will this knowledge inform
your teaching?
✓ Check Your Understanding 6.3: Understanding Your Own Cultural Perspective
Teaching in a Culturally
and Linguistically Diverse World
Imagine it is the first day of school. Parents who are dropping off their children are using
various dialects and languages that you don’t recognize. Some of the children are crying
and clinging to their parent, while others, it is clear, have been told that crying is not al-
lowed, so they are standing with quivering chins trying to hold it together. You are making
the rounds, introducing yourself to the children, trying to get them excited about the day
and the upcoming year.
You may have been through this before, as a student teacher working in a cultur-
ally diverse classroom, but every year the dynamic and the ethnic mix change. It will
be up to you to find a way to communicate with dual language learners, to be sensitive
to the fact that the English language has many idioms that may be foreign to children
who are mastering English, and to be sensitive to each child’s home life, whether they
live with their parents and siblings, or their extended family, or are from a single-
parent home. The key is to learn as much as you can about each of the children, to get
to know their families, and to always be culturally and linguistically responsive in the
classroom.
Why Does Culture Matter to Teachers?
Children from diverse language and cultural groups and those from low-income families
(who are disproportionately linguistically and culturally diverse) are the very children
who are not being well served in our nation’s schools. In fact, federal education policy
is often designed to hold schools accountable for educating every child and to close the
achievement gap between groups of children.
The underlying causes and remedies for the achievement gap are complex, but part
of the solution must be to recognize and build on the competencies that children bring
from prior experiences (Oertwig, Gillanders, & Ritchie, 2014). To do so requires that
teachers acquire cultural understanding. Without such knowledge, at least three problems
can occur: (1) teachers can misunderstand children, (2) teachers can inaccurately assess
children’s competence, and (3) teachers can plan incorrectly to promote children’s learn-
ing (Barbarin, 2011; Bowman, Donovan, & Burns, 2001).
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Chapter 6 Embracing a Culturally and Linguistically Diverse World 183
Misunderstanding Children Failing to understand the influence of children’s
backgrounds on their development can lead to misunderstanding and miscommunication
about children and their families, as the following example illustrates (based on Zepeda,
Rothstein-Fisch, Gonzalez-Mena, & Trumbull, 2006):
In Carey Foster’s Head Start class, she tries to promote children’s self-concepts and
self-esteem by having them make “All About Me” books at the beginning of the year.
The children draw pictures and Carey writes down what they say about themselves.
Four-year-old Antonia Rodriguez dictates, “My brothers are big and strong and
help me and my mother.”
Carey says, “But this book isn’t about your brothers. It’s about you. Let’s say you
have brown eyes and you can write your name.”
Antonia doesn’t respond. She feels unsure because she is proud of how her fam-
ily helps each other, but her teacher doesn’t seem to care about that. During the parent
open house, Carey proudly displays Antonia’s book for her mother, who doesn’t look
impressed. Carey doesn’t realize that Antonia’s mother thinks her daughter is becom-
ing conceited and selfish in this school.
Carey’s classroom activity was at odds with the interdependence valued by Antonia’s
family. Most likely, this situation would have turned out better if Carey had been sensitive
to Antonia’s discomfort initially. Instead of taking over for Antonia, Carey could have
said, “Tell me more about your family.” Listening would have helped Carey better under-
stand the values of Antonia’s family.
One area where cultural groups often differ is how they approach discipline. If
teachers are unaware of these differences, they may be ineffective in guiding chil-
dren’s behavior. Furthermore, their methods may prove to be counterproductive. For
example, time-out—removing children from the group for misbehavior for a period of
time—is a discipline strategy that is widely used by parents and teachers. In general,
the strategy is not effective, because it simply stops the children’s negative behavior
temporarily without teaching children what to do instead. Nevertheless, some teach-
ers continue to use time-out. Let’s consider time-out from a cultural perspective in the
following example:
Mark Temple is a new teacher who is struggling to control his first-grade class for
reading instruction. His school is in a close-in suburb of a major city, and some
people call it the “little United Nations” because it serves so many cultural groups.
Today, Mark is reading a story to the group and Yao cannot keep still. He touches and
sits very close to the other children, who pull away and are distracted by his behavior.
After several warnings, Mark puts Yao in time-out for the duration of the story. Mark
notices that Yao is sitting very quietly with his head bowed and a dejected look on his
face, trying hard not to cry. Mark assumes that Yao is sorry for disrupting story time
and that the time-out was effective.
Mark’s interpretation of Yao’s response to his time-out, however, is uninformed.
Mark’s ignorance of Yao’s Chinese cultural values causes him to misunderstand Yao’s
behavior. Yao loves school and is excited by the opportunity to sit close to the other
children. Being assigned to time-out means being isolated from the group where
he feels most comfortable and happy. Yao feels ashamed and guilty, not because he
didn’t follow the rules, but because he has been separated from the others. Yao is
humiliated because he thinks that the group has rejected him. Mark also fails to rec-
ognize that Yao’s desire to belong is a strength that he can build on to engage Yao
positively in the group.
Inaccurate Assessment of Children Ignorance of children’s culturally deter-
mined behavior can lead teachers to make inaccurate assessments of children’s compe-
tence and ability. Language barriers can also lead to incorrect assessments of children’s
abilities. Cultural and linguistic differences can lead to errors in identifying and serving
children with disabilities.
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Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach184
Assessing the learning of English language learners or children who speak a varia-
tion of English requires special tools and expertise. Too many English language learn-
ers are judged to be language delayed when they are actually demonstrating typical
second language development (Paradis, Genesee, & Crago, 2011). No assumptions
about children’s competence should be based on measures in a language in which
children are not f luent (Barrueco, Lopez, Ong, & Lozano, 2012). An English lan-
guage learner or a child who speaks a variation of English may have a well-developed
vocabulary and understand many concepts, but may not be well understood at school
(Espinosa, 2010a).
One of the biggest mistakes that educators and the general public make is to equate
cultural differences with disabilities. The fact is that children with disabilities cross all
cultural groups. Likewise, cultural and linguistic diversity impact all dimensions of spe-
cial education services.
In a classroom of diverse learners, teachers may have a difficult time identifying
students who have special needs. In addition, diagnosis and intervention planning for
children with disabilities is a challenge when the child is of a different culture or language
group than the professionals (Hanson & Lynch, 2004). Read the Including All Children:
Diversity and Disability feature for an example of these challenges.
Including All Children
Cultural Diversity and Diverse Ability
Effective early intervention practices are supposed to
be family centered, involving families both in decision
making and in implementation. However, cultural dif-
ferences can complicate communication and under-
standing between families and professionals. These
differences can become a challenge in planning inter-
vention strategies for children with disabilities, as the
following example illustrates:
Little Sparrow is a 3-year-old Native American
child who was born with Down syndrome. Her fam-
ily believes that such births are natural and that
Little Sparrow’s contributions to the community
are important, however small. The community’s
goal is to maintain harmony among everyone.
Little Sparrow is enrolled in Head Start on the
reservation. Head Start program standards require
that they provide early intervention services for
children with disabilities. The teachers are mem-
bers of the tribe, but they must work with the dis-
abilities coordinator, who is not. Together, they
help Little Sparrow improve her functional skills
such as feeding and toileting, and she is making
progress at school.
The disabilities coordinator meets with the
family to ensure that they will follow up on the effec-
tive strategies at home. But the family seems nonre-
sponsive. They can’t understand why the school is
so concerned about changing Little Sparrow when
they love her just the way she is. And they don’t
want to single her out for special attention among
the other children, which could upset the harmoni-
ous relationships in their community.
In this example, we see how a family’s cultural per-
spective can be at odds with professional views. The
professionals’ intervention goals may not emphasize
what is valued by the family, or the intervention may
emphasize what they do not value. Such conflicting
goals need to be negotiated if children’s best interests
are to be served.
In the case of Little Sparrow, the teachers worked with
the disabilities coordinator to relinquish control of the
situation and meet with elders in the community. They
described their goals and how they thought that support-
ing Little Sparrow to do more would benefit everyone,
actually bringing more harmony to the group. The elders
decided that help for Little Sparrow would be shared by
many adults and children in the tribe, and that in turn
the little girl would help the others as best she could.
Sources: Based on Understanding Families: Approaches
to Diversity, Disability, and Risk, by M. J. Hanson and
E. W. Lynch, 2004, Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes; and
“Cross-Cultural Conceptions of Child-Rearing: Implications
for Reviewing/Evaluating Intervention Practices,” by J. T.
McCollum, T. Yates, M. Ostrosky, and J. Halle, 2001,
Chap. 4 in Cross-Cultural Considerations in Early Childhood
Special Education (Technical Report #14), by T. Bennett
et al., 2001, Urbana-Champaign, IL: University of Illinois,
Culturally and Linguistically Appropriate Services (CLAS),
retrieved December 15, 2011, from http://clas.uiuc.edu/
techreport/tech14.html#4b.
M06_BRED6702_03_SE_C06.indd 184 10/7/15 1:42 PM
http://clas.uiuc.edu/techreport/tech14.html#4b
http://clas.uiuc.edu/techreport/tech14.html#4b
Chapter 6 Embracing a Culturally and Linguistically Diverse World 185
Failure to Promote Children’s Achievement Misunderstanding and inac-
curate assessment of children’s competence can lead to ineffective teaching that does
not meet the needs of all students. If children’s competence is acquired in a context
that does not match that of the teacher or school, several potential problems can arise.
Teachers can negatively judge children on the basis of their culturally inf luenced be-
haviors. Without accurate assessment, teachers’ expectations for children’s learning can
be too low.
If teachers do not recognize what students already know—what they have learned
from prior experiences—teachers cannot build on it (Oertwig, Gillanders, & Ritchie,
2014). For example, many early childhood programs encourage and expect children to
speak up and share stories of their own experience or background. Yet this may not be a
task that all students can do. Consider, for instance, that among many Native American
tribes, children are expected to listen to older adults rather than speak themselves ( Paradis,
Genesee, & Crago, 2011).
If teachers do not understand these diverse communication styles, they may have
trouble assessing what children already know. For example, researchers working with
Inuit people in northern Canada (Native Canadians, called First Nations) assumed that
children’s language development was delayed because they spoke little in interactions
with teachers. But in a play situation with interesting objects and toys and other chil-
dren with whom they were comfortable, the children’s vocabulary and grammar were
far more complex than what they used with teachers (Paradis, Genesee, & Crago,
2011).
As we stated earlier, different cultural groups often make different meanings from the
same experience. If new learning is to be meaningful, teachers must help children make
connections between what they know and are able to do at home and in their community
and what is expected in school. Meaningful learning is more likely when teachers focus
on the learning goal rather than on the specific means to the goal. For example, if the
goal of a first-grade science curriculum is for children to understand life cycles, studying
buffalo, which may be familiar to Native American children in the West, is as effective as
learning about cows would be for children in the Midwest.
Misunderstandings, the roots of which are cultural in many cases, can have dire con-
sequences. For example, cultural studies of African American children, boys in particular,
find that on average they tend to be more physically active and emotive than their
European American peers (Woolfolk & Perry, 2012). Teachers may incorrectly judge this
exuberance as aggression. As a result, the very behavior that is rewarded and expected
in their community may be censored by their teachers in school (Barbarin, 2011). When
such negative responses persist, children may become discouraged and, perhaps, more
disruptive (Ritchie & Gutman, 2014). African American boys are disproportionately rep-
resented in special education and more likely to be expelled, even in preschool. The civil
rights division of the U.S. Department of Education (2014) found that African American
children represent 18% of preschool enrollment, but 42% of students had been suspended
once, and 48% of the students were suspended more than once. To better understand this
disturbing phenomenon, read the feature, Promoting Play: African American Children
and Play.
In the previous sections, we saw how teachers’ lack of cultural understanding can
lead to several errors in supporting children’s learning and development. In the next sec-
tion, we focus on the realities of linguistic diversity and its interaction with culture in
children’s development and learning.
Embracing Linguistic Diversity
The primary goal of this chapter is to encourage you to embrace the realities of cultural
and linguistic diversity. Although we have focused much attention on culture, language
and culture are inextricably linked (Hamayan, Genesee, & Cloud, 2013). Language is
the lens through which children make sense of the world, and it is a major vehicle for
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Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach186
transmitting culture. Dual language learners are learning not only two lan-
guages, but also two cultures. Children must learn how to use each language
in culturally meaningful and appropriate ways (Hamayan, Genesee, & Cloud,
2013).
If a concept does not exist in a culture, there is no need for a word to
represent that concept. Consider a language without a word for privacy. What
would that tell you about the culture’s values? Most likely, the cultural group
places greater value on the needs and rights of the group than on those of the
individual. Also, personal space and private ownership may be less important.
How words are defined and used also reflects cultural differences. For
example, in Italian, the verb discutere can mean “to discuss” but can also
mean “to argue.” Picture a group of Italians or Italian Americans all talking
at once, with raised voices and many gestures. Arguing is just another form
of discussion and is much less threatening than in societies where English is
spoken and where arguing has negative connotations.
African American Children and Play
Early childhood educators consider pretend play to
be an integral part of developmentally appropriate
practice and beneficial for children’s development
and learning. However, there are individual and cul-
tural differences in how children play as well as how
teachers view children’s play that have important
consequences for children, as revealed by recent
research.
This study compared a large group of racially mixed
preschoolers’ pretend play and their adjustment
(self-regulation and cognitive flexibility) as evalu-
ated by outside observers in a laboratory setting
with teachers’ reports of children’s social and
educational adjustment. Teachers rated children’s
school readiness, peer relationships, and amount of
teacher–child conflict.
The main finding of the study was that preschoolers’
race affected how teachers viewed their play and
how they rated their adjustment in the classroom,
even after accounting for differences in individual
children’s age, IQ, family income, and gender.
Moreover, even when the teacher and child were
the same race, and the teacher and child knew
each other for the same length of time, these dif-
ferent evaluations of children based on their race
held true. For Black preschoolers, teachers evalu-
ated their imaginative and expressive pretend play
and rated them as less prepared for school, less
accepted by their peers, and more prone to teacher-
child conflict. On the other hand, comparable
levels of imagination and expression in pretend play
resulted in positive ratings of these same character-
istics for non-Black children.
Children in all racial groups—Hispanic, Black,
White, and bi/multiracial—played similarly in
imaginative and expressive ways. But Black chil-
dren’s pretend play skills were evaluated negatively
by teachers, while non-Black children with similar
play behaviors were evaluated positively. Teachers
also rated Black children who demonstrated more
negative play behaviors as less prepared for school,
less accepted by other children, and involved in
more teacher-child conflict than non-Black children
whose play behaviors were equally negative.
This study raises significant concerns about teacher
bias regarding the play of young African American
children. Black children who are imaginative and
expressive may be judged and treated differently in
early childhood programs. Teachers need to become
self-aware about the way they view children based
on race and how those judgments can have lasting
negative effects for children.
Source: “Through Race-Colored Glasses: Preschoolers’
Pretend Play and Teachers’ Ratings of Preschooler
Adjustment,” by T. M. Yates and A. K. Marcelo, 2014,
Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 29, 1–11.
Promoting Play
Classroom Connection
This video describes the rela-
tionship between language and
culture. Note the important ways
that teachers can help dual lan-
guage learners become bicultural
to be successful in school.
M06_BRED6702_03_SE_C06.indd 186 10/7/15 1:42 PM
Chapter 6 Embracing a Culturally and Linguistically Diverse World 187
Similarly, some languages may have many words to distinguish subtle variations in
meaning that are important to the group. A large vocabulary for types of snow and ice is
essential in the Arctic, but unnecessary in more temperate climates. What if English only
had one word for blue? How could we communicate clearly without words like turquoise,
navy, or periwinkle? The inextricable link between language and culture means that one
cannot be embraced without also embracing the other. Language is also strongly conne-
cted to emotions. Words can trigger strong emotions in some cultures and not in others.
For example, in Arab cultures the word crusade carries a negative connotation dating
back to the Middle Ages, while in the United States we regularly have positive crusades
to collect money for charity or fight disease.
The United States has always been a country in which many people are bilingual
or multilingual. With increasing numbers of children speaking a language other than
English at home, opportunity exists to help these children become bilingual. To do
so, it is important that teachers support children’s development and maintenance of
their home language while helping them acquire proficiency in English. In short, these
children are dual language learners—learning two languages at once. In fact, many
children are multi-language learners who are learning more than two languages.
All children in our society need to acquire English, but they can become proficient
without giving up their home language (Espinosa, 2010c; Tabors, 2008). The key is for
teachers to support continued development of the home language and to inform parents
that if they encourage their children to speak English both in the home and at school at
a very early age, their children may lose their home language. Home language loss can
harm children’s long-term academic achievement (Espinosa, 2010c; Slavin & Cheung,
2005). In addition, if parents do not speak English well and their children lose the
home language, serious communication and relationship problems between parents and
children are likely to occur (Espinosa, 2010c; Wong Filmore, 1991). Therefore, teachers
should encourage families to speak to children in whatever language the parent is most
proficient, usually their native tongue, to support children’s educational achievement.
In the previous sections, we discussed how educational systems often misunderstand,
inaccurately assess, and fail to serve culturally and linguistically diverse children. One
key to avoiding these pitfalls is for teachers to become more culturally competent, as we
discuss in the next section.
✓ Check Your Understanding 6.4: Teaching in a Culturally and Linguistically
Diverse World
Cultural Competence: The Key
to Effective Teaching
To accommodate diverse learners, teachers must integrate students’ diverse backgrounds
into the curriculum. A particular kind of ability is required to successfully use this type
of effective practice in the classroom: cultural competence. Conflict may arise in situa-
tions where families and teachers do not have an inherent understanding of each other.
Consider the following example:
Decatur Elementary School, which serves a wide range of cultural groups, has a lending
library to encourage primary-grade children to read at home. After a few weeks, the
library is bare because the families don’t return the books. The European American
teachers make insistent pleas for return of the books. The children begin to feel that their
teachers are accusing them of stealing. But the children and their families don’t under-
stand; they assumed the books were meant for all the children in the neighborhood.
To resolve a conflict such as this, teachers must be well versed in effective cross-cultural
communication. To provide the best education for all children, teachers need to become
culturally competent.
dual language learners Chil-
dren who are learning to speak
two languages at the same
time—usually their home lan-
guage and English.
multi-language learners Chil-
dren who are learning more
than two languages.
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Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach188
Cultural competence is the ability to work effectively across cultural groups (Olsen
et al., 2007, p. 2) and to work respectfully with those who are different from oneself.
Cultural competence is not a set of skills but is instead a way of being—an openness
to continual learning (Olsen et al., 2007). Although various characteristics demonstrate
cultural competence, several are particularly applicable to teachers in diverse classrooms
(Lynch, 2011; Lynch & Hanson, 2011). Some characteristics of cultural competence fol-
low, along with the ways they apply to the teachers at Decatur Elementary School and the
lending library situation:
• An awareness of their own cultural perspectives. Teachers reflect on their own
feelings about losing the books. They are mystified and a little upset. They invested
time and money in the library and can’t understand why it failed.
• Appreciation and respect for individuals from other cultures. Teachers do not pre-
judge children and families by their standards, realizing that more interdependent
cultural groups view ownership of materials differently than do individualistic ones.
• A belief that cross-cultural interactions should be viewed as learning opportunities
rather than challenges. Teachers decide to find out what might have caused the
misunderstanding, rather than giving up in frustration.
• An ability to identify and use cultural resources. Teachers seek the advice of leaders
in the community to help them understand what happened.
• An appreciation for the integrity and value of all cultures. Teachers realize that
sharing the books more widely is a valuable although different way of achieving
their goal of making reading material available to children.
• Willingness to continue to try to understand other people’s perspectives. Teachers
decide to talk regularly with older children, family, and community members to
discuss school happenings.
• Flexibility and a sense of humor. Teachers look back and laugh at how naïve their
expectations were and how rigid their reactions.
• Comfort with uncertainty. The main lesson the teachers learn is that they aren’t
going to be right all the time; there are no simple answers to complex situations.
This list of competencies is prerequisite for becoming a truly suc-
cessful teacher. Encompassing all of these characteristics and behaviors
is an attitude of cultural humility—the stance that one can “expect to be
surprised, to be wrong, and (the need) to ask for help” (Sparrow, 2011,
p. 14). Cultural humility assumes that one can never fully comprehend the
perspective of another human being and requires the ability to put aside
feelings of superiority and the tendency to judge.
Cross-Cultural Communication
The foundation of cultural competence is the ability to communicate ef-
fectively with members of diverse cultural groups (Lynch, 2011). To fos-
ter good communication, teachers must develop an understanding of how
various cultural groups use verbal and nonverbal means of communicating.
These communication styles are another example of a cultural continuum
such as those described earlier in the chapter. In this case, the continuum
extends from high-context cultures to low-context cultures.
High-Context and Low-Context Cultures Awareness of different communi-
cation styles will help you better appreciate the competence of children whose cultural
background is different from your own and avoid misunderstandings in communicating
with parents.
Communication among those in high-context cultures relies less on words
and more on contextual cues such as facial expressions, gestures, or other physical
clues to convey meaning (Lynch, 2011). Examples of groups that are more attuned
cultural competence The
ability to work effectively across
cultural groups.
high-context culture Culture
in which communication
relies less on words and more
on contextual cues, such as
facial expressions, gestures, or
other physical clues, to convey
meaning.
Classroom Connection
In this video, experts describe
intercultural communication.
Why are such communication
skills important and what strate-
gies can teachers use to foster
cross-cultural communication in
the classroom?
M06_BRED6702_03_SE_C06.indd 188 10/7/15 1:42 PM
Chapter 6 Embracing a Culturally and Linguistically Diverse World 189
to nonverbal messages include Asian, American Indian,
African American, Arab, and Latino groups.
In contrast, low-context cultures focus on direct,
logical, precise verbal communication (Lynch, 2011).
Low-context cultural groups include European Ameri-
cans, Germans, and Scandinavians. Members of low-
context cultures often become impatient if the speaker
does not come to the point quickly or the communication
is not direct (Lynch, 2011). Similarly, low-context com-
municators may be confused when they miss the mean-
ing of gestures or unstated emotions.
Effective communication across these styles can be
challenging. Shirley Brice Heath (1983, 1989) was one
of the first to describe the consequences when children of
high-context backgrounds encounter low-context schools. Her research identified situations
such as the typical sharing time (show-and-tell), during which the teacher asks children
what they did over the weekend. A low-context girl might chronologically describe events:
“I went to my brother’s soccer game. Then we went to McDonald’s. Then my grandma
came for dinner.” This recitation meets the teacher’s expectations of a clear, precise account.
On the other hand, a high-context girl uses a more narrative, episodic style, which assumes
that the listener can fill in the context. “My brother sang a funny song. Here’s how it goes.”
When the child begins to sing, the teacher grows impatient, thinks the little girl’s descrip-
tion doesn’t make sense, and asks her to sit down. Think of the conflicting messages these
children receive about the value of their experiences and their communication.
Difficulty communicating between low-context and high-context groups is not lim-
ited to teachers and children. Adults are even more steeped in their culture’s ways of
behaving than children are. Imagine the difficulties that can arise when a high-context
teacher attempts to talk to a low-context parent about a child’s behavior problem. Or think
of involving a high-context parent in creating an IEP for a child with a disability, which
requires very accurate communication.
Verbal and Nonverbal Communication A general description of high- and
low-context communication styles only begins to describe the complexity of cross- cultural
communication. Virtually every aspect of nonverbal communication can be misinterpreted.
Of greater concern is that the failure to understand and respect cultural rules of behavior
can offend and insult the very people with whom you are trying to communicate.
A number of nonverbal cues can lead to misunderstandings between people from dif-
ferent cultures. For example, allowing or not allowing for personal space, when and why
we smile, when we make eye contact or touch, and how we use silence and view time are
all culturally relevant (Gonzalez-Mena, 2008). We have already discussed some of these,
but a few others may be surprising. Consider smiling. Most of us assume that smiling
is a universal, human way of communicating—and it is. But like other behaviors, it can
mean different things to different cultural groups. Russians, for example, smile when they
are happy, not just to be friendly (Gonzalez-Mena, 2008). This could account for why
Russians are often depicted in American movies as unusually dour. Some Asian groups,
on the other hand, smile more often than Americans, even when embarrassed or unhappy
(Gonzalez-Mena, 2008).
Silence can communicate volumes, but it is also interpreted through a cultural lens.
Some Asian groups pause before speaking as a respectful sign that they are really listening
(Gonzalez-Mena, 2008). Some European Americans may interpret such periods of silence
to mean that the other person isn’t listening or doesn’t have anything to say.
A full discussion of the typical ways of communicating among various cultural
groups is beyond the scope of this book. Consult the resources listed at the end of this
chapter to learn more about the practices, beliefs, values, and communication styles of
various groups. As you encounter diverse, changing groups of children, you will need to
low-context culture Culture
that focuses on direct, logical,
precise verbal communication.
Culturally competent
teachers are able to work
effectively across cultural
groups. What knowledge
and skills do teachers
need to be culturally
competent?
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M06_BRED6702_03_SE_C06.indd 189 10/7/15 1:42 PM
Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach190
continually update your knowledge to improve communication and avoid misunderstand-
ings with children and parents. And, most of all, remember not to stereotype individuals
based on such general descriptions of cultural expectations.
In the previous sections, we discussed the importance of becoming culturally com-
petent. In the upcoming sections, we discuss how the curriculum for children should be
culturally responsive. We also look at what kinds of practices are effective for teaching
diverse learners.
✓ Check Your Understanding 6.5: Cultural Competence: The Key to Effective Teaching
Effective Practices for Diverse
Learners
Every group of children is diverse on every conceivable dimension of development and
learning, including their various cultural backgrounds and languages. It is important to
remember that when we speak about teaching diverse learners, we really mean all learn-
ers. In the following sections, we discuss culturally and linguistically responsive teaching
strategies, and anti-bias educational goals.
Culturally Responsive Teaching
Effective practices for working with culturally and linguistically diverse children are
best practices for every child. For example, research on human learning demonstrates the
critical importance of building on prior knowledge, which is naturally one of the most
important principles of culturally responsive teaching (Espinosa, 2010b). The challenge
for teachers is to uncover children’s culturally acquired prior knowledge and then use
effective strategies to build on it. Read the What Works: Making Education Culturally
Compatible feature for a description of such research-based practices.
Linguistically Responsive Teaching
Too often, educational discussions tend to lump children into categories such as “low in-
come” or “children with special needs.” This also happens frequently with dual language
learners, despite the fact that there is great diversity among these children.
Consider these 6-year-olds:
Rosalinda’s father and mother are well educated and speak both English
and Spanish f luently. Her parents have read and spoken to her in both
languages since birth. The family lives in an upper-middle-class com-
munity and they travel to Argentina at least once a year to visit her
grandparents.
Manuel lives with his parents, four siblings, and other extended fam-
ily members. They speak only Spanish at home. His family is very loving
and they tell wonderful long stories but they have few books in their home.
They cannot return to the family’s native country because of the political
situation and also because they do not have the financial resources.
Clearly, Rosalinda’s and Manuel’s language learning experiences are
different in many ways, including the language(s) spoken at home, the
ages when they are introduced to English, the family’s resources, and their
verbal and written proficiency in either or both languages. In addition to
primary and secondary language development, Rosalinda’s and Manuel’s
capacities and interests differ in countless ways. For example, she loves to
sing and paint, and her best subject is mathematics. Manuel loves soccer
and animals, and his teacher soon discovers that he has great aptitude for reading. They
and their families need to be treated as individuals with diverse strengths and needs.
Classroom Connection
In this video clip, two teachers
plan a science lesson of sorting
the different properties of rocks.
Listen as the teachers describe
some effective teaching practices
for linguistically and culturally
diverse learners.
M06_BRED6702_03_SE_C06.indd 190 10/7/15 1:42 PM
Chapter 6 Embracing a Culturally and Linguistically Diverse World 191
What Works
Making Education Culturally Compatible
A body of research demonstrates that taking children’s cultural
backgrounds into consideration in curriculum and teaching is re-
lated to positive learning outcomes for students across age groups.
These studies were conducted with elementary school children
across many cultural groups: Puerto Ricans, African Americans,
Native Hawaiians, Native American Indians, Mexican immigrants,
Appalachian urban immigrant whites, Southeast Asian new-
comers, Eskimos or Aleuts, and European American gifted and
talented children. Based on this research, six key principles of
effective practice for culturally diverse learners were gleaned that
are also congruent with several aspects of NAEYC’s position on
developmentally appropriate practices:
1. Teachers and students work together toward a common goal.
Teachers participate with children in activity such as a nature
walk near the school.
2. Teachers incorporate language and literacy learning throughout
the day and in all areas of the curriculum. For example, chil-
dren talk, read, and write about the life cycles of the animals
they observe on their walk.
3. Teachers make learning meaningful by connecting school
learning to children’s lives. The conversation begins with what
children already know about animals.
Following are some effective, research-based practices that help dual language
learners achieve at high levels in English (Alanis, 2013; California Department of
Education Child Development Division, 2008; Magruder, Hayslip, Espinosa, & Matera,
2013):
• Directly instruct children on English vocabulary and certain aspects of literacy, such as
pointing to objects or pictures as you say the word (“This book is about a bird. See the
bird. Say bird.”). Model the language for children, describing what the child is doing
(“You put on your coat”) or what you’re doing (“I’m getting the red paint for you”).
• Give lots of opportunities for children to practice the new language, such as during
play and small-group times that require them to speak (rather than just point) to
take a turn.
• Pair children with English-speaking peers for several activities. For example, ask a
question in whole group and have children turn to a buddy to talk it over (“What do
you plan to do outside today?”).
• Support continued development in the home language, including teaching in that
language as much as possible (at least learning key words and phrases), using qual-
ified teachers, family members, or volunteers from the community who fluently
speak the home language.
• Collaborate with families to plan curriculum reflecting children’s cultural back-
grounds and language(s), such as rhymes, song, and books children can identify
with to help them connect what they already know to what is taught at school.
• Frequently review skills and concepts, do repeated reading.
• Draw attention to similarities between English words and the word in the home
language, called cognates (mucho/much).
4. Teachers have high expectations for
children, challenging their learning,
and focusing on complex thinking. Teachers
pose problems for children to think about, such as what would
happen if the trees were cut down.
5. Teachers and children engage in instructional conversations,
discussing the content they are learning. Children are grouped
by interest, talk with each other, and meet with the teacher
to discuss and share what they have learned and identify new
questions.
6. Teachers model language and actions, such as carefully
handling a pet, so that children can learn through observation.
7. Teachers provide opportunities for child-initiated learning.
Children generate learning topics or brainstorm solutions to
problems.
Sources: “From High Chair to High School: Research-Based Principles
for Teaching Complex Thinking,” by R. Tharp and S. Entz, 2012, in
C. Copple (Ed.), Growing minds: Building strong cognitive foundations
in early childhood, edited by C. Copple, pp. 131–136, Washington,
DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children; “Research
to Practice. Joint Productive Activity: Collaboration That Builds New
Understandings,” by L. A. Yamauchi and R. H. Kuwahara, 2008, Young
Children, 63(6), 34–38.
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Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach192
Dual language learners are individuals. They need differentiated instruction to devel-
op their English skills, to maintain and further develop their home language, and achieve
in school. Today’s vast array of digital tools make individualizing instruction for multi-
language learners much easier than in the past, as described in the feature Language Lens:
Using Technology to Teach Dual Language Learners.
Awareness and responsiveness to all forms of diversity must be integrated across all
areas of curriculum and teachers’ relationships with children to ensure that all children
succeed in school. But more than that, schools have a responsibility to provide today’s
children with the skills to function in a complex, global society. In short, they benefit from
an anti-bias education, which we describe in the next section.
Anti-Bias Education
The early childhood field has embraced the concept of an anti-bias education. Anti-bias
education includes learning experiences and teaching strategies that are specifically
designed not only to prepare all children for life in a culturally rich society but also
to counter the stereotyping of diverse groups and to guard against expressions of bias
( Derman-Sparks & Edwards, 2010). In this section, we discuss goals of culturally
responsive, anti-bias education and ways of helping children achieve those goals. The
overarching goal of anti-bias education is to help all children reach their full potential.
To do so, anti-bias education focuses on four core goals for children (Derman-Sparks &
Edwards, 2010; Teaching Tolerance, 2012):
1. Identity. Teachers foster and support children’s self-awareness, confidence, and
pride in their family and own identity.
anti-bias education Learning
experiences and teaching
strategies that are specifically
designed not only to prepare all
children for life in a culturally
rich society, but also to counter
the stereotyping of diverse
groups, and to guard against
expressions of bias.
Language Lens
Using Technology to Teach Dual Language Learners
With growing numbers of dual and multi-language learn-
ers in our classrooms, all teachers need to be prepared
to support English language acquisition while also pro-
moting continued home language development. Using
technology exponentially increases teachers’ options to
achieve these goals, as these examples illustrate:
Yao is a Chinese speaker who doesn’t talk at all in
preschool. He is isolated from the other children who
won’t play with him. His teacher knows that without
social interaction, his English skills won’t develop. She
loans his family an iPad and with the help of a trans-
lator shows him a digital storytelling app to create a
story about his family with photos and narration in both
English and Chinese. When he shares the story with the
other children, they realize that Yao has an interesting
life and several of them decide to use the app to create
stories about themselves.
Kara’s kindergarten includes speakers of four different
home languages, some of whom are newly arrived immi-
grants. She relies on technology to create an accessible
environment for all the children as they acquire sufficient
English to navigate the school. Kara posts pictures and
labels in various languages (in some cases with phonetic
spellings) to help children learn routines and safety pre-
cautions. On the Internet she finds images, songs, and
stories that accurately depict children’s homelands, and
uses these to spark conversations among small groups of
children. She teaches all the children to use iTranslate
on classroom tablets to aid communication and support
burgeoning friendships. The class uses Skype to com-
municate with children’s relatives in other parts of the
country or world. Within a few weeks, all the children,
including native English speakers, enjoy helping each
other explore different languages and learn together.
Children all over the world speak multiple languages. The
opportunity to become bilingual or multilingual awaits
every child in America if schools take advantage of young
children’s inborn ability to learn language and the afford-
able, technological resources now available.
Sources: Digital Story Helps Dual Language Learner Connect
with Classmates, by D. Bates, no date, Washington, DC: National
Association for the Education of Young Children, retrieved August
27, 2014, from http://www.naeyc.org/technology/digital-story-
helps-dual-language-learner; “Using Technology as a Teaching
Tool for Dual Language Learners in Preschool through Grade 3,”
by K. N. Nemeth and F. S. Simon, 2013, Young Children, 68(1),
48–52.
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http://www.naeyc.org/technology/digital-story-helps-dual-language-learner
http://www.naeyc.org/technology/digital-story-helps-dual-language-learner
Chapter 6 Embracing a Culturally and Linguistically Diverse World 193
2. Diversity. Teachers assist children to experience and value human diversity, and
use accurate language for differences.
3. Justice. Teachers help children recognize unfairness, stereotypes, and biases
(negative expressions toward groups) and their harmful impact on people.
4. Action. Teachers help children to stand up, alone or with others, to counteract
unfairness, prejudice, and/or discrimination against others.
Curriculum and teaching practices to help children achieve these goals need to be de-
velopmentally appropriate; that is, within the range of what is understandable and achiev-
able for children. Let’s look more closely at each of these goals.
Goal 1: Foster Children’s Positive Identity within Their Own Group
One of your goals as a teacher working with young children is to foster a positive sense
of identity and help them develop a sense of self-worth. Identity refers to the character-
istics that individuals recognize as constituting a sense of self and belonging to a group.
Consider how important your own name is—it represents you and is a strong part of
your identity. Teachers need to ensure that children’s names are spelled and, most im-
portant, pronounced correctly. Because membership in a cultural/ethnic group has such
a strong inf luence on identity, it is important for teachers to be aware of and support
children’s connection to their group. Fostering children’s identity may also involve
their bicultural and/or biracial identity; it should not be assumed that these children or
their families identify themselves with any particular ethnic, cultural, or racial group
(Wardle, 2014).
In classrooms with children from multiple cultural or ethnic groups, teachers some-
times try to minimize the differences among students instead of acknowledging them.
In an effort to discourage prejudice in the classroom, they may state proudly, “We don’t
see differences among children. We’re color-blind here.” Such statements deny the re-
ality that children plainly see and experience (Killen, 2012). Teachers may think that
talking about differences draws unnecessary attention to them and leads to prejudices.
But this attitude, although well intentioned, actually has the opposite effect by deny-
ing vitally important aspects of children’s identity (Derman-Sparks & Edwards, 2010).
Consider how you would feel if your significant other said, “I don’t notice that you are
a woman (or a man).”
One question European American teachers often ask is, “But what if all the children
in the class are white?” This question itself reveals the confusion that exists between race
and culture in our society because “white” is not a cultural group, and white-skinned
people are members of many different cultural groups. In addition, close examination
of this question reveals the perspective, discussed earlier in this chapter, that the white,
majority group somehow doesn’t have a culture (Derman-
Sparks & Ramsey, 2011). Thus, it is important to help all
children become aware of similarities and differences be-
tween themselves and others. Society sends countless mes-
sages about the superiority of white European Americans.
Therefore, in supporting a positive sense of identity among
these children, teachers must avoid contributing to feelings
of entitlement and superiority to others who are not of the
majority culture.
To foster positive identity, teachers must make an ef-
fort to ensure that the learning environment is welcoming
to every child and reflects the identities and cultures of
every child in the class. They can use photos or drawings
of children with family members and audiotapes and vid-
eos of family member’s voices and activities, as well as
books, music, and other materials that reflect children’s
cultural identity in a positive way.
identity The collection of
characteristics that individuals
recognize as constituting their
sense of self and belonging to
a group.
Culturally responsive curriculum
and teaching promotes
children’s positive sense of
their own identity, valuing of
diversity, and critical thinking
about stereotyping and bias.
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Goal 2: Experience and Value Human Diversity Just as it is important to
have a strong sense of self, it is important to value diversity in others. Related goals are
the ability to respectfully ask about and comfortably adapt to differences ( Derman-Sparks
& Edwards, 2010). The following sections describe how teachers can help children
acquire the knowledge and disposition to learn about the similarities and differences
among people.
Help Children Learn about Differences As our nation’s history demonstrates, just
exposing children to people of different races, cultures, abilities, or backgrounds is not
sufficient to help them learn to value diversity. In fact, simple exposure can actually exac-
erbate negative reactions (Derman-Sparks & Edwards, 2010).
Research on inclusion of children with disabilities, for example, finds that teachers
need to work with all of the children to help a child with special needs be accepted and
included in the group (Sandall & Schwartz, 2008). Preschoolers may think that if they
talk to or play with a child in a wheelchair, they won’t be able to walk, either. Teachers
need to actively support positive interactions among children and intervene when negative
reactions occur. Teachers shouldn’t deny differences with statements such as “He’s just
like you.” Instead, an honest explanation is best: “You and Justin both like to move around
the classroom and playground. You walk and run, while Justin uses his wheelchair to get
where he wants to go.”
Similarly, teachers should not admonish children for noticing differences. A teacher
who says “It isn’t nice to ask questions about other people” leaves a child without the cor-
rect information she or he needs. A child might ask, “Why is Derrick’s skin darker than
Deion’s?” A more helpful explanation might be, “Children usually look like their parents,
and Derrick’s parents also have dark skin.”
Likewise, dismissing children’s anxieties or fears about differences may lead to
avoidance or contribute to the development of prejudices. Consider the situation where
5-year-old Ariel says, “I don’t like Mashiko because she don’t speak English.” Her teacher
responds, “Oh, yes, you do. We’re all friends here.” Such a patronizing comment may lead
Ariel to avoid or dislike Mashiko even more. Instead, the teacher might say, “ Mashiko can
speak Japanese and she’s learning English. Maybe you can help her. And she can teach
you some words in her language.”
Avoid Tourist Curriculum In helping children to understand and value diversity, teach-
ers need to avoid the “tourist curriculum.” A tourist curriculum (Derman-Sparks &
Edwards, 2010) is one in which a culture is visited as though it were an exotic destina-
tion where people dress, talk, dance, and eat differently before returning to the “normal”
place where we all live. Here are some signs of a tourist curriculum (Derman-Sparks &
Edwards, 2010):
• Trivializing by organizing activities around food or holidays
• Tokenism, such as having only one book about any cultural group
• Disconnecting diversity from the rest of the curriculum, such as having a
one-week unit on a different culture or only discussing diversity on Martin
Luther King Day
• Stereotyping groups, such as using Native American images only from the past or
wearing traditional dress
• Misrepresenting groups such as using only books about Africa to teach about
African Americans
Integrate Diversity into the Curriculum Developing relationships with people from
diverse cultural groups and engaging in authentic experiences is the best way to help
children experience and value diversity. Such opportunities also help children to under-
stand that their perspective on the world is not necessarily the only or the best, but simply
different. It is also important for children to understand that there are many languages
in the world and no language is better than others. Regardless of the composition of
tourist curriculum An
approach in which a culture
is visited as though it were an
exotic destination where people
dress, talk, dance, and eat
differently before returning to
the “normal” place where we
all live.
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Chapter 6 Embracing a Culturally and Linguistically Diverse World 195
their class or school, children today are exposed to diver-
sity through the media—for example, seeing an African
American president on television or listening to a Latino
news anchor. Their wider community may also be more
diverse than the immediate neighborhood and serve as a
source of study.
Cultural diversity can also be integrated throughout the
curriculum. One way to help children experience and learn
to value diversity is to teach overriding concepts that cut
across cultural groups—we all need shelter, nourishment,
friends, families, and exercise, but we meet these needs
in various ways. In the primary grades, children begin to
study history and the lives of people in their communities
and beyond. Through oral histories and reading biogra-
phies and autobiographies, children can learn about their
own ethnic group and others.
Building each child’s positive identity and helping them appreciate and value diver-
sity lays the foundation for them to think critically about fair treatment of all people. This
is the third goal of culturally responsive teaching.
Goal 3: Foster Critical Thinking about Justice and Fairness We live
in a society in which great strides toward tolerance, understanding, and acceptance have
been made; yet racism, classism, sexism, homophobia, ageism, and other negative expres-
sions of bias and forms of discrimination persist. As a result, children will often experi-
ence these biases and at times express them. Biases are negative feelings and expressions
toward groups or individuals. Understanding bias means recognizing that differences are
not problematic, but negative reactions to differences are.
Countering bias and stereotypes is an area in which teachers must be ever vigilant.
To achieve this goal, teachers must review books, videos, games, toys, and other cur-
riculum materials to ensure that they do not perpetuate negative images of any group of
people. Teachers must also pay attention to toys or materials that children bring from
home.
In addition, teachers need to work with children to establish expectations for behav-
ior that prohibit expressions of bias toward other people to ensure that race, gender, age,
sexual orientation, appearance, and ability are never the subject of teasing or ridicule.
This is an area where teachers must have a zero-tolerance policy. They should intervene
immediately when such behavior occurs, reminding children of the rules for how chil-
dren are treated in the classroom. They also need to offer comfort to the child who is the
target of biased behavior: “Yolanda, it was unfair and unkind for Caleb to say you can’t
play because you have brown skin. Caleb, remember that we treat people fairly in this
school.”
Following are three important considerations when handling discriminatory or biased
behaviors (Derman-Sparks & Edwards, 2010):
1. Don’t ignore. Teachers need to address any signs of bias head on. Ignoring dis-
criminatory behaviors implies that they are acceptable. Consequently, the victim
feels unsafe and the perpetrator feels supported, the opposite of what is desirable.
For example, Ms. Eli is busy helping her first graders with math problems—when
she hears Jasmine tell Hiroke that he has funny eyes. Ms. Eli contemplates saying
nothing. Instead, she quietly says to Jasmine, “Everyone’s looks are unique and
different. Please remember that negative comments about people’s appearance are
hurtful and we don’t allow that here.”
2. Don’t excuse. Sometimes teachers will avoid an uncomfortable situation by saying
things like “He didn’t really mean it.” Excusing expressions of bias teaches one
child that the behavior is okay and the victim of that behavior that he or she will
not be protected. Instead, the teacher could have said, “Calling other people names
bias Negative feelings and
expressions toward groups or
individuals.
Linguistically responsive teach-
ing provides the opportunity for
all children to become bilingual
if schools take advantage of
children’s innate ability to learn
language and the affordable,
technological resources now
available.
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Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach196
hurts them, but it also makes you look mean and not very smart. If you have bad
feelings about someone’s behavior, we need to learn better ways for you to express
them.”
3. Don’t be afraid to intervene. Fear and ignorance are among the biggest impedi-
ments to confronting and eliminating discrimination in our society. Teachers may
be afraid that they will say the wrong thing to children, or that parents will be upset
if they talk about race, culture, language, or socioeconomic conditions. However,
unless they are part of the solution to addressing bias and discrimination in society,
teachers must accept the responsibility for being part of the problem. For example,
two children in Mr. Pinto’s second-grade class are living in a homeless shelter.
The children are teased for coming to school each day wearing the same clothes.
Mr. Pinto privately arranges for them to receive clothing donations. He also talks
with the teasers about their feelings, and finds out that some of the most verbal
children are actually afraid of losing their homes, too.
Goal 4: Take Action to Address Bias and Discrimination Goal 4 builds
on Goal 3. As children develop, they become more aware of others’ feelings and ever
more sensitive to the concept of fairness. How often have you heard a 4- or 5-year-old
say, “That’s not fair” in defense of their own rights? With teacher modeling and supports
as described in the previous section, children begin to care about others who are treated
unfairly and to do something about it, including telling an adult. This work is essential to
address the epidemic of bullying in schools.
In kindergarten and primary grades, children can problem-solve together ways to
take action to address situations in the school or community. For example, one school
in Washington, D.C., is having a lengthy discussion about the name of the local foot-
ball team, the Redskins. Children’s positions on changing the name tend to represent
their parents’ point of view; some think the name is offensive to Native Americans, while
others think it is a tradition that honors them. The children read books about the his-
tory of Native Americans and current articles about why various people think the name
should be changed. The children even explore what it feels like to be called, “Whiteskin,”
“Blackskin,” “Brownskin,” or “Yellowskin.” After much study, the class takes a vote on
whether the name should be changed, with 15 yes votes and 6 voting no. Those who vote
for changing the name decide to write letters to the team owner and the local newspaper
advocating for a change. They also work together to think of alternative names to suggest.
The goals of anti-bias education do not need to be addressed as separate subject ar-
eas or topics of study. Instead, these goals should be integrated throughout the learning
environment and curriculum and in all aspects of teachers’ interactions with children and
their families.
As we saw in the chapter-opening scenario, contradictions may arise because what
professionals think is good for children and what families believe and value might be
very different. Finding a middle ground that balances what professionals consider de-
velopmentally appropriate practice with what families consider culturally appropriate is
paramount to effective teaching.
Developmentally Appropriate and Culturally Responsive Practices
In this section, we address the sometimes controversial topic of the congruence of
developmentally appropriate and culturally appropriate practices (Bredekamp & Copple,
1997; Mallory & New, 1994; NAEYC, 2009). Just as we are all products of our cultural
upbringings, we are also products of our cultural environments, such as our schools, sum-
mer programs we might have attended, and jobs we have held. Professional organizations,
including schools and child care programs, also have their own cultures.
When the culture—especially the rules for behavior—of the school or child care
center is similar to that of children’s families, their adaptation and ability to make sense
of experiences is greatly eased. These children implicitly know much of what is expected
even though they need to learn specific information such as the classroom routines.
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Chapter 6 Embracing a Culturally and Linguistically Diverse World 197
On the other hand, when there are cultural
differences between the rules imposed at
school and those imposed at home, chil-
dren have greater difficulty adjusting. Not
only do they have to learn the curriculum,
but they also have to learn the implicit rules
of discourse, such as “Respond promptly”
or “Even though the teacher knows the an-
swer, he will still expect you to answer the
question.”
For culturally diverse children to be
successful in school, teachers must explic-
itly teach the rules of behavior that children
of the majority culture already know. Lisa
Delpit (2006), an African American educa-
tion professor and recipient of a MacArthur
“genius” award, eloquently describes how
the school culture is the “culture of power,”
and children who have access to its rules are more likely to succeed and gain access to
the power in society. Delpit further describes how constructivist teaching, such as the
developmentally appropriate practices advocated by NAEYC (2009), may leave children
of diverse cultural perspectives at a disadvantage. In her view, constructivism and other
progressive education approaches reflect the dominant European American cultural per-
spective. For children of other cultural backgrounds, success in school may depend on
their ability to become bicultural, that is, to learn the rules of the school culture while
holding on to the rules of the home culture.
Like Delpit, many early childhood educators have questioned the cultural appro-
priateness of developmentally appropriate practice (Dahlberg, Moss, & Pence, 2007;
Gonzalez-Mena, 2008; Graue & Delaney, 2011; Mallory & New, 1994; Sanders, Diehl,
& Kyler, 2007). Let’s think about this question in terms of what we’ve learned so far
about culture.
The Culture of Early Childhood Education: Revisited Previously we
presented a framework contrasting individualistic and interdependent cultures. Even a
cursory examination of NAEYC’s guidelines for developmentally appropriate practice
(NAEYC, 2009) or the association’s accreditation standards (NAEYC, 2007) reveals the
degree to which these documents reflect the individualistic cultural orientation. Goals
such as promoting independence, self-concept and self-esteem, exploration, verbal
communication, and child-initiated activity permeate the standards. Overall, a “child-
centered” philosophy underlies the approach.
A clear example of this orientation is the role of play in early childhood education
(Zepeda et al., 2006). Children are encouraged to play and explore the environment and
materials, and to play with and talk to adults. On the other hand, in interdependent cul-
tural groups, learning is directed by adults and depends more on observation of adults
than on play, discovery, and child-chosen activity (Zepeda et al., 2006). In these cultures,
objects such as toys are less important than social interaction, and play occurs mostly with
siblings and other children. Consider that children from these diverse cultural orientations
might gravitate toward peers in a free-flowing preschool classroom, instead of making
independent choices of materials as expected by the teacher.
Another standard focuses on the importance of warm, nurturing relationships
among teachers and children (NAEYC, 2008a, 2009). But the definition of “nurtur-
ing” behavior is also culturally inf luenced. For example, white European Americans
might think that African American parents and teachers are harsh in the way they talk
to or discipline their children (Hale, 1994). This “harshness” may ref lect the need to
help children of color navigate in a society that is often hostile to them (Killen, 2012).
When there are cultural differ-
ences between what the school
defines as developmentally
appropriate and the expecta-
tions of the family, children are
likely to have greater difficulty
adjusting.
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Consequently, those who observe this dynamic without this shared cultural perspec-
tive may not appreciate the love that is being conveyed. Similarly, African American
teachers and parents may value children learning academics more than playing in pre-
school because they know these skills are essential for their children to succeed in
school (Sanders et al., 2007).
To further illustrate how culturally determined our view of “best practice” is, con-
sider a recent effort by Chinese researchers (Li, Hu, Pan, Qin, & Fan, 2013) to adapt a
widely used American measure of high quality, the Early Childhood Environment Rat-
ing Scale (Harms, Clifford, & Cryer, 2005). The researchers found that the tool did not
adequately ref lect their Asian collectivist culture, especially in terms of their emphasis
on group activities and whole-group instruction. They found it necessary to develop
items measuring the quality of whole-group teaching, which they subsequently found
to be highly related to children’s learning outcomes. Another difference was in the way
quality outdoor play is defined. Such play is far more restricted in their programs, per-
haps due to overprotection by parents because most children are the only child in the
family.
The point of this discussion is to acknowledge that the prevailing standards for good
practice in early childhood education described throughout this book and taught in most
teacher education courses reflect the dominant culture of society. At the same time, these
standards require that programs be responsive to cultural and linguistic diversity. Given
the diversity of children and families served today, teachers must help children to become
bicultural, capable of operating successfully in both their home environment and the
culture of the larger world. Accomplishing this goal requires teachers to resolve some
of the inevitable contradictions that arise between what is considered developmentally
appropriate and what is culturally appropriate.
Resolving Contradictions As you have seen, when you are caring for and edu-
cating other people’s children, you are being relied on to do so in a way that adheres to
other people’s beliefs and values. In the case of infants and toddlers, for example, how
feeding, sleeping, dressing, and toileting are handled is not consistent across cultures.
Likewise, with preschoolers and elementary-grade children, teachers and families may
disagree fundamentally on appropriate discipline as well as how and what children should
be learning. Resolving these differences is an important part of working with children and
families. Read the Becoming an Intentional Teacher: Responding to Cultural Differences
feature for an example of how one teacher finds the balance between her ideas and family
perspectives.
Professionals tend to think they know the right answers to situations that arise in the
classroom. Yet in most situations, no one right answer exists. It is true that some practices,
such as spanking children, are prohibited by law and others by licensing standards. In
these cases, no compromise is possible. But more often, both/and solutions are more use-
ful than either/or choices when such contradictions occur, as illustrated in the following
real-life example (adapted from Bredekamp, 1997a, p. 47):
Antonia Lopez was director of a program for Mexican American children and fami-
lies in California. One of the program’s primary objectives was to promote cultural
congruity. As a relatively interdependent cultural group, Mexican Americans value
cooperation over competition, and this value was encouraged in the program. Another
accepted cultural practice is the giving of gifts to express respect and appreciation.
During the year, an uncomfortable situation arose. Parents began giving teachers
gifts, and over time the gifts became more elaborate. The gift-giving escalated into
a competition to see who could give the best gift, a direct contradiction of the pro-
gram’s goals. To resolve this dilemma, Antonia and her staff established two rules for
dealing with the situation:
Rule 1) You can’t accept the gifts.
Rule 2) You can’t reject the gifts.
bicultural Capable of operat-
ing successfully in both the
home environment and the
dominant culture of the larger
world.
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Chapter 6 Embracing a Culturally and Linguistically Diverse World 199
With these rules in place, the staff had to arrive at an alternative solution. They agreed
that rather than teachers’ accepting gifts for themselves, gifts would be accepted on be-
half of the school. Depending on the gift, it was shared by all the children, or displayed in
a place of honor for everyone to appreciate. Soon families’ gift-giving became less com-
petitive and moved toward the goal of making the program a better place for everyone.
When teachers and families disagree on what is best for children, remembering
Antonia’s rules may be a good strategy. If teachers cannot accept the family’s position for
some reason, but they also cannot reject it, then they will have to work toward an alterna-
tive solution—one that might better serve everyone’s interests.
Although it is true that all children are born ready to learn, it is equally true that their
learning takes place within social and cultural contexts. Just as our cultural backgrounds
influence our own development, behavior, and learning, developing an understanding of
the role of each child’s culture should influence what and how we teach young children.
Although overall learning goals may be more or less the same across cultures, different
teaching strategies may be required to help children achieve those goals.
To build successful relationships with children, you will need to take into account
and learn about each child’s cultural worlds because their experiences and home
language are integral components of their identity. As a teacher, you will need to
demonstrate respect and support for children’s language and culture. You must also help
children make sense of their new experiences in school by making connections to their
Becoming an Intentional Teacher
Responding to Cultural Differences
Here’s What Happened Before the new group of
3-year-olds started in the fall, I let all of the families know
that the children were welcome to bring from home any
kind of “comfort object” they would like. Emma brought
her favorite bear, Cookie. When she went to get him from
her cubby at naptime, Cookie was gone, and when she
searched for Cookie, she found Linh curled up and ready for
her nap, holding the bear. I explained to Linh that the bear
was Emma’s and gently took him from her and returned
him to Emma. After this sequence of events repeated itself
for several days, I talked to Linh’s mother, Mrs. Pham, and
asked for her help in getting her daughter to leave Emma’s
bear alone. Although she understands English fairly well,
she looked at me with total incomprehension at this
request. During the next few weeks, I talked with a few
Vietnamese people who had lived in the community for a
while. From our discussions, I saw the part of the picture I
had been missing. In the Vietnamese and most other Asian
cultures, the idea of individual ownership is not as impor-
tant as shared ownership and enjoyment of objects.
I went back to Linh’s mom to give her a sense of how
Emma’s experiences were different from Linh’s. I also
talked with Emma’s mom about Linh’s perspective. At her
mother’s encouragement, Linh brought in a toy animal that
she and her siblings play with at home. After a few weeks,
Linh and Emma sometimes would have their animals play
together in the dramatic play area.
Here’s What I Was Thinking Getting the informa-
tion from members of the Vietnamese community was very
helpful, as was my own research
about “interdependent” cultures.
Maybe I could have gotten to this
eventually by talking with Linh’s
mother, but because I didn’t understand the basis of her
response, I didn’t want to risk offending her as a result
of my own ignorance. Once I had some understanding of
interdependent and individualistic cultural values, I could
talk with Mrs. Pham and see if we were communicating
clearly. I felt it was important to go beyond just resolving
the immediate conflict between the girls.
I think it is important for the families as well as the children
to learn about the differences in cultural values and prac-
tices. After all, the Vietnamese children will experience the
values predominant in European American culture through-
out their lives in the United States, and ultimately the goal
is for them to become sufficiently “bicultural” so that they
can manage well in both worlds. At the same time, I was
impressed with the way the Vietnamese children get along
and share toys, which is a goal we have for all 3-year-olds.
And the families who are natives to our area need to under-
stand the new people who are joining our community, too.
In fact, because Linh and Emma are so young, I thought
their families might gain more cultural knowledge from this
situation than they would.
Reflection Rethink this situation from the perspective
of a teacher whose own cultural values are interdependent.
What might she have been thinking and what would she
have done?
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Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach200
prior knowledge and experiences obtained in their own cultural contexts. Culturally
and linguistically appropriate ways of teaching are not “add-ons”; they are integral
dimensions of developmentally appropriate practice.
✓ Check Your Understanding 6.6: Effective Practices for Diverse Learners
… Ms. Griffin’s Classroom
At the beginning of this chapter, we saw how Stacey struggled in her relationship with families during
her first year of teaching. Now that we have explored the many ways culture influences thinking and
behavior, we can revisit Stacey’s situation and see how it could be improved for everyone involved.
Rather than giving up in frustration, Stacey attends a professional conference and takes workshops
on cultural and linguistic diversity. This motivates her to do some reading and talking with the more
experienced staff members at her center. These experiences cause Stacey to reexamine some of her
prior assumptions and, in turn, change some of the ways she teaches.
Her first step is to alter her daily schedule so the beginning of the day is an informal time for her to
talk and play with small groups or individual children. Before she calls for a group gathering to sing or
tell the children the plans for the day, Stacey waits for all of the children to arrive. This schedule means
that she is no longer frustrated if parents bring their children late.
Stacey reflects on the disagreements she has been having with families over carrying and dressing
their children. She recognizes that these differences are quite minor. Consequently, she decides not to
interfere with close family relationships by imposing her views of what is best for children’s development.
Stacey explains to families that she doesn’t always have time to feed each child individually, so at
times she gives them finger food. In response to parents’ concerns, however, she promises that she will
help feed the children as much as possible. In general, she finds that once their families leave for the
day, the children tend to model each other. In some ways, they function more independently, such as
when they attempt self-help skills. In other ways, they function interdependently by helping each other
often and waiting till Stacey tells them what to do.
In her conflict with Mrs. Arguenta, Stacey realizes that Mrs. Arguenta was showing respect by re-
fusing to call her by her first name. Stacey comes to see that Mrs. Arguenta has a legitimate point of
view about teaching Ilsia to use the toilet. She tries using the skills she learned for resolving conflict.
She agrees to try Mrs. Arguenta’s strategies, while Mrs. Arguenta agrees that they may not be entirely
successful because Stacey has a group of children to supervise.
Finally, Stacey realizes that Mrs. Arguenta sent Ilsia’s 10-year-old sister to pick her up because
within their cultural group, older children naturally look after their younger siblings. Stacey respect-
fully explains to Mrs. Arguenta that because of licensing laws, the center can only release a child to an
adult. This is an issue where compromise is not possible. Mrs. Arguenta presents a list of adult family
members who have permission to pick up Ilsia.
As we see from the encounter between Stacey and Mrs. Arguenta, cultural competence and cross-
cultural communication are key elements of effective practice in early childhood education. ■
Revisiting the Case Study
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Chapter 6 Embracing a Culturally and Linguistically Diverse World 201
• Culture can be defined as the values, beliefs, and pat-
terns of behavior, both explicit and implicit, that are
passed on from generation to generation. All learning
and development occur in and are influenced by social
and cultural contexts.
• A framework for studying culture is to understand
that the beliefs, values, and behaviors that characterize
cultural groups vary along a continuum from individu-
alistic to interdependent.
• Teachers need to become aware of their own cultural
perspectives as the first step toward becoming cultur-
ally competent.
• Knowledge of culture is important because without
it, teachers can misunderstand children, inaccurately
assess children’s competence, and/or fail to promote
children’s learning.
• Cultural competence is the ability to work and commu-
nicate effectively, both verbally and nonverbally, with
members of various cultural groups.
• Culturally responsive learning goals for children are to
foster and support children’s development and sense
of identity within their own cultural group, to assist
children to experience and value diversity, to foster
children’s critical thinking, and to counter stereotypes
and biases (negative expressions toward groups).
• Given the diversity of children and families served to-
day, teachers must help children to become bicultural,
capable of operating successfully in both their home
environment and the larger world. Helping children
become bicultural requires teachers to resolve some of
the inevitable contradictions that arise between what
is considered developmentally appropriate and what is
culturally appropriate.
Chapter Summary6
Key Terms
■■ acculturation
■■ anti-bias education
■■ bias
■■ bicultural
■■ culture
■■ cultural competence
■■ dual language learners
■■ multi-language learners
■■ ethnicity
■■ high-context culture
■■ identity
■■ individualistic cultural
groups
■■ interdependent cultural
groups
■■ low-context culture
■■ tourist curriculum
Demonstrate Your Learning
Click here to assess how well you’ve learned the content in this chapter.
✓
Derman-Sparks, L., & Edwards, J. O. (2010). Anti-bias
education for young children and ourselves. Washington,
DC: NAEYC.
Lynch, E. W., & Hanson, M. J. (Eds.). (2011). Develop-
ing cross-cultural competence: A guide for working with
children and their families (4th ed.). Baltimore: Paul H.
Brookes.
National Black Child Development Institute. (2013).
Being Black is not a risk factor: A strengths-based look
at the state of the Black child. Washington, DC: National
Black Child Development Institute. Retrieved from http://
www.nbcdi.org/resource.
Nemeth, K. N. (2012). Basics of supporting dual lan-
guage learners: An introduction for educators of children
from birth through age 8. Washington, DC: National
Association for the Education of Young Children.
Souto-Manning, M. (2013). Multicultural teaching in the
early childhood classroom: Approaches, strategies and
tools preschool–2nd grade. New York: Teachers College
Press.
Readings and Websites
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Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach202
Head Start National Center on Cultural and Linguis-
tic Responsiveness
This federally funded center provides online practi-
cal resources to guide programs serving culturally and
linguistically diverse children and families, including
materials in Spanish and other languages.
Multicultural Children’s Literature
A number of sites offer multicultural children’s books,
but searching for one that has “multiculturalchildrenslit”
in the online address will lead you to a site with a large
selection of books representing many diverse groups and
in many languages.
Teaching Tolerance: A Project of the Southern
Poverty Law Center
This website has a wealth of classroom resources includ-
ing sample lessons designed for different age groups on
all aspects of diversity and anti-bias education.
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7
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
7.1 Distinguish characteristics of contemporary families and describe the role of
families in their children’s development, including how social, economic, and
cultural contexts affect family functioning.
7.2 Discuss how reciprocal relationships develop with families and apply prin-
ciples of family-centered practice.
7.3 Explain effective strategies for maintaining two-way communication with
families.
7.4 Elaborate on how teachers can productively involve families in their children’s
care and education.
7.5 Apply what you have learned about families to build partnerships that
achieve both teachers’ and parents’ goals for children.
Building Effective
Partnerships with Families
Learning Outcomes
© Comstock/Stockbyte/Getty Images
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205
V ilma Suarez has worked as a toddler teacher in an Early Head Start center for 3 years. She loves her job, but her days can be exhausting. Today was one of those days. Before the children even arrived, Vilma had
a meeting with the early intervention team to discuss Aiya’s individualized family service plan (IFSP). Aiya is deaf,
and the team wants Vilma to begin signing with her. Aiya’s mother is silent throughout the meeting. She is a new
immigrant and feels threatened by this powerful group of professionals. Vilma is patiently working to gain her trust,
beginning with being available to talk about other things besides Aiya’s hearing impairment.
When Mrs. Vacaro drops 2-year-old Tomas off, he sobs and clings to her, and Mrs. Vacaro is clearly torn about
leaving him. Vilma speaks softly to Tomas and gets his attention with his favorite stacking toy. Finally, Mrs. Vacaro
is able to pry him loose and reluctantly departs. Vilma tries to call and text her during the day to reassure her, but
Mrs. Vacaro attends school and must have turned off the sound on her phone.
The assistant teacher supervises the children’s naptime while Vilma conducts a parent conference. The
conference is difficult because she has to talk to Mr. Henderson about his son’s out-of-control biting. Mr. Henderson
angrily says, “Just smack him. That’s what I do.” Vilma realizes that this situation will have to be negotiated
carefully.
At 5:00 p.m., when Mrs. Vacaro comes in clearly dreading the worst, Vilma greets her with the news that Tomas
had great fun today playing with his friends, ate well, and even said two new words. As Vilma reassures her about
how well Tomas is doing, Mrs. Vacaro sighs and fights back tears. She stoops to cuddle Tomas, and Vilma turns to
talk with Marcy’s grandmother and David’s father, who have just arrived.
During her bus ride home, Vilma reflects on her day. She remembers that when she
began her career, she was excited about working with very young children. Because
she has three children of her own and helped parent her younger siblings,
she felt confident working with babies and toddlers and was relieved to
have a job where she didn’t have to work with adults. Vilma shakes her
head, remembering how naïve she was. She now knows that
working with children is only one part of her job. Working with
their families is the bigger challenge. But doing so is also very
rewarding. She understands that by learning
from and with families, her contributions to
children’s lives will last long after they leave her
classroom. ■
Case Study
W
hatever your age, if someone asked you to picture the most important people in
your life, images of your family members would likely come to mind. Perhaps
you would picture the people you grew up with, or your spouse/partner and
children. Some of you might picture both your nuclear family of parents and siblings and
your extended family of cousins, aunts, uncles, and grandparents. Families play essential
roles in every aspect of human development through the life span. During early child-
hood, however, families are the primary context for children’s development and learning,
with child care and early education settings playing a secondary, albeit critically impor-
tant, role. Given that these two contexts—families and early childhood programs—are the
two main environments in which children develop and learn, it is essential for teachers
and parents to work in concert if children are to develop to their fullest potential.
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach206
Because young children are inherently connected to their families, early childhood
teachers work with children and families. The younger the child, the stronger the connec-
tion to family and, therefore, the closer the relationship between teacher and parent must
be. Most early childhood educators enter the field because of their interest in teaching
young children; initially, they may not grasp the importance of developing skills to work
with families. In fact, teachers report that working with families is among the areas where
they feel least prepared and need the most help (Early & Winton, 2001). Throughout
this book, we use the terms families and parents to mean those people who are primarily
responsible for the children you teach, whoever they are—parents, stepparents, grandpar-
ents, guardians, foster families, or other household members.
This chapter describes how teachers establish reciprocal relationships with fami-
lies. We begin by painting a picture of today’s families, their exquisite diversity, and
the challenges they face in providing for their children. Next, we describe the principles
of family-centered practice as well as the nature of productive, reciprocal partnerships
between teachers and families. We describe effective strategies for communicating with
families and involving them in their children’s education. We also acknowledge that some
strategies are not effective in all situations; relationships with families are not always
smooth. Therefore, the chapter provides a framework for building partnerships that is ef-
fective in resolving the inevitable conflicts that arise when working with families.
Today’s Families
One can hardly read a newspaper or watch a television program today without hearing
dire warnings about the state of the American family and the myriad threats it faces.
Although it is true that families in the 21st century confront many challenges, it is equally
true that the family is and has always been a dynamic, resilient, and effective institution
for nurturing and acculturating each new generation.
What is a family? This may seem like a fairly easy question to answer, but it is not.
Each of you, no doubt, has your own definition of family based on your own experiences.
Throughout your career as a teacher, you will work with children who experience a wide
range of family configurations, as discussed next.
Families today come in all shapes and sizes. How would you describe the membership in your family?
How does it compare with the family your parents or grandparents grew up in?
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Chapter 7 Building Effective Partnerships with Families 207
Welcoming Diverse Families
Louise’s child care class consists of fifteen 3- to 5-year-olds. Four of the children live
with their biological mothers and fathers; Blake and Debra are only children, Madeline
is the youngest of four, and Stephen is the eldest of three. Five children live with their
mothers only, but among them Joseph and Lauren are in shared custody arrangements
and split days of the week living with their fathers. Both Joseph and Lauren have
stepmothers as well as stepsiblings. Lauren also has a baby half-brother. Of the other
three children who live with their mothers, Marin doesn’t know her father at all, and
Jackson has infrequent contact with his biological father. Jeanine’s mom is serving
in the military overseas. Marta lives with her two dads, and Logan lives with his two
moms. Kim lives with his parents and siblings and also his paternal grandparents,
aunt, and one cousin. David has lived with his grandmother and two brothers since his
mother died, and his father is in prison. The diverse family configurations represented
in Louise’s class are typical of America today: two-parent, single-parent, families of
divorce, blended/stepfamilies, LGBT (lesbian/gay/bisexual/transgender) families, and
extended families.
Despite statistics and experience to the contrary, many people still think of the family
as consisting of two first-time married parents and their biological or adopted children,
known as the nuclear family. In looking at how children grow up today, however, as de-
picted in Figure 7.1, we see that about two-thirds (64%) of all children live with two mar-
ried parents, but considerable variation exists among these families. About 1 in 8 of these
children lives in a family with a stepparent or adoptive parent (Kreider & Ellis, 2011).
Mother-only families account for 24%, and 4% of children live with their fathers only
(Child Trends, 2014a). Another 4% of children live with neither parent but rather with
other family members, usually grandparents, or nonrelatives.
A significant trend is the difference in children’s living arrangements by race and
ethnicity (Children’s Defense Fund [CDF], 2011). More than half of African American
children live with their mothers only, as do about 28% of Latino children (Child Trends,
2014a). By contrast, 15% of white children and only 11% of Asian children live in
mother-only households. In addition, more than twice as many African American children
(6%) as white children do not live with either parent (Child Trends, 2014a).
Increasing numbers of children live in extended families, which are defined as a
family unit where two or more generations of close family relatives live together in one
household. Here again we see racial and ethnic diversity, with about 9% of white, 17%
of African American, and 14% of Latino children living with at least one grandparent
(Ellis & Simmons, 2014).
Families form and re-form over time. At various times, children may live with
only one or even no parents because of divorce, separation, remarriage, death, or other
circumstances. In early childhood programs, conversations
and curriculum often focus on children’s families, but because
families today are so diverse, teachers need to be careful not to
make assumptions.
Contrary to popular belief, there has never been a “typi-
cal” or “traditional” family structure in America (Welch, 2011).
Various factors contribute to changing family structures over
time. For example, until quite recently in history, women died
in childbirth at alarming rates, and men also died young in wars
or of disease. Therefore, although divorce was less common,
many children grew up in single-parent families or blended
families. Consider for a moment your own experiences of fam-
ily, and those of your parents and grandparents. While some
grow up in a “traditional” nuclear family with married parents
of different sexes, many children grow up in single-parent,
grandparent, or same-sex parent households.
Two parents
including
biological,
adoptive, and
step-parents
63%
Mother only
23%
Father only
4%
Extended family
8%
Grandparents
2%
FIGURE 7.1 Living
Arrangements for All
Children
Today, children’s living
arrangements vary widely
depending on their family
backgrounds, circumstances,
and configurations.
Source: Family Structure, Child
Trends Data Bank, from Child
Trends, 2014, retrieved from http://
www.childtrendsdatabank.org.
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http://www.childtrendsdatabank.org
http://www.childtrendsdatabank.org
Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach208
Regardless of your own family experiences or values, as a teacher you will encounter
many different family configurations. The likelihood of successfully working with fami-
lies will increase if you accept the following assumptions:
• Families are diverse in many ways: composition, culture, religion, economic status,
work, mobility, and sexual orientation.
• Families are not good or bad; they are different and unique.
• Families, with rare exceptions, want the best for their children, regardless of the
difficult circumstances they may be trying to overcome.
• All families have strengths and resources, hopes and dreams for their children, just
as all families face challenges.
• It is not your right to pass judgment on families. You do not need to agree with
families at all times, but you cannot reject a child’s family and at the same time
successfully care for and educate the child.
The more you know about the intricacies of family functioning, the more likely you
will be able to put the above assumptions into practice. In the next section, we describe
the theoretical perspectives that help explain how families function and change.
Family Dynamics
Joelynn and Jeff Robeson already have 18-month-old twins when their third child, Eric,
is born with spina bifida, a physical disability that requires repeated hospitalizations and
considerable care. Just when Joelynn and Jeff are beginning to adjust to the strain on their
marriage of caring for three young children, including one with special needs, the factory
where Jeff works closes down and he loses his job. Suffering from depression and alcohol
abuse, Jeff leaves Joelynn without child support, forcing her to seek public assistance.
After a while, however, the rules for continuing on public assistance require Joelynn to
work full time, and she must leave her three young children in the care of her sister, who
also has two preschool-age children. Joelynn suffers from the stresses of caring for her
children and supporting them on her minimum wage salary.
As is true for every family, the development of each member of the Robeson family
is affected by many different factors, both internal and external to the family. Two theo-
retical perspectives are helpful for thinking about families: Bronfenbrenner’s ecological
theory of human development and family systems theory. Each of these frameworks helps
explain the complex interactions known as family dynamics.
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Model of Human Development As we
learned in Chapter 4, ecological theory is a useful model for understanding the influence
of social and cultural contexts on human development (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006),
and especially the important influence of family. At the center of Bronfenbrenner’s model
is the individual child, whose development is influenced by biology, and by the proximal
processes of daily interactions in the family microsystem. In the Robeson family, Eric’s
disability at birth is a biological contributor to his development, but other variables also
contribute to his development and mediate his disability. For example, Eric’s personal
characteristics, such as his above-average intelligence and his lively personality, attract
the positive attention of everyone he meets.
In the Robeson family, Eric was born into a family that was already caring for very
young twins. His siblings’ existence was part of the context into which he was born, but
his birth and his disability dramatically changed the family’s context. As a result, Eric’s
aunt provided child care; this event occurs within the microsystem in which experiences
interact and affect each other. The interactions that Eric has with his parents, siblings, and
extended family—proximal processes, or daily routines—bear the most influence on his
development.
Other aspects of the systems surrounding Eric also matter for his development.
Interactions between his family and his aunt, doctors, and early intervention profes-
sionals represent the mesosystems—the interactions among Eric’s microsystems. For
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Chapter 7 Building Effective Partnerships with Families 209
the Robeson family, the exosystem includes economic factors beyond their control that
seriously affected the family. Jeff’s unemployment led to the family’s requiring pub-
lic assistance. The laws governing eligibility for public support necessitated Joelynn’s
employment and the children’s enrollment in child care.
Consider how changes in various elements of the exosystem could alter outcomes for
the Robeson family and their children, especially Eric. With Jeff out of work and Joelynn
working for minimum wage, the family’s income is below poverty level, making them
eligible for Early Head Start. This federal program provides child care for children from
birth to age 3, early intervention services for Eric, and family support. The early interven-
tion team helps Joelynn learn how to support Eric’s development at home. They put Jeff
in touch with mental health counselors to help him deal with his depression, and they also
connect him to Alcoholics Anonymous and career retraining. Through the counseling of-
fered by Early Head Start, Jeff gets a maintenance job while he attends computer school.
Joelynn begins training as a nurse’s aide, inspired by her newfound abilities to care for
Eric’s health. The twins thrive in the social atmosphere at the child care center. The family
reunites, and its emotional as well as financial security improves. The changes in Eric’s
family will have lasting benefits for his development as well.
When aspects of the child and family systems provide substantive supports outside
of their home life, families have what they need to have positive interactions inside their
home—and children benefit. Now that you have seen how various ecological systems
interact to influence the family and children’s development, we focus on family systems
theory, which explains more about the internal workings of family dynamics.
Family Systems Theory Understanding family dynamics is an important aspect of
working with children of any age, but of young children in particular because they don’t
always have the language to describe their emotions and needs. Rodney may be angry
because his father was just deployed, which makes his mother sad and nervous and his
big sister silent. To describe how this one event impacts the entire family, family systems
theory views family members as interconnected parts, with each member influencing the
others in predictable and recurring ways (Welch, 2011). Family systems theory focuses
on explaining family behavior—that is, why individual family members behave as they
do in relation to one another and to those outside the family. Understanding how families
function as systems can help teachers serve diverse children and build family partnerships
more effectively.
Family systems theory describes some common characteristics of families, includ-
ing boundaries, roles, rules, hierarchy, climate, and equilibrium (Christian, 2006). Each
of these characteristics can be described on a continuum. For example, all families have
rules regarding the acceptable behavior of members; some families operate according to
strict and inflexible rules, whereas others have few rules or apply rules inconsistently.
Table 7.1 presents characteristics of family systems, what they mean, and implications for
effective teaching practice. Because each dimension of family functioning is particularly
influenced by the cultural beliefs and practices of the family and community, teachers
need to view family variability on these dimensions as differences rather than positives or
negatives (Christian, 2006).
In the previous sections, we have seen how families influence and are influenced by
social, cultural, and political contexts. We have also seen how different families’ char-
acteristics influence their behavior toward their children and in relation to teachers and
school. In the next section, we describe some of the challenges confronting America’s
families today.
Family Circumstances and Challenges
Families today face many challenges in providing the best care and education for their
children. We regularly hear dire predictions about children at risk. This term is widely
used, typically to refer to children who have characteristics (such as a disability) or life
circumstances (such as poverty) that increase the likelihood that they will experience
family systems theory Views
family members as intercon-
nected parts, with each mem-
ber influencing the others in
predictable and recurring ways.
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Dimension Explanation Implication and Example
Boundaries Limitations on what or who is considered in or out
of the family. Some families are open to new people
and new ideas, whereas others tend to be more closed
and restrictive. Families at one extreme may share
too much information about the private workings of
the family, whereas extremely closed families may
conceal information such as domestic violence or
substance abuse.
Respecting a family’s boundaries is an important skill
of effective early childhood professionals. When the
Robeson family enrolled in the Early Head Start pro-
gram, the staff found that Joelynn was open to sharing
her problems and seeking help, but Jeff at first felt the
program was too intrusive into his personal business.
Roles In every family, individual members have roles—the
parts that individuals typically play in relation to oth-
ers. Most of us readily remember our role in the family.
Were you the baby, the peacemaker, or the rescuer?
These roles have powerful lasting effects on develop-
ment that are often played out in school as well. For
example, 7-year-old Deon’s parents have addiction
problems. From a young age, he has felt responsible
for taking care of them and his younger sister. Deon’s
teacher values his serious attitude toward his work, but
wishes that he didn’t worry so much about his parents
and could be more carefree.
Rules The standards or traditions that dictate correct be-
havior in various situations and how we relate to one
another. Defining and passing on rules for behavior is
the major function of cultural groups; therefore, rules
are, by definition, culturally determined.
Differences in teachers’ and parents’ expectations
about rules often require negotiation. Deon’s parents
think he should act like a man and contribute to the
family rather than play outside or spend time with
friends.
Hierarchy The decision making, control, and power within the
family, who is in charge, and how power is distributed
and used. Like rules, hierarchy is strongly influenced
by culture. In some families, parents share responsibil-
ity equitably; in others, hierarchy is determined by gen-
der, with fathers and mothers making decisions about
different aspects of parenting. In some groups, power
is vested in elders. Hierarchies change over time.
Teachers need to be aware of family hierarchy because
so many interactions involve decisions, and effective
family partnerships and family-centered practice
require the sharing of power. In the Robeson family,
Jeff was the one in charge during the early years of
the marriage, but when he lost his job, power shifted
to Joelynn as the breadwinner and single parent.
Power shifts can also occur when a military parent
is deployed.
Climate The emotional and physical environment in which
a child grows up. Emotionally close families can
compensate to some extent for threatening physical
environments.
The classroom climate needs to be emotionally safe
and secure for all children. The Robeson family lived
in a physically safe neighborhood, but the tensions
between the parents created a hostile emotional
climate in the home for a time.
Equilibrium The sense of balance or consistency that family mem-
bers experience. Growth and change, both positive and
negative, are inevitable aspects of human develop-
ment, but too much inconsistency creates confusion
and resentment.
Teachers can help work with families during times
of change to maintain stability and consistency. For
example, at the Early Head Start center, the Robeson
twins were kept in the same class with the same
teachers for 2 years during the period of upheaval in
their family. Then the staff worked with the Head Start
program to transition the twins smoothly to preschool.
Table 7.1 Characteristics of Family Systems
Source: Based on “Understanding Families: Applying Family Systems Theory to Early Childhood Practice,” by L. G. Christian, 2006,
Young Children, 61(1), 12–20.
negative developmental and learning outcomes, such as dropping out of school. However,
the term “at risk” has no consistent definition and often tends to stigmatize children, fami-
lies, and/or communities by oversimplifying the strengths and challenges of children and
families with a label that does not help address their needs (Moore, 2006).
Because families are the most critical setting for children’s development, risk factors
affecting families, such as poverty, single parenthood, and low levels of parental educa-
tion (which tend to co-occur), are found to be related to poor outcomes for children. Other
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Chapter 7 Building Effective Partnerships with Families 211
factors that place families at risk include family dysfunction, abuse, parental
mental illness, substance abuse, and illness (U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services, n.d.). Community risk factors create challenges for families
as well; these include poverty, crime, unemployment, and high levels of teen
parenthood.
Challenges for Families The largest risk factor for poor child out-
comes is poverty, which the federal government defines as less than $22,050
per year for a family of four. Because research shows that almost twice this
income is required to adequately cover expenses, the National Center for
Children in Poverty (2014) estimates that almost 45% of children live in low-
income families. In 2012, almost 25% of children under the age of 6 were
living in poverty or extreme poverty (less than half the poverty level)—an
increase of 33% in the first decade of the 21st century (Children’s Defense
Fund [CDF], 2014). Growing up in poverty is related to many negative out-
comes for children, including increased likelihood of abuse, neglect, school
failure, delinquency, and violence.
Child poverty continues to grow despite the fact that most poor children live in work-
ing families (CDF, 2014). Moreover, a disproportionate number of children of color live
in poverty (CDF, 2014). Compared to 12% of white children, 40% of African American,
34% of Hispanic, and 37% of American Indian children under age 5 are poor (CDF,
2014).
Children living in poverty are at risk for poor physical and dental health, more likely
to experience hunger and malnutrition, and less likely to have access to health care (CDF,
2014). African American children are more than twice as likely as white children not to have
medical insurance. In addition, homelessness is on the rise; in fact, families with children,
including many preschoolers, are the fastest growing group of homeless people (CDF, 2014).
Cumulative risk factors increase the likelihood of poor outcomes for children. Pov-
erty coupled with other factors such as low level of parent education (less than high
school), single-parent family, or teen parent multiplies risk. Economic stress also affects
two-parent families. Almost 60% of mothers of children under age 5 are in the workforce,
which adds the cost of child care for many financially strapped families.
Classroom Connection
Watch this video about the
Campsey family, and analyze how
family experiences, in this case
the birth of a child with disabili-
ties, can change family dynamics
and circumstances in challenging
ways.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v
=exaWw4hPzwE&index=34&
list=PLK1JOJxrAG2E-BE-
CoAk15nr190X3Sw8ZI
Programs such as Head Start and Early Head Start serve our nation’s neediest families. Early child-
hood teachers work closely with families and can be resources to help strengthen and build resilience in
families facing challenges.
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach212
Resilient Families Despite difficult family circumstances and challenges, it is im-
portant to note that poverty, neglect, and discrimination do not necessarily set children up
for failure. Families’ assets or strengths—their protective factors—can counter the poten-
tial negative effects of risks (Cabrera, 2013). Although public attention tends to focus on all
that is wrong with the American family, compelling evidence exists that many families—
including those living in the most difficult circumstances—have inner strengths that
counter risk factors and predict positive results for children (Iruka, 2013).
Contemporary families have high levels of important family strengths: closeness,
concern, caring, and interaction (Moore, Chalk, Scarpa, & Vandivere, 2002). Moreover,
a positive, caring relationship with a parent can mitigate many risk factors (Bandy &
Moore, 2008). Similarly, ongoing positive relationships with other adults, especially
caregivers and teachers, are important protective factors (Driscoll, Wang, Mashburn, &
Pianta, 2011).
Child Trends (2007) finds that about 10% of children growing up in two-parent, low-
conflict families have problems, whereas 20% of all other children experience problems.
Their conclusion is somewhat contrary to the popular images of at-risk children and fami-
lies today: Most kids do fine. Some children with highly stable families will have prob-
lems; more children whose families experience several risk factors will struggle. The
takeaway message with regard to risk and protective factors is that there are no guaran-
tees. Poor outcomes are not inevitable for children placed at risk, just as low risk is not a
guarantee of success in life. Given the critical role of families in children’s development
and learning, the simple conclusion is that anything we can do to strengthen families
is a good idea (Child Trends, 2007). Later in this chapter, we discuss family-centered
practice, which includes research-based, effective strategies to support families.
Because they work directly with families as well as children, early childhood educa-
tors have the opportunity as well as the responsibility to strengthen families. In the next
section, we address ways teachers can build reciprocal relationships with families toward
the goal of achieving better outcomes for all children.
✓ Check Your Understanding 7.1: Today’s Families
Reciprocal Relationships
with Families
In her book on partnerships with parents, Janis Keyser (2006, p. xi) describes her develop-
ment as an early childhood professional as progressing through three stages of relationship
with parents: save the child, save the parents, and draw on parents’ expertise. These stages
are identical to my own experience and that of many other early childhood teachers.
Like many others in the early childhood profession, Keyser chose this field because
of her love of children. In the earliest days of her practice, when she encountered a child
whose needs were great, she entered the first stage: “save the child.” Inevitably there would
be several children whom she thought if only she could save them from their parents, their
lives would be better. She quickly realized the futility of this approach and moved on to the
next stage of her development, which she calls “save the parents.” Realizing that it would be
impossible to save all of the children from their parents, she determined to fix the parents.
She thought that if she taught them everything early childhood professionals know, they
would become better parents. Soon, however, she realized that this notion fails to recognize
that families bring funds of knowledge—experiences, traditions, goals, resources, and rich
culture to their roles. In fact, she concluded that families add unique value to the knowledge
of early childhood teachers (Gonzalez, Moll, & Amanti, 2005; Iruka, 2013). In the final
stage of development in her relationships with families, she rejected both goals of saving
children and saving parents in favor of drawing on parents’ expertise to work in partnerships
with them in ways that are in the children’s best interests.
funds of knowledge Expe-
riences, traditions, goals,
resources, and rich culture that
families bring to their roles.
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Chapter 7 Building Effective Partnerships with Families 213
Keyser’s story about her own development as a teacher mirrors how the profes-
sion’s views of parent-teacher relationships have evolved over time (Powell & Gerde,
2006; Powell & O’Leary, 2009). In the past, and even today in some educational set-
tings, teachers thought that they could care for and educate children almost in spite of
their parents. Today, however, the prevailing view of effective practice requires recip-
rocal relationships and partnerships between teachers and families (Olsen & Fuller,
2012; Iruka, 2013). Reciprocal relationships are two-way relationships in which in-
formation and power are shared. Before describing the elements of effective partner-
ships, it is important to clarify the distinct roles of teachers and parents in the lives of
young children.
Roles of Teachers and Parents
One of the challenges to building effective partnerships for early childhood teachers is
that the younger the child in their care, the more blurred the lines become between fami-
lies and teachers. Nevertheless, there are definite distinctions between the roles of parent
and teacher. Children’s relationships with their family members often last a lifetime. They
view their children’s development and learning more emotionally. Their relationships are
often intense, and culturally embedded. While family members are considered children’s
“first teacher,” they typically have no training in how to care for and educate their child.
While teachers’ relationships with children are very important for their learning and
development they typically have short-term relationships with children and find it easier
to be objective. Furthermore, teachers benefit from formal education related to supporting
children’s learning and development. These distinctions help explain why both perspec-
tives are essential in providing high-quality care and education for each child (Baker &
Manfredi-Pettit, 2004).
Understanding these different but complementary roles reminds teachers of the im-
portant boundaries between their roles and those of parents. Children benefit greatly
from the lasting unconditional love of at least one adult, usually a parent (Brazelton &
Greenspan, 2000). At the same time, children benefit from the more objective view that
reciprocal relationships
Two-way relationships in
which information and power
are shared; based on mutual
respect, trust, cooperation, and
shared responsibility.
Young children are integrally connected to their families. Effective early childhood programs depend on
positive relationships between teachers and parents.
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach214
teachers can bring when they evaluate the children’s needs and strengths. To help all of
their students, teachers can draw on their experience from observing many children’s
development and knowing how to effectively support children’s social and academic
development in group situations such as that of the school or child care center. By con-
trast, parents are the most knowledgeable sources of information about their child’s
development and experience in settings outside the school. Moreover, parents are the
most accurate, key informants about children’s cultural and linguistic backgrounds. Once
teachers are clear about what they and parents bring to the table, the opportunity exists to
build reciprocal relationships with families.
Family-Centered Practice
Reciprocal relationships can develop only in an atmosphere of mutual respect, trust,
cooperation, and shared responsibility. These are the elements of what is now called
family-centered care or family-centered practice (Child Welfare Information Gateway,
2014).
Family-centered practice is a term that originated in the early childhood special
education community. According to special educators, family-centered practice provides
to families the resources and supports that promote children’s development and learning
and, at the same time, strengthen the competence of families in their roles and improve
family well-being (Dunst, 2011). Professionals may provide parent education to sup-
port parents’ competence, confidence, and enjoyment of interactions with their child. To
achieve these goals, professionals must actively involve families, be responsive to their
requests, and treat them with dignity and respect.
Considerable research documents the benefits of family-centered practice for chil-
dren and families, especially for children with disabilities and special needs (Trivette,
Dunst, & Hamby, 2010). The Including All Children feature demonstrates the value of
family-centered practice for children and their families. Although family-centered prac-
tices have been at the heart of early childhood special education, they are also now rec-
ognized as essential elements of all high-quality early childhood programs (NAEYC,
2014).
Family-centered practice is interpreted slightly differently by general educators
than by special educators because the needs of the families they work with are differ-
ent, and because of the child’s specific needs. For general educators, family-centered
practice focuses on building partnerships with families. These partnerships are char-
acterized by several key principles: mutual respect and trust; regular, frequent two-
way communication; collaboration, shared decision making, and shared power; and
negotiation of conf licts toward win-win solutions (Bredekamp, 1997a, 1997b). When
working with families who are racial and ethnic minorities, Iruka (2013) suggests that
professionals employ a bi-directional approach, which integrates the families’ cul-
ture and perspectives, and capitalize on a strengths-based approach. What this means
for teachers is that efforts to increase family engagement should include extensive,
meaningful input from families on their family traditions, interaction preferences, and
individual needs.
Mutual trust and respect develop gradually after numerous interactions. Although
teachers and parents may initially disagree on certain issues, the goal is to recognize and
respect one another’s knowledge and expertise (Keyser, 2006). If parents feel respected,
they are more likely to share information that teachers need to know.
Differences of opinion and goals are inevitable when working with other people’s
children. If mutual trust and respect are to be maintained and parents are to continue to be
empowered, such conflicts must be negotiated toward win-win solutions (discussed later
in this chapter). There are instances, however, when negotiation is not an option, such as
in cases of suspected child abuse or neglect. Policies regarding teachers’ responsibilities
for reporting child abuse should be clearly communicated to families as well as teachers
(National Research Council [NRC], 2014).
family-centered practice
Providing resources and sup-
ports to families that promote
children’s development and
learning and, at the same time,
strengthen the competency of
families in their role.
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Chapter 7 Building Effective Partnerships with Families 215
Collaboration, shared decision making, and shared power can be difficult to negoti-
ate for inexperienced teachers. Many early childhood educators fail to grasp the extent
of their actual and perceived power in relationships with families. In addition, cultural
differences may be a complicating factor in supporting family engagement in school com-
munity and activities. The Culture Lens feature describes research that sheds light on how
Latino mothers may view engagement in their child’s education differently than mothers
of other cultures—and how building on cultural strengths can support the family and
child in the educational process.
Teachers’ skill in using family-centered practices
is essential to the success of programs for children
with special needs. Family-centered practices reflect
the belief that the more time, energy, knowledge,
and skills families have, the more likely the child’s
development will thrive, as we see in the following
example.
Jennifer, the family service worker from the
Beginnings Child Development Center, works with
Carolyn and Bill’s son Ben. Three-year-old Ben is
diagnosed with language and social skills delays
and also demonstrates challenging behaviors.
Jennifer alternates her visits between Ben’s
preschool classroom and family home. She visits
Ben’s home in the evening so Bill and Carolyn can
both be there. When she arrives, Jennifer spies
Ben behind a chair, kneels down, and pulls some
cars and race track pieces out of her bag. As Ben
comes closer, Jennifer suggests to Bill that he
might enjoy playing with his son. Bill moves to the
floor and begins assembling the pieces. Jennifer
models how to provide a choice for Ben to get him
to use his words. With a toy in each hand, Jennifer
brings them close to her face, and asks, “Ben, do
you want the bus or the car?” Ben reaches for the
bus, and Jennifer responds, “I want the . . .” and
looks at expectantly. Ben points and says, “Bus.”
Jennifer smiles and gives him the bus. She turns to
Bill and asks, “Want to try?” She moves to let Bill
play with Ben.
Jennifer’s tablet rings, and she answers a video
call from Ben’s teacher, Rashida, who would like to
join Jennifer in her home visit, but must be home in
the evening. She—and Ben’s family—are happy to
meet using Skype, and share successes and ideas
for Ben’s progress. Rashida has posted a video of
Ben and another child playing at the sand table to-
gether on their secure school website. She plays the
video for Bill and Carolyn, highlighting Ben’s coop-
erative play, as the other child and Ben take turns
pouring sand into a bucket, and laughing together
when they dump it out. Rashida points out how well
Ben’s social skills and friendships have developed,
and they chat about some ideas for having success-
ful play dates with a friend outside of school. Before
she hangs up, Rashida tells them to look out for a
surprise text the next day.
Carolyn notices Ben enjoying the cars and
comments on how he is using more words. Jen-
nifer shows Carolyn how she can use a paper towel
roll to make a “track” for small cars. Carolyn loves
the idea and decides to tape the track to the side
of the refrigerator. “This way, he can play and we
can talk while I am making dinner.” Jennifer is
pleased because she knows dinnertime has been
very stressful for Ben’s family. Jennifer will check
back in a couple of days to see how the new ideas
are working. As she packs to go, Jennifer gives Bill
information about the “dads’ support group” he is
interested in and gives Carolyn a list of respite care
providers.
The next day, Bill and Carolyn are surprised
when they see that Ben used a tablet at school
to take a picture of the big sand structure with
cars around it. With Rashida’s help, Ben sent the
picture and a voice message “big garage” via text
message. Since they cannot visit Ben’s school of-
ten, Bill and Carolyn find these text messages and
Skype visits very valuable for keeping in touch with
Ben’s teacher. That day, Ben comes home from
school with a printed picture of his “big garage,”
and they hang it on the refrigerator next to his tube
track.
Although Jennifer spends only a little time
interacting directly with Ben during this visit, she
provides supports to his family that will enable them to
be true partners in Ben’s development and learning. She
provides opportunities for teacher–parent connections
using technology, and connects family members with
resources such as support groups. Jennifer coaches
the family on how to use learning strategies used
in Ben’s therapy sessions and preschool activities.
Thus, by partnering with Ben’s family and classroom
teacher, Jennifer supports important relationships
that will benefit Ben far beyond the one hour of
her visit.
Including All Children
Family-Centered Practice
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach216
If you, like many of your colleagues, think early childhood education involves just
working with children, you might feel intimidated by the idea of developing reciprocal re-
lationships with families. In the next section, we address the fundamental skill of two-way
communication with families.
✓ Check Your Understanding 7.2: Reciprocal Relationships with Families
Communication with Families
Building relationships with families requires effective communication—one of the big-
gest challenges teachers face. Before we describe positive ways of communicating with
families, we begin with considering some of the most common barriers to effective com-
munication.
Barriers to Effective Communication
Effective communication between teachers and families means more than sharing infor-
mation; it means developing shared understanding about who the child is, each party’s
goals, and how to achieve them. Early childhood education covers a broad age span—
from birth through age 8. During the earliest years, children are most likely to be served
in some form of child care while parents work. At the other end of the age continuum,
Teachers are sometimes frustrated when families don’t
participate in the parent involvement activities offered.
Some families don’t attend back-to-school night, rarely
return paperwork, or fail to volunteer for school activities.
Research shows that children develop and learn best
when families are engaged in their children’s education.
Developing productive relationships and partnerships
with families can be challenging. Just as with children,
a teacher cannot assume a “one-size-fits-all” approach
toward building family partnerships. When families’ cul-
ture and language are different from the school culture,
it can be even more challenging.
Families’ cultural perspective impacts how they engage
in the school community, and in their children’s educa-
tional activities. Taking a perspective of capitalizing on
family strengths and funds of knowledge, Manica Ramos
interviewed immigrant Latino mothers about how cul-
ture impacted their involvement in their preschool-aged
children’s education. Ramos found that Latino mothers
were very invested in their children’s education, and that
they expressed this investment in ways that were similar
to and different from non-Latino families. For example,
Latino mothers in Ramos’s study reported attending
student–teacher conferences and reading to their chil-
dren, similar to school expectations. However, they also
discussed forms of involvement in their children’s educa-
tion that were more culturally specific to Latino families,
including sacrificios (sacrifices), consejos (advice), and
apoyo (moral support).
Most mothers shared that they believed in making sacri-
fices (sacrificios) to support their children’s education and
took great pride in working hard to support their children’s
education. They described how they gave advice (consejos)
to their children to support their education, which for these
Latino mothers included academic and social education.
Finally, they described how they saw their role related to
supporting their children’s motivation to learn, morale and
confidence, and respect (respeto) related to learning.
Ramos translated her findings to important implica-
tions for teachers working with immigrant families and
non–European American families, in addition to Latino
families. She recommends that teachers learn about
the family cultures of the children in the classroom and
school—from the families themselves. Ramos encour-
ages teachers to think creatively about what constitutes
family engagement opportunities, and consult with fami-
lies on how they would like to be engaged. To understand
different family values and beliefs, Ramos recommends
visiting families regularly in their homes to develop warm
and productive relationships.
Source: The Strengths of Latina Mothers in Supporting their
Children’s Education: A Cultural Perspective, by M. Ramos,
2014, Bethesda, MD: Child Trends, retrieved November 1,
2014, from http://www.childtrends.org.
Developing Partnerships with Latino Families
Culture Lens
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http://www.childtrends.org
Chapter 7 Building Effective Partnerships with Families 217
children are in school and perhaps child care for part of the day. In each of these situations,
communication problems can arise.
Communication Problems in Child Care Settings In child care programs
for infants, toddlers, and young preschoolers, deep emotions can consume parents as they
leave their children in someone else’s care, which can create tension with teachers. Fol-
lowing are examples of typical situations that arise over the care of young children and
the feelings they may generate in parents:
• Competition. Parents may feel jealous if the child becomes attached to another
adult. Three-year-old Madison has been in child care for 1 month. Her mother feels
conflicted about it and threatened by the growing relationship between Madison
and her teacher. She tells her husband, “I’m afraid Madison loves her teacher more
than me. When I left the center, Madison called her teacher ‘Mommy’ and I cried
all the way to work.”
• Guilt and loss. At times, parents feel a sense of loss over missed experiences. Jacob
is 11 months old. His mother is torn between her desire to spend more time with
him and her rewarding but demanding career. She worked very hard to earn her law
degree, and her job is stressful. At the same time, she feels guilty about neglecting
Jacob. She thinks, “I’m going to miss seeing my baby’s first steps.”
• Differing child-rearing goals. Disagreements between parents and teachers, both
large and small, are inevitable. Tawanna, who is 4½ years old, enrolled in a new
center recently, and her father has concerns about the informality and lack of em-
phasis on academic skills. He tells his wife, “I don’t like Tawanna getting dirty at
school. And I want her to learn to read to be ready for school, but they say that’s not
important yet. And they let the children call them by their first names in that school.
I want Tawanna to learn good manners.”
• Power struggles. Parents may feel that they are losing control over their child’s up-
bringing. Sonya is turning 6, a milestone event in her family. Her grandmother is in-
censed, however, because she wants to hold a party at school, and the teachers won’t
let her control it. She tells her friend, “They say I can’t send cupcakes for Sonya’s
birthday because they’re not healthy food, but she wants cupcakes and so do I.”
Infant/toddler teachers sometimes find that parents may feel threatened or unsure about sharing their child’s care
with another person. How can this teacher build a positive relationship that will benefit the baby and the family?
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These parents’ feelings illustrate that sharing their children with other adults is diffi-
cult and can be threatening to the close parent–child relationship. When other people have
considerable influence over their children’s lives, parents can feel powerless.
Communication Problems in School Schools and parents can encounter a
number of obstacles in their efforts to communicate. Following are examples of some
common barriers to communication:
• Confusion about regulations and policies. Parents may lack the information they
need about the school’s goals, procedures, and policies. For example, Summit
School has a policy that parents need to be alerted in the middle of first grade
about whether their children’s reading is below grade level so that an intervention
plan can be set up. Shelley’s mother becomes very anxious: “It’s only January,
and the teacher thinks that Shelley will have to stay back in first grade because
she’s not reading at grade level. I don’t want my little girl to f lunk, but what can
I do?”
• Lack of flexibility. The school may not be sensitive to parents’ individual needs and
concerns. Mr. Jenkins is a concerned father who wants to be involved in his chil-
dren’s education, but he is frustrated: “That school always has meetings and events
during the day, but I can’t take off work.”
• Lack of attention to individual children. At times, parents’ concerns arise from
fears that teachers don’t really know and understand their children. Parents may
feel that teachers’ expectations for their children are too low because of the child’s
socioeconomic status, disability, or race, as in these examples:
• Seven-year-old Abigail has Down syndrome. Her two mothers believe that the
teachers don’t think Abigail can learn, so they don’t teach her anything.
• Ms. Rice tells her mother, “I think that teacher is racist. She assigned all the
black boys to the lowest reading group.”
Communication problems can arise when parents don’t understand how the school
functions and how they can influence decisions. They may feel powerless to alter a policy
or the teacher’s perceptions about their child. Teachers may think they provide adequate
information, but if the parent doesn’t understand the message, considerable anxiety and
confusion may result for the parents and the child as well.
At other times, power struggles can ensue due to conflicting goals. Some families
have very high expectations for their children’s success in school, so they may pressure
teachers and children to ensure academic achievement. The term helicopter parent de-
scribes parents who “hover over” their children and try to control everything in their lives.
Some parents will come forward and complain often, whereas others are too intimidated
to voice even the gentlest concerns.
To address these communication problems openly and honestly, teachers can use a
variety of strategies, discussed next, that will benefit both the child and the family.
Effective Communication Strategies
Communication is the basis of all relationships. Positive relationships begin when parents
feel welcome in the school.
A Welcoming Environment On entering a school or child care center, parents
can usually tell how welcome they are. The environment communicates messages
about whether families are expected to be regular participants, infrequent guests,
or simple agents of transmittal. Is there a sign greeting children and families? Do
teachers greet them at the door? Is there an area where they can gather and visit with
each other? Are there adult-sized chairs? Is there a bulletin board stocked with cur-
rent information? Can parents easily find their children’s work and space for their
belongings?
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Chapter 7 Building Effective Partnerships with Families 219
The physical environment plays an important role in welcoming families.
However, face-to-face communication between teachers and parents is more
important.
Types of Messages Substantive communication is possible and more
effective when it is built on a strong base of casual, routine conversation.
Think of the messages that teachers need to send to parents as basically two
kinds: tennis balls and slippery eggs (NAEYC, 1998).
Picture yourself tossing a tennis ball back and forth from hand to hand.
Tennis ball messages are easily “tossed” and easily received. These messag-
es help form the foundation of a relationship. Tennis ball messages constitute
the everyday chitchat between teachers and parents. This kind of back-and-
forth communication helps each party in the relationship to learn and become
comfortable with the other’s style.
Teacher: Hello, Mr. Watkins, it’s good to see Neil back at school today.
I hope your family enjoyed the visit with his grandparents.
Parent: We had a great time. They live so far away that Neil only sees
them a few times a year. They had to leave this morning, so we are all a
little down.
Now picture yourself tossing a slippery egg to another person. You would hold the egg
carefully and toss it very gingerly, assuming that the other person is prepared to catch it
with equal care. If the egg were tossed carelessly or too abruptly, a mess would result.
The same is true of slippery egg messages. They are more difficult to toss and catch, and
must be tossed gently to be sure that the catcher receives the communication as intended
(NAEYC, 1998). Even the best of relationships requires slippery egg messages at times.
Some relationships seem to consist almost entirely of slippery egg communications. How
these messages are sent—the style of communication—determines how well they are
received, as we see in the next section.
Communication Styles There are at least three styles of communication: passive,
aggressive, and assertive (NAEYC, 1998). Passive communication is sensitive to the
slippery egg messages
Communications that are
difficult to “toss” (send) and
“catch” (receive), and must be
expressed gently to be sure that
the “catcher” receives the com-
munication as intended.
tennis ball messages
Communications that are easily
“tossed” and easily received
and that help form the founda-
tion of a relationship; they con-
stitute the everyday chitchat
between teachers and parents.
Classroom Connection
This video shows the start of the
school day in a typical preschool
classroom. As you watch, reflect
on how these teachers use
everyday conversations to build
positive, reciprocal relationships
with families and help children
transition from home to school.
passive communication
Speaking in a way that is sensi-
tive to the listener’s feelings,
but so vague that the message
is easily misunderstood.
Reciprocal relationships with parents begin in everyday chit chat—casual conversation about children that
builds trust and respect.
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach220
listener’s feelings, but so vague that the message is easily misunderstood. The listener be-
comes confused about expectations and loses trust. Aggressive communication is truth-
ful, but the delivery is hurtful. The listener feels angry and resentful, and the relationship
is damaged. Assertive communication—telling the truth in a thoughtful and considerate
way—is the most effective form of communication (NAEYC, 1998). Assertive commu-
nication strengthens relationships and increases the likelihood of successfully resolving
problems.
The goal in sending a slippery egg message—the kind that is difficult to send as well
as to receive—is to use assertive communication. Compared to passive or aggressive
styles of communication, assertive communication succeeds in delivering the difficult
message while also maintaining and perhaps deepening the relationship.
Following is an example of these three communication styles in action. First-grade
teacher Julia Sykes is concerned that one of her students, DeShawn Jameson, is not mak-
ing progress in reading. Julia sets up a meeting with DeShawn’s mother to discuss the
problem. They chat comfortably for a few minutes, but Ms. Jameson is clearly nervous,
anticipating bad news. Here are three ways that Julia might present the situation:
• Passive communication. “I know you are worried about how DeShawn is doing in
school, and so am I. All the children take time to get settled and he’ll come around as
soon as he’s ready.” With such a passive statement, Julia demonstrates caring for the
parent and child, but fails to convey the seriousness of the situation. Ms. Jameson is
confused and a little angry because she doesn’t understand why she took off work
for this meeting.
• Aggressive communication. “We’ve got a problem with DeShawn. He is so far be-
hind in reading, he’ll probably have to repeat first grade.” Julia dreaded delivering
this bad news, so she blurted it out with little concern for Ms. Jameson’s feelings.
Ms. Jameson immediately becomes defensive: “What do you mean? Why aren’t
you teaching him right?”
• Assertive communication. “Ms. Jameson, during the first three months of school,
I’ve found that DeShawn isn’t making the reading progress that he should be. We
don’t expect all the children to learn to read at the same time. But I’m concerned
that if he falls further behind, he will really have a hard time catching up. What I’d
like to do is have a reading specialist evaluate him to see if he would benefit from
tutoring, which is provided free by the school. I wanted you to come in today so we
could talk about how DeShawn is doing at home and what options we have to help
him.” In this communication, Julia conveys caring for DeShawn and his mother,
but she also tells the truth—that there is a problem and there are possible solutions
to work on together.
Assertive communication is often effective when the teacher is working with chal-
lenging situations and distraught or angry parents. As the Becoming an Intentional
Teacher feature reveals, it is important to be open and really listen to parents’ concerns
and complaints. Teachers use many different vehicles to accomplish clear, honest, regu-
lar communication. In the sections that follow, we describe some of these strategies.
Informal Communication In programs for infants and toddlers, families and
teachers must communicate daily, both morning and evening, to ensure that children re-
ceive optimum care. Morning drop-off and afternoon pickup times are good for engaging
in the kind of chitchat, or tennis ball back-and-forth, communication that builds relation-
ships between teachers and parents.
For example, “How are you this morning, Ms. Kelly? I can see that Monique doesn’t
look too happy. Is there something I should know to help her get settled?”
Two-year-old Monique’s mom might say, “She wouldn’t eat her breakfast and I had
to leave or I’d be late for work.” “No problem. We’ll feed her here, and don’t worry or
you’ll be late,” the teacher replies.
aggressive communication
Speaking the truth in a hurtful
way.
assertive communication
Telling the truth in a thoughtful
and considerate way; consid-
ered the most effective form of
communication.
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Chapter 7 Building Effective Partnerships with Families 221
In another circumstance, Ms. Kelly looks distraught and responds, “Monique’s father
left last night and I’ve been up all night crying.”
Here is an entirely different situation, calling for an entirely different response. “I can
see you are upset. I’ll take Monique now so you can go to work and I’ll call to let you
know how she’s doing. If you would like, we can talk privately later.”
Moments of informal conversation are so important for building trust and mutual
respect. At the same time, teachers need to make sure that children are supervised during
these conversations, and that it is clear who is responsible for this duty. Any confidential
conversation should be scheduled for another time.
Becoming an Intentional Teacher
Responding to Parents: Welcoming “Complainers”
Here’s What Happened I taught 3- and 4-year-olds
in an NAEYC-accredited child care center. Our program
was well known in the community as a high-quality center.
I taught there for 10 years and we enjoyed good relation-
ships with our families. One mother, Mrs. Mayer, became
a constant complainer, however, when her little boy, Noah,
kept getting sick. I knew that Noah had asthma, so I wasn’t
surprised when he missed days at the center. I was sur-
prised, however, by how much Mrs. Mayer blamed me for
Noah’s repeated illnesses. At first, I tried to explain to her
that increased illness is not unusual for children when they
are in group care. When my explanation met with resis-
tance, I started to become defensive. I assured Mrs. Mayer
that our program was licensed and accredited, which means
that we meet all required health standards.
One day, when Noah returned after an absence, his mother
looked particularly weary. I asked my assistant teacher to
take over the group while I spoke with Mrs. Mayer privately.
She explained that she had spent the night with Noah in
the emergency room. As we talked, I realized that due to
Noah’s chronic illness, colds and other seemingly innocu-
ous childhood sicknesses are life-threatening experiences.
I gave Mrs. Mayer a copy of our center’s health policy hand-
book and asked her to review it and give me feedback. We
set up a time to meet again.
Mrs. Mayer came back to me 2 days later with sugges-
tions for ways we could focus everyone’s attention on ill-
ness prevention. For example, to accommodate parents
so they wouldn’t have to miss school or work, we often
allowed sick children to attend the center when perhaps
they should have stayed home. We had a policy that
required children to remain home when ill. When children
arrived at school with symptoms of illness, our policy said
we should take the child’s temperature and exclude chil-
dren who had a fever. We also had a policy that stated if
children were heavily sneezing and coughing, or required
one-on-one care for their symptoms, that they should not
attend the program until their symptoms remitted. And
though our program worked hard to teach and attend to
staff and child handwashing, we
didn’t teach them to cough or
sneeze into their elbows.
To address Mrs. Mayer’s concerns and to figure out a
reasonable solution, I spoke with our director and asked
Mrs. Mayer to join me in speaking with staff and parents.
At first, some of the other parents believed that we were
enforcing policy changes to accommodate just one child;
however, once they heard Noah’s story, most parents were
sympathetic. Together we agreed to enforce the policies in
place and examine their effectiveness in reducing illness
overall. After a few months, Noah’s asthma attacks were
much less frequent. In addition, other parents reported that
their children were sick less often.
Here’s What I Was Thinking Months before school
begins, I work hard to build a relationship with my chil-
dren’s families. I make home visits, hold open houses, and
write letters or e-mails to families to introduce myself and
the school—everything I can think of. When Mrs. Mayer
began to complain about Noah’s getting sick at school,
I wondered if she was just a negative person or if she should
find another program. As I spoke more with her, I came to
realize that her complaints were evidence of her commit-
ment as a parent. In meeting with Mrs. Mayer, I learned
that her experience as the parent of a chronically ill child
provided valuable knowledge and a perspective that could
help our program be better. I realized that it wouldn’t work
if I was the only one who changed health procedures, so
I had to get the other parents and staff involved. The out-
come was improved health for all the children and for the
teachers, too.
Reflection What issues or situations in child care pro-
grams or schools might parents frequently complain about?
In the above situation, the teacher almost automatically felt
defensive and initially attributed blame to the “complain-
ing” parent. How do you think you would feel if the same
parent consistently complained about your teaching? What
could you do in response?
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Following are strategies for ensuring that messages are delivered:
• Information logs. Daily messages must be relayed about children’s eating, sleep-
ing, toileting, signs of change in mood, and changes in developmental status. For
example, last night baby Maggie stood up and tried to climb out of her crib—a first
in her skill achievement. When her dad drops her off at child care, he needs to let
the staff know about Maggie’s new skill so they can take steps to prevent accidents
and ensure her safety. Given that several different people are responsible for Mag-
gie’s care throughout the day, the staff keep written logs about each child’s needs
and development, and pass them along to each other.
• Daily notes “About My Day.” This message delivery system is important for all
young children, but it is essential for babies and toddlers. Very young children can’t
communicate for themselves to families and teachers, so daily communication
can’t be left to chance conversations. Written notes, text messages, or e-mails that
take little time to complete are essential. Ms. Evans sends a message to 2½-year-
old Gabriel’s mother: Gabriel had a hard time waking up from nap this afternoon.
He doesn’t seem to be sick, but didn’t eat as much as usual.
• Daily chitchat. For teachers and parents of preschoolers, regular communication—
the daily chitchat—is still important for building and maintaining the relationship.
Teachers need to know about events at home that may affect a child, and parents
love to hear about interesting or funny things their children have said or done.
Teachers should be very careful to keep this informal conversation light and save
talking about more difficult issues until private, scheduled times.
• Weekly updates. For preschoolers and older children, regular reporting of activities,
such as the topic of study or upcoming events, is sufficient. Technology such as
classroom websites or blogs greatly increases the opportunities for family com-
munication and involvement.
Children’s learning and development is supported best when schools and families
work together. Traditional parent meetings can be combined with the latest technology to
achieve goals of both teachers and families. For example, in the Promoting Play feature,
Get Outside and Play, a primary-school teacher enlists families’ support in promoting
active play to improve her young students’ health and learning.
Use Technology Technology has transformed all communication in the 21st cen-
tury. Parents are more accessible than ever because of handheld mobile devices. Indi-
vidual e-mails, texts, or voice-mail messages can be used to share information about a
child’s daily activity or progress. Teachers, along with children, can create and maintain a
classroom or school website where they post photos and samples of children’s work. The
potential is limited only by their imaginations and the technological resources available.
Kaldor (2015) recommends many ways that teachers can use technology to strengthen
relationships with families and increase family engagement in the school community,
such as:
• Use video e-introduction before the school year begins. By posting on YouTube or
a secure website, and e-mailing the link, children and family members can see the
classroom and learn about their child’s teacher.
• Use video from the classroom to demonstrate daily routines, and tips for transitions
and guiding children’s positive behavior.
• Use the Message from Me online feature. Children can use tablets and cameras to
take photos or videos of classroom activities and send with an audio message to
their family.
• Create e-books to share with families. Children can use photos, text, and audio
recordings to document classroom experiences and produce e-books that can be
shared online or printed, and read at home with family.
• Use messaging technology, such as instant message, Twitter, or WhatsApp to send
messages and images (photos or videos) of special happenings during the school day.
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Chapter 7 Building Effective Partnerships with Families 223
Arguing that technology devices should be used responsibly and respectfully, Kaldor
(2015) provides guidelines for how to do a BYOD (Bring Your Own Device) Night.
Rather than leaving devices behind, families bring their devices and learn how to connect
with their child’s classroom and school, and see demonstrations of children’s technol-
ogy use in the classroom. Families learn how to respect boundaries around technological
communication, and sign a digital contract.
Families may turn to early childhood professionals to learn about using technol-
ogy with their children. Teachers can provide important information regarding how chil-
dren use technology and how much they use it. Children under 3 years old should have
few, short periods of screen time, combined with lively interaction with family members
(Lerner & Barr, 2014). Early Connections (http://www.commonsensemedia.org/educators/
early-connections) provides guidelines and ideas for families to use technology to enhance
social relationships and learning.
Technology can make communication with families much more efficient. For ex-
ample, listservs can be used to inform parents of logistical information such as reminders
about school closings. Technology also addresses the challenge presented by the fact that
many children go back and forth between the homes of divorced parents or extended fam-
ily (Mitchell, Foulger, & Wetzel, 2009). However, it is also important to recognize limita-
tions of technology. For example, sensitive information should typically not be shared by
text or e-mail—telephone conversations or in-person meetings are much better for dis-
cussing behavior concerns and for problem solving (Kaldor, 2015). Teachers should set
clear boundaries on communicating with families, and families’ preferences for commu-
nication should be respected. For example, teachers may not be willing to answer e-mails
in the evening while they are with family, but will answer the next day. These boundaries
and expectations should be clearly stated in the digital contract.
Get Outside and Play!
With the demands of the elementary curriculum and
restrictions on recess in her school district, Lucia is
concerned that her students are not getting enough
active play time during the day. During the day at
school, children have recess for only 20 minutes
after lunch.
Realizing that she cannot take on the full responsi-
bility of her students’ health, Lucia enlists families
as partners to support children’s active play. Lucia
holds a Get Active parent meeting. Because many
of her students’ families work evening shifts at the
local restaurants, Lucia videotapes the meeting for
those who cannot attend and posts it on a secure
YouTube site. Using resources from the Centers
for Disease Control and the Internet, Lucia illus-
trates for families the importance of active play for
children’s health, development, and learning. She
explains the research that children need 60 minutes
or more of daily, active play, and they discuss many
ways children could reach that goal.
Families brainstorm and generate many ideas for ac-
tive play, including turning on music and dancing in
the home, making an obstacle course in the house or
backyard, sport activities, and going to the neighbor-
hood playground with an older sibling. After generat-
ing many ideas, Lucia turns their attention to safety,
and they discuss bicycle and scooter safety (including
helmets), supervision, and following safety rules. Lucia
shares resources for limiting screen time, and explains
how adults’ modeling of activity is also important for
children. The evening ends with a healthy snack, while
families share their plans for building more active play
in every day. Following the encouragement of families,
Lucia agrees to send text messages several times a
week, reminding them to support their child’s active
play and sharing some good ideas of how to do so.
Promoting Play
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach224
Websites need to be password secured to limit access. Interactive sites are labor in-
tensive, needing to be checked and responded to regularly and monitored for inappro-
priate content. Some families might not have access to the Internet. For families that
do not speak or read English, teachers should be prepared to enlist the assistance of a
bilingual colleague or an online translator application (Nemeth, 2015). Finally, e-mail and
especially texting may foster the use of incorrect grammar and spelling. Teachers should
always be accurate in written communication, electronic or otherwise.
Conferencing In addition to their everyday, routine communication with families,
teachers and parents need to meet for more formal regular conferences. Traditionally, the
purpose of parent-teacher conferences has been for teachers to report on children’s progress.
These conferences are usually a one-way communication, with teachers providing informa-
tion to parents, who serve as the passive audience. With one-way communications, however,
parents might feel as though the teachers are issuing a report card on their parenting.
More effective conferences promote two-way communication (Hanhan & Kartosh-
kina, 2012). Teachers not only provide parents with information about their child’s prog-
ress but also listen to what parents say about their child’s development and learning. In
this setting, parents and teachers have a conversation and ask as well as answer questions.
Because families have diverse needs and schedules, arranging conference times can be
tricky. Consider Noreen Hayes, a kindergarten teacher in a large, urban school district. Three
months into the school year, she is preparing for her first set of formal family conferences.
Because many of the families work two jobs or odd hours, she is concerned that scheduling
conferences will be difficult. To ease the stress for families, she offers a full week of times for
them to sign up, including early morning, evening, and weekend hours. To make sure she can
accommodate these families, she arranges for community volunteers to provide babysitting and
translation services as needed. She also arranges for snacks to be available for parents arriving
after work. She organizes the seating arrangement with adult-sized chairs comfortably facing
each other. Before conferences, she carefully collects samples of drawings, writing, and
photos of projects and other work to share with each child’s parents. Consider this scenario:
When Jillian’s mother arrives, looking nervous, Noreen offers her coffee. After they
are comfortable, Noreen begins by saying, “Jillian is such a curious little girl. Every
Formal parent-teacher conferences are important times to communicate about children’s progress and
potential problems. But for conferences to be effective, teachers need to make parents as comfortable as
possible and listen as much as they talk.
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Chapter 7 Building Effective Partnerships with Families 225
day, her questions keep me on my toes. Last week, before we visited the aquarium,
she wanted to know how the fish breathe.”
Jillian’s mother smiles and says, “She drives us crazy with her why, why, why.”
“Let me show you some of the things she’s been learning,” Noreen replies, “and
how she’s discovering ways to get answers to her questions.”
When Noreen describes some of the literacy goals, Jillian’s mother says, “Oh,
I know. At home she is always rhyming words and retelling me the stories you read.”
Noreen makes a note about what she’s learned from this parent because Jillian
has not yet demonstrated these skills at school.
As children get older, three-way conferencing becomes more possible and desirable.
Kia is a third grader whose parents are surprised to find that during the “parent–teacher”
conference, their role is primarily to observe while Kia and her teacher, Mr.
Colbert, have a conversation about her work. Kia reports on how well she
thinks she’s doing and sets a goal for next term: to read 8 chapter books. He
then asks what she wants to be when she grows up. “A chef!” she replies.
He asks her to pretend she is interviewing for a job and convince him that
she would make a good chef. Kia proceeds to describe how she helps her
mom cook, reads cookbooks, and makes up her own recipes—exhibiting
her language and literacy skills, general knowledge, and reasoning ability as
well as her confidence and competence. Kia’s parents watch in wonder as
their usually soft-spoken and shy daughter becomes increasingly animated.
Privately, her Dad questions Mr. Colbert about whether reading 8 books will
be too hard for her. “Trust her,” replies Mr. Colbert.
These two examples include many key points to keep in mind when pre-
paring and conducting conferences with families. Table 7.2 summarizes prin-
ciples for planning and conducting family conferences. Formal conferences
take considerable time to plan and carry out effectively. This time is well
spent, however, when it is used to build partnerships and solve problems.
Home Visiting In home visiting, a teacher goes to the child’s home on
a regular basis to exchange information with parents. Home visiting has a long tradition
in early childhood education. Since its inception, Head Start has required regular home
visits. The large majority (71%) of Early Head Start programs combine home visiting
with center-based child care (Cohen, Vogel, & the Baby FACES Team, 2011). In addition,
the model early childhood programs that demonstrated lasting effects, such as the Perry
Preschool Project and the Abecedarian Project, included weekly home visits. Two types
of home visiting exist—teacher home visits and home-based programs.
Teacher Home Visits Home visits are an excellent way for every teacher to establish more
comfortable relationships with families, and children usually love the idea of their teacher
visiting them at home. Conferences are typically held at school or in the child care center—
on the teacher’s turf. As a result, a disproportionate amount of power is attributed to the
professionals, putting parents at somewhat of a disadvantage. Home visits by teachers can
be effective in creating a more reciprocal relationship and enhancing children’s learning.
Even middle schools are now discovering the power of home visiting to increase student
achievement and motivation. Following are some guidelines for successful home visits:
• Be available for a home visit. Let families know that you would like to visit the
children at home to make them more comfortable with you and to learn more about
their interests. Do not be offended if families decline the opportunity.
• Set a time for the visit and stick to it. Visits should last from 15 to 30 minutes.
• Reassure families in advance about the visit’s purpose. Families need to know that
you do not expect them to entertain you, feed you, or clean up for your visit. Never-
theless, teachers should be respectful of diverse cultural perspectives; for example,
some cultural groups would be hurt or insulted if a guest refused food.
home visiting Visits made by
a teacher to the child’s home
on a regular basis to exchange
information with parents.
Classroom Connection
In this video, observe how the
teacher shares information with
Kayla’s mother and learns some
new ways to work with Kayla in
the classroom.
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach226
• Include the child in the visit. Ask children to share something they like to do at
home or in the community.
• If you take a photo, ask permission first, and perhaps pose the family together at
the front door to protect their privacy. Use a digital camera so the family can see
the photo that you will display at school.
Home-Based Programs Child development programs based on visits to families—
home-based programs—are designed to support parents in the parenting role, fully
involve them in their children’s education, and help them achieve their own life goals
(Council for Professional Recognition, 2012). In recent years, research demonstrating the
lasting benefits of home-visiting programs for expectant and new parents, infants, and
toddlers has led to significant expansion and increases in funding. In 2010, states invested
$1.4 billion in home-visiting programs (Pew Center on the States, 2010a). Home-visiting
home-based programs
Programs based on visits to
families designed to support
parents in the parenting role,
involve them in their children’s
education, and help them
achieve their own life goals.
Principles of Effective Conferences Strategies for Implementing Conferences
Prepare families in advance. Notify families in writing about the purpose of the conference. Ask families to
think about what goals they have for the conference and for their children, what
information they want to share, and what questions they want to ask.
Schedule the conferences at times convenient
for parents as well as teachers.
Accommodate parents’ work schedules as much as possible. Set a specific time
limit for the conference, 20 to 30 minutes, so parents can plan accordingly.
Provide appropriate space for the conference. The space should be private to ensure confidential conversations. The furniture
arrangement should communicate openness and comfort; use adult-sized chairs
around a table or in front of a desk. There should be no physical barrier between
teachers and families, such as a desk that sets up an artificial power relationship.
Collect children’s portfolios or samples of
their work.
Use examples of children’s work as a springboard for discussion. Involve children
themselves in this process.
Plan the conference agenda. Make sure to include time to talk about children’s progress and ask questions of
each other.
Always begin on a positive note. Begin your discussion about the child by sharing a specific comment about the
child’s strengths, interests, or abilities. An anxious parent can then relax, become
less defensive, and be more able to listen and talk freely.
Plan in advance how to deliver a slippery egg
message.
When you have difficult information or a problem about the child to discuss, think
in advance how you would phrase the concern and what suggestions or solutions
you would offer. “Four-year-olds are just learning how to make friends. I have
observed that Kenny often plays alone, and sometimes when he tries to join in, he
gets aggressive. I thought maybe he could bring something interesting from home
to get the other children’s attention in a positive way. I’m also going to give him
some phrases to say when he wants to play. I wondered if he has had any difficulty
like this at home or in the neighborhood, or if you have any ideas for me to help
Kenny make friends.”
Give and receive information about children’s
progress.
Use open-ended questions as much as possible. Two-way communication, shared
power, and collaborative decision making build true partnerships with families.
“Reshia loves the construction center and is learning words for all the tools and
equipment. What does she like to talk about at home?”
Set goals together for next steps. Strive to identify a common goal and create a plan to work together. “I hear you
saying that you want Garrett to learn to use the toilet on his own as soon as pos-
sible, before the new baby is born. That’s a goal we share. But he hasn’t shown
any interest at the center yet. What’s he doing at home? Maybe we could try to be
consistent in how we work with him.”
Source: Based on Families, Schools, and Communities: Building Partnerships for Educating Children, 3rd edition, by C. Barbour, N. H. Barbour,
and P. A. Scully, 2005, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Pearson; and From Parents to Partners: Building a Family-Centered Early Childhood Program,
by J. Keyser, 2006, St. Paul, MN: Redleaf Press.
Table 7.2 Planning and Conducting Family Conferences
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Chapter 7 Building Effective Partnerships with Families 227
programs enhance mother and child health, strengthen parenting skills, reduce child
abuse, increase children’s achievement, and have lasting economic benefits for parents
by decreasing unemployment and welfare dependence (Pew Center on the States, 2010b).
The most effective home visiting programs employ qualified early childhood profes-
sionals who actively engage parents with their children. Parents stay in close proximity to
the child and home visitor, interact and play with their child, and learn how to use daily
activities of life to promote children’s development (Roggman, 2011).
Meeting on Neutral Ground In recent years, teacher home visits have become
more challenging for several reasons. They are time consuming, and union contracts may
discourage them. Because children do not live in self-contained communities and take
transportation to school, home visits become logistically difficult. Teachers may feel un-
safe visiting communities where there have been incidents involving violence or drugs.
Likewise, some families may be uncomfortable about teachers’ visiting for reasons of
poverty or differences in language and cultural background.
Given that home visiting and conferencing at school can be threatening or difficult,
some teachers find that meeting families on neutral ground such as a local coffee shop
or fast-food restaurant may be the best strategy (Powell, 2013). Talking in a less formal
setting over a cup of coffee, parents and teachers may be more relaxed and able to work
out solutions to difficult problems.
Early childhood education is most effective when there is regular two-way commu-
nication between families and teachers. Truly effective programs go beyond communica-
tion to active engagement of families in their children’s education, a topic addressed in
the next section.
✓ Check Your Understanding 7.3: Communication with Families
Family Engagement in Programs
and Schools
More than 40 years of research confirms that family engagement has a positive impact on
children’s achievement in school (Powell, 2013; Sheldon, 2009). The benefits are so well
established that they are written into public law. For example, the Head Start program
requires parent involvement at all levels, from classroom interaction with children to rep-
resentation on policy-making boards. Special education laws also dictate specific roles for
families as decision makers about services for their children. In the sections that follow,
we examine research on the benefits of family involvement and then describe ways to
engage families meaningfully in their children’s education.
Benefits of Family Involvement
A thorough review of research (Sheldon, 2009) summarizes the impact of family involve-
ment on children’s achievement in school. The more frequently and actively families are
engaged, the more likely children are to:
• Earn higher grades and score better on achievement tests
• Perform better in reading and mathematics
• Be promoted
• Have better school attendance
• Have fewer behavior problems, better social skills, and adapt well to school
• Benefit from long-term positive consequences such as completing high school and
seeking postsecondary education
Further, engaging families can reduce family risk, increase resilience, and be an espe-
cially effective deterrent to child abuse (Lim, 2012). Research shows that children prosper
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach228
when families of all income and education levels and of diverse cultural backgrounds
support their children’s learning at home (Cowan, Cowan, Pruett, Pruett, & Wong, 2009;
Halgunseth, Peterson, Stark, & Moodie, 2009).
Family involvement in school has the greatest benefit for children at risk of school
failure (Dearing, Kreider, Simpkins, & Weiss, 2007). When low-income families become
more involved in school from kindergarten to fifth grade, children’s literacy performance
increases significantly (Dearing et al., 2007). Typically there is an achievement gap in
literacy performance between children of more- and less-educated mothers, but this gap
is nonexistent when family involvement levels are high (Dearing et al., 2007). However,
white, middle-class families are more likely to be involved in school and to be better
informed about how to help their children at home (Swick, Head-Reeves, & Barbarin,
2006). Therefore, schools need to make extra effort to involve all families because this
would be an effective way to address the achievement gap between children of color
growing up in poverty and their more affluent, white peers.
Opportunities for Meaningful
Family Engagement
As we have seen, the benefits of family involvement for children’s success in school and
life are well documented (Epstein et al., 2009; Halgunseth et al., 2009; Powell, 2013).
In addition, family engagement has significant benefits for schools, including increased
job satisfaction among teachers and principals, despite the necessary additional work
(Lim, 2012). Some effective strategies for engaging families in centers and schools are
described in Table 7.3.
Meaningful family engagement requires effort on the part of teachers and parents.
For instance, volunteering is one of the most common ways of involving parents. Some-
times, however, volunteers are used only to wipe tables, clean playgrounds, or bake cook-
ies for bake sales. These may be necessary tasks, but more meaningful opportunities are
available. If the school prepares parents in advance, classroom volunteers can provide
Type of Engagement Effective Strategies
Positive Relationships between
Teachers and Families
Teachers focus on family strengths as opposed to deficits. Relationships between teachers and
families are characterized by mutual trust, respect, and power sharing.
Two-Way Communication Teachers and families use informal and formal—face-to-face, written, and technological—ways to
communicate frequently about children’s progress and experiences in school and at home.
Learning in School and at
Home
Teachers and parents share information about ways to promote and extend children’s learning
at home and effective parenting practices. Teachers learn about families’ cultural values and
childrearing practices.
Home-School Connections Schools provide a welcoming environment for all families. Families observe and participate in the
life of the classroom by volunteering, or sharing a skill or cultural experience. Teachers conduct
home visits.
Decision Making and Advocacy Families participate in decisions affecting their children and assume leadership and policy-
making roles in the school. Families act as advocates to improve children’s educational and life
experiences.
Collaboration between Schools,
Families, and Communities
Schools connect families to community resources, services, and social networks. Schools provide
services to families and community.
Sources: Based on The Head Start Parent, Family, and Community Engagement Framework: Promoting Family Engagement and School
Readiness from Prenatal to Age 8, by Office of Head Start, 2011, Washington, DC; and PTA National Standards for Family-School Partnerships:
An Implementation Guide, by National Parent Teacher Association, 2009, Alexandria, VA.
Table 7.3 Strategies for Engaging Families
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Chapter 7 Building Effective Partnerships with Families 229
one-on-one conversation or small-group reading for young children. If families engage in
such learning experiences with children at school, they are more likely to do these things
at home with their children.
Too often, “parent” involvement is based on the assumption that the engaged parent
will be the mother. However, there are distinct benefits to fathers’ engagement in chil-
dren’s education (Minnesota Fathers & Families Network, 2013). To learn more about
involving fathers, read the What Works: Father-Friendly Practices feature.
What Works
Father-Friendly Practices
Fathers play a critical role in the healthy development of young
children. When fathers are involved in their children’s education,
children of all ages perform better academically, demonstrate
more empathy, and exhibit healthier behavior. Although moth-
ers as well as fathers have close emotional bonds with their chil-
dren, in general fathers tend to interact physically, and mothers
are more verbally soothing. For example, fathers are more likely
to engage children in risk-taking and rough-and-tumble play.
Perhaps this is why research finds that children who have involved
fathers demonstrate greater curiosity, problem-solving ability, so-
cial skills, and confidence. Regrettably, fathers, especially those
from low-income backgrounds, are much less likely to be involved
in schools than are mothers and therefore need more targeted
encouragement.
A main barrier to fathers’ involvement is time and work
schedules that conflict with school hours. But subtle barriers can
be even more powerful. Fathers may perceive that involvement in
school is not part of their role, but rather the mothers’ job. They
may feel awkward and unwelcome entering a female-dominated
environment. Female teachers may hesitate to encourage father
participation for fear their actions will be misinterpreted. Because
a large number of children do not live with their fathers, programs
are often hesitant to promote father involvement for fear of harm-
ing children’s self-esteem or offending single mothers and lesbian
mothers. In addition, programs may be legitimately concerned
about perpetuating gender stereotyping or disrespecting cultur-
al groups for whom the machismo role of fathers is particularly
important.
Although these barriers are justifiable, they need not be in-
surmountable. Research shows that the following father-friendly
practices not only increase father involvement in schools but also
improve family functioning and relationships and outcomes for
children:
• Make father involvement a priority by designating a male
teacher, administrator, community leader, or parent volunteer
to organize a father initiative. Fathers are more likely to partici-
pate when they see other men doing so.
• Be clear that your definition of “father” includes non-resident
fathers as well as father figures such as grandfathers, uncles,
older siblings, foster fathers, or
mother’s boyfriends.
• Create a father-friendly school environment.
Greet fathers with a sign, “Dads Welcome Here!” Post
pictures of positive images of diverse men engaged in various
occupations and activities with and without children.
• Invite fathers explicitly and personally to participate in school
so they know they are welcome and expected. Often fathers
don’t feel that invitations to “parents” apply to them.
• Provide opportunities related to fathers’ interests and skills such
as sports or afterschool tutoring in science or math. Draw on
fathers’ real interests—such as woodworking or motorcycles—
even if the activity may seem to reflect a stereotype of male
abilities.
• Provide fathers-only events (such as discussion groups) or
father–child experiences such as a Father’s Breakfast or play-
ground repair day—not only on Father’s Day.
• Be sensitive to fathers’ literacy levels. For example, provide
wordless picture books so fathers who do not feel comfortable
reading can talk about the pictures with children.
• Be responsive to cultural values. For example, Hispanic groups
value familismo (relationships and distinct gender roles) and
respeto (respect for elders and extended family).
• Be flexible and schedule events around fathers’ schedules as
much as possible.
• Provide bigger chairs!
Most important is to focus on fathers’ strengths. Too often, fa-
thers are portrayed in a negative light as absent or irresponsible.
Every father has unique strengths and abilities. Engaged fathers
are likely to be major contributors to the well-being of all children,
schools, and communities.
Sources: Based on “Fathering, Schools, and Schooling: What Fathers Con-
tribute and Why It Is Important” by C. B. Hennon, G. Palm, and G. Olsen,
2012, in Home and School Relations: Teachers and Parents Working
Together, 4th edition, edited by G. Olsen and M. L. Fuller, pp. 284–323,
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson; and Dad Stats, by National Responsible
Fatherhood Clearinghouse, retrieved January 4, 2011, from http://fatherhood
.gov/library/dad-stats#Research.
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http://fatherhood.gov/library/dad-stats#Research
http://fatherhood.gov/library/dad-stats#Research
Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach230
Community Partnerships
As we see in Table 7.3, one effective form of family engagement is community collabora-
tion. Just as partnerships between teachers and families contribute to positive outcomes
for children, early childhood programs and schools function most effectively when they
build reciprocal partnerships in the broader community (NAEYC, 2008c). For example,
a Head Start program, with its comprehensive services for families, may serve as a focal
point for positive change in a poverty-stricken community. Likewise, a community
organization might adopt a neighborhood school, clean up and equip its playground, or
provide literacy volunteers and other services that improve school performance.
Teachers, especially beginning teachers, may feel overwhelmed by the idea of build-
ing partnerships with communities in addition to carrying out their other responsibilities.
However, community linkages can enhance their work and make it more effective. All
communities have unique individuals with talents to share. A local orchestra might have
musicians who are willing to visit and perform for the children. Artists of all kinds can
enrich children’s experiences with demonstrations and skill instruction. Doctors, nurses,
dentists, or hygienists can demonstrate healthy practices for children. One preschool has
an annual Truck Touch as a community experience and fund-raiser in which the nearby
International Harvester company lends giant tractor trailers for the children to see and
explore under careful supervision. The Truck Touch is open to all children in the com-
munity for free, and an accompanying snack bar raises funds for the preschool’s library.
Schools can also inform families about child-related events or activities in the com-
munity such as concerts, puppet shows, museum exhibits, storytelling, and the like. Con-
necting families, including siblings, through such community events can help create a
network of family support, which is especially helpful for single or teen parents. Such
a network can serve as a protective factor for families in communities at risk (Bryant,
Maxwell, & Burchinal, 1999).
In addition, teachers can use knowledge of the community in planning curriculum.
For example, a town has an ongoing project to clean up the environment around a creek
area that was once a beaver dam. Each class in the local primary school takes on an aspect
of the project and expands its study of ecology over several years. When early child-
hood programs fully integrate into the community by inviting participation and by taking
advantage of what the community has to offer, positive outcomes result for everyone
involved.
Throughout this chapter, we have discussed the importance of relationships with
families. In the next section, we provide a conceptual framework—a “how to” guide—for
building partnerships with families and describe specific skills for negotiating conflicts.
✓ Check Your Understanding 7.4: Family Engagement in Programs and Schools
A Framework for Building
Partnerships with Families
Denyce Lyons is nearing the end of her first year teaching 4-year-olds in Head Start.
She has enjoyed the children, but continues to struggle at times in her relationships with
parents. Now she’s facing one of the biggest challenges of the year. The program where
Denyce works traditionally holds a graduation ceremony, complete with caps, gowns, and
diplomas and lengthy performances by the children to mark the year’s end. Denyce feels
strongly that such programs are not developmentally appropriate. She also thinks they are
a waste of time and money that could be used more effectively. When she announces that
there will be no graduation ceremony this year, several parents become very angry and go
to the director, who threatens to fire Denyce if she doesn’t change her mind. Such drastic
breakdowns in relationships between teachers and families are all too common in pro-
grams for young children. In this section, we present a framework for building effective
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Chapter 7 Building Effective Partnerships with Families 231
partnerships with families. This framework is designed to prevent
crises such as Denyce’s and to address them when they do arise.
Effective partnerships with families involve four key strategies:
clarity about preferences, ability to communicate, ability to negoti-
ate, and willingness to learn and change (NAEYC, 1998). Figure 7.2
presents this partnership model visually. Each of these building blocks
of partnership is described in the sections that follow and then used to
address Denyce’s graduation ceremony dilemma.
Clarify Preferences
Teachers and families have preferences about all aspects of chil-
dren’s learning and development. Sometimes these preferences are
shared. For example, most people prefer that children dress warmly
in cold weather. However, in other cases, parents and teachers may
have conf licting preferences in their child-rearing practices or edu-
cational goals. Areas where teacher and family preferences may be
strong and at odds include napping, snacking and meal structure, tasks children should
do for themselves, learning to use the toilet and bathroom habits, talking and listening,
cleanliness, discipline techniques, roles of girls and boys, and traditions and holidays.
There are various sources and reasons for these different preferences:
• Cultural backgrounds
• Personal experiences as members of families both as children and as
parents
• Outside influences such as information gained from the media
• Education and training
Teachers as well as parents are influenced by all of these factors. To
understand and negotiate these differences, teachers must clarify their prefer-
ences and reflect on the sources of their beliefs. Is a strong preference for
children learning to feed themselves at an early age the result of studying
child development or being the mother of five children? Does a teacher be-
lieve that children should take turns based on research about social skills or a
cultural judgment about good manners?
Revisiting the Head Start graduation dilemma presented earlier, Denyce needs to
reflect on why she feels so strongly about preschool graduation ceremonies. She recalls
that one of her professors at the community college stated unequivocally that requiring
preschoolers to perform for adults is not developmentally appropriate. Denyce reasons
that such events are inappropriate because they last too long, straining children’s attention
spans and self-control. She also objects to a few children being singled out for “star” treat-
ment. She thinks that valuable class time is spent unproductively in rehearsals and teach-
ing children how to march in line. Upon reflection, Denyce believes that the money spent
on props such as caps and gowns would be better used to buy books or other educational
materials for the school. Denyce also recognizes that she is worried that the children
will misbehave and she will be judged a poor teacher. On closer analysis, Denyce has to
admit to herself that she thinks graduating from preschool is not much of an accomplish-
ment and the ceremonial trappings should be saved for greater achievements such as high
school graduation.
Communicate Preferences
The next step in building partnerships is communicating with families about preferences.
In situations such as Denyce’s where a difference of opinion exists, clear and honest com-
munication is vital. Denyce needs to begin by listening to parents’ preferences for hold-
ing a graduation ceremony. She does this by organizing a meeting to which she invites
Communicate
preferences
Negotiate
differences
Identify
your own
preferences
Learn
and
change
Classroom Connection
In this video, learn how these
teachers build productive part-
nerships with diverse children
and families.
http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=vNdwJTKuHDw
FIGURE 7.2 Framework for
Partnerships with Families
Effective partnerships with
families involve four key
strategies that connect to and
build on each other as depicted
in this framework.
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach232
the disgruntled families. Rather than beginning with her viewpoint, Denyce encourages
parents to air their concerns:
“We’ve always had graduations here. My two older kids have their diplomas and I
want this for Dedra, too,” says one mother.
“We want to have this big party so we can let the kids know how proud we are,”
says one of the fathers.
After several parents express their feelings, a grandmother sighs and says, “This
may be the only graduation I get to go to. My other grandkids dropped out of school.”
Having listened carefully and respectfully to each one’s concerns, Denyce states her
interpretation of what the parents have said. “I think you want me to understand how
much you value your children’s accomplishments in Head Start, and how important this
experience has been for the children and for you. I can tell from your comments that
you really value education, and it sounds like you think it’s a really important thing to
celebrate.” Several parents nod, and agree that Denyce’s summary reflects their feelings.
Denyce then explains her own concerns about the graduation. “I value learning,
too, but I am concerned that spending time getting ready for the ceremony will take
away time that the children could be learning skills they’ll need in kindergarten. I also
think that the money we spend could be used for classroom supplies such as books
that would last longer.”
This opportunity to communicate identifies differences in the parents’ and Denyce’s
perspectives. If Denyce continues to insist she is right, the parents will probably feel
disrespected and lose power in the relationship. The children will see their parents’ anger
at the teacher. If the parents “win” and the director forces Denyce to hold graduation,
she will do so begrudgingly and the children will sense her lack of commitment. In both
cases, whether teachers win and parents lose or parents win and teachers lose, the real
losers are the children. The next step to build and maintain a partnership is to negotiate
the conflict toward a win-win solution (Fisher, Ury, & Patton, 2011).
Negotiate Successfully
Collaborating and sharing power with families requires negotiation skills. There are certain
characteristics of power relationships that determine successful or unsuccessful negotia-
tions. Figure 7.3 illustrates these characteristics and shows that neither exercising power
No Power or Avoidance Shared Power or Negotiation Power or Fighting
Characterized by: Characterized by: Characterized by:
Walking away Talking about the problem Put downs
Giving up Communicating Threats
Holding in feelings and opinions Seeking solutions Punishment
Changing the subject Arbitrary action
Gets these results: Gets these results: Gets these results:
Problem is still there Both sides can win One winner
No one is satisfied Real solutions Doubts and fears
Ongoing discomfort All are satisfied Revenge
FIGURE 7.3 Understanding Shared Power Understanding power relationships is essential
for successful collaboration and negotiation of differences.
Source: Reprinted with permission from the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC).
www.naeyc.org.
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http://www.naeyc.org
Chapter 7 Building Effective Partnerships with Families 233
unilaterally nor avoiding a power struggle results in a positive outcome. Shared power
requires win-win negotiation.
The Five-Step Negotiation Process Successful negotiations that result in a
win-win solution to a conflict involve several steps (Fisher et al., 2011). Figure 7.4 depicts
the five-step negotiation process, which is described next and illustrated using the conflict
over the graduation.
Step 1: Express preferences, interests, and concerns. As a teacher, when you
are expressing preferences, you will find it useful to focus on what you value rather
than taking a rigid position. Denyce might have stated her strongly held position:
“I’m against graduations for young children because they’re developmentally inap-
propriate.” Instead, Denyce expressed her preferred value for her students: “I would
like to use the money for classroom materials and I don’t want to take time away
from teaching.” Similarly, the families made their interests known by pointing out
that they value education and that graduation marks an important milestone in their
children’s lives.
Step 2: Find common ground. Successful negotiation requires compromise. Sometimes
people view compromise as a loss, a sign of weakness, or as giving in. Compromise is
actually an effective strategy for achieving a win-win negotiated solution to a conflict.
To achieve a satisfactory compromise, parties need to identify their common ground:
their fundamental agreements, as well as the areas where they disagree. Denyce and the
parents agree on the value of education and their desire to communicate their pride in the
children. The areas they don’t agree on are wearing caps and gowns and allowing time for
rehearsals and a ceremony.
Step 3: Identify areas of flexibility. The next step in the negotiation process is to iden-
tify areas of potential flexibility. These might include ways of varying timing, frequency,
Step 5 – Try for a while and then re-evaluate if necessary
Step 4 – Brainstorm wins for all
Step 3 – Identify areas of flexibility
Step 2 – Find common ground
Step 1 – Express preferences, interests, and concerns
FIGURE 7.4 Five-Step Negotiation Process This 5-step negotiation process is designed to ensure a
win-win resolution to the inevitable conflicts that arise between teachers and families.
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach234
or quantity. For example, the time designated for preparing for graduation and for the
performance are negotiable areas. In addition, the amount of money available and how it
is used are areas that could be flexibly negotiated. The parents’ expectations of the cer-
emony could also be negotiable.
Step 4: Brainstorm wins for all. Having identified areas of flexibility, Denyce and the
parents can brainstorm possible solutions that would be agreeable to all concerned. One
possible solution is having a party for everyone, during which the children sing some of
the songs and recite some of the poems they have learned this year. Other possibilities
include using the money that would have been spent on caps and gowns to buy books
for the center and creating “diplomas” on the computer rather than buying them. Other
suggestions are that parents provide refreshments and that all of the children wear white
shirts during the party.
Step 5: Try for a while and then reevaluate if necessary. Negotiated solutions
should be tried and evaluated to make sure that all parties are satisfied. During and
after the “graduation” party, Denyce talked with the parents to get their reactions.
Some of the parents still missed the caps and gowns, but they were pleased when
the children took such interest and pride in the new books. Several parents thought
the program was actually more fun because it was less rehearsed and funnier than in
previous years. One parent pointed out that he was glad that there weren’t any stars of
the show and all the children performed the same thing. Perhaps because the program
was only 15 minutes long, none of the children misbehaved and all seemed to enjoy
themselves, including Denyce. Because some parents didn’t like the white shirts and
wanted their children to dress up in their best clothes, Denyce agreed to try that idea
next year.
The final building block of successful partnerships is the willingness to learn and
change, described next.
Demonstrate Willingness to Learn and Change
We can see from the negotiation between Denyce and the parents in her classroom that
effective partnerships with families depend on the willingness to learn and change.
In Denyce’s case, she was willing to listen to the parents’ concerns respectfully and,
as a result, she learned how much they value education for their children and why
the graduation ceremony was meaningful for them. On the other hand, the fami-
lies learned about Denyce’s concerns for their children’s readiness for kindergarten
and, hence, were willing to change their expectations regarding appropriate ways to
celebrate the children’s achievements. True partnerships occur only when teachers
as well as families are willing to learn from one another and to grow and change as
a result.
The five-step negotiation process outlined here does not involve a quick fix; it re-
quires time and respect for the other parties’ interests, strengths, and abilities. Win-win
negotiation depends on appreciating the importance of everyone’s interests, particularly
parents’ perceptions about what is important for their children. Denyce could easily have
erred by trivializing the parents’ desire to see their children “graduate.” Instead, she ac-
curately perceived that graduation represented an underlying value of education rather
than the actual ceremony.
As we have seen, teaching young children requires working with families, which
requires good communication and negotiation skills. Throughout this chapter, we exam-
ined the various aspects of building effective partnerships with families and communi-
ties. These include establishing reciprocal relationships, communicating effectively, and
negotiating conflicts. We conclude with a return visit to Vilma Suarez’s Early Head Start
program where we began.
✓ Check Your Understanding 7.5: A Framework for Building Partnerships
with Families
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Chapter 7 Building Effective Partnerships with Families 235
• Families are diverse in many ways: composition,
culture, religion, economic status, work, mobility, and
sexual orientation.
• Along with reciprocal relationships and partnerships
between teachers and families, family-centered prac-
tice is characterized by several key principles: mutual
respect and trust; regular, frequent two-way com-
munication; collaboration, shared decision making,
and shared power; and negotiation of conflicts toward
win-win situations.
• Effective two-way communication is the basis for
positive relationships with families. Communication
strategies include teachers’ creating a welcoming
environment; informal conversation; sharing important
information on a daily and/or weekly basis, depending
on the age of the child; using an assertive communica-
tion style, especially when discussing delicate issues;
conferencing; home visiting; and using technology.
• More than 40 years of research confirms that family
engagement in schools and early childhood programs
has a positive impact on children’s success in school
and life.
• Effective partnerships with families involve four key
strategies: clarity about preferences, ability to commu-
nicate, ability to negotiate, and willingness to change
and learn.
Chapter Summary7
. . . Ms. Suarez’s Classroom
Now that we have explored the many ways in which teachers build effective partnerships with families,
we can see how well Vilma Suarez fulfills this important responsibility. She plays a key role in imple-
menting Aiya’s IFSP plan, but she also respects and supports Aiya’s mother and works to gain her trust.
She helps Tomas and Mrs. Vacaro through difficult daily transitions and takes time to communicate with
her throughout the day.
Her biggest challenge will be resolving the conflict with Mr. Henderson over his son’s biting. She
needs to employ all of her skills of effective communication and negotiation. She begins by saying,
“Mr. Henderson, I know how upsetting it is when children bite, but the law prohibits hitting children
at the center. I would like to talk with you about other ways we can work together on this problem.”
Thus begins the complex negotiation process that Vilma knows from experience may take one meeting
or many.
As the families arrive the next morning, Vilma notices that Mrs. Vacaro is even more anxious than
she was the night before when she picked up Tomas. Feeling that she has gained Mrs. Vacaro’s trust
over the many months they have known each other, Vilma carefully asks, “Is everything all right?”
Mrs. Vacaro’s eyes well up and she whispers, “I’m pregnant again, and I don’t have health insurance.”
Vilma calmly replies, “Tomas will make a wonderful brother. He’s so loving. I’m sure you’re feeling
a lot of stress. But our Early Head Start program can help you. With your permission, I’ll check with the
director during the day about the resources we have to offer you and the help we can find in the com-
munity. If you have time, we can meet this evening or I’ll phone you at home.” Mrs. Vacaro exhales with
relief and promises to check back at the end of the day. She calls goodbye to Tomas, who is already
eating his breakfast with the other children. ■
Revisiting the Case Study
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach236
Key Terms
■■ aggressive
communication
■■ assertive communication
■■ family-centered practice
■■ family systems theory
■■ funds of knowledge
■■ home-based■programs
■■ home visiting
■■ passive communication
■■ reciprocal relationships
■■ slippery egg messages
■■ tennis ball messages
Demonstrate Your Learning
Click here to assess how well you’ve learned the content in this chapter.
✓
Ernst, J. D. (2014). The welcoming classroom: Build-
ing strong home-school connections for early learning.
Lewisville, NC: Gryphon House.
Gonzalez-Mena, J. (2014). 50 strategies for communicat-
ing and working with diverse families (3rd ed.). Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Schweikert, G. (2011). Partnering with families: Winning
ways for early childhood professionals. St. Paul, MN:
Redleaf Press.
Harvard Family Research Project
This website has information and strategies for involving
families in children’s learning and development.
National Center on Parent, Family, and Community
Engagement
A center of Office of Head Start, the NCPFCE website
has many resources for engaging families in their chil-
dren’s learning, engaging fathers, safety and health, and
learning games.
National Coalition for Parent Involvement in
Education
This website offers resources and guidance for develop-
ing partnerships with families and offers resources for
families, educators, and administrators. The NCPIE also
provides resources for families and professionals related
to disabilities.
CONNECT Module 4: Family-Professional
Partnerships
This web-based module, from FPG Child Development
Institute, offers learning opportunities and strategies for
building partnerships with families, including videos,
handouts, and activities.
National Black Child Development Institute (NBCDI)
Among a variety of helpful resources for engaging with
families of color, the NBCDI website offers a Classroom
Family Engagement Rubric that teachers can use to iden-
tify their strengths and needs related to engaging families
around children’s learning and development.
Common Sense Education
On this website, Common Sense Media offers “Early
Connections: A Parent Education Toolkit for Early
Childhood Providers.” Teachers can share materials with
families to build partnerships and support family activi-
ties around children’s learning.
Readings and Websites
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8
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
8.1 Explain the value of a caring community of learners and how the Teaching
Pyramid model helps teachers create such a classroom community.
8.2 Review ways teachers can build positive relationships with young children.
8.3 Discuss how teachers can organize daily routines and experiences to support
children’s positive behavior and learning, and prevent behavior problems.
8.4 Outline strategies for how teachers can effectively guide children’s behavior
toward the goal of promoting positive social-emotional development in each
child.
8.5 Describe individualized interventions that can be used with children who
exhibit persistent challenging behaviors.
8.6 Apply the Teaching Pyramid model to specific situations such as teaching
boys, addressing biting and alleviating bullying.
Creating a Caring
Community of Learners:
Guiding Young Children
Learning Outcomes
© Jamie Grill/Getty Images
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239
T oday is the first day of school for Sue Brady, a teacher of 20 four-year-olds in a child care center. She and her co-teacher, Elly Donahue, are both inexperienced teachers responsible for a group of children for the
first time. Sue and Elly spent the last week preparing their classroom. They are a little worried that there are not
enough toys to keep children’s interest and have requested more from the director. The room has a sink, but it is
located in the pathway from the front door to the closet so it is not possible to put the paint easels near it. There
is no book rack, and the books are stacked on an open shelf near the blocks. There is one large open area with a
rug that they plan to use for group time and block building next to a table for toys. Tables are lined up along the
far side of the room.
As soon as the children begin to arrive, things go wrong. Playtime becomes disorganized and the children
dump materials all over the floor rather than use them constructively. The teachers give so much attention to the
children who are out of control that they neglect the others who are behaving well, such as Edie, who is absorbed
in her painting. Over the course of the day, the teachers’ voices become louder as they try to restore order while
the noise level in the room becomes almost unbearable. No one cooperates during cleanup time.
At lunch, Ricky blows milk at his friends through his straw and the others soon emulate his skill. Sue
asks Paula and Aimee, “Would you like to go outside now?” and they simply say,
“No,” leaving her unsure about what to do since she can’t leave them alone inside.
On the playground, Booth punches Elijah hard in the stomach, seemingly for no
reason. Furious but feeling totally incompetent, Sue grabs Booth by
the arms and repeatedly says, “Say you’re sorry!” while Booth just
smirks and Elijah cries loudly. Both teachers can’t wait for naptime, but
when they turn out the lights, the ensuing chaos becomes
overwhelming. Children refuse to stay on their cots, grab toys
off the shelves, talk loudly, and make it impossible for even
the most exhausted to sleep. Sue will remember
this day vividly because it is one of the longest
days of her life, and unfortunately the next day
will be all too similar. ■
Case Study
T
his glimpse into Sue’s classroom is not a fictional account. It is actually what hap-
pened to me on my first day of teaching many years ago. I learned very quickly that
teaching young children is hard work. I also discovered that there was a lot more
that I needed to know to become an effective teacher.
The goal of this chapter is to help ensure that you and the children you teach do
not experience days like the one described above. This chapter describes research-based
practices—ways of creating a caring community of learners—that make teaching young
children more effective and enjoyable. To help you learn how to promote children’s social
competence and address challenging behaviors, we will describe a conceptual frame-
work—the Teaching Pyramid (Center on the Social and Emotional Foundations of Early
Learning, n.d.; Fox, Carta, Strain, Dunlap, & Hemmeter, 2009). Applying this framework
will help you create a caring community of learners in which young children thrive. Using
these research-based, positive guidance strategies will not prevent all of the challenges
you face as a teacher, but it will help you become more effective in your work with
all children.
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach240
A Caring Community of Learners:
The Teaching Pyramid Model
A caring community of learners is a group or classroom in which children and adults
engage in warm, positive relationships; treat each other with respect; and learn from and
with each other. The late Jim Greenman (2005a), one of the foremost experts on chil-
dren’s environments, described early childhood programs as “caring spaces, learning
places.” This phrase is apt because it emphasizes a fundamental principle of early child-
hood education: children’s care and education are interrelated.
Wherever children are served, they are always learning and being cared for. In other
words, both/and thinking is required. Effective early childhood programs provide both
nurturing, responsive relationships and stimulating, interesting educational experiences.
If children’s needs for either care or learning are neglected, the program will be ineffective.
The Value of a Caring Community of Learners
Children learn and develop best in the context of a caring community of learners.
Research provides strong evidence that this is the case. One tool for evaluating the qual-
ity and effectiveness of early childhood programs is the Classroom Assessment Scoring
System (CLASS), which assesses the social-emotional climate and the instructional cli-
mate of preschool or primary-grade classrooms through detailed observations of teachers’
behaviors (Pianta, La Paro, & Hamre, 2008). Research using the CLASS has found that
high-quality emotional and instructional classroom climates uniquely predict children’s
academic achievement and improve social and emotional outcomes (Curby, Brock, &
Hamre, 2013). Teachers who provide high-quality emotional support are aware of and
respond to children’s individual needs, rarely display intense negative emotion, and
engage in positive, respectful interactions with children (Hamre, 2014). This chapter is
dedicated to providing information for how teachers can provide classroom climates that
support children’s emotional and social development.
Equally important, if not more so, is that the emotional climate not be negative—that
there is little or no aggression or hostility among children and teachers (Hamre, 2014).
Most of us have observed classrooms or been students in them in which it is obvious
which children are the “bad kids.” They may be sitting at a desk by themselves or their
names may be the ones you hear over and over. They may be waving their hands in the
air while the teacher continues to ignore them. Young children are very perceptive. They
know whether teachers like them and which kids are the favorites (Janson & King, 2010).
Imagine figuring out within a few days after school starts that your teacher doesn’t like
you very much and facing 9 months of being in that person’s control with no choice to
stay home or switch to another teacher. Children soon begin to act the way they are per-
ceived and live up to low or negative expectations.
Building a caring community of learners requires effort on the part of teachers and
children, but the effort pays off in short- and long-term benefits. In the present, the class-
room will be a more harmonious, pleasant environment in which children are more likely
to learn successfully. In addition, experiencing a caring community helps achieve three
essential, long-term goals for children:
1. To develop positive social skills and emotional self-regulation, which are essential
tasks during the first 5 to 8 years of life
2. To prevent future social and behavioral difficulties, which is more efficient, effec-
tive, and humane than later remediation
3. To build a foundation of learning for later success in school and in life.
Develop Social Skills and Self-Regulation A major developmental accom-
plishment of the first 5 years of life is the development of self-regulation in all spheres of
caring community of learners
A group or classroom in which
children and adults engage in
warm, positive relationships;
treat each other with respect;
and learn from and with each
other.
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Chapter 8 Creating a Caring Community of Learners: Guiding Young Children 241
behavior. This process begins early as babies learn to regulate their sleeping, crying, and
other behavior patterns, and expands during the preschool years to more complex self-
regulation. During these years children develop the ability to control emotions, to learn to
delay gratification, and to build relationships with other people—all key factors essential
for healthy development (Riley, San Juan, Klinkner, & Ramminger, 2008).
Children’s ability to regulate their emotional responses is associated with successful
learning and social relationships (Zins, Bloodworth, Weissberg & Walberg, 2007). Chil-
dren who regulate their emotions can work collaboratively, play with others, seek help,
and offer help to others. Children who have difficulty regulating their emotions exhibit
more frustration in school and often have trouble focusing their attention, completing
tasks and working with other children (Raver, Garner, & Smith-Donald, 2007). Because
learning to regulate one’s emotions involves acquiring a complex set of skills, children
need support from adults in order to be successful.
Other important goals of the early years are the development of self-concept and
self-esteem. Self-concept, which forms rapidly during the preschool years, refers to chil-
dren’s stable perceptions about themselves despite variations in their behavior. Children’s
self-esteem, or perception of their own worth, is also in its formative stages during these
years and can be fragile. Similarly, children gradually acquire a sense of efficacy, a belief
in their own ability to accomplish what they set out to do. Positive self-concept, self-
esteem, and feelings of efficacy don’t develop by people telling children how special and
talented they are, but rather as children take initiative and master challenges with a lot of
adult encouragement (Galinsky, 2010).
Prevent Social and Behavioral Difficulties Teachers today report a larger
percentage of children who exhibit extremely challenging behaviors, such as excessive
aggression, anger, and hostility (Kaiser & Rasminsky, 2017). These children take up most
of the teacher’s attention, yet fail to improve. In worst case scenarios, some children may
be expelled from child care or preschool, experiencing failure before their educational
experiences have even begun (Gilliam, 2008). During the last few decades, since fed-
eral laws began requiring child care programs and schools to fully include children with
disabilities and special needs, the number of children with challenging behaviors may
have increased. Some disabilities such as attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
or autism may adversely affect children’s social behavior (Lieber, 2009). To success-
fully teach in these increasingly complex classrooms, teachers must have knowledge of
effective, research-based early intervention strategies before they encounter these difficult
situations. Children who exhibit persistent challenging behaviors are those most in need
of good teaching.
Building positive social skills and healthy emotional relationships during the early
years is more effective than trying to remedy problems later. Research demonstrates that
preschool children who lack self-regulation and/or
fail to develop positive relationships with peers are
likely to encounter significant difficulties in school
and in life (Diamond, 2012; Moffitt et al., 2011).
Children who don’t acquire minimal social com-
petence and thus are unable to make friends are at
significant risk of dropping out of school, becom-
ing delinquent, or experiencing mental health prob-
lems in adolescence or adulthood (Ladd, Herald, &
Andrews, 2006; Moffitt et al., 2011).
Even when children are 3 or 4 years old, it is
possible to observe which children are socially iso-
lated and do not make friends easily. Even adults
sometimes find these children difficult to interact
with, and may want to avoid them. Yet teachers
must recognize that socially isolated children need
self-concept Children’s stable
perceptions about themselves
despite variations in their
behavior.
self-esteem Children’s percep-
tion of their own worth.
efficacy Children’s belief in
their own ability to accomplish
what they set out to do.
Teachers today report that more
children are exhibiting chal-
lenging behaviors than in the
past. Why might this be true?
What might account for this
perception?
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach242
their help the most. With systematic support and intentional teaching, teachers can pro-
mote children’s development of social competence.
If children’s problems are ignored or set aside because teachers hope “they’ll grow
out of it,” the problems only get worse as children get older. Teachers can instead adopt a
proactive approach, such as this one:
Preschool teacher Karen Hagey observed that every time 3½-year-old Marcus tried to
push his way into the block corner, the other children shouted, “Get out, Marcus! You
can’t play.” She thought about forcing the children to accept Marcus, but realized that
they would resent him and he would be humiliated by her interference. Instead, Karen
quietly coached Marcus on strategies for entering play: “Let’s sit next to Jason and
see if you and I can build a tall tower.” Marcus’s tower soon eclipsed that of his peers,
who started to pay attention to his skill. After a few days of this kind of assistance
from Karen, Marcus entered the play area more calmly and Jason said, “Hey, Marcus,
help me make my building as tall as me.”
Promote Academic Success Social-emotional competence is clearly linked
to academic success throughout all the years of school (Durlak, Weissberg, Dymnicki,
Taylor, & Schellinger, 2011). Children in preschool and the primary grades perform better
on measures of academic achievement, language, and social-emotional development when
they have positive, sensitive, trusting relationships with their teachers (Hamre, 2014). Re-
lationships with teachers predict children’s later relationships with their peers, behavior
problems, school satisfaction, and learning (Diamond, 2012; Howes & Ritchie, 2002).
Vygotsky’s theory of learning as a social construction of knowledge emphasizes that
much of our understanding occurs as we talk with and listen to other people’s ideas. This
give and take of conversation and debate with other people plays a major role in learn-
ing. Promoting social construction of knowledge requires that children learn not just as
individuals but also in the context of small and large groups—as part of a community of
learners. We now have a large body of research to guide teachers in this important work.
The Teaching Pyramid Model
The Center on the Social and Emotional Foundations for Early Learning (http://www.
vanderbilt.edu/csefel) disseminates resources to teachers that translate research on social-
emotional development into best practice. The center developed a model—the Teach-
ing Pyramid—for promoting social competence and preventing challenging behavior in
young children, which is depicted in Figure 8.1. Challenging behavior is defined as
“any behavior that interferes with children’s learning, development, and success at play;
is harmful to the child, other children, or adults; and/or puts a child at high risk for later
social problems or school failure” (Kaiser & Rasminsky, 2017).
Pyramid Components The Teaching Pyramid is composed of four parts: (1) posi-
tive relationships with children, (2) high-quality supportive environments, (3) social and
emotional teaching strategies, and (4) intensive individualized interventions. The base of the
pyramid is the largest portion because it represents the foundation of positive relationships
on which everything else depends. Each subsequent topic on the pyramid builds on the ones
below, and represents a proportionately smaller amount of teachers’ time and effort. This
model indicates that if teachers effectively provide these supports, children will learn social
competence, their positive behaviors will increase and challenging behaviors will diminish.
When teachers encounter children who exhibit negative behaviors such as aggression or
hostility, their first inclination is to try to “fix” that child. As teachers, we naturally assume
that if we could just quickly change that child’s behavior, everything would be well and our
job would be so much easier. The truth is that there are no quick fixes; in fact, the more effec-
tive strategy is not to try to fix the child at first. It is always more difficult to change another
person’s behavior, even if that person is only 3 years old, than to change our own behavior.
The Teaching Pyramid turns our prior assumptions on their head. Rather than try-
ing to change children first, we begin by changing ourselves—that is, we examine our
challenging behavior Any
behavior that interferes with
children’s learning, develop-
ment, and success at play;
is harmful to the child, other
children, or adults; or puts a
child at high risk for later social
problems or school failure.
M08_BRED6702_03_SE_C08.indd 242 10/7/15 2:23 PM
http://www.vanderbilt.edu/csefel
http://www.vanderbilt.edu/csefel
Chapter 8 Creating a Caring Community of Learners: Guiding Young Children 243
behavior in order to focus on establishing a positive relationship with each child. We
recognize that more difficult children will take more effort, but we also acknowledge that
the effort will pay off greatly. Next, we evaluate teaching environments and routines and
determine what changes need to be made to support children’s positive behavior. How can
we support routines that help children do their best? How can we teach social skills and
emotional self-regulation? By asking these questions and exploring solutions, we attempt
to directly address individual children’s challenging behaviors.
The Pyramid’s Effectiveness Research demonstrates that when teachers con-
sistently apply the strategies described in the Pyramid Model, positive social interactions
among children increase and behavior problems decrease (Hemmeter, Snyder, Fox, &
Algina, 2011). Research suggests that fewer than 4% of children require the more intensive
level of interventions (Fox, Dunlap, Hemmeter, Joseph, & Strain, 2003). In a group of 20
children, that equates to only one child. In a center serving 100 children, about 4 children
might require this level of intensive assistance. In the following sections, we discuss each
level of the Teaching Pyramid and provide examples of effective teaching practices.
✓ Check Your Understanding 8.1: A Caring Community of Learners: The Teaching
Pyramid Model
Assessm
ent-
based
intervent
ion
that resu
lts in
individua
lized
behavior
support
plans
Systema
tic appr
oaches
to teac
hing soc
ial skills
can hav
e a prev
entive
and rem
edial eff
ect
High-qu
ality ea
rly child
hood
environ
ments p
romote
positiv
e
outcom
es for a
ll childr
en
Suppo
rtive,
respo
nsive
relatio
nships
amon
g
adults
and c
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n is an
essen
tial co
mpon
ent
to pro
mote
health
y soci
al emo
tional
develo
pmen
t
Intensive
Intervention
Targeted Social Emotional Supports
High-Quality Supportive Environments
Nurturing and Responsive
Relationships
FIGURE 8.1 Teaching Pyramid Model for Promoting Children’s Social and Emotional
Competence The Teaching Pyramid is a research-based, effective framework to help teachers support
children’s social-emotional learning and reduce challenging behaviors in the classroom.
Source: From Promoting Social and Emotional Competence in Infants and Young Children. The Center on the
Social and Emotional Foundations for Early Learning, http://csefel.vanderbilt.edu. Reprinted by permission.
M08_BRED6702_03_SE_C08.indd 243 10/7/15 2:23 PM
http://csefel.vanderbilt.edu
Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach244
Positive Relationships
with Children
A key premise of the Teaching Pyramid is that the most fundamental way to promote
healthy development and learning in young children is for teachers to build and sustain
positive relationships with children.
The Importance of Relationships
From the earliest moments of life, children’s development—who they become—is influ-
enced by the nurturance and care that they receive from adults—first their parents, then
members of the extended family and other caregivers. In the next sections, we describe
the importance of relationships in the family, and then with teachers and other children.
Family Relationships: Attachment Theory Decades of research on mother-
child interactions support the concept that children’s ability to learn depends on their
developing trusting relationships with caregivers—what is called attachment theory
(Bowlby, 1969/2000). Much of the research was conducted by Mary Ainsworth and her
colleagues (1978). They observed how young children interacted with their mothers when
they were brought into a novel or strange situation (such as being presented with new or
unusual materials to explore). They identified kinds of attachments between mothers and
children that have varying effects on children’s development. It is important to note, how-
ever, that attachment is influenced by cultural contexts and will look and mean different
things to diverse cultural groups.
Secure Attachment All children develop attachments to their primary caregivers. They
rely on their caregivers’ protection and nurturing and base their understanding of rela-
tionships on their early experiences. Based on the quality of care infants receive from
caregivers, they develop secure or insecure attachments. According to attachment theory
(Ainsworth et al., 1978; Bowlby, 1969/2000; Scroufe, 1996), when children’s caregiv-
ers are responsive and sensitive to their needs, children develop secure attachment
relationships. Securely attached children rely on their caregivers for support, yet com-
fortably explore their surroundings. Children who are securely attached to their caregivers
have a strong foundation not only for building relationships with other people, but also
for learning (Watson, 2003). They see their caregivers as trustworthy and, in turn, see
themselves as competent and worthy of attention.
What does secure attachment look like? Consider Matthew, a 2½-year-old who en-
joys a warm, loving relationship with his mother. When his mother enrolls him in a child
care center, she stays with him for almost an hour while he becomes acclimated. At first
he clings to her leg and eyes the toys and other children. Gradually, however, he ventures
a few steps toward an enticing ramp that the other kids are sliding down, but quickly runs
back to his mother. After a few more attempts, he hesitantly joins in the fun by rolling
a ball down the incline, all the while seeking regular eye contact with his mother. After
a while, he begins to explore the classroom, occasionally returning to her side for reas-
surance. Matthew relies on his mother as a secure base from which to explore his new
environment. During the next few days, his mother stays with him for shorter periods of
time, until one day he joyfully waves goodbye to her at the door. He no longer needs her
actual presence as a physical base from which to explore because he has internalized the
sense of trust and confidence that she provides. Teachers can help children make such
transitions from the secure attachments of home to child care settings. Read the Becom-
ing an Intentional Teacher: Easing Separation Woes feature for a classroom example.
Insecure Attachment By contrast, some children grow up in families that, for a variety
of reasons, are unable or unwilling to provide reasonably consistent, sensitive, responsive
attachment theory The theory
that children’s ability to learn
depends on their developing
trusting relationships with
caregivers.
secure attachment relationship
A responsive and sensitive re-
lationship with caregivers that
allows children to venture forth
and comfortably explore and
learn about the world.
secure base An attachment
figure (mother or caregiver) who
serves as an anchor for children
to rely on and from which
children can safely venture out
and explore.
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Chapter 8 Creating a Caring Community of Learners: Guiding Young Children 245
care. Mothers or other caregivers may be depressed, ill, or stressed by economic or other
conditions that lead them to be neglectful, punitive, or hostile to their young children.
Some children grow up in very difficult circumstances in which they may have been
abused, neglected, or exposed to drugs and violence. Children growing up in such an
environment may be unable to trust caregivers to keep them safe, and as a result, they
develop poor social skills. Such insecurely attached children may often have difficulty
developing positive social relationships and may exhibit disruptive behavior in child care
centers or schools (Ainsworth et al., 1978).
Various patterns of insecure attachment exist, depending on children’s experienc-
es, which are related to different patterns of behavior (Ainsworth et al., 1978; Bowl-
by, 1969/2000). Children who have experienced rejection and insensitivity from adult
caregivers may demonstrate insecure-avoidant attachment. These children tend to turn
away from or avoid adults and do not seek their comfort; in fact, they may become hostile
in order to avoid rejection before it occurs.
Other insecurely attached children who have experienced confusing and inconsistent
nurturing from adults are said to be experiencing insecure-ambivalent/resistant attach-
ment. Because they are unsure whether adults will be there for them, these children may
appear to seek comfort but then reject it when it is offered. They may be irritable and
fussy, easily frustrated, and difficult to manage in a group.
In more extreme circumstances, when children have experienced neglect, abuse, or
violence in the home, they may exhibit disorganized/disoriented attachment (Main &
Solomon, 1990). Because their past experiences with adults have left them without secure
attachments, they have not developed useful strategies for seeking comfort or attention or
for handling difficulties. Their behavior can be very unpredictable and confusing to teach-
ers and negatively affect the children’s ability to learn.
insecure-avoidant
attachment Rejection and
insensitivity from adult caregiv-
ers that causes children to turn
away from or avoid adults and
not seek their comfort.
insecure-ambivalent/resistant
attachment Children’s inabil-
ity to trust adults to keep them
safe due to neglect, abuse, or
other difficult circumstances
that results in a lack of social
competence.
disorganized/disoriented
attachment Seen in children
who lack secure attachments
with adults due to having
experienced neglect, abuse,
or violence in the home, who
have not developed useful
strategies for seeking comfort
or attention or handling
difficulties.
Becoming an Intentional Teacher
Easing Separation Woes
Here’s What Happened A month before a new group
of 1- and 2-year-olds entered our child care center, I con-
tacted the families to learn about the daily routines at
home. I encouraged the parents to have the child bring a
favorite blanket or toy to the center. I also asked if there
were snapshots of family members or maybe a pet that they
could share so I could make a little photo book for each
child. I suggested to parents that, if possible with their work
schedules, children stay for a shorter time for a few days
rather than a full day.
On the first day, Sasha’s mom whispered to me that she was
going to sneak out so her 2-year-old son wouldn’t get upset
at seeing her go. I told her I thought it would help Sasha if
she said goodbye and told him when she would be back.
Here’s What I Was Thinking From 10 months to
about 2 years of age, the typically developing child learns
that separations from parents are not permanent and be-
gins to cope with short periods of time apart. The child’s
increasing representational abilities—remembering people
and situations—help this understanding to develop. Thus,
bringing a favorite toy or photo from home often provides
comfort and reminds the child that home is still a part of
his day. Transitioning to the program with a shorter day
also allows children to hold on to
the idea that a parent is coming
back and then gradually extend
that to a longer period of time.
Parents sometimes want to leave without saying goodbye,
and that’s understandable. They think the child will be less
upset, and that this may be less stressful for teachers. How-
ever, sneaking away actually creates mistrust in children; it
sends the message that the child cannot rely on the parent.
One- and 2-year-olds fare better when a parent tells them,
“I’m leaving now and I’ll be back after you eat lunch.” I try
to reassure the parents, and tell them not to worry or feel
guilty if their child is crying and having difficulty with the
separation for a while. It means their child feels a bond and
is learning to cope with strong emotions. During the day, I
also try to call or text parents to ease their anxiety.
Reflection More than one-third of mothers of Head Start
children report symptoms of depression, including 9% who
are severely depressed (Malone, Hulsey, Aikens, West, &
Tarullo, 2010). How might the teacher or child react dif-
ferently in this situation if the mother is depressed and the
mother–child attachment appears to be less secure? What
might a teacher do to support this parent?
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach246
Classroom Connection
How does the teacher in this
video foster a warm, caring
relationship with the infants and
toddlers in her care?
Attachment to Teachers Although earlier attachment studies fo-
cused on mother–child attachment, current research also applies the theory
to teacher–child relationships (Hamre, 2014; Howes & Ritchie, 2002). This
research demonstrates that across the full age span of infancy through the
primary grades, a caring, sensitive relationship with a teacher is related to
positive social and academic development. For example, in one study, first
graders who were at high risk for school failure but who had emotionally sup-
portive teachers had achievement scores and relationships with teachers com-
parable to those of children who were not at risk (Hamre & Pianta, 2005). By
contrast, children whose teachers were not emotionally supportive had lower
achievement and more conflict with their teachers and peers. Other studies
demonstrate that when teachers have positive relationships with children and
are sensitive to their needs, children develop better self-regulation and social
skills (Johnson, Seidenfeld, Izard, & Kobak, 2013; Williford, Vick Whittaker,
Vitiello, & Downer, 2013).
In addition, attachment relationships with parents may not predict attachment rela-
tionships with teachers (Howes & Ritchie, 2002). Just as a child who is securely attached
to parents may be insecurely attached to teachers, a child who is insecurely attached to
parents may develop a secure attachment to a teacher. In this way, teachers know that
they can make a positive difference for all children, even those who have troubled family
relationships.
Although building relationships with insecurely attached children can be challeng-
ing for teachers, these children are most in need of such support if they are to succeed
in school and life. Research shows that teachers have more conflict in their relationships
with children with behavior challenges, with boys, and with children of color (Gallagher,
Kainz, White, & Vernon-Feagans, 2013). Most likely related to this research finding is
the fact that: (1) although African American children make up only 18% of preschoolers,
they account for 48% of multiple pre-K suspensions; and (2) more than 75% of preschool
suspensions are boys (U.S. Department of Education Office of Civil Rights, 2014).
Responsive teachers observe children carefully and notice when children need extra
attention or support, and children respond by growing in their social and academic com-
petence (Hamre, 2014). Although the attachment literature tends to focus on individual
relationships between parents or teachers and children, it does not focus on children’s
roles as members of groups, which we discuss next.
Relationships with Other Children Across the age span of birth through age 8,
teachers create a caring community by promoting positive interactions among young chil-
dren (National Association for the Education of Young Children [NAEYC], 2008c, 2009).
Such a community is essential not only for social-emotional development but for learning
in every area. Teaching that supports children’s peer relationships depends, in part, on the
age of the children served.
Infants and Toddlers Building relationships with babies and toddlers takes time, sensi-
tive touch, talking, and playful learning experiences (Raikes & Edwards, 2009). Teachers
create a climate of respect by listening and responding to babies’ verbal and nonverbal
cues, such as their cries or coos, their facial expressions, and body movements. These
behaviors send signals about the baby’s wants and needs, such as “I’m hungry” or “I’m
bored and want to do something else.” When adults respond appropriately to their cues,
babies begin to develop a sense of trust and efficacy.
Teachers also model the kind of warmth and caring that they want children to de-
velop. Even very young infants and toddlers demonstrate empathic behaviors toward
their peers (Raikes & Edwards, 2009). Teachers can promote empathy by labeling
children’s feelings and helping them comfort one another—for instance, “Claudia is
crying because she dropped her binky. Let’s help her.” Finally, teachers can engage in
conversations with infants and toddlers that focus on discussions of their peers. They
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Chapter 8 Creating a Caring Community of Learners: Guiding Young Children 247
can point out to Felix that Anna chose the same color for her painting, and that Amir
is waiting for them to finish painting for his turn. To Amir, the teacher can say, “Look,
Felix and Anna are painting with green, I wonder what color you will choose when it
is your turn.”
Preschoolers and School-Age Children As children get older, their understanding of
relationships and need of friendship increases. Teachers set the tone for a harmonious
classroom by organizing cooperative learning experiences so that children can play and
work together on projects or in small groups. In preschool and even more so in the prima-
ry grades, achieving a harmonious classroom involves the entire group working together
(Durlak et al., 2011). To foster such harmony, encouraging children to talk about potential
or actual social problems, offer solutions, and reflect on the outcomes during class meet-
ings can be effective (Vance, 2013). In the Promoting Play: All Can Play feature, learn
how Tasha creates a context for children to build a strong community.
All Can Play
Tasha teaches in a combined kindergarten–first
grade classroom in a diverse, urban school. Her stu-
dents enjoy periods of intensive learning balanced
with rambunctious dramatic play over the course
of their daily routines and lessons. An intentional
teacher, Tasha has mindfully prepared the classroom
and schedule to meet children’s group and individu-
al needs. She includes the children in planning and
enforcing class rules, and teaches emotional literacy
and social skills as part of her curriculum. So Tasha
is surprised when she realizes that a group of older
children—mostly first graders—has created a sort of
“members-only club” in the class. They have rules
for participation and dictate who can play and who
cannot. They give out-of-school privileges to their
“members” such as play and party invitations.
Because the “club” children (who call themselves
the Dinosaur Kings) are not visibly mean to other
children, Tasha initially just observes their interac-
tions. Eventually, however, she notices that their
exclusion of peers has been somewhat systematic.
In addition to excluding younger children from their
activities, they have prohibited membership to sev-
eral other first graders: Thu, a recent immigrant who
speaks little English; Alphonse, a boy with intellec-
tual disabilities; and Rita, a shy child who wears the
same clothing almost every day.
Tasha shares her concerns with a colleague, who
recommends reading Vivian Paley’s classic book, You
Can’t Say You Can’t Play (1992). In Paley’s book,
she describes her journey with kindergarten and
elementary-school children in learning how to create
a classroom community that espouses inclusion.
Using stories and daily group discussion, Paley leads
the children to view inclusion as social justice, and
exclusion as unacceptable. Like Paley, Tasha begins
to use morning meeting as a time to teach children
about inclusion and differences, and supports ex-
cluded children to advocate for themselves. Children
bring daily stories of their playground interactions
to the group, and no child (even the excluders) is
shamed for their perspective. Because Tasha has de-
veloped positive relationships with all children in her
group, the children feel safe sharing their stories.
Eventually, Tasha’s group reaches the same decision
as Paley’s children did: “You can’t say you can’t
play” becomes a classroom rule. To support this
rule, Tasha is available to help children join group
activities, and to provide ideas for how play and co-
operative activities can go well, even if one or more
children struggle. Before children head to the free
choice activities each day, Tasha has the children
proactively plan for how their chosen activities can
be expanded to include peers. Her perspective is,
“not IF, but HOW” when she thinks about including
children who want to play.
Reference: You Can’t Say You Can’t Play, by V. Paley,
1992, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Promoting Play
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach248
Beyond focusing on children’s social “skills,” teachers also need to promote positive
interactions among children and be attentive to supporting children’s close, reciprocal
friendships (Gallagher, 2013). Teachers can identify potential friends for children, and
arrange for them to work together on a project or be placed at the same table. Teachers
can make cooperative games part of their learning centers, and assign classroom duties to
pairs of children. They can include families in their planning, and suggest play dates or
shared activities after school. Teachers can make a point of communicating with parents
about relationships among children as they emerge, and share photos or stories of children
sharing each other’s company.
Children need to share space and activities with all of the children in their group;
however, only a few of the children may actually be chosen as friends. Friends are a type
of relationship that is special and intimate—and chosen by the child. There is a current
trend in early childhood to refer to all children in a group as “friends” and to call and refer
to children as “friends” (as when a teacher says, “Your friend is waiting for her turn.”
However, teachers should be mindful of the use of the word “friend.” While all children
can play, only children can choose with whom to be friends.
Teachers play an important role in children’s relationship development at all ages,
and they can play an essential role in making sure that children develop friendships (Gal-
lagher, 2013; Gallagher & Sylvester, 2009). Friendships are a specific and complex type
of relationship and are important for lifelong health and well-being. When children are
mutual friends, they share interests and affection for each other. When teachers learn
how important friendships are for children’s well-being, they can use the Teaching Pyra-
mid to organize classroom environments, routines, and experiences to support children’s
friendship development (Gallagher, 2013). A teacher can pair preschoolers with similar
interests. She can teach them how to enter group activities by observing and commenting
on the play. Elementary-school teachers can use board games (with some adult guidance)
and playing games that require teamwork. American classrooms often emphasize the im-
portance of independence, but children fare much better, socially and academically, when
we shift our attention to relationships and interdependence in the classroom.
Effective Strategies to Build
Positive Relationships
Teachers who have positive relationships with children are significantly more likely
to influence their behavior because children pay more attention to responsive, caring
adults (Fox et al., 2003). In addition, caring relationships help children develop positive
self-concept, confidence, and a sense of safety, which in turn reduces the incidence of
Effective teachers develop warm, responsive, positive relationships with each child. From infancy through
primary grades, the quality of teacher–child relationships is related to positive learning and developmental
outcomes for children.
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Chapter 8 Creating a Caring Community of Learners: Guiding Young Children 249
challenging behavior. In fact, “the time spent building a strong relationship is probably
less than the time required to implement more elaborate and time-consuming strategies”
to address challenging behaviors (Fox et al., 2003, p. 49).
A sage piece of advice comes from Kaiser and Rasminsky (2017): “Start fresh every
day.” This seems simple, but sometimes teachers find themselves storing up grievances
against children for past transgressions, creating resentment in both parties. One proven
effective strategy is called “banking time” (Driscoll & Pianta, 2010). Just as saving money
for unexpected expenses helps in an emergency, taking 5 to 15 minutes a week to focus in-
dividually on each child—playing with them or talking about something interesting unre-
lated to academics or the child’s behavior—can pay dividends in building a relationship.
An important but often overlooked aspect of creating a caring community of learners
is the health and well-being of the leaders of the classroom—the teachers. Just as healthy
parents raise healthy children, well teachers create and support a high-quality social-
emotional climate. Teachers who experience more work stress have more conflict in their
relationships with children (Whitaker et al., 2014). In order to calmly and effectively
respond to the demands and stresses of working daily and intensively with young children
and their families, effective early childhood teachers find it necessary to practice self-
care. Teachers can do this by taking care of their physical health (eating well, sleeping,
and exercising) as well as making sure to stay socially connected. Friendships are
important for teachers, too. Some teachers find that practicing mindfulness, or noticing
present moments without judgment, helps them to regulate their emotions and respond to
stressful situations more effectively (Jennings, 2014).
That said, the effectiveness of any strategy will vary with individual children. For
this reason, it is important for teachers to have a large repertoire of strategies to use as
they build relationships with each child. Table 8.1 describes a caring community from the
points of view of both of the children and the teachers.
mindfulness The practice
of purposefully and nonjudg-
mentally noticing sensations
(bodily, mentally, emotionally)
in the present moment.
To create a true caring community of learners, teachers need to consider the child’s point of view as well as
their own, as described in this table.
From a Child’s Point of View From a Teacher’s Point of View
My teacher cares about me, really
listens to me, and likes me.
Shows respect and warmth to all children through physical affection, using a soothing
tone of voice, smiles, and laughter. Listens carefully to children’s feelings and ideas with
attention and respect.
My teacher knows me well—my abili-
ties, strengths, interests, and needs.
Engages in individual conversations with children throughout the day. Gets to know
children by carefully observing them and developing a relationship with their families.
I feel safe, secure, and happy. Holds a child’s hand, smiles, or pats a child lightly on the shoulder.
I’m not scared, no one bullies me. Is sure to protect every child and has zero tolerance for bullying.
I feel like I belong. My identity,
language, and culture are valued.
Greets children personally each day when they arrive, calls each child by his or her name,
and talks with children at their eye level. Learns key phrases in the child’s home language.
I feel proud of my family and they are
welcome in my school.
Greets families warmly. Displays family photos. Conducts home visits or, if parents prefer,
meets privately with them at a comfortable site such as a library or local community center.
I have friends. Helps children who are isolated or lonely connect with at least one other child.
I am challenged and I am learning. Expects children to succeed, acknowledges effort and accomplishments with nods, smiles,
hugs, high-fives, or thumbs-up.
My teacher still likes me even if I
don’t always remember the rules or if
I sometimes do the wrong thing.
Acknowledges and supports children’s positive behavior, especially those children who
tend to demonstrate challenging behavior. Takes time to nurture individual relationships
each day.
I experience joy. Begins each day anew, genuinely enjoys children, and delights in their accomplishments.
Source: Based on Inventory of Practices for Promoting Children’s Social-Emotional Competence, by the Center on the Social and Emotional
Foundations for Early Learning and WestEd San Marcos, 2011, retrieved from http://cainclusion.org/camap/pdfs/CACSEFEL/
InventoryOfPractice_AUG11 .
Table 8.1 What a Caring Community Looks Like
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach250
Human relationships are complex, two-way interactions, and children’s behavior in-
fluences adults’ reactions and behaviors just as much as adults influence children. There-
fore, it is important for teachers to spend time reflecting on the basis for their expectations
and judgments about children’s behavior.
Personal, Family, and Cultural Views of Children’s Behavior Each
of us has her own views about the acceptability of specific behaviors in children based
on personal, family, and cultural experiences (Kaiser & Rasminsky, 2017). For example,
some adults welcome children’s exuberance, whereas others see rambunctious play as
misbehavior. Some children are hypersensitive to touch. With 3-year-old Shisuko, pats or
hugs would not be welcome, but sitting nearby and talking quietly would. Relationship
building, like all other aspects of teaching, requires individualizing.
Because what is considered acceptable behavior in one family, community, or
cultural group may be frowned on or prohibited in another (Kaiser & Rasminsky,
2017), teachers should help children learn the kinds of behaviors that predict success
in school. In doing so, they can help young children learn that there are different rules
of behavior for different environments. Children make these distinctions all the time.
Early on, they learn that what is accepted and safe behavior in their own home is not
acceptable behavior in the neighborhood. Read the Culture Lens: Helping Children
Adapt to School feature for an example of what teachers can do to help children feel
comfortable at school.
Culture Lens
Helping Each Child Adapt to School
Children from diverse cultural backgrounds may face
challenges adapting to unfamiliar environments, and
school can be the most daunting. On the first morning
of kindergarten, Miguel Hernandez sets in motion a plan
to build a sense of community among the children. His
class includes children from many different countries
and cultural backgrounds. Miguel greets the children,
most of whom arrived by bus, at the door. He hasn’t had
a chance to meet their families.
He begins the day with a morning meeting and wants the
children to introduce themselves. Quickly, however, he
changes his plan. In gathering the group and observing
them, he realizes how uncomfortable and awkward many
of the children would feel if he asked them to speak up in
the group. Instead, he introduces himself and reassures
them by talking briefly about what will happen today and
what they can expect.
Even though Miguel has lived and worked in many dif-
ferent contexts in his life, he remembers vividly his first
day of kindergarten. His mother had given him some last-
minute instructions so that he would be successful in
school. She told him to do three things: stand tall, show
respect to his teacher, and speak only in English. When
he arrived at school, the teacher said, “Look at me. Now
what’s your name?” He was nervous and confused then
because he wanted to do what the teacher had told him,
but he also wanted to follow his mother’s instructions.
He knew that looking into the teacher’s eyes would be
disrespectful, and he was unsure of how to say his name
in English. On his first day of school, differing cultural
expectations clashed and he was caught in the middle.
Fortunately for the children in Miguel’s class, he knows
not to make assumptions and is sensitive to their needs.
He will continue to work toward his goal—to create a car-
ing community of learners—but he also knows that to
achieve it, he will have to learn as much as possible about
the children’s families, their values, and their behavioral
repertoires. Although it would have been better for this
to happen before the first day, he will find ways to talk
with families to discover areas where school and home
expectations might differ. Once these are revealed, he will
be able to propose some options to make things easier
for each child and to offer a chance to talk about the dif-
ferences. For example, “At home you remove your shoes
before entering the house. At school we keep shoes on.”
Teachers can use the same principle when problems
arise over differing expectations about appropriate be-
havior, which may be more sensitive to discuss with par-
ents, such as the use of profanity. Children may hear and
use language at home that is prohibited at school. Help-
ing children adapt to the expectations of school without
criticizing their family or community can be a tricky bal-
ancing act for teachers, but is likely to be in the child’s
best interest.
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Chapter 8 Creating a Caring Community of Learners: Guiding Young Children 251
Examine Your Own Attitudes toward Challenging Behavior An es-
sential part of your development as a teacher is to examine your own attitudes toward
children’s challenging behavior. These attitudes are based in your own upbringing, your
personal values, your cultural practices, and many other aspects of your prior experi-
ences. Which behaviors do you find most unacceptable? Which behaviors “push your
buttons”? Spitting, hitting, name-calling, bullying? Are they equally unacceptable? Do
you see challenging behavior as characteristic of the child or something that is learned?
It is also important for you to consider your personal beliefs about the causes of spe-
cific types of unacceptable child behavior. Do you attribute motives to certain children
but not to others? Do you find yourself thinking that a particularly aggressive child is
mean-spirited, or do you think that she wants your attention and is willing to get it any
way she can?
Mistaken Behavior, Not Misbehavior Considering the causes for children’s behavior
is an important part of the reflection process. Dan Gartrell (2011), an expert on guiding
children’s behavior, prefers the term mistaken behavior to misbehavior. Young children
are still learning acceptable behavior and are bound to make mistakes, just as they make
mistakes when learning to tie their shoes or write their names. We not only tolerate, but
we expect mistaken behavior as part of the learning process. Why, then, are we so much
less tolerant of mistakes in children’s social behavior?
Some aspects of children’s behavior that disturb adults are actually reflections of
children’s typical development. For example, toddlers come to love and overuse the word
no and may accompany their insistent “No!” with temper tantrums. These behaviors dem-
onstrate children’s growing independence from adults, their beginning knowledge of the
power of language, and frustration over not being able to do everything they would like.
Most of the time, children grow out of these oppositional behaviors if given appropriate
support and nurturance.
Behavior Is Functional All behavior is a form of communication; it serves a function
(Kaiser & Rasminsky, 2017). Teachers need to understand that even challenging
behaviors—those behaviors that are potentially harmful in the short or long term—are
conveying some type of message. Experts who study children’s behavior have found that
most challenging behavior serves one of three functions: It helps children get something,
avoid something, or change the level of stimulation (Kaiser & Rasminsky, 2017). For
example, Brian wants Tonia’s truck, so he pushes her down. Tray doesn’t want to clean
up, so he throws the toys at Emma. Lala is bored waiting in line for the bathroom, so
she pinches Mona. As undesirable as these behaviors may be, to effectively handle the
children’s frustration, the teacher must determine what each behavior is conveying and
provide the appropriate support and guidance.
If teachers think about children’s challenging behavior as either a mistake on the
path to learning or a message they are trying to send, it is likely that their attitudes toward
challenging behaviors will change. Instead of blaming children or rejecting them, teach-
ers are more likely to embrace these challenges as problems to solve. Of course, the most
effective strategy is to prevent problems in the first place, which is the second step on the
Teaching Pyramid.
✓ Check Your Understanding 8.2: Positive Relationships with Children
High-Quality Supportive
Environments
The quality of the learning environment is also very important in creating a caring com-
munity of learners and enabling children to do their best. Teachers’ work begins before
they meet the children in their group. The physical environment, the schedule including
mistaken behavior Alternative
term for children’s misbehavior,
recognizing the fact that young
children are still learning ac-
ceptable behavior and that they
are bound to make mistakes.
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach252
use of routines and transitions, and curriculum plan
are all important factors in promoting children’s posi-
tive outcomes, preventing negative behaviors, and cre-
ating a caring community. As discussed in Chapter 3,
the arrangement of the physical space and materials
provides the framework to support children’s positive
behavior. When the classroom is well organized and
predictable, children’s behavior reflects that. In addi-
tion, the classroom literally communicates to children
what is acceptable. In a wide open space, children
may become boisterous or unruly as compared to a
quiet, cozy nook where they are more likely to calmly
peruse a book.
To ensure the best possible outcomes, teachers
need to plan engaging daily routines with smooth tran-
sitions. Teachers can establish clear expectations for classroom behavior and make sure
supports are in place so that children can develop warm relationships, demonstrate their
best behavior, and engage productively in learning.
Ensure Smooth Transitions Young children’s care and education involves nu-
merous changes in activity and relocation of their physical space. They move from group
time to learning centers, eat regularly, wash their hands, use the bathroom, take naps, and
go outdoors and return. Primary-grade children move between special classes such as
music, art, or physical education in addition to lunch and recess, or switch subject matter
teachers. Each of these situations involves transitions.
Transitions are the changes from one activity or place to another. Although inevi-
table, transitions can be difficult for young children who are not particularly good at
waiting or who do not adapt well to change. Children who exhibit challenging behaviors
tend to display oppositional behavior during transitions. Following are principles to keep
in mind to ease transitions:
• Prepare ahead of time for the next activity so children do not spend exces-
sive amounts of time waiting. For instance, have several children setting up
for snack while the others are cleaning up centers so the transition to snack
time is smooth.
• Give children a 5-minute warning before a transition happens, such as
“Five more minutes till cleanup time.” Point out the numbers on a digital
clock (which becomes a math/addition learning experience) or the hands of
the clock to help children grasp the concept of 5 minutes.
• For those children who have particular difficulty with transitions, give
them an individual warning and explanation of what is to come, or perhaps
a pictorial cue.
• Make transitions learning experiences by singing songs, reciting rhymes
or poems, counting steps, following the leader’s motions, doing movement
exercises, or following specific directions such as “If your name starts with
a K, get your coat.”
• Minimize the number of transitions between activities and the amount of
time children spend in transitions.
Use Engaging Routines The early childhood day is governed by routines of daily
living, which, if planned well, can provide children with excellent learning experiences.
A large-scale study of 652 prekindergartens in 11 states found that, on average, children
spent more than one-third of their time in routines and transitions, but during 87% of that
time they were waiting idly and/or uninvolved in any learning activity (Early et al., 2010).
These regular, informal moments of the day provide valuable learning opportunities that
should not be wasted.
transitions Changes from one
activity or place to another.
Environments send messages
to children about what behavior
is acceptable and what is val-
ued. What messages does this
classroom environment send to
children?
Classroom Connection
Teachers often struggle with guid-
ing children’s behavior during
the difficult transition to nap-
time. What effective strategies
does this teacher use to ease the
transition and turn a daily routine
into a learning opportunity?
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Chapter 8 Creating a Caring Community of Learners: Guiding Young Children 253
Routines—snacks and mealtimes, cleaning up, washing hands, dressing for out-
doors—all provide opportunities for children to practice newly acquired skills and to
engage in conversation essential for developing language. In addition, teachers can use
routines as times for individual interactions such as sitting and talking with children dur-
ing snacks and meals.
Teachers should establish routines that allow children to do as much as possible for
themselves. When adults do things for children that they can already do themselves, they
rob children of important learning experiences. Routines such as dressing or cleaning up
also provide many chances for children to practice fine motor skills as well as cognitive
abilities such as categorization (for example, the long blocks go together and the short
blocks go together).
Establish Clear, Consistent,
Fair Rules for Behavior
Just as children thrive in predictable physical and temporal environments, they also thrive
when the expectations for behavior are clear and predictable. Therefore, it is essential that
teachers involve children early on in establishing clear rules, limits, and consequences for
behavior. It is equally important that teachers consistently and fairly enforce these rules
in order for children to feel safe and secure.
In establishing classroom rules or guidelines for behavior, as Gartrell (2011) calls
them, teachers need to engage children in discussing and enforcing a manageable number
(three to six) of positively stated classroom rules. These discussions should take place
during times of calm and quiet reflection. Some teachers may be tempted to focus chil-
dren’s attention on what not to do—don’t hit, or don’t throw toys. However, a more effec-
tive approach is to positively state what children should do. Virtually all situations can be
covered by these three rules:
1. We take care of ourselves.
2. We take care of other people.
3. We take care of our school.
When we say “Don’t run” to young children, their brains might process only the word
run; they don’t process the prohibition. Therefore, it is always more effective to state
expectations clearly and positively: “Keep the food on the table” or “Walk inside.” It is
also important to provide reasons for the expected behavior: “If you run, someone might
get knocked over.”
Support Children to Do Their Best
Earlier, we identified several reasons why children behave as they do: to get something,
to avoid something, or to change the level of stimulation. When it comes to “getting
something,” the object of desire is usually the teacher’s attention. Children are willing to
do almost anything to attract adults’ attention, and they tend not to discriminate between
positive and negative attention. To guide children toward using positive strategies to at-
tract attention, teachers must keep in mind that because they have the power to control
only their own behavior, they can determine which behaviors of children they give at-
tention to and when. Teachers can ignore mistaken behavior, redirect behavior, and give
positive feedback and encouragement.
Ignore When Appropriate Behaviors that are not reinforced will be extinguished
or eliminated. If the reinforcement that children are seeking is the teacher’s attention—
and they are behaving inappropriately to receive that attention—then ignoring the inap-
propriate behavior can be an effective way of extinguishing it. When teachers react to
these behaviors, they continue.
Consider, for example, 3½-year-old Curt, who has daily temper tantrums and lies
on the floor kicking and screaming. His teacher, Janine, knows that he is too old for this
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach254
behavior and believes that it is a cry for her attention. She decides to ignore the tantrums
by physically removing herself to the other side of the room, but as soon as Curt tires from
his explosion and quiets, she returns and invites him to sit by her and read a story. It takes
several days during which she has to remind the other children not to pay attention to Curt
during these episodes, but gradually Curt’s tantrums disappear.
To be effective, teachers must be careful to give more attention to children’s positive
behaviors than to their negative ones. Teachers can identify a select few negative behav-
iors to ignore and also identify prosocial or positive behaviors to acknowledge that are the
opposite of the ones they are trying to ignore. It may also be necessary to teach the other
children to ignore a peer’s undesirable behavior since the child may desire the attention
of his or her peers as well as the teacher’s.
Redirect Behavior Another strategy for supporting children to do their best is
redirection, which is the drawing of a child’s attention or behavior toward a more desir-
able alternative. Redirection is especially effective with very young children whose at-
tention is easily distracted. For instance, 18-month-old Jamie appears ready to bite Erika
because she has the toy train he covets. His teacher has anticipated this situation and
heads it off by offering him an identical engine and turning his attention toward her and
away from where Erika is playing.
Redirecting children toward more productive activities is a useful strat-
egy for toddlers who have yet to learn language or other problem-solving
strategies and for children who are wandering or withdrawn. As children get
older and become more competent problem solvers, adults should rely less
on redirection and more on intentionally teaching children to get along with
others. Because adults won’t always be available to redirect behavior, it is
important to use this strategy sparingly.
Give Positive Feedback and Encouragement One of the
most powerful ways teachers have for supporting children’s prosocial
behavior is to give positive attention when children behave in desirable
ways. When teachers use positive feedback and encouragement related to
children’s appropriate behavior, children feel supported and are more likely to continue to
behave acceptably.
If a teacher wants a behavior to continue, it is necessary to provide positive feedback or
encouragement. It is important for teachers not to give empty praise such as “Good girl” or
“Nice job,” but rather to enthusiastically encourage and describe the desired behavior or ac-
knowledge the effort. “Heath, thank you for telling me why you were angry,” says his teacher,
Jane. “Next time, I’ll make sure you get a turn on the balance beam.” At times, encourage-
ment will be nonverbal, offering a child a smile, a nod, or a thumbs-up for an achievement.
For positive feedback and encourage-
ment to be effective, teachers need to recog-
nize that there are individual differences in the
forms of acknowledgment that children find
positive. Communicating with families about
what kinds of feedback work for their chil-
dren may be necessary. One might prefer to
sit by the teacher, while another prefers to be
given a task to do. When teachers frequently
give positive support for appropriate behavior,
children will often pick up on their lead, giv-
ing positive feedback to each other. Repeating
words she has heard her teacher use, 5-year-
old Karena says to her friend Darla, “Thanks
for helping me clean up this mess. I’ll help
you next time.”
redirection Drawing a child’s
attention or behavior toward a
more desirable alternative than
the one on which the child is
currently focusing.
Classroom Connection
Redirection is a powerful tool
for guiding young children’s
behavior. This video, designed for
parents, explains why and how to
use redirection.
http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=kR0uuaLM15g
Intentional teachers encourage
young children’s positive be-
havior. Sometimes, just a smile
or nod is enough to communi-
cate that you noticed a child’s
effort or success.
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Chapter 8 Creating a Caring Community of Learners: Guiding Young Children 255
Let’s think about how a teacher might use all of these ways of supporting children
to do their best when confronted with a challenging situation. Andy picks his nose and it
definitely irritates his teacher. She finds this behavior disgusting, but realizes after reflec-
tion that she overreacts every time he does it, and the frequency of the behavior is actually
increasing, especially during snack times. She decides to encourage more appropriate
behavior by giving him his own box of tissues and reminding him in advance how to use
them. At first, Andy’s nose picking increases, but his teacher decides to ignore it. Instead,
when he does anything with the tissue box, even if he simply picks it up, she gives him at-
tention and encouragement. She also gives him positive attention unrelated to the negative
behavior: “Andy, thanks for helping me bring the tricycles inside.” Over time, his teacher
finds much to enjoy in Andy and the nose picking becomes a rare event.
As we have seen, there are many effective strategies teachers can use to support chil-
dren to do their best and prevent problem behaviors. In addition to preventing negative
behaviors, however, adults have key roles to play in teaching children appropriate behav-
ior, which we examine next.
✓ Check Your Understanding 8.3: High-Quality Supportive Environments
Teaching Social-Emotional
Competence and Guiding Behavior
Children aren’t born with the ability to get along well with other people and regulate
their own strong emotions. These social and emotional skills are learned gradually
over the first years of life, and they are among the most important accomplishments of
children’s lives.
Guiding children to function well in a caring community of learners, however, de-
pends on three key aspects of teaching practice: fostering emotional literacy, teaching
social skills, and teaching conflict negotiation. Before addressing each of these dimen-
sions of teaching practice, it is important to clarify the distinction between guidance and
punishment.
Guidance and Punishment
When children display unacceptable or inappropriate behavior, which is a natural part of
growing up, adults’ automatic response is often to discipline them. Consider that the word
disciple means “to learn.” Often when teachers and adults discipline, however, they do
so not to teach, but rather to punish. However, children do not learn positive behaviors
from punishment. Although punishment may stop a negative behavior temporarily, it does
not teach the child what to do instead. Consequently, teachers may find that using the
same punishment repeatedly with a child (which they often do) doesn’t deter the negative
behavior.
One discipline strategy teachers and parents too often use is time-out. Time-out is
removing a child to a specified chair or area of the room for a period of time following an
unacceptable behavior. Many adults think that time-out is a good way to get children to
stop their unacceptable behavior. Removing a child from a situation for a period of time,
however, can be a form of punishment and, if so, it is unlikely that the child is reflecting on
righteousness in this situation. Time-out does not teach the child what to do instead of the
negative behavior and, in fact, may achieve the child’s purpose by removing him from the
situation he sought to avoid, such as helping to clean up. On the other hand, occasionally
giving children a brief time away to calm down before negative behavior escalates may be
helpful, if the child feels supported by the teacher in this situation and if the child’s culture
does not consider isolation from the group as humiliation (Kaiser & Rasminsky, 2017).
Guidance is the process of teaching children the life skills they need to func-
tion productively. Instead of punishments, children need adults to actively teach them
time-out Removing a child
to a specified chair or area of
the room for a period of time
following an unacceptable
behavior.
guidance The process of
teaching children the life skills
they need to function produc-
tively with other children.
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach256
positive behaviors to replace negative, ineffective behaviors. Children must be taught
important life skills, such as appropriate expression of negative emotions, getting along
with others, and conf lict resolution, using a variety of developmentally appropriate
learning experiences and teaching strategies. In the busy classroom atmosphere, teach-
ers often guide children’s behavior very publicly, calling attention to children who
struggle more with self-regulation. For Micah, hearing that the teacher “likes the way”
other children are sitting, and hearing his name called out by the teacher, “We’re wait-
ing for you, Micah,” convinces Micah over time that he is not very good at keeping up
with the demands of school.
Sometimes teachers adopt shortcut techniques that seem to simplify child guidance in
the classroom, such as the often used “Traffic Light” technique. In this method, each child
has three cards, a green (for positive behavior), yellow (for a “warning”) and red (for chal-
lenging behavior). The teacher assigns colors to individual children, based on their behav-
ior, often publicly displaying children’s traffic light status. For children who struggle, and
whose cards are often yellow or red, this technique can bring shame and frustration. Sadly
for those children, there’s no card for trying hard. The Traffic Light behavior control
method is frequently used school- or district-wide, which is surprising given that it is not
an effective strategy for teaching children positive behavior. The same children receive a
red card repeatedly and, as is true of punishment in general, their behavior often worsens.
In the next sections, you’ll learn strategies for supporting children’s positive behavior and
responding to their challenging behavior in respectful ways.
Teach Emotional Literacy and Social Skills
When children grapple over a toy, hit, or bite, teachers often suggest, “Use your words.”
This is an effective strategy if, and only if, children have the vocabulary to describe their
emotions and the language proficiency to articulate their wants and needs. Emotional
literacy is “the ability to identify, understand, and respond to emotions in oneself and oth-
ers in a healthy manner” (Joseph, Strain, & Ostrosky, 2006). Children who have a strong
foundation in emotional literacy are more likely to tolerate frustration and to fight less,
and are less lonely and impulsive. They also are more focused and have greater academic
achievement. Developing a vocabulary for expressing feelings is an essential
aspect of emotional literacy because the larger a child’s emotional vocabulary,
the finer the distinctions she can make when expressing her feelings to other
people (Kusché & Greenberg, 2012).
Think about the number of words you know related to feeling bad: angry,
mad, furious, upset, anxious, unhappy, distraught, disturbed, disappointed,
depressed, disgusted, dismayed, frustrated—we could empty a thesaurus.
The same could be said for other emotional states. Being frustrated, however,
is not the same as being furious. Children’s behavior may be communicating
frustration or fury and, without knowing which, we may be more or less ef-
fective in helping them.
An important aspect of emotional literacy is being able to reflect on one’s
own emotions. Read the What Works: Teaching Emotional Literacy feature for
examples of effective strategies to promote emotional literacy in young children.
Just as children need adults to teach them how to regulate and express
emotions constructively, children need adults to explicitly teach them social
skills such as cooperation, social problem solving, and interacting with peers. In addition,
children with disabilities may need particular help from adults in forming friendships
with typically developing peers (Joseph & Strain, 2003a, 2003b).
One important decision facing teachers is when to teach social skills. Some moments
in time are more effective than others to teach social skills. Teachers often try to teach
problem solving in the middle of a crisis situation, when intervention is least effective.
Read the Including All Children: When to Teach Social and Emotional Skills feature to
learn timely ways to teach social skills.
emotional literacy Children’s
ability to identify their own and
others’ emotions and to express
emotions in a healthy way.
Classroom Connection
In this video, the teacher and oc-
cupational therapist work togeth-
er to support a preschooler with
autism play in block play with
peers. Why might this strategy be
more beneficial than removing
the child for a therapy session?
https://www.youtube.
com/watch?v=jHD7uEra-
Kc&list=PL818D7E62353903
B4&index=15
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Chapter 8 Creating a Caring Community of Learners: Guiding Young Children 257
Conflict Resolution
Organizing the environment and routines, and establishing classroom expec-
tations and structure around respect will prevent much classroom conflict.
However, conflict is an inevitable part of social interaction, especially with
young children who are just developing their ability to get along with other
people. In fact, episodes of conflict should be considered learning opportuni-
ties. Teaching children specific steps in conflict resolution before problems
occur and trusting them to solve their own problems are important steps in
children’s social-emotional development.
During conflicts between students, when teachers remain calm and in
control of their own emotions, children feel assured and safe. It is important
to acknowledge children’s strong feelings and help them learn to describe
their feelings and perceptions of the conflict to each other. Rather than asking
a question that children will not be able to answer such as “How do you think
that made him feel?” ask the child, “What happened? How do you feel?”
Like adults, children experiencing strong negative emotions are less able to
“use their words” or use perspective-taking to think about how other children
What Works
Teaching Emotional Literacy
Teaching emotional literacy is a proven strategy for promoting chil-
dren’s self-regulation and social skills and preventing challenging
behavior. Here are some research-based ways teachers can help
children become more emotionally literate.
• Express your own feelings. “I’m frustrated because this is the
third time I tried to open the paint jar and it’s stuck. I’m going
to take a deep breath and then try again.”
• Label children’s feelings and your own emotions. “You look
disappointed that Micah didn’t come to school today. I miss
him, too.”
• Help children talk about their own and others’ emotions and
discuss acceptable ways of expressing strong feelings. “I think
you and Rashid are angry because you both want to paint. Can
you ask how much longer it will be before you can have a turn
at the easel?”
• Use or adapt songs and rhymes, games, and stories that intro-
duce and expand feeling words. “If you’re happy and you know
it, clap your hands. If you’re excited and you know it, jump up
high. If you’re frustrated and you know it, take a breath.”
• Narrate and describe ongoing interactions to help children de-
velop vocabulary related to prosocial behaviors. “Gregory and
Keisha, you are working so well together at the computer. You
look pleased and proud of the book you’ve created.”
• Draw children’s attention to the feelings or experiences of oth-
ers, at times using pictures or photos of people’s faces. “Look
at this face. Can you tell how this person feels?”
• Help children develop empathy by reminding them of their own
similar feelings or experiences. “You know what it feels like
when someone says you can’t play.”
• Model caring, positive regard for
others. When a child is sick, have
children make cards or send e-mails.
Emotional literacy helps children calm down when they are
feeling very strong emotions. Teachers can use an emotion ther-
mometer to help children monitor their own feelings. The children
decorate the thermometer with pictures of feeling faces from “hap-
py” and “relaxed” in the blue, cool section of the thermometer all
the way up to “angry” or “stressed out” in the red, hot section of the
thermometer. The teacher then asks children to describe a recent
conflict and together they retrace the steps that led to the angry
outburst. Then the teacher discusses with the child the thoughts,
actions, and words that the child can use to reduce her anger.
As the teacher retraces the steps of the angry outburst, the
children identify the time or situation that began the episode. This
is marked as the “Danger Point” on the thermometer. Once chil-
dren have established their danger points, they name the zone,
such as “Think Calm Thoughts,” “Cool Down,” or “Code Red.”
Then, the teacher and children can use this code word as a signal
that anger or stress has reached the threshold. This in turn can
trigger the use of a calming strategy such as taking three deep
breaths or visualizing happy and calming places.
Sources: Based on Fostering Emotional Literacy in Young Children: Label-
ing Emotions (What Works Brief 21), by G. Joseph, P. Strain, and M. M. Os-
trosky, 2006, Urbana-Champaign, IL: Center on the Social and Emotional
Foundations for Early Learning; and Fostering Social and Emotional Com-
petence: Implementing Dina Dinosaur’s Social Skills and Problem Solving
Curriculum in Inclusive Early Childhood Programs, by G. E. Joseph, C.
Webster-Stratton, and M. Reid, 2006.
Classroom Connection
Young children often need guid-
ance and support to learn how to
get along with other people. What
are some of the strategies the
teacher in this video uses to help
the children resolve their conflict
and avoid future conflicts?
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach258
Including All Children
The figure below illustrates the cycle of challenging be-
havior as it typically occurs in early childhood settings.
It depicts the point at which teachers are most effective
in supporting children’s social-emotional development
and in preventing challenging behaviors. Consider how
the cycle unfolds in the following scenario.
At choice time, Jessie moves to the block corner,
sits down, and begins constructing a boat with the
unit blocks. He is serious about his project, but
calm and content. His teacher, Sarah, looks around
the room and notices that all of the children are
happily playing and learning. A few minutes pass
and more children are now in the block corner.
There are fewer blocks to go around, and it is get-
ting crowded. Still, Jessie is busy concentrating
and enjoying his creation.
Fifteen minutes later, Jessie has an idea and
searches for the Y-shaped block. He sees a child
using it and demands it with angry words, but the
other boy continues to claim it.
Sarah hears a scream and rushes to see what
happened. Jessie has attacked the boy with the
Y-shaped block, who is badly hurt and cries loudly.
At precisely this point—marked by the red arrow—
many teachers try to teach Jessie a social skills lesson.
For example, teachers might say any of the following:
“Use your words!” “Hitting is not okay.” “We share our
toys.” “Say you’re sorry!” “You need to calm down. Go
to the thinking chair.”
It is true that preschoolers need to use words to re-
solve conflict, to understand that aggression is not
okay, to share materials, to know how and when to use
an apology, and how to regulate their emotions. How-
ever, teaching these skills is ineffective if teachers try
to do so at the wrong time. The crisis moment (red
arrow) is not a teachable moment for several reasons:
(1) The challenging behavior has already occurred.
(2) The child who engages in aggression is likely to
be upset and agitated and not responsive to a lesson
highlighting his or her mistakes. (3) The time and at-
tention the teacher spends trying to teach the child
what to do instead (even if it is negative attention)
may serve to reinforce the challenging behavior. (4) If
the teacher uses these crisis moments only as times
to teach social-emotional skills, the child will never
receive enough positive learning and practice opportu-
nities to effectively alter his or her behavior.
The most effective teachable moments happen before
problems occur, when the teacher and children are
calm and engaged in appropriate behavior—green ar-
rows. At these times, teachers can build positive rela-
tionships and teach key social-emotional skills, such
as identifying emotions and resolving conflict.
Source: Based on “‘You Got It!’ Teaching Social and
Emotional Skills,” by L. Fox & R. H. Lentini, 2006, Young
Children, 61(6), 36–42. Based on information from the
National Association for the Education of Young Children
(NAEYC), http://www.naeyc.org.
Cycle of Challenging Behavior
feel. Think about the last time you were very angry, and how effectively you were able
to describe your feelings or consider the other person’s perspective. By giving each child
the opportunity to offer solutions to the conflict and by offering their own only if needed,
teachers help children become better negotiators and communicators. Table 8.2 describes
strategies for teaching conflict resolution.
Helping children learn conflict negotiation skills takes time and practice. Sometimes a
conflict does not warrant a full-scale negotiation because one child is not as vested in the
When to Teach Social and Emotional Skills
CRISIS
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http://www.naeyc.org
Chapter 8 Creating a Caring Community of Learners: Guiding Young Children 259
issue. But equipping all children with conflict negotiation skills helps ensure that rules are
fairly and equitably applied and that the classroom is truly a caring community of learners.
Applying the first three parts of the Teaching Pyramid—establishing positive relation-
ships, organizing high-quality supportive environments, and teaching social and emotional
skills and positively guiding behavior—will go a long way toward creating a caring com-
munity of learners. Nevertheless, a few children will require more individualized interven-
tions to successfully navigate the classroom and learn optimally, as we discuss next.
✓ Check Your Understanding 8.4: Teaching Social-Emotional Competence and
Guiding Behavior
Intensive Individualized
Interventions
In most classrooms, it is likely that there will be a few children who demonstrate persis-
tent challenging behaviors. To effectively reach these students, it may be necessary to use
individualized intervention, which is a systematically planned and implemented set of
actions designed to alter the course of a child’s development or learning.
individualized intervention
A systematically planned and
implemented set of actions
designed to alter the course
of a child’s development or
learning.
Effective strategies exist for teaching children to solve their own conflicts, as illustrated here in the examples.
Strategy Example
Acknowledge, accept, and validate all children’s feelings and
perceptions of the conflict.
Use “I messages”—sentences that describe your own observa-
tions or perceptions about a situation, such as “Katie, I think
you are angry because Ally took the blocks you wanted.”
Help children verbalize feelings and desires to each other and
listen to one another. Use active listening, which reflects what
you are hearing so the child can agree or disagree.
The teacher says, “Katie, it sounds like you wanted all the big
blocks for your bridge.” Katie responds, “No, I just want the two
biggest and Ally took them.”
Clarify and state the problem. “Katie and Ally, you both want the two biggest blocks.”
Give children the opportunity to suggest solutions. The teacher says, “How could we solve this problem?” Katie
says, “I get to have the blocks because I was here first.” Ally
says, “You have been playing with them the whole time. I want a
turn.” Katie replies, “I could play with them today and you can
have them next week.” Ally ponders for a while and says, “Okay,
but only if you promise.”
Propose solutions when children do not have ideas or if their
ideas are too extreme or punitive.
“Next week seems like a long time away,” the teacher says.
“Maybe tomorrow would be a fairer solution.”
Uphold the value of mutual agreement and give children the
opportunity to reject proposed solutions. That is, both parties
in the conflict must mutually agree on the solution. When both
children lose interest in the conflict, do not pursue it.
“Do you both agree that tomorrow Ally can have the two biggest
blocks? If so, we’ll write it down so we remember.”
Help children recognize their responsibility in a conflict
situation.
“Ally, I know you wanted the blocks, but Katie got angry when
you took them without asking.”
Help children repair the relationships, but do not force children
to be insincere.
“Ally, you usually like to build with Katie. And I know Katie is
your friend.”
Encourage children to resolve their conflict by themselves. “Katie, I know that you and Ally built a hospital together last
week so I think you can solve this problem together.”
Sources: Based on Guidance Matters, by D. Gartrell, 2006, in Beyond the Journal: Young Children on the Web, retrieved from
https://www.naeyc.org/files/yc/file/200603/GuidanceBTJ ; Moral Classrooms, Moral Children: Creating a Constructivist Atmosphere
in Early Education, 2nd edition, by R. DeVries and B. Zan, 2012, New York: Teachers College Press; and Conflict Resolution in Early Childhood:
Helping Children Understand and Resolve Conflicts, by E. Wheeler, 2004, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Table 8.2 Strategies for Teaching Conflict Resolution
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach260
Research demonstrates that positive behavior
support (PBS) is a highly effective, humane interven-
tion approach for working with children with severe
and persistent challenging behaviors (Fox et al., 2009;
Kaiser & Rasminsky, 2017). Positive behavior support
is a method of identifying the causes and functions of
problem behaviors in order to develop support strategies
that prevent such behaviors and teach new, more appro-
priate skills. In the following sections, we identify and
describe challenging behaviors and then explain each of
the elements of positive behavior support.
Understand Challenging
Behaviors
A formal definition of challenging behaviors is “behav-
iors that are dangerous, disruptive, or disgusting; cause
injury to the child or others; damage the physical environment; interfere with learning; or
cause the child to be isolated from peers” (Neilsen, Olive, Donovan, & McEvoy, 1999).
However, each of us defines challenging behaviors according to our own values, experi-
ences, and cultural perspectives. Strain and Hemmeter (1999) take a more pragmatic view
in their definition: “Challenging behavior is any behavior that is disturbing to you and you
wish to see stopped”(p. 17).
Strain and Hemmeter (1999) also offer some practical advice for anyone working
with children with challenging behaviors (and that’s everyone who works with children!).
They advise early childhood professionals to become more “comfortable” with challeng-
ing behavior; they emphasize how important it is to recognize that when stressed, em-
barrassed, disturbed, or feeling hopeless, it is difficult to be effective. They suggest that
teachers need to acknowledge these feelings and serve as mutual support for each other.
Then, if a child loses control and a teacher begins to feel herself losing control as a result,
she can seek help from a colleague. These researchers (Strain & Hemmeter, 1999) also
suggest that teachers avoid blaming parents or other uncontrollable events, and focus on
small successes. For example, instead of lamenting that Andy picks his nose, celebrate
that he picked his nose only once today instead of 10 times.
Positive behavior support involves several steps. The first, and perhaps most impor-
tant, is determining the function of the child’s behavior.
Assess and Address the Function
of the Child’s Behavior
Functional assessment, also called functional analysis, is the process of determining
why a child is behaving in a certain way. “Any challenging behavior that persists over
time is ‘working’ for the child” (Strain & Hemmeter 1999, p. 19) and is an attempt to
communicate a message such as “You’re asking me to do something that is too difficult”
(e.g., when a teacher expects preschoolers to sit still for a 30-minute group time) or “I’m
bored; pay attention to me.”
Acknowledging that children’s behavior serves a function and communicates a mes-
sage helps teachers focus on teaching alternative ways of interacting with other people.
Remember Tray, who didn’t want to clean up and threw the toys at Emma? If his teacher
puts him in time-out, Tray will most likely throw toys again tomorrow because he suc-
ceeded in avoiding cleanup time.
Functional assessment is a process of systematic observation and documentation of
children’s behavior over time involving three steps that are easily remembered using the
letters A, B, C (Kaiser & Rasminsky, 2017):
• A = Antecedents. This step is observing what usually occurs before the negative
behavior or what conditions trigger the behavior, such as a whole-group time.
positive behavior support
(PBS) A method of identifying
the causes and functions of
problem behaviors in order to
develop support strategies that
prevent challenging behaviors
and teach new, more appropri-
ate skills.
functional assessment or
functional analysis The
process of determining why a
child is behaving a certain way,
based on the principle that all
behavior serves a function or
purpose.
Conflicts are inevitable when
children are together in group
situations. Effective teachers
do not solve problems for chil-
dren. They teach children the
skills they need to resolve their
own conflicts.
©
B
il
l
A
ro
n
/P
h
ot
oE
d
it
,
In
c.
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Chapter 8 Creating a Caring Community of Learners: Guiding Young Children 261
• B = Behavior. During this step, teachers systematically document what the behavior
is and how frequently it occurs.
• C = Consequences. During the third step, the teacher or child care provider at-
tempts to determine the function the behavior serves; that is, what does the child
get, avoid, and/or change as a result of the behavior?
Identify Antecedents Assessing the antecedents (A) of the behavior requires a
teacher to carefully observe to determine the conditions or situations that most often trig-
ger the behavior. By identifying key triggers, the teacher can change the conditions to
prevent the behavior or redirect the child before the occasion arises. For example, observ-
ing that Lala’s behavior usually deteriorates during transitions, such as when she pinched
Mona while standing in line, her teacher uses a rhyming game to keep her engaged.
Document Behavior The next step is documenting the behavior (B). In using func-
tional assessment, it is important to carefully define and count the frequency (how often)
of the behavior to be changed. For example, in the midst of working with a particularly
disturbing behavior such as spitting or biting, sometimes teachers lament, “He spits con-
stantly,” or “He bites all the time.” In fact, a child could not spit or bite “all the time”; even
the most avid spitter or biter must come up for air occasionally. Systematic observation
and recording of the actual number of unacceptable behaviors is required for successful
intervention. In doing so, Andy’s teacher finds that he picks his nose 10 times a day and
sets out to intervene to decrease this behavior.
Observe Consequences Objectively observing the consequences (C) of the be-
havior is essential to form a hypothesis about the function of the child’s behavior. What
usually happens after the behavior occurs? Does Hans get the Legos after pushing Nata-
sha away from the table? Does Manny avoid reading group because he cries and insists
he has a stomachache?
Once antecedents, behavior, and consequences are documented, teachers can assess
possible functions that the behavior is serving. What does the child appear to be getting
or avoiding? Children most often exhibit challenging behavior to get attention from
adults or peers. At times, however, a child wants power, the ability to control what is
happening to him or others. This may be the case for a child who is experiencing some
kind of disruption that is beyond his power to control, such as his parents’ divorce or
an abusive relationship. Avoiding power struggles with children is always advisable.
Adults often lose, and there is nothing scarier to a child than having too much power. If
a child is trying to get power, it is best to give him choices and power over manageable
things, such as what book to read or who to play with and where.
Objective documentation describes behaviors without adding judgmental com-
ments. Using a form such as the one shown in Figure 8.2 facilitates a teacher’s objective
documentation of an ABC analysis. With children whose challenging behaviors are se-
vere and persistent, it is especially important to involve a team of people in the process of
functional assessment and developing a plan.
Team with Families and Professionals
to Implement Individualized Plans
Too often teachers, especially new teachers, feel alone and helpless when confronted by
children who display challenging behaviors. They can find strength and knowledge in a
team for several reasons. Children benefit from consistent, clear messages about expec-
tations for their behavior from the significant adults in their lives. Teachers and parents
need support to both endure and transform children’s challenging behavior. Finally, some
children have problems that are more serious and need the support of a mental health spe-
cialist. While this can be difficult for family members to understand and accept, address-
ing serious problems early on prevents much more serious difficulties later (Center on
the Developing Child, Harvard University, http://developingchild.harvard.edu/resources/
briefs/inbrief).
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach262
Although it can be difficult to get some parents involved, intervention is more likely
to be successful if family members are engaged. Understanding how children behave at
home and communicating to parents how their children behave in school is an essential
part of the process.
Creating and implementing individualized intervention plans require the expertise
of professionals beyond classroom teachers. Early childhood special educators, mental
health professionals, social workers, and therapists play key roles in developing the plan.
Every state has such resources available to families and child care programs through its
public school system and is required by law to provide this assistance to children with
disabilities and special needs.
Use Positive Behavior Support
Once a team has been established and a functional assessment completed, the next step is
to develop and implement a behavior intervention plan, which describes the behavior to
be changed and the strategies adults will use to prevent the negative behavior and to teach
more acceptable behavior. For example, once a teacher better understands what triggers
the behavior, she can prevent or redirect the child before events escalate. In addition,
understanding the consequences of a behavior enables the teacher to ensure that the
behavior is not effective in achieving its goals.
Although one goal of the behavior plan is to diminish negative behaviors, a more
important goal is to teach replacement behaviors, which are the prosocial behaviors you
want the child to exhibit instead of the problem behaviors. To replace negative, challeng-
ing behaviors with prosocial behavior, teachers can use the teaching strategies described
previously in this chapter as well as more explicit instruction and reinforcement of accept-
able alternatives. Replacement skills should be taught throughout the day, particularly
during times when the problem behavior is not occurring.
behavior intervention plan
Describes the strategies adults
will use to prevent a child’s
negative behavior and to teach
more acceptable behavior.
replacement behaviors
Desirable prosocial behaviors
that replace problem behaviors.
Child’s Name Duncan Date: 9/25
Time &
Activity Antecedent Behavior Consequences
Perceived
Function
9:00
Arrival
Duncan arrives and
refuses to take off his
coat. The teacher tells
him he can’t play unless
he takes off his coat.
Duncan yells, “No! I
won’t.”
The teacher offers
Duncan the container
of race cars. He takes
off his coat and begins
to play.
Gets to play
with his favorite
toy.
10:30
Clean-up
The teacher announces
that it is time to clean
up for lunch.
Duncan falls to the fl oor
and starts crying.
The teacher says,
“Duncan, why don’t you
help me set the table.”
Avoids cleanup
time and gets
to set the table,
which he enjoys.
11:00
Circle
time
The teacher tells the
children it is time for
class meeting. The
teacher walks toward
Duncan.
Duncan starts crying
and says, “No! I don’t
want to!”
The teacher says,
“Duncan, everyone has
to sit down for meeting
time. Go to time-out.”
Duncan sits in a chair
away from the rest of
the children.
Avoids meeting
time and
looks out the
window at the
construction
going on.
FIGURE 8.2 Functional Assessment for 4-Year-Old Duncan A form such as this is useful in con-
ducting a functional assessment of a child’s behavior—the first step in implementing a positive behavior
support plan.
Source: Based on Challenging Behavior in Young Children: Understanding, Preventing, and Responding Effec-
tively, 3rd edition, by B. Kaiser and J. S. Rasminsky, 2017, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
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Chapter 8 Creating a Caring Community of Learners: Guiding Young Children 263
The last stage of the behavior plan is to carefully monitor and document the child’s
progress and make adjustments as needed. Teachers should not become discouraged if
results are not immediately positive. The fact is that when interventions are first initiated,
children’s behavior often gets worse before it improves. As a result, teachers or parents
often abandon the intervention too soon. Teachers and team members must continue to
observe children’s behavior over time and change strategies that are not successful.
Working with children with challenging behaviors can be a humbling experience, but
the ultimate result can be tremendously rewarding for everyone involved, particularly the
child. In the following sections, we demonstrate how to apply the Teaching Pyramid in
specific circumstances that teachers are likely to encounter in practice.
✓ Check Your Understanding 8.5: Intensive Individualized Interventions
Applying the Teaching
Pyramid Model
Using the Teaching Pyramid to guide teaching practice every day will improve the quality
of the educational experience for all children and teachers. In this section we illustrate
how the Teaching Pyramid can be used to teach more effectively in commonly encoun-
tered situations—teaching boys, working with children who bite, and preventing and re-
sponding to bullying.
Apply the Pyramid Model to Teaching Boys
Darlene is the sole kindergarten teacher in a group of 23, 15 of whom are boys.
During center time, a fight breaks out in the block corner. When Darlene tries to
intervene, Jamie screams at her, “You’re stupid!” and the other four boys cover their
ears and laugh. For 20 minutes at a time, four of the girls happily play in the grocery
store Darlene has set up, but Darryl and Jason rush in and knock over the food stands
as they race with the shopping carts. At story time, a group of boys start tickling each
other or pushing one another over while Darlene tries to read. Despite years of expe-
rience as a teacher, Darlene finds herself struggling to control her emotions, speaking
harshly to the boys, and putting them in time-out repeatedly—but to no avail.
Perhaps fearing the label of gender biased, many educators avoid discussing boys’ be-
havior in the classroom. However, many teachers, who are often female themselves, may
find active, energetic boys difficult to manage. Denying this fact does not help teachers
any more than it helps boys function more successfully in school. One could speculate
that increasing the presence of male teachers in early education might alleviate the prob-
lem because males might be more understanding and tolerant of boys’ typical behavior.
However, as of 2012, fewer than 6% of child care teachers and 2% of prekindergarten and
kindergarten teachers were male (MenTeach, 2012).
We realize that addressing the behavior of boys as a group runs the risk of stereo-
typing. Of course, all boys are not alike, any more than all girls are alike. Most boys do
not exhibit challenging behaviors and many girls do. However, there are some observable
gender differences in the behavior of young children. Boys are more likely than girls to
engage in off-task behavior, rough-and-tumble play, and physical aggression, whereas girls
are more often verbally aggressive during conflicts (Sprung, Froschl, & Gropper, 2010).
Boys are described as socially immature and developmentally young more often than
girls are. As a result, boys are more likely to be held back in preschool or kindergar-
ten. In addition, boys are disproportionately labeled as having ADHD, are assigned to
special education, and/or are expelled from school, especially African American boys
(Barbarin, 2013; King & Janson, 2010; U.S. Department of Education Office of Civil
Rights, 2014). In fact, there is some evidence that African American boys are more often
stigmatized as troublemakers and singled out for harsh punishment (Barbarin, 2013).
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach264
While prekindergarten teachers are likely to describe African American and Latino boys
as socially competent as white boys, by the time they reach second grade, teachers de-
scribe them as less socially and academically competent. Do boys’ social-emotional skills
decrease during this time? Not likely, but the contexts of early elementary classrooms and
expectations may be a poor match for the strengths of boys of color (Barbarin et al., 2013).
In the sections that follow, we discuss strategies from the Teaching Pyramid model to
build positive, encouraging relationships with boys; rethink the environment and routines to
prevent boys’ challenging behaviors; and adapt teaching and intervention strategies for boys.
Build Positive Relationships with Boys All children need nurturing to
thrive. This statement is no less true for boys than for girls. Because girls tend to be more
verbal, less active, and more comfortable with emotional expression, teachers may find it
easier to establish warm, positive relationships with them. Boys need physical affection,
kind words, and emotional support just as much as girls do. However, preschool boys
may be more likely to demonstrate warmth by jostling a teachers’ leg or climbing over
her back than curling in her lap—behaviors that some female teachers may misinterpret.
And primary-grade boys may feel the need to demonstrate their “manliness” even if it
manifests as emotional withdrawal.
Relationships enable teachers to get to know boys as individuals and to learn their
abilities and interests, whether insects or robots. This information is especially important
for teachers to use in planning the environment and activities to prevent problem behav-
iors in boys.
Rethink the Environment for Boys The following classroom modifications,
based on research and observations of the activity level of boys, are designed to prevent
problems and support boys to do their best (Barbarin, 2011; King & Gartrell, 2004; King &
Janson, 2010):
1. Increase indoor and outdoor large-motor and whole-body experiences such as
allowing rough-and-tumble play, and regularly alternating active and quiet learn-
ing experiences.
2. Provide opportunities for children to communi-
cate and interact through movement rather than
rewarding only verbal communication.
3. Add sensory exploration and experimentation,
such as digging a garden or science investigation
both indoors and outdoors.
4. Provide active experiences and technology that
uses larger muscles as an alternative to quiet seat-
work requiring fine motor skill and focusing on
handwriting.
5. Enlarge and enrich construction and block build-
ing areas with props such as hard hats, and add a
woodworking center with real tools, lumber, and
safety goggles.
6. Increase variety by adding novel dramatic play ex-
periences such as space travel and boating.
7. Use materials such as books, comic books, and
games on topics of interest to boys such as sports,
dinosaurs, or space travel, and those that include
male role models.
Rethinking the environment with boys in mind
will go a long way toward preventing many of the
challenging behaviors of boys, especially those that
result from their trying to change the level of stimula-
tion. Boys who are engaged in stimulating activities
Effective teachers can apply
the Teaching Pyramid to help
active boys succeed in school
and prevent challenging behav-
iors. These same strategies will
work with girls as well.
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Chapter 8 Creating a Caring Community of Learners: Guiding Young Children 265
are less likely to be bored and uninvolved and, thus, less disruptive. The next two levels
of the Teaching Pyramid—teaching social and emotional skills, and individualized inter-
ventions—should also be adapted to ensure successful experiences for boys.
Adapt Teaching and Intervention Strategies for Boys The Teaching
Pyramid strategies described earlier apply to all children; however, researchers who
study boys’ behavior in school offer several adaptations to increase the likelihood of
their success (Barbarin, 2013; Gartrell, 2011; King & Janson, 2010; Sprung et al.,
2010). These suggestions are based on the fact that boys tend to have a strong sense
of justice and fair play and may feel humiliated or unfairly treated by a teacher. With
boys, what teachers don’t do may be more important than what they do. Table 8.3
lists effective as well as ineffective teaching and intervention strategies for boys. It is
important to note that these strategies are important for working with boys and girls.
With these adaptations for boys in mind, kindergarten teacher Darlene rethinks her
classroom environment:
Darlene realizes that with so many boys trying to build, the construction area is too
small. By removing some of the puzzles and other table toys that are not used, she
creates more space for building. She also obtains additional blocks from one of the
other kindergartens where they are not being used. Darlene teaches prosocial behav-
iors and steps to conflict resolution. “If someone takes the block you’re using, Jake,
what could you say to him?” When Jake and the other boys suggest silly things like
“Tell him he’s a butthead,” Darlene laughs with them. She calmly says, “That sounds
funny now, but I don’t think Marco will laugh. What else could you say?”
These teaching strategies and examples support positive behavior and school success in boys, but are also
effective for girls.
What Works What Doesn’t Work
Speaking privately before or after a difficult situation or
conflict arises
Publicly shaming, humiliating, or embarrassing a boy
Observing carefully and downplaying a conflict before it happens
(“Rodney didn’t mean to knock over your building. It was an
accident.”)
Waiting until a situation escalates out of control
Providing a space for “time away” where a child can calm down
before a situation escalates
Separating the boy from the group by putting the child’s desk in
a corner or frequently using time-out
Reflecting on your own behavior and how it may be perceived by
the boy and the other children
Stigmatizing to the point that the other children in the group
can readily identify the “bad boy” or the troublemaker
Appealing to boys’ sense of justice and fair play Issuing threats that create a power struggle
Following through with logical consequences (“If you throw the
sand, you have to leave the sand table.”)
Inflicting harsh discipline or punishment (“If you throw the
sand, you can’t go out to recess.”)
Offering boys’ choices to help them feel in control Attempting to overly control boys’ impulses
Teaching boys to think before they act and offering them alterna-
tives to physical aggression.
Waiting until boys behave impulsively and punishing them
afterwards
Allowing for movement during all learning activities: fidget toys
for group time, standing to do writing and fine motor activities.
Punishing boys for fidgeting or requiring them to sit “criss-cross
applesauce” for more than a few minutes.
Encouraging boys to move without disturbing other children;
teaching all children to have a little extra “body space” in group
activities, lines, and circle time.
Publicly chastising boys for touching others, bumping in line or
getting too close to peers.
Sources: Based on “Guidance with Boys,” by M. King with D. Gartrell, in The Power of Guidance: Teaching Social-Emotional Skills in Early
Childhood Classrooms, edited by D. Gartrell, 2004, Clifton Park, NY: Delmar Learning; Supporting Boys’ Learning: Strategies for Teacher Practice,
Pre-K–Grade3, by B. Sprung, M. Froschl, & N. Gropper, 2010, New York: Teachers College Press; and Wired to Move: Facts and Strategies for
Nurturing Boys in an Early Childhood Setting, by R. H. Morhard, 2013, Lewisville, NC: Gryphon House.
Table 8.3 Effective Teaching and Intervention Strategies for Boys
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach266
Darlene also finds the boys are interested in playing ambulance, so she trans-
forms the grocery store into a hospital, which the girls enjoy as well. Instead of read-
ing to the whole group, which invites the boys to act up, Darlene, in smaller groups
of eight, reads more books with male characters to actively involve all of the children
in talking about the story or acting it out.
Having applied the Teaching Pyramid to working with boys, in the next section we
demonstrate its applicability to one of the most common but challenging behaviors teach-
ers confront that cuts across gender lines—biting.
Apply the Pyramid Model to Address Biting
Experienced teachers of toddlers tend to think of dealing with biting as one of the occu-
pational hazards of group care for this age group. Biting is viewed as an aspect of typical
development in all children, like separation anxiety or oppositional behavior. Neverthe-
less, biting is a very emotional experience for the biter, the victim, their parents, and their
teachers (Greenman, Stonehouse, & Schweikert, 2007). Parents of children who are bit-
ten often become very upset and demand better supervision of their children. Parents of
biters may feel they are somehow responsible and fear that if the situation continues, the
child care center will demand they remove their child.
As we learned from the Teaching Pyramid, teachers in groups where biting occurs
need to assume responsibility for the safety and nurturance of all of the children while also
taking steps to prevent biting, teach alternative behaviors, and intervene when it persists.
Biting is not a behavior to ignore; once biting starts in a group of toddlers, others may
imitate the behavior, leading to an epidemic of biting that is very hard to control. Biting,
like other challenging behaviors, serves a function. There are actually two kinds of biting.
The first is a communication strategy, which usually responds to prevention strategies. The
second occurs when a child persists in using biting because biting is successful in getting
the child what she wants. The persistent form of biting requires systematic intervention.
Prevent Biting Applying the levels of the Teaching Pyramid to biting begins with
making sure that toddlers feel nurtured, loved, and cared for. Having close relationships
with very young children and their families enables caregivers to be aware of situations
that may contribute to biting, such as the stress of a new baby or divorce, or a develop-
mental transition such as beginning to eat solid food. Children tend to treat others the
way they are treated. Therefore, it is important for caregivers to speak softly and be
gentle and kind.
One theory relates biting to children’s sensory and oral development (Ramming,
Kyger, & Thompson, 2006). During the earliest years of life, “the mouth is the quickest
route for providing sensory information to the brain” and children are literally hungry to
experience and make sense of their world (Ramming et al., 2006, p. 21). The hypothesis
is that biting may occur because the foods children are offered do not meet their needs for
tactile stimulation and do not sufficiently stimulate their senses.
To prevent this type of biting, researchers recommend that caregivers offer toddlers
foods with a variety of textures, tastes, and temperatures to suck, gum, munch, or crunch
and chew (Ramming et al., 2006). Of course, caregivers must supervise children while
the children are eating and make sure foods are the right size to prevent choking. Varying
the textures and types of foods, as well as when children are fed, is found to be effective
in reducing biting in child care settings (Ramming et al., 2006).
Most biting is preventable if children are closely supervised. When child care groups
are too large (as happens when licensing standards are weak), or classrooms are very
small, it is more difficult to prevent biting. In such cases, teachers should separate the
large group into smaller groups as much as possible, especially if there is a second adult.
In a smaller group, a child is less likely to bite when a peer invades his space. The teacher
also has more opportunity to play and talk with children and redirect those who frequently
have conflicts.
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Chapter 8 Creating a Caring Community of Learners: Guiding Young Children 267
One of the best ways to prevent biting is to minimize frustration. Programs need to
provide enough developmentally appropriate toys so children do not fight over them and
do not become frustrated if the toy requires skills they do not yet have. For example, large
cardboard blocks are lightweight and easily moved by toddlers, whereas smaller toys may
be too difficult to manipulate.
Teach Alternatives to Biting Because most children who bite are under the
age of 3 and have not yet developed language, biting is often used as a powerful form
of communication. The biter may be saying, “You are too close to me,” “I want that
toy,” or “I’m tired.” Biting may occur as a self-defense mechanism by the child who
feels threatened.
Biting may occur more frequently when children are feeling stress due to changes in
their development or the environment, or lack of attention from caregivers (Greenman
et al., 2007). When children are undergoing periods of rapid development, such as
when they first learn to walk or talk, they can easily become frustrated if their emerg-
ing skills do not match their desires for locomotion or communication (Greenman et
al., 2007). Some toddlers begin to bite when their family (often at the recommendation
of the pediatrician) weans them from their pacifier. Others begin biting after the birth
of a sibling. It is common to see biting among children who develop language more
slowly than their peers; it must be very frustrating to want to communicate, but unable
to generate the words. Initially, biting may relieve the stress or enable the child to get
what she wants.
An important dimension of responding to biting is to teach children how to express
their feelings and desires. In working with very young children who are just learning
language, it is important to give them the words, or use signs or visual images to support
their communication. Teachers should model specific language: “Say ‘I want it,’” rather
than an unhelpful phrase, such as “Use your words.”
It is very important that teachers and families respond to this biting in ways that do
not escalate the biting behavior. This is difficult, because biting is seen as a dangerous
behavior; a bite that breaks the skin of the victim can have serious health consequences.
But biting needs only a little reinforcement to become a big problem. When a bite occurs,
the victim should quietly and quickly be attended to and comforted. The biter should be
quickly and quietly redirected to an activity. Remembering that there often was a per-
ceived offense that preceded the bite (“You’re too close to me” or “You took my toy”),
direct the offender to another activity (not the toy he was trying to get) with a reminder
such as “We need to be gentle.” When a teacher or parent exclaims, “No, we don’t bite
our friends” or placing the child in a time-out, it is practically guaranteeing a repeat of
the behavior.
Teachers can be very helpful in sharing this information and strategy with parents.
Once a child has bit another, it is a good idea to increase the level of prevention. Teachers
should observe when and under what circumstances the toddler tends to bite, and increase
teacher presence during those times. Many teachers find it helpful to use books with chil-
dren about biting (and hitting)—but not close to the time the biting has occurred.
Intervene with Persistent Biters If biting persists over time, or if children
continue to bite beyond the toddler years, then the behavior is working for them in some
way. In this situation, caregivers need to apply the fourth level of the pyramid and use
functional assessment to determine what conditions tend to trigger the behavior and what
function biting is serving for the child. Then a behavior plan can be implemented involv-
ing parents and other staff members to eliminate the biting and replace it with more so-
cially acceptable behaviors.
We have seen how the Teaching Pyramid relates to addressing the common phe-
nomenon of biting among young children in groups. In the final section, we apply the
framework to one of the most disturbing and potentially destructive of all challenging
behaviors—bullying.
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach268
Apply the Pyramid Model to Alleviate Bullying
Tragic events such as high school shootings and teen suicides have drawn public atten-
tion to an age-old societal problem—bullying. Bullying occurs when a person repeatedly
commits aggressive acts that intend to harm, and an imbalance of power makes it hard for
the victim to defend himself or herself (Kaiser & Rasminsky, 2017). Despite media atten-
tion that would suggest the contrary, bullying among children in the United States is not
epidemic and is harmful for both bully and bullied (Temkin, 2014). In recent years, school
personnel and mental health experts have become much more attuned to the long-term
damage that bullying can inflict on bullies and their victims, as well as on the bystanders
who may assist or incite bullying behavior.
Every teacher needs to be alert to the existence of bullying, take steps to prevent it,
and intervene immediately when bullying occurs. Although bullying usually begins to
appear during the primary grades of school, there is evidence that the roots of bullying
behavior are evident during preschool. However, little research has addressed bullying
with young children (Lawner & Terzian, 2013). Earlier in this chapter, we cautioned
teachers to be alert for children who are socially isolated or neglected by peers, as these
children may be more likely to bully or be bullied.
Prevent Bullying Bullying is a learned behavior, and can be minimized and pre-
vented (Kaiser & Rasminsky, 2017). As with other, less volatile aspects of challenging
behavior, solutions to bullying can be found in the framework of the Teaching Pyramid,
beginning with the foundation level of relationships.
Research suggests that programs using a whole-school awareness approach that in-
volves teachers, administrators, children, counselors, and families, have the most impact
in reducing bullying and its effects in school settings (Lawner & Terzian, 2013). The goal
is to prevent bullying by restructuring the environment so that there are fewer opportu-
nities for bullying to occur, more reinforcement of positive behavior, and assurance of
protection for all children.
Intervene in Bullying Research on specific programs targeting bullying in ear-
ly childhood suggests that no quick-fix curriculum can be used to solve the problem
(Lawner & Terzian, 2013). Preventing and addressing bullying relies on establishing the
high-quality environment and supports that have been addressed throughout the chapter.
Responding to bullying would be an example of the more intensive strategies discussed
bullying Occurs when a person
repeatedly commits aggressive
acts that intend to harm, and
an imbalance of power makes
it hard for the victim to defend
himself or herself.
Children who need intensive, individualized intervention for persistent, challenging behaviors benefit from
a team approach. In these situations, it is essential to involve not only teachers and other professionals
but family members as well.
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Chapter 8 Creating a Caring Community of Learners: Guiding Young Children 269
earlier. Among the most important and effective tools teachers, families, and schools can
use are (Kaiser & Rasminsky, 2017):
• A school-wide commitment to Positive Behavior Support
• Integrating anti-bullying content into the curriculum, including the important roles
that bystanders play
• Sensitive, responsive, and involved relationships with children
• Clear rules about unacceptable behavior
• Close monitoring and supervision, including secluded areas where bullying is like-
ly to occur
• Modeling the positive use of power and problem-solving techniques
• A cooperative classroom climate—what we call a caring community of learners
Regular class meetings are an effective strategy to involve children in setting limits and
establishing clear rules: Don’t bully other children, help children who are bullied,
and include children who are left out (Kaiser & Rasminsky, 2017). Children can discuss
and analyze complex topics such as empathy, peer pressure, courage, and the difference
between teasing and bullying.
Children also need to learn the difference between tattling, the purpose of which is
to get someone in trouble, and telling to get someone out of trouble, which is necessary
when bullying is observed or experienced. Useful strategies include helping children re-
port where they don’t feel safe and, in primary grades, providing a box for anonymous
reporting of bullying. Meeting times can then be used to discuss prosocial skills such as
cooperation and to practice responses.
In this chapter, we discussed the importance of creating a caring community of learn-
ers, as well as strategies for positively guiding children’s behavior and promoting their
social and emotional development. With this information in mind, we return to Sue and
Elly’s classroom, where we began this chapter.
✓ Check Your Understanding 8.6: Applying the Teaching Pyramid Model
. . . Ms. Brady and Ms. Donahue’s Classroom
At the beginning of this chapter, Sue, Elly, and the children in their classroom were having a very bad
day. The director of their program worked with them to help them learn about the Teaching Pyramid—
encouraging them to start with the foundation of their classroom and integrate practices that supported
creating a caring community of learners. Let’s revisit their classroom now that these two teachers have
begun to implement many of these research-based strategies.
The day begins with Sue and Elly greeting each child individually and talking briefly with their family
members. The two teachers have been doing home visits and making phone calls to parents so that
they could get to know the children and their interests much better. In addition, they have put prac-
tices into place that support building warm, nurturing relationships with each child in the class (level
1 of the pyramid). They make sure to touch base with each child every day, even if for only a moment.
They create a safe environment for children by arriving each day rested, healthy, and mindful that their
interactions with children are important for children’s well-being.
They reorganize their classroom to support positive behavior by making signs, labeling bins, or-
ganizing shelves, and designating specific areas where materials belong. They also create learning
centers where children can comfortably work and play. They’ve been holding group meetings each
Revisiting the Case Study
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach270
morning to talk with children about the class routines and making choices during Center Time, and the
children are playing more productively.
Sue and Elly also remember to use calm and quiet voices themselves at all times; when they re-
ally want to be heard, they whisper. The noise level is now much more tolerable. When it’s time to go
outside, they offer Aimee and Paula the choice of what they’d like to carry. The teachers focus a lot
of attention on transitions, such as preparing for naptime and cleanup because these are times when
children have struggled in the past. They now give warnings before transitions and assign children dif-
ferent responsibilities at cleanup time. At naptime, they play soothing music, turn out the lights, and
rub the backs of children who are slow to relax. These changes to the environment and adult–child
interactions have made a world of difference for the teachers and children because they are preventing
many problems and helping children to do their best (level 2).
Sue and Elly also teach social skills and emotional self-regulation to all the children. For those children
who need extra help, however, they use more individualized instruction. For example, Ricky so wants to
have friends that he will do anything to get the children’s attention. Sue and Elly coach him in acceptable
ways to play with others and strategies for joining in a group. Ricky likes Aimee, and she has a calming effect
on him, so the teachers encourage the two of them to play together. They also suggest to his mother that he
bring something interesting from home to gain attention from the other children in a positive way (level 3).
Having attended to the first three levels of the Teaching Pyramid, Sue and Elly have solved almost all
of their behavior challenges. However, Booth’s physical aggression and unprovoked attacks continue to be
a serious problem. The director is aware of the federally funded early intervention services provided by the
state. She contacts the school district, which coordinates mental health consultation to child care centers.
The director and Sue initiate a meeting with a consultant and Booth’s family to develop an individualized in-
tervention plan (level 4). Sue and Elly are pleased to see that the consultant uses strategies that include the
Teaching Pyramid ones that they have become familiar with. The consultant helps them to organize their
interactions to support Booth. Sue and Elly now realize that although there are no quick fixes to children’s
challenging behavior, there are many effective ways to create a caring community of learners. ■
• A caring community of learners is a group or class-
room in which children and adults engage in warm,
positive relationships; treat each other with respect;
and learn from and with each other.
• Teachers have a significant role to play in promoting
children’s social competence, helping them acquire
emotional and cognitive self-regulation and preventing
later difficulties.
• The Teaching Pyramid is a research-based framework
for promoting social competence and addressing chil-
dren’s challenging behaviors.
• The foundation level of the Teaching Pyramid is
teachers’ positive relationships with children. Young
children learn best when they experience warm, posi-
tive, responsive relationships with adults—parents,
teachers, and caregivers.
• Level 2 of the pyramid describes high-quality
supportive environments that help promote posi-
tive outcomes for children and prevent challeng-
ing behaviors, including the physical space and
organizing routines and schedules. A critical aspect
of high-quality supportive environments is how
teachers support children’s engagement in play and
learning.
• Level 3 of the pyramid describes positive ways to
guide children’s behavior and effective strategies
Chapter Summary8
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Chapter 8 Creating a Caring Community of Learners: Guiding Young Children 271
such as teaching emotional literacy, social skills, and
conflict negotiation.
• Level 4 describes intensive individualized interven-
tions to address persistent, severe, challenging behav-
iors. Intervention includes functional assessment, a
team approach involving families and specialists, and
a behavior plan that includes teaching replacement
skills.
• The Teaching Pyramid can be applied to more
effectively teach in many diverse situations including
teaching boys, addressing biting, and alleviating
bullying.
Key Terms
■■ attachment theory
■■ behavior intervention
plan
■■ bullying
■■ caring community of
learners
■■ challenging behavior
■■ disorganized/disoriented
attachment
■■ efficacy
■■ emotional literacy
■■ functional assessment or
functional analysis
■■ guidance
■■ individualized
intervention
■■ insecure-ambivalent/
resistant attachment
■■ insecure-avoidant
attachment
■■ learning centers
■■ mindfulness
■■ mistaken behavior
■■ positive behavior
support (PBS)
■■ redirection
■■ replacement behaviors
■■ secure attachment
relationship
■■ secure base
■■ self-concept
■■ self-esteem
■■ time-out
■■ transitions
Bruce, N., & Cairone, K. B. (2011). Socially strong,
emotionally secure: 50 activities to promote resilience in
young children. Silver Spring, MD: Gryphon House.
Forrester, M. M., & Albrecht, K. M. (2014). SET for life:
An early childhood teacher’s guide to supporting strong
emotional foundations and successful social relation-
ships. Houston, TX: Innovations in ECE Press.
Kaiser, B., & Rasminsky, J. S. (2017). Challenging be-
havior in young children: Understanding, preventing, and
responding effectively (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Pearson.
Morhard, R. H. (2013). Wired to move: Facts and strate-
gies for nurturing boys in an early childhood setting.
Lewisville, NC: Gryphon House.
Friendship Resources and Websites
Resources to support friendships among children can be
found on several websites:
1. Center on Social Emotional Foundations for Early
Learning (CSEFEL) has “Superfriend” social stories
(Super Friend) and booklists (Being a Friend).
2. Bucketfillers has a story and resources related to
friendship and kindness.
3. The Head Start Center for Inclusion has a Friendship
Kit that includes activities and printable resources.
Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional
Learning
This website offers research and resources for supporting
social and emotional learning for children in elementary
school.
Devereux Center for Resilient Children
This website offers resources for supporting children’s
social development and building resilience, and for the
social-emotional well-being of the adults who care for
them.
Center on the Social and Emotional Foundations of
Early Learning
This website offers a variety of resources for supporting
children’s positive behavior and relationships.
Readings and Websites
✓ Demonstrate Your Learning
Click here to assess how well you’ve learned the content in this chapter.
M08_BRED6702_03_SE_C08.indd 271 10/7/15 2:23 PM
9
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
9.1 Discuss ways in which teaching is both a science and an art.
9.2 Identify effective teaching strategies for helping children achieve learning
and developmental goals.
9.3 Explain how specific strategies are effective for connecting teaching with
broad learning goals such as helping children make meaning, develop
concepts, and acquire higher-order thinking skills.
9.4 Demonstrate how effective teachers use grouping as an instructional
approach.
9.5 Analyze how teachers use play as a context for teaching and learning.
9.6 Evaluate the most effective uses of digital media for teaching young
children.
Teaching to Enhance
Learning and Development
Learning Outcomes
© Carla Mestas/Pearson Education
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273
Sally Hanson is a kindergarten teacher in a large, urban school district. Her class of 23 children includes several children whose home language is not English and two children with IEPs. Some of the children have been
in child care since they were infants, but five did not attend any early childhood program before entering school.
The children’s skills and abilities are at different levels. In short, Sally’s class is typical, with a wide range of
individual variation in the children’s development and learning and in their preparedness to tackle the demands
of the curriculum.
Sally’s school district uses the Common Core English language arts standards. Among the goals for kindergartners
are: “with prompting and support, ask and answer questions about key features in a text; retell familiar stories;
and identify characters, settings, and major events.” Children also need to “know all upper- and lowercase letters,
and use a combination of drawing, dictating, and writing to express an opinion about a topic or a book they are
reading, e.g., My favorite book is . . . ” (Common Core State Standards Initiative, 2011a).
Sally has been teaching for many years and was concerned at first that the Common Core standards were not
developmentally appropriate for kindergarten. As she began working with the standards, she found that most of
the children were capable of achieving the standards through a combination of her integrated curriculum and
diverse teaching strategies.
When the children arrive each morning, they immediately go to the library area and choose a book to look at or
read, depending on their skills. Children often choose to revisit books that Sally has read previously to the group.
Elena has only recently arrived from Guatemala and speaks little English. Sally kneels next to her and offers an
e-book that has print and audio versions of the same story in both Spanish and English. Soon they are joined by
the other children whose home language is Spanish. Sally then encourages Lucy, who has Down syndrome, to
find the book that Sally made for her with photos and words about her family. Sally says, “Lucy, I see you found
the L in your name.”
Logan’s reading skills are advanced. He picks up a book that he hasn’t seen before and begins to decode it
himself along with his friend Gabe. When they finish, Sally asks, “Logan, why did you pick this book?” Logan
explains, “It’s about pirates and the story was scary.” She turns to Gabe and says, “I haven’t read this book yet,
can you tell me what happened in the story?”
Marguerite is still working on identifying letters. She has a long name, struggles to remember the order of
the letters, and usually forgets the E in the middle. Sally gives her a name card with the middle E written in
red to draw her attention to the correct order of the letters. With this assistance and
reminder, Marguerite spells her name correctly. Some children are not interested in
reading, so Sally directs them to their journals to begin drawing and writing about the
books they read yesterday. A few children need more direct instruction
and practice in writing letters. “Tommy, when you write your T, make a
straight line down. That’s right.” Pointing to the left side of the paper,
Sally says, “Now begin on the left and draw a shorter line
across the top.” Because Amanda needs practice on letters
but is easily distracted, Sally suggests several
letter-learning apps on the tablet. Sally sits with
the children, offering assistance as needed and
using strategies adapted to each child’s skill
level. ■
Case Study
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach274
A
s we see in Sally’s interactions with each child in her classroom, the early child-
hood teacher’s role is complex. Engaging in developmentally appropriate practice
involves knowing the learner, knowing what to teach, and knowing how to teach.
Teachers are always teaching something to someone. In this chapter, we focus on knowing
how to teach to help children reach challenging and achievable learning goals. Becoming
an intentional teacher requires an understanding of the range of effective teaching strate-
gies and how and when they are most useful (Ritchie & Willer, 2008c; NAEYC, 2009).
Armed with this knowledge, teachers can intentionally choose the strategies that work
best with each learner or group of learners in a given situation.
Because many teaching behaviors in early childhood classrooms are subtle or take
place in the context of play or child-initiated learning, the novice may be uncertain of
what “effective teaching” entails and how to do it. Without knowledge of research-based
teaching practices, inexperienced or ill-informed teachers may be too passive and miss
important opportunities to promote children’s learning. On the other hand, they may err in
assuming that the only time they are “teaching” is when they are talking. The fact is that
good teaching is a complex interplay of both science and art.
Teaching: Both a Science
and an Art
This chapter is about teaching—also known as pedagogy—which is what a teacher says
or does that engages children and contributes to their learning and development. In this
book, we emphasize effective teaching, which is the use of an approach that has proven
to be successful based on research evidence and that has a high probability of enhancing
student achievement (Reutzel, 2013). Using knowledge of research to inform planning
and decisions about practice is essential to becoming an intentional teacher.
pedagogy What a teacher says
or does that engages children
and contributes to their learn-
ing and development.
effective teaching The use of
approaches that are proven to
be successful based on scien-
tific evidence and that have a
high probability of enhancing
children’s learning and
development.
Intentional teachers use research-based teaching strategies, and they get to know each child to provide
just the right kind and amount of assistance.
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Chapter 9 Teaching to Enhance Learning and Development 275
The Science of Teaching
Since the 1990s and in response to federal laws, the emphasis in education has been on
scientifically based practice (McCardle & Chhabra, 2004). Such practice is informed by
at least three areas of research: the science of child development, including neuroscience;
cognitive science, or the study of how people learn; and research on effective instructional
strategies and contexts.
Scientific Research Research is used to answer two sets of questions: (1) What
skills and abilities predict children’s later outcomes in important areas like reading, writ-
ing, and mathematics? and (2) What teaching behaviors, curriculum, and other educa-
tional interventions contribute to or inhibit gains in children’s skills and abilities in these
areas? Reviews of research by experts, such as the National Reading Panel (National
Institute of Child Health and Human Development [NICHD], 2000), the National Early
Literacy Panel (2008), and the National Committee on Early Childhood Mathematics
(National Research Council [NRC], 2009) have been particularly influential.
Classroom Research Although debate is ongoing about various
aspects of practice, the strong consensus is that the daily interaction among
teachers and children is the most important determinant of the quality and
effectiveness of programs from infancy through primary grades (Hamre,
Hatfield, Pianta, & Jamil, 2014; Hamre & Pianta, 2007, 2010; Ritchie &
Willer, 2008b, 2008c). Regardless of the specific curriculum used or the
materials in the environment, everything that happens in the classroom is
influenced by the teacher’s interactions with children.
This conclusion is supported by several large-scale studies of prekin-
dergarten, kindergarten, and primary-grade classrooms that used a teacher
observation tool called the Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS)
(Early et al., 2010; Hamre & Pianta, 2010). The CLASS assesses three di-
mensions of classroom quality: emotional climate, classroom organization,
and instructional climate (Pianta, La Paro, & Hamre, 2008).
Emotional Climate A high score on emotional climate on the CLASS means that teach-
ers are sensitive and responsive and have positive relationships with children. In class-
rooms where teachers score high on emotional climate, children’s language improves
and they have fewer behavior problems in preschool, kindergarten, and primary grades
(Hamre et al., 2014; Pianta et al., 2008).
Classroom Organization In well-organized classrooms, teachers use positive strategies
to guide children’s behavior. They are well prepared in advance and manage time produc-
tively, maximizing opportunities for learning. For example, they don’t waste children’s
time during routines or transitions. Teachers who score high on classroom organization
also use a variety of materials, teaching strategies, and learning formats to engage chil-
dren and activate their interest.
Instructional Climate The CLASS instructional climate score indicates how well teach-
ers use a variety of teaching strategies to promote children’s concept development and
higher-order thinking. The classroom’s instructional climate has been found to be the
strongest and most consistent predictor of children’s learning over time (Hamre et al.,
2014; Hamre & Pianta, 2010). Researchers have found that children gain more from a
learning experience when a teacher interacts with them in an intentional way or when the
teacher has prepared the environment and supports children’s learning during play and
other child-initiated activity (Sammons et al., 2008).
Research Results Large-scale studies conducted by the National Center on Early
Development and Learning (NCEDL) (Early et al., 2005, 2010) found that, on average,
the emotional climate of classrooms rated around 5 on a 7-point scale, which indicates
Classroom Connection
In this video well-known
researchers describe and
illustrate the many studies that
demonstrate the effectiveness of
positive teacher–child interac-
tions for children’s development
and learning.
http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=2Hw0DbxOmJQ
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach276
that they are generally positive, supportive environments for children. However, research-
ers also found poor-quality instructional climates in the early childhood classrooms stud-
ied, with an average score of about 2 on the 7-point scale. Teachers in these classrooms
either provided very little instruction at all or tended to rely on worksheets or whole-
group repetitive lessons.
The study also examined how children spend their time in prekindergarten. Almost
30% of children’s time is spent in free choice and about 37% engaged with a teacher-
assigned activity (Early et al., 2010). However, observers found that no specific learning
activity occurred during 19% of free choice time, 23% of teacher-assigned time, and
87% of meal and routine time (Early et al., 2010). Therefore, almost half of preschool
children’s day did not involve experiences to promote their social or academic learning.
The researchers concluded that most of these classrooms were pleasant places in which
there were many missed opportunities for learning. Moreover, classrooms with higher
percentages of Latino and African American children were less educationally stimulating.
In recent years, Head Start has used the CLASS to improve the quality of teaching
and evaluate the effectiveness of its programs. In 2013, the national average scores were:
5.99 for Emotional Climate, 5.63 for Classroom Organization, and 2.72 for Instructional
Climate. Despite the fact that Instructional Climate scores continue to trail the other di-
mensions of quality, Head Start’s scores are higher than most typical early childhood
programs.
These studies provide a window through which we can assess the quality of teaching
practices occurring in early childhood classrooms today. Similar results were found for
primary-grade classrooms as well (Hamre & Pianta, 2010). In Chapter 8, we described
how you as a teacher can provide a positive emotional climate in your classroom. The
goal of this chapter is to prepare you to create an effective instructional climate to help all
children achieve their learning potential.
The Limits of Research Early childhood education has a large and growing re-
search base to guide practice. Where research evidence is strong, teachers have a profes-
sional responsibility to adhere to its guidance. However, research on effective teaching is
an evolving science. Although a great deal of work has been done, we still need answers
to questions about which practices work best with which learners.
With classrooms increasingly serving children with diverse language and cultural
backgrounds, teachers need to adapt for individual variation of all kinds. Consequently,
valid research is not always available to guide practice. In these instances, teachers need
to supplement the evidence base with practical wisdom and information obtained from
families (Buysse & Wesley, 2006). Even when research is available, applying evidence-
based practice in unique classroom situations with diverse groups of children requires
considerable skill. Teachers need to respond to situations as they happen, which often
requires creativity—more art than science.
The Art of Teaching
Although effective teaching is informed and guided by research, teaching is also an art
in that it requires vision, creativity, and decision making. What makes good science is
controlling as many variables as possible to be able to determine cause and effect. But in
classrooms, there are simply too many variables to control. Effective teaching requires
creatively adapting to individual children and to the situations that arise (Beneke &
Ostrosky, 2013; Gadzikowski, 2013b).
Consider the following analogy, comparing the work of a painter to the work of a
teacher: Skilled painters are knowledgeable about theories of art, composition, color,
and perspective. But each artist, like each teacher, applies her or his knowledge in
creative ways. One of the painter’s most powerful tools is the use of color, and knowl-
edge of how the myriad colors in nature can be created by mixing a few basic colors.
For example, given the three primary colors—red, yellow, and blue—a skilled painter
can create virtually every color of the spectrum. Think of those basic colors as the
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Chapter 9 Teaching to Enhance Learning and Development 277
basic strategies from which teachers cre-
ate innumerable variations in interactions
with individual children and groups. If we
add to the color wheel the many grada-
tions of gray—ranging between white and
black—and mix these with our primary
colors, we have an almost infinite vari-
ety of options from which to “color” the
world of experiences for children.
We begin our exploration of the science
and art of teaching by examining research-
based teaching strategies. This discussion
will demonstrate how art and science can
coexist to create an enriching classroom
filled with color, creativity, and a variety of
options for teachers as well as children.
✓ Check Your Understanding 9.1: Teaching: Both an Art and a Science
A Repertoire of Effective
Teaching Strategies
The most effective teachers have a large repertoire of teaching strategies that they use as
situations present themselves. Teachers must first become familiar with the many options.
In practice, there is no one teaching strategy that will address all situations.
Children’s development and learning are complex processes. Therefore, the more
strategies teachers know how to use, the more ways they will be able to meet the needs
of diverse learners. Throughout your career as a teacher, you will continue to add to and
refine your repertoire of effective teaching tools.
What Are Teaching Strategies?
A teaching strategy is a behavior or activity that a teacher deliberately selects and flex-
ibly applies to help students construct meaning (Mehigan, 2005, p. 557). Applying teach-
ing strategies demands conscious thought and flexible decision making, which are the es-
sence of intentional teaching. Earlier, for example, we saw how Sally Hanson encouraged
some of the children to practice their writing but also demonstrated how to write a letter
for those who needed more help.
Because the processes of teaching and learning are linked, the most effective teaching
strategies parallel learning strategies. A learning strategy refers to how children con-
struct meaning in every context or situation. As later examples illustrate, some of the most
effective teaching strategies are designed to develop students’ own learning strategies.
Strategies as Tools Education is often plagued by either/or debates that pit one
practice against another, or that dichotomize complex decisions into either/or choices,
such as “Which is better, direct instruction or active learning?” As teaching becomes
more scientific, we realize that these are the wrong questions. Asking which teaching
technique is best is like asking whether a hammer is better than pliers. The answer, of
course, depends on what the carpenter needs to do. In teaching, as in carpentry, the selec-
tion of tools depends on what the teacher is trying to accomplish and with which child;
there is no one best teaching practice (NRC, 2000).
The Right Tools You may have heard the statement—in fact, I’ve written it myself—
that young children are not miniature adults and do not think and learn the way adults or
Effective teaching is both an
art and a science. Intentional
teachers ensure that children’s
experiences in the classroom
are as creative and colorful as
the world around them.
teaching strategy A behavior
or activity that a teacher
deliberately selects and flexibly
applies to help students
construct meaning.
learning strategy How chil-
dren construct meaning in any
context or situation.
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach278
older children do. Although this statement is essentially true, it is equally true that some
practices that are inappropriate for young children, such as listening in a whole group for
an extended period of time, are not effective for older students, either (Dean, Hubbell,
Pitler, & Stone, 2012; NAEYC, 2009).
In fact, many of the most effective teaching practices for young children—such as
connecting new learning to what students already know and can do—are also effective
with college students. The particular strategies teachers use to help children build on
prior learning will vary with the age and ability of the learner (that is, if the strategies are
developmentally appropriate). All of these strategies can be used in the context of teacher-
initiated or child-initiated experiences, which we discuss next.
Teacher-Initiated and Child-Initiated Experiences
Early childhood practices are often described as either teacher-initiated or child-initiated
experiences. However, both contexts are effective for learning and should be used con-
currently depending on the teachers’ goals (Graue, Clements, Reynolds, & Niles, 2004;
Hong & Diamond, 2012). During teacher-initiated experiences, teachers take the lead
by providing explicit information and modeling or demonstrating skills. Teacher-initiated
learning experiences are determined by the teacher’s goals and direction, but children
should be actively engaged (Epstein, 2014). Under these conditions, focused, teacher-
guided instruction can contribute significantly to children’s learning (Hamre & Pianta,
2010; Hong & Diamond, 2012).
By contrast, during child-initiated experiences, children acquire knowledge and skills
through their own exploration and interactions with objects and other children (Epstein,
2014). Child-initiated experiences grow out of children’s interests. However, teachers or-
ganize the environment and materials and provide the learning opportunities from which
children make choices (Epstein, 2014). Teachers observe children during child-initiated
activities and interact with them to support their continued learning and development. Dur-
ing child-initiated experiences, teachers as well as children should be actively involved.
Using an Array of Teaching Strategies
Many different strategies are effective in supporting children’s learning and development.
Understanding when and how to apply each strategy gives teachers the tools necessary to
be thoughtful, purposeful, and intentional (Bowman, Donovan, & Burns, 2001; Copple &
Bredekamp, 2009; Epstein, 2014).
Note, however, that in practice, strategies are used in combination. Observe a skilled
teacher at work and you will find it almost impossible to isolate an example of a teach-
ing strategy, even explicit instruction, that doesn’t also include some other strategy such
as encouragement, modeling, or questioning. For example, a preschool teacher may ac-
knowledge a child’s accomplishment by saying, “Luca, you found the two shapes that
match.” Then she immediately provides specific information, “They have eight sides and
they are called octagons,” while quickly adding challenge to the task, “Can you find an-
other octagon in our room?”
One particularly effective strategy, which is called scaffolding, draws on many differ-
ent strategies at once; therefore, we discuss it following our description of the individual
strategies. In the sections that follow, we define and give examples of a variety of teaching
strategies, which are listed in Table 9.1.
Acknowledging and Encouraging Acknowledging is the positive attention a
teacher gives to a child that tells the child that the teacher noticed what the child did. Teach-
ers often use this strategy without conscious awareness. Acknowledging is particularly ef-
fective in keeping children engaged in desirable behaviors. For example, after observing
3-year-old Keily while she serves as the snack helper, her teacher says, “I see you gave each
person a napkin, Keily. Now we’re ready for our snack.” Noting 2-year-old Bailey’s empathic
behavior, her teacher says, “Thank you, Bailey, for sitting with Kayla. She was sad that her
teacher-initiated experiences
Learning experiences in which
teachers take the lead by
providing explicit information
and modeling or demonstrating
a skill, as determined by the
teacher’s goals and direction.
child-initiated experiences
Experiences that allow children
to gain knowledge and skills
through their own exploration
and interactions with objects
and other children.
acknowledging Giving positive
verbal or nonverbal attention
that promotes the child’s
persistence and effort.
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Chapter 9 Teaching to Enhance Learning and Development 279
Effective teachers have a large repertoire of teaching strategies to use depending on their goals for children, as
described and illustrated in this table.
Teaching Strategy Definition Most Effective Uses
Acknowledging and encouraging Giving positive verbal or nonverbal atten-
tion that promotes a child’s persistence
and effort
Teachers influence children to stay
engaged; demonstrate desired behaviors;
and help children master skills, complete
tasks, and solve complex problems.
Giving quality feedback Providing specific information on a child’s
performance or responding to questions
and comments
Teachers expand learning and under-
standing (how children come to solve a
problem) rather than focusing only on the
correct answer or end product.
Modeling Displaying or showing children a skill or
desirable way of behaving or speaking
Teachers portray positive social skills and
self-regulation. Teachers model language—
repeating and extending children’s verbal
responses, describing their own and
children’s actions, and using advanced
vocabulary.
Demonstrating Showing the correct way to perform a skill
or procedure while children observe the
outcome
Teachers teach skills that require particu-
lar steps in a certain order.
Giving cues, hints, and offering assistance Reminding children of what they already
know and can do, and helping them to use
that knowledge for new learning
Teachers help children build on prior
knowledge to gain new skills and
understanding.
Creating and adding challenges Making learning situations harder by
generating a problem, or adding difficulty
to a task so that it is a bit beyond what
children have already mastered
Teachers add challenges to interest chil-
dren and motivate them to learn, but not
so much that they become frustrated or
repeatedly fail. Children continue to make
learning and developmental progress.
Questioning Eliciting different types of responses and
promoting different types of thinking
Teachers ask open-ended questions that
require children to analyze information or
engage in higher-order thinking.
Co-constructing Thinking with different points of view;
working collaboratively to solve a problem
or clarify a concept
Teachers and children think and talk
together during a joint activity such as a
project, and both parties learn from the
exchange.
Giving direct or explicit instruction Explicitly giving directions for completing
a task; providing facts, verbal labels, or
other specific information; or providing in-
structions for a child’s action or behavior
Teachers transmit knowledge that can
be learned only from one person telling
another, that is, social-conventional or
procedural knowledge.
Scaffolding—using the above strategies in
combination
Supporting children’s ability to accom-
plish learning tasks that they could not
otherwise accomplish independently;
using strategies such as cues, hints,
assistance, questions, and so on to help
children work “on the edge” of their
current level of competence.
Teachers adapt instruction for individual
children of different skill levels, cultural
backgrounds, personalities, and talents
toward new, achievable goals. Teachers
help children acquire the skills to eventu-
ally achieve the same task independently.
Sources: Based on Basics of Developmentally Appropriate Practice: An Introduction for Teachers of Children 3 to 6, by C. Copple and
S. Bredekamp, 2006, Washington, DC: NAEYC; and Developmentally Appropriate Practice in Early Childhood Programs Serving Children
from Birth through Age 8, revised edition, edited by C. Copple and S. Bredekamp, 2009, Washington, DC: NAEYC.
Table 9.1 Effective Teaching Strategies
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach280
mommy left.” By understanding the power of
their acknowledgment of children’s competence
and performance, teachers are able to influence
children to demonstrate desired behaviors.
Encouragement can be conveyed through
verbal comments or nonverbal signs such as pats
or high fives that promote the child’s persistence
and effort. Although encouragement doesn’t di-
rectly enhance a child’s understanding or skill, it
is most valuable in helping children realize that
effort is necessary for mastering skills, complet-
ing tasks, and solving complex problems. For
example, second-grader Jushawn struggles with
writing a funny story about his dog. His teacher
encourages him to persist by making comments
such as “I really laughed when you told me how
he spilled his food.” When Jushawn finishes, she points out, “You worked hard writing your
story and I enjoyed reading it, and I laughed again at your dog’s antics.”
Giving Quality Feedback Feedback, in which teachers provide specific informa-
tion on a child’s performance or respond to questions, helps focus the child’s attention
on the process of learning. Effective feedback helps children expand their learning and
understanding, rather than focusing on correct answers (Pianta et al., 2008). Research
finds that such instructional feedback helps improve literacy and language in preschool
and kindergarten children (Howes et al., 2008) and helps close the achievement gap for
children in first grade and up (Hamre & Pianta, 2001, 2005).
Effective feedback often involves back-and-forth exchanges between teachers and
students. This exchange is called a feedback loop and involves a teacher and a child or
small group of children communicating in an effort to reach deeper understanding. Con-
sider the following example of a feedback loop that occurred in a preschool class where
the teacher and children were discussing a book about shadows:
Teacher points to a picture in book: What do you think made this shadow?
Various children call out: An animal. A dog. A cat.
Teacher: Kami, why do you think it’s a cat?
Kami: The tail.
Teacher: What makes you think that it’s a cat’s tail?
Kami: Well, it looks like a long tail.
Connor: But dogs have tails, too. It could be a wolf.
Teacher to class: What do you notice about the tail?
Kami: It’s a cat’s tail. It’s skinny, and it has a curl on the end.
Teacher: Oh, so you’re sure it’s a cat. Let’s find out.
Modeling Teachers are especially powerful models for children with whom they have
built positive relationships. Modeling is a technique teachers use to show children a skill
or desirable way of behaving or speaking.
Language modeling is among the most effective instructional strategies teach-
ers can use. A large body of research demonstrates that teacher’s language model-
ing strongly predicts children’s achievement in all areas of learning and development
(Beck, McKeown, & Kucan, 2013; Neuman & Wright, 2013). Effective language
modeling includes:
• Engaging children in frequent, extended one-on-one conversations—called “serve
and return” as in a tennis game, where teachers and children take turns speaking in
response to what the other has said
• Listening carefully, waiting for a response, minimizing questions, and gauging
comments to children’s remarks
modeling Showing children
a skill or desirable way of
behaving or speaking.
encouragement Verbal com-
ments or nonverbal signs
such as pats or high fives that
promote the child’s persistence
and effort.
Positive feedback provides chil-
dren with specific information
and helps focus their attention.
Back-and-forth exchanges in
small groups help everyone
learn more.
feedback loop Back-and-forth
communication between a
teacher and a child or small
group of children in an effort to
reach deeper understanding.
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Chapter 9 Teaching to Enhance Learning and Development 281
• Using open-ended questions to stimulate and extend discussions, such as “What do
you think will happen if . . . ? Why do you think that?” and “How did that happen?”
• Repeating and expanding on what children say
• Using new and advanced words that children may not know or use in everyday
speech
• Supporting children’s conversations with each other
Adult–child language interactions are especially important because the most com-
petent language user in the classroom is the teacher. One of the most effective strategies
for developing young children’s language is to engage them in conversations during their
play without being too intrusive (Dickinson, 2011; Meacham, Vukelich, Han, & Buell,
2014). In the following example, preschool teacher Ms. Lawry models language with
children who are pretending to cook in the dramatic play center:
Child: Here’s your dinner. It’s hot.
Ms. Lawry: Thank you. This soup must be boiling hot. I think I can see steam rising
up. I’ll just sip it slowly. I don’t want it to scald me.
Child: Huh? Scald?
Ms. Lawry: Yes. I don’t want it to burn my lips.
During this pretend scenario, the teacher modeled advanced vocabulary words like boil-
ing, rising, sip, steam, and scald, and introduced some science concepts at the same time.
In some respect, teachers are always engaged in modeling because children pay attention
to what teachers do as much as to what they say.
Demonstrating An effective strategy for teaching skills that require performing par-
ticular steps in a certain order is demonstrating. When teachers show the correct way
to perform a skill or procedure, children are able to observe the outcome. Similar to
modeling, demonstrating is more formal and directive, with the adult drawing children’s
attention to the correct steps necessary to complete a task, as in the following examples:
Irene demonstrates for her 3-year-olds how to wash their hands thoroughly to prevent
the spread of infection. As she washes her own hands, she says, “See? Now I’m dry-
ing my hands with the paper towel. Before I throw the towel away, I use it to turn off
the faucet. That way, my hands stay really clean. Now you try it.”
In the art area, kindergarten teacher Max introduces potter’s clay to the group. As he
demonstrates, he says, “Watch how I pinch off a little piece of clay and use a small
amount of water to make the little piece stick to the bigger piece.”
Children often learn by observing not only adults but also more accomplished peers
performing tasks. Such learning has been called apprenticeship, and researchers have
observed it across cultural groups (Rogoff, 1990, 2003). When young children watch
others perform basic skills of living such as dressing, feeding, or tying shoes, they gradu-
ally learn how to accomplish these skills themselves. For demonstrating to be effective,
children’s observations must be followed by opportunities for them to practice the skills
themselves with adult guidance and support.
Giving Cues, Hints, and Assistance Giving cues or hints are ways of remind-
ing children what they already know and helping them use that knowledge to build new
skills. For example, when a child is reading and is stuck on a word, the teacher may say,
“That word has ‘ch’ at the beginning like another one you know.” In this case, the teacher
is cueing the beginning reader to compare the new word to one she already knows.
Other common teaching strategies fall in the general category of facilitating or
supporting learning. When teachers facilitate, they provide short-term, temporary as-
sistance to help a child achieve the next level of functioning, such as when the teacher
gently holds a preschooler’s hand as he walks across the balance beam. When teachers
support learning, they provide a more fixed-form of assistance such as providing a word
wall (displaying frequently used words) for kindergartners to refer to as they work in their
demonstrating Showing the
correct way to perform a skill
or procedure while children
observe the outcome.
apprenticeship The process of
children learning by observing
adults and more accomplished
peers performing tasks and by
practicing the skills themselves
with adult guidance and
support.
facilitating Providing short-
term, temporary assistance to
help a child achieve the next
level of functioning.
supporting Providing assistance
that helps the child to accom-
plish a difficult task by making
it easier.
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach282
journals. In both facilitating and supporting
learning, the teacher provides assistance that
helps the child to accomplish a difficult task
by making it easier.
Creating and Adding Challenges
Although cues, hints, and other assistance
make children’s learning tasks easier, effec-
tive teachers also intentionally make learn-
ing situations harder at times by creating
challenge, generating a problem, or adding
difficulty to a task so that it is a bit beyond
what children have already mastered. For
example, Hiroki is especially adept at do-
ing puzzles and quickly completes all that
are available in his preschool classroom. His
teacher, Keith, brings in an alphabet puzzle
with 26 pieces, one for every letter, challenging Hiroki’s skill with puzzles to help him
learn the alphabet.
In her second-grade classroom, Catarina determines that although most of the children
are reading at or below grade level, two of them are much more advanced. She provides
fourth- and fifth-grade-level reading materials to ensure that they are challenged to continue
their reading growth. In addition, she adapts her writing assignments to add challenge. For
example, if the other children’s assignment is to describe their own experiences over the
weekend, to add challenge for the more advanced children, Catarina asks them to write a
different ending for a story they’ve read, requiring higher-level comprehension and analysis.
Questioning One of the most frequently used teaching strategies, questioning is
used to elicit different types of responses and to promote different types of thinking. Re-
search on questioning finds that higher-level, open-ended questions—those that require
children to analyze information in some way—are more effective learning tools than
lower-level questions are (Gonzalez et al., 2014; Meacham et al., 2014). Lower-level or
closed questions have one right answer, usually requiring children to recall information
or facts. Closed questions, which are often the type used on tests, may reveal what a child
knows, but they do not propel further learning. Open-ended questions, on the other hand,
have many possible answers. Indeed, a truly open-ended question is one for which the
teacher does not have an answer in mind.
To understand how different types of questions elicit different types of responses,
compare the following two questions, asked after a reading of Beatrix Potter’s The Tale
of Peter Rabbit:
Question 1: Where did Peter Rabbit get lost?
Question 2: How would you feel if you were lost like Peter?
Question 1 has one right answer—Mr. McGregor’s garden. This question offers little
opportunity to generate further conversation. Conversely, question 2 would most like-
ly evoke many different responses from children with various adjectives describing
feelings—scared, nervous, afraid, unhappy, sad, tired, or hungry—as well as opportu-
nities for follow-up questions that would extend the conversation. For example, “What
would you do?” or “How could you get help?” would elicit a host of responses. Even
more beneficial, the open-ended questions would enable children to connect the story to
their own experience beyond the classroom, making the reading even more meaningful.
Questions That Promote Problem Solving Teachers often use questions as ways to
cue or prompt children to take the next step in solving a problem or performing a skill.
In addition, they may use questions to remind children of what they already know before
introducing new information, as well as to focus their attention and thinking in advance.
questioning Eliciting different
types of responses and promot-
ing different types of thinking.
Effective teachers have a large
repertoire of strategies to use in
different situations. When there
is a specific skill that children
need to learn, a teacher may
intentionally demonstrate it for
children.
open-ended questions Ques-
tions that require children to
analyze information in some
way and that have many pos-
sible answers.
closed questions Lower-level
questions that have one right
answer and usually require
children to recall information
or facts.
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Chapter 9 Teaching to Enhance Learning and Development 283
In the following example, before reading Caps for Sale, by E. Slobodkina, to a group
of preschoolers, Carol holds up the book cover and begins a conversation with a question:
Teacher: What do you see in this picture?
Mark: A man with lotsa hats on his head.
Tory: He looks funny. The hats are all different colors.
Teacher: So you think this will be a funny story, Tory?
Tory: I don’t know. How can those hats stay on his head? I bet they fall off.
Teacher: Let’s read the story and find out.
By asking questions before she reads the book to the children, Carol engages their inter-
est. As soon as Carol begins reading, the children are observing and analyzing the pictures
and making predictions about the story. After the story, Carol and the children will discuss
whether their predictions were correct.
Quality of Questioning Research on questioning demonstrates its effectiveness as a
teaching strategy. However, research also finds that although questions are by far the most
frequent verbal interaction among teachers and children, teachers most often ask low-
level questions (Justice, Mashburn, Hamre, & Pianta, 2008; Meacham et al., 2014). One
observational study of preschool classrooms in England (Sylva, Melhuish, Sammons,
Siraj-Blatchford, & Taggart, 2010) found that even in good programs, only about 5%
of teachers’ questions were open ended. More than 34% of their questions were closed
(one-right-answer, low-level questions), and more than 60% were related to controlling
behavior and not directly related to pedagogy.
Despite the scarcity of open-ended questions, however, when open-ended questions
were asked, they provoked rich conversations and thoughtful speculation and extended
children’s imaginations. The researchers concluded that given their potential effective-
ness, increasing the use of open-ended questions could greatly improve outcomes for
children, especially children who are at risk of school failure (Sylva et al., 2010).
Wait Time An important aspect of questioning is wait time, the length of time that a teacher
waits for a response after asking a question. Research reveals that when teachers pause or
wait briefly—about 5 seconds—for responses from children, it increases the frequency and
depth of children’s responses (Cohrssen, Church, & Tayler, 2014; Tharp & Entz, 2012;).
wait time The length of time
that a teacher waits for a re-
sponse after asking a question
or responding to a comment.
As you see in this situation, activities such as a digital table provide rich opportunities for children and
teachers to talk and think together—what is called co-construction.
©
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach284
Wait time is especially valuable for young children who are just beginning to master verbal
communication and also for children who are learning a second language (Espinosa, 2010c).
Wait time also helps extend conversations with children and among groups of chil-
dren. Sometimes, when children do not immediately respond to adult questions or com-
ments, adults might impatiently talk for them or over them. For teachers who are patient
and recognize the beauty of wait time, however, it becomes a highly useful strategy to add
to their repertoire.
Co-Constructing Learning and Understanding One of the most impor-
tant ways children learn is by constructing their own understanding of concepts as they
actively try to make sense of their experiences. The process of co-construction often
happens when children work collaboratively with teachers and/or other children on a
joint project or activity (Tharp & Entz, 2012). This strategy of working collaboratively
to solve a problem or clarify a concept is called co-construction, because both parties
in the task think and talk together and each learns from it. The value of this strategy was
demonstrated in a large-scale observational study in England. The researchers found
that in the most effective classrooms, teachers encouraged co-construction during chil-
dren’s play activities, which they called sustained shared thinking (Sylva et al., 2010),
as in this example:
Four-year-old James is watching various objects floating in the water table. “Look
at the toys. The blocks are sinking. I don’t like that.” he observes. Modeling curios-
ity and extending the interaction, his teacher says, “Why do you think they’re sink-
ing?” James responds, “Because they’re too big.” The teacher picks up a bigger block
and shows the children how two blocks compare in size. Another child, Kathy, says,
“That’s going to sink too.” When the block floats, the children look astonished. The
teacher asks “Why do you think that happened?” and the children begin to share
many different explanations.
This process of co-construction, or sustained shared thinking, proved to be so pre-
dictive of positive outcomes for young children that the researchers concluded that it is
a prerequisite of effective preschool education. Co-construction is also one of the most
frequently used strategies in the schools in Reggio Emilia, Italy. Although open-ended
questioning is one way to initiate co-construction during children’s play, teachers need
to sustain the back-and-forth conversation and think along with the children to help them
construct their understanding of new concepts.
Giving Direct or Explicit Instruction Direct instruction occurs when a teacher
gives explicit directions for completing a task; provides facts, verbal labels, or other spe-
cific information; or provides instructions for a child’s action or behavior. Direct or explicit
instruction is used for transmitting knowledge that can be learned only from one person
telling another the culturally agreed-on labels for objects, events, and experiences, which is
called social-conventional knowledge. For example, the days of the week, letters, or punc-
tuation symbols have conventionally agreed-on names that children learn more easily and
efficiently through direct instruction. Writing a question mark on chart paper, first-grade
teacher Lydia uses direct instruction when she points out, “This is a question mark, and we
write it at the end of a sentence that is asking a question or making a request.”
Teachers also use direct instruction during child-initiated activities and when work-
ing with small groups. For example, when working with a group of 4-year-olds building
with blocks, the teacher points to a block and says, “This rounded block is called a cylin-
der. You used four cylinder blocks to hold up your bridge.”
Uses and Misuses of Direct Instruction Direct instruction can be the most efficient
and effective way of conveying information and introducing new concepts, procedures, or
vocabulary. Like every other strategy, however, it should not be overused. Studies of chil-
dren’s experiences in the primary grades have found that direct instruction in the whole
co-construction Teaching
strategy that involves thinking
and working collaboratively to
solve a problem.
direct instruction Explicitly
giving directions for complet-
ing a task; providing facts,
verbal labels, or other specific
information; or providing in-
structions for a child’s action or
behavior.
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Chapter 9 Teaching to Enhance Learning and Development 285
group is the most frequently used teaching strategy (NICHD Early Child
Care Research Network, 2002, 2003). In addition, whole-group, direct teach-
ing is used much more often in kindergarten than in preschool (Hamre &
Pianta, 2007; Oertwig & Holland, 2014).
Direct instruction is the easiest and most efficient way to present new
knowledge, such as agreed-on names for tools, and some skills, such as
tying shoes. However, this type of instruction is only one part of help-
ing children learn concepts. For example, children can learn aspects of
mathematical computation through direct instruction, but they need many
additional experiences to understand the complex concepts of number and
operations.
Although the list of teaching strategies presented so far is not exhaustive,
it provides a basic overview of options teachers can use to become inten-
tional, effective teachers. Next, we turn to a particularly effective teaching
strategy, scaffolding, that draws on the strengths of several different strate-
gies at once.
The Power of Scaffolding:
An Integrated Approach
We have now discussed a number of effective strategies that will help you create an ef-
fective classroom. Yet how do you best guide children of different skill levels, cultural
backgrounds, personalities, and talents toward new, achievable goals? Scaffolding is the
most effective teaching strategy for such a challenging task.
What Is Scaffolding? Scaffolding is a metaphor for a series of teacher behaviors
that support children’s ability to accomplish learning tasks or solve a problem that they
could not otherwise accomplish independently (Wood, Bruner, & Ross, 1976). This strat-
egy not only allows children to progress toward challenging goals but also gives them
the skills to eventually achieve the same task on their own. Scaffolding may be such an
effective teaching practice because it actually draws on the strengths of many of the other
teaching strategies all at once.
Literally, scaffolding is a temporary structure, usually an elevated platform, that
builders or painters stand on to reach otherwise inaccessible parts of a building. Like the
painter’s platform, the scaffold used in the classroom is the right amount of teacher sup-
port for the learner to achieve a task or accomplish an objective that would be beyond his
or her reach without the assistance.
Scaffolding assists a child to work in his or her zone of proximal development—the
area just beyond a child’s current level of understanding or ability to achieve (Vygotsky,
1978). What makes scaffolding effective is that it presents learners with just the right
amount of challenge—enough so they don’t give up or fail, but not so much that they
aren’t solving the problem themselves (Clark & Graves, 2005). Scaffolding also gives
children the opportunity to practice skills they couldn’t do on their own. Despite the dem-
onstrated effectiveness of scaffolding as a teaching strategy, it is used all too seldom. In
the NCEDL prekindergarten study, teachers supported children’s learning by scaffolding
less than 10% of the time (Early et al., 2010).
The Teacher’s Role The process of scaffolding, which is depicted in Figure 9.1,
begins with the teacher having responsibility for the learning and gradually releasing
more and more of it to the learner until the child is capable of assuming full responsi-
bility for the task. At that point, a new zone of proximal development is created, and
a new challenge can be presented, starting the process once again. Alternatively, scaf-
folding may occur in a situation where a child is close to mastering a task and therefore
the teacher provides just a little assistance. For example, 7-year-old Barry loves jigsaw
puzzles but he is working on a very difficult one. He has completed the outside border
Classroom Connection
This video shows teachers using
a variety of strategies to guide
children’s learning about differ-
ent kinds of birds. How do these
intentional teachers artfully scaf-
fold children’s learning?
scaffolding Using a variety of
strategies to support children’s
ability to accomplish learning
tasks that they could not other-
wise accomplish independently.
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach286
but he is struggling with the middle. His family child care provider suggests that he put
all the pieces that are the same color together and match the colors first, and then try
to match the shapes. He finds this suggestion works well and is able to complete the
puzzle on his own.
The process of scaffolding comes to life in the following example, in which Ms. Ri-
ley, a kindergarten teacher, gradually releases responsibility for learning to the students
as she teaches writing and social studies content.
During morning meeting, after a visit to the classroom by a local dentist, Ms. Riley
leads a discussion of what the children learned. Ms. Riley writes their ideas on chart
paper as they watch. Then she suggests that the children write thank-you notes and
models for them how to begin a letter. “Dear Dr. Martinez,” she writes, pointing out
how she uses capital letters for the dentist’s name and a period after “Dr.” During
choice time, children visit the writing center and work on writing their thank-you
letters. Ms. Riley sits down with a small group. She prompts their memories about the
visit. They were impressed by the big brush and set of teeth and the kinds of food, such
as apples, that help clean teeth. Ms. Riley places the chart the children dictated where
they can see it for reference. With Ms. Riley’s help, the children take turns copying
some of the words on the chart. She is available as they use their own invented spelling
to sound out the words they want to write. Occasionally she draws attention to the cor-
rect spelling of Dr. Martinez’s name. Gradually, the children take more responsibility,
creating drawings to include in their letters. On their own, some children make a chart
with pictures and words of how to brush teeth, which they post in the bathroom.
Intentional teachers use scaffolding and the other teaching strategies described previ-
ously to teach all children. However, additional specific adaptations and modifications
may be necessary to help children with disabilities make progress toward their individu-
alized learning goals. The Including All Children feature provides examples of research-
based strategies for teaching children with autism spectrum disorders. These adaptations
are helpful for working with children with other disabilities, any child who is not making
expected progress, and for dual language learners as well.
In the previous sections, we described an array of research-based effective strategies.
In the following section, we illustrate how intentional teachers apply these strategies in
practice to help individual children reach developmentally appropriate goals.
High level of teacher
support for child’s
learning
Child responsibility
for learning
Low level of
teacher support for
child’s learning
Teacher uses a variety of strategies with individual children over time
Child responsibility
for learning
Inc
re
as
es
ov
er
ti
me
Decreases over time
FIGURE 9.1 Scaffolding in Action Scaffolding involves using multiple teaching strategies to assist
children to move from learning with assistance to learning on their own.
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Chapter 9 Teaching to Enhance Learning and Development 287
Including All Children
Project DATA: A High-Quality Comprehensive Early Intervention
Program for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders
The need for a high-quality early childhood education-
al experience is a need shared by all children, regard-
less of whether they have an identified disability. Rec-
ommended practices for early childhood environments
highlight the importance of the physical aspects of
a learning environment, including the availability of
developmentally appropriate materials, the use of a
consistent schedule of routines, and the availability
of responsive adults and peers. Because children with
autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are children first, it
follows that the components of high-quality early edu-
cation for all children are necessary but may not be
sufficient in an environment for children with ASD.
The important role early childhood educators play in
providing the necessary supports for children with
ASD to participate in general early childhood activi-
ties makes them critical members of the educational
team.
An example of a program that integrates the compo-
nents of a high-quality early childhood educational
program with other specialized techniques is called
Project DATA (Developmentally Appropriate Treatment
for Autism). A unique feature of this model is the cen-
tral role of an integrated early childhood program. The
core element of the model is the classroom experi-
ence. The goal is for every child with ASD to have
opportunities to interact successfully with typically
developing children. To make the interactions suc-
cessful, they may need to be planned and supported
systematically. This component is not just about being
with other children; it is about interacting with and
developing relationships among all children.
In addition to a high-quality environment, other ele-
ments should be included to provide opportunities for
the children with ASD to interact successfully with
their peers.
To achieve this, toddlers and preschoolers in Project
DATA attend an integrated classroom as part of their
comprehensive educational program. The model in-
corporates the following elements into early childhood
environment.
• Structuring the classroom environment to promote
independence, participation, and successful inter-
actions with typically developing peers. This can be
accomplished by providing visual cues (i.e., signs
or pictures) about what the expectations are for a
routine or activity.
• Developing a consistent schedule and following
it. It is helpful to display the schedule in a child-
friendly manner (pictures or line drawings).
• Creating the need to communicate with adults and
peers. This element includes such strategies as
“forgetting” important components of an activity
so that children need to comment to continue the
activity.
• Using preferred materials and activities to promote
engagement. For a child with ASD, this could mean
incorporating unexpected materials in an activ-
ity such as toy cars or trains in the art area for
painting.
• Providing embedded and explicit instruction on
valued skills. Children with ASD need to know very
clearly what we are trying to teach them. Showing
and role playing how to do something can be effec-
tive strategies.
• Providing frequent reinforcement and developing
effective motivation systems. Encouraging chil-
dren with ASD to participate in difficult activities
or routines can be a challenge; incorporating praise
and using preferred materials can help increase the
child’s motivation to stay engaged long enough for
learning to occur.
Many recommendations are available regarding
the best way to support the development of a young
child with ASD, some of which are based on sound
research and others that are not. Project DATA is an ef-
fective program, based on Division for Early Childhood
(DEC) recommended practices, that includes extend-
ed, intensive instruction for children, strong supports
for families, transition planning as children move to
the next setting, and collaboration and coordination
with team members.
Sources: Based on “Getting a Good Start: Effective Practices
in Early Intervention” by I. Schwartz & B. McBride, 2008,
in Educating Learners on the Autism Spectrum: Translating
Theory into Meaningful Practice, edited by K. D. Buron and
P. Wolfberg, pp. 66–91, Kansas City, KS: Autism Asperger
Publishing Company; and “Project DATA for Toddlers: An
Inclusive Approach to Very Young Children with Autism
Spectrum Disorder” by G. L. Boulware, I. S. Schwartz, S.
Sandall, and B. J. McBride, 2006, Topics in Early Childhood
Special Education, 26(2), 94–105.
✓ Check Your Understanding 9.2: A Repertoire of Effective Teaching Strategies
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach288
Connecting Teaching Strategies
and Learning Goals
As you are starting to see, various teaching strategies accommodate different types of
knowledge and different ways of learning. Teachers, therefore, must always be open to
different ways of teaching. In the volume Eager to Learn: Educating Our Preschoolers
(Bowman et al., 2001), experts reviewed the research on young children’s cognitive de-
velopment and its implications for teaching. They identified three key principles of early
childhood teaching and learning:
1. Effective teachers make learning meaningful by building on what children already
know and can do.
2. Effective teachers develop children’s conceptual understanding by teaching topics
in depth, using many examples, and making connections to children’s everyday
experiences. For example, learning knowledge and skills (such as identifying let-
ters and numbers) must be framed within the larger, key concepts involved in each
domain of learning (such as the written language system in literacy or the concept
of quantity in mathematics).
3. Effective teachers promote children’s higher-level thinking and problem solving.
They encourage development of children’s metacognitive skills such as reflecting,
predicting, questioning, and hypothesizing.
The above three principles of learning apply to people of all ages (NRC, 2000). Consider
what these three principles mean to you as a college student or as a professional who is
expanding your knowledge of teaching.
Reflect on Your Own Learning
During the course of your schooling and from your work experiences, you have probably
identified subjects that you are more interested in than others and that you are likely to
pursue as a major or minor. Whenever you take an additional course in your major or in
an area you have studied thoroughly before, it becomes easier for you to understand and
learn the material because you already know a great deal about the subject. In short, you
begin by activating your prior knowledge by connecting new learning to what you already
know. An additional advantage to you as a learner is that in your preferred subject area,
you are gradually building conceptual frameworks, or mental models, to which you can
integrate new information, thereby deepening your understanding.
These types of conceptual frameworks serve as memory aids when you need to recall
something you’ve learned or apply knowledge to a new situation. In fact, the more you know
about a topic, the more necessary these mental models become in helping you organize, re-
trieve, and use your knowledge. Finally, when you have that level of understanding, you can
begin to analyze your thinking, engaging in metacognitive strategies such as reflecting on
what you know and don’t know, and apply your knowledge to solve new problems.
By contrast, consider some of the general electives you were required to take. You
might have very little prior knowledge about those subjects—and perhaps even less inter-
est. If you are like many other students, you may resort to memorizing the facts for a test
without developing a deep understanding. Without a mental framework of concepts to
which you can connect and, therefore, retain new information, you soon forget everything
you have “learned.” In addition, you cannot engage metacognitively in this subject area
because you don’t know enough about what you know to reflect on it, analyze it, make
predictions about it, or evaluate your own thinking in regard to it.
Now that we have introduced teaching strategies and discussed the importance of ac-
commodating each child’s needs, we will show how teachers can use these strategies to
make learning meaningful for children, to help them develop conceptual understanding,
and to build higher-level thinking and problem-solving skills.
conceptual frameworks
Mental models that connect
new learning to prior knowl-
edge, enhance memory, and
deepen understanding.
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Chapter 9 Teaching to Enhance Learning and Development 289
Strategies That Make Learning Meaningful
According to the principles identified previously, effective teaching draws out and
builds on children’s preexisting understandings (Bowman et al., 2001; NRC, 2000).
Several strategies are effective in activating and building on children’s prior knowledge,
including cueing, questioning, and using some form of advance organizer (Ausubel, 1978;
Cameron & Morrison, 2011).
Cues and Questions A straightforward way of activating children’s prior knowl-
edge is to provide cues that will spark a connection (Dean et al., 2012). Another strategy
is to ask questions. For example, before reading Caps for Sale, Carol continues to engage
children’s prior knowledge to help make the story meaningful:
Teacher: Our story is called Caps for Sale: A Tale of a Peddler, Some Monkeys, and
Their Monkey Business. You already know what caps are, don’t you Jason?
Jason: Yeah. I wore a baseball cap to school today.
Teacher: That’s right. It’s a kind of hat.
[Pressing on with more pointed questions, the teacher continues:]
Teacher: What do you think the author means when he says the story is about “mon-
key business”? Have you ever heard that before?
Marly: When my grandma babysits us, she always tells my mommy that she won’t
allow any monkey business, but she is smiling when she says it.
Teacher: So what is Marly’s grandma talking about, do you think?
Ricardo: I guess she means she won’t let anybody act silly.
Prior to reading the story, the teacher used cues and questions to tap into what the children
already know and understand. As she reads the story, she connects the antics of the mon-
keys to children’s ideas and effectively builds on their prior knowledge.
Advance Organizers Another way teachers help children build on their background
knowledge to engage new learning is to use advance organizers. Advance organizers are
used before introducing new information and serve as a bridge between what the student
already knows and the new learning (Ausubel, 1978; Dean et al., 2012). A widely used ad-
vance organizer strategy is known as K-W-L (Ogle, 1986), an example of which appears as
Figure 9.2. In using K-W-L, teachers first ask children what they already know (K) about the
topic of study. Then they ask children what they want (W) to know or what questions they
have about the topic. One early childhood educator uses the “W” to stand for “What I wonder
about . . .” (McDermott, 2012). After the study is complete, these responses are compared
to the answers children provide to the third question, “What did you learn (L)”? Sometimes
teachers use a K-W-H-L chart, with H standing for “How will I find information?” In other
words, which resources, web pages, books, observations, or people will I consult?
K-W-L is a useful strategy to build reading comprehension or to organize learning
about a science or social studies topic. Consider the following example:
In his second-grade classroom, Mr. Ivey uses K-W-L to launch a study on wolves
with a small group of children:
Mr. Ivey: Today we’re going to read a book about wolves. What do you already
know (K) about wolves?
Children’s responses include these: They live in the forest. They kill other animals.
They are scary.
Mr. Ivey: What do you want to find out about wolves? (W)
The children raise many questions: What do they eat? Where do they sleep? Do
they sleep all winter like bears? How big do they grow? How do they take care of their
babies? Mr. Ivey writes each question on chart paper.
advance organizers Ways of
introducing new information
that serve as a bridge between
what the student already knows
and the new learning.
K-W-L An advance organizer
strategy in which teachers ask
children what they already
know (K) about the topic of
study, what they want (W)
to know, and then what they
learned (L).
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach290
Mr. Ivey: Let’s read this book and afterward we’ll write down what we’ve learned.
Following the reading, the children have learned many facts about wolves, but they
still don’t know if they hibernate.
Mr. Ivey: How could you find out if wolves hibernate?
Melinda: We could Google it or we could e-mail the zookeeper.
This process of building on prior knowledge is easier when teachers and children
share a common language and similar cultural background. When children’s prior knowl-
edge is acquired in a language and/or cultural context that is different from that of the
teacher, the task of building on the children’s prior knowledge becomes more difficult but
no less important. Teachers of dual language learners must become aware of children’s
abilities and how to build on them.
Cueing, questioning, and using advance organizers are all effective approaches to
activate children’s prior knowledge, which, in turn, enhances their understanding and re-
tention of what they learn (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000). Next, we identify some
strategies for building concept development.
What do I know What do I want to �nd our? What did I learn?
K W L
Eg gs are white.
my mommy cooks eg gs.
I like eg gs sometimes but
not when the yellow part
is runny.
We get eg gs at the store.
We play with eg g
cartons.
Chi ckens lay eg gs.
A robin made a nest with
eg gs in it.
Birds hatch out of eg gs.
Why do animals lay
eg gs?
What other animals come
from eg gs?
Do butterflies lay eg gs?
How long does a chi cken
have to sit on an eg g to
make it crack open with a
little chi ck inside?
How do you cook eg gs?
What shape is the eg g?
Are eg gs good for you?
Eg gs come out of a
chi cken’s behind.
It pops out of the bird.
You have to wash your
hands after holding or
touching an eg g.
Eg gs are oval like a
head.
Eg gs are white, oval,
hard outside.
Cracked eg gs are yellow
and wet inside.
If you drop eg gs, they
break.
Birds lay them in the nest
& sit on them to keep
them warm.
A chi ck comes from
eg gs.
Eg gs come from
cro codiles, fish, and
turtles.
Snakes and fro gs lay
eg gs.
Cats don’t lay eg gs.
I like to eat eg gs.
I can share them with my
family.
You can crack thm to
make s crambled eg gs
FIGURE 9.2 Example of K-W-L Chart This K-W-L chart from an egg-hatching project reminds children
of their prior knowledge and encourages them to reflect on what they have learned.
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Chapter 9 Teaching to Enhance Learning and Development 291
Strategies That Develop Concepts
The second principle of teaching and learning emphasizes the need for children to learn
topics in depth rather than amassing a large number of unrelated facts. Such understand-
ing is enhanced when children’s factual knowledge is organized into conceptual frame-
works with many examples and apparent connections. To help children build conceptual
frameworks, teachers can engage them in classification and representation activities.
Classify and Identify Similarities and Differences Teachers can help
children build concepts by engaging them in forming classification systems that identify
similarities and differences or compare and contrast objects and ideas (Dean et al., 2012).
These cognitive activities begin early for young children.
When interacting with babies, adults continually use comparative language: “Look
how big you are! You’re bigger than the teddy bear now, but Scruffy is the biggest.” Like-
wise, children learn many mathematical concepts through building classification systems.
With her group of 2- and 3-year-olds, Jeanne helps the children learn the concept of the
number 2 by matching pairs of shoes and socks. They soon apply this new concept to their
body parts, singing a song while pointing out their two feet, two hands, two legs, two ears,
and on and on.
Create Graphic Representations “A picture is worth a thousand words” may
be a hackneyed cliché, but when it comes to developing children’s conceptual understand-
ing, the phrase is true. In fact, it is also true for college students. You’ve probably experi-
enced seemingly endless pages of text or hours of lecture that become clear to you only
after you’ve seen a chart, graph, or Venn diagram. This teaching strategy, called graphic
representation, is the process of depicting thoughts and ideas through drawing, model-
ing, or using other media.
Teachers can use representation is many ways. For instance, when learning about
“quantity,” first graders create a graph showing their preference: basketball or soccer. The
higher bar, soccer, is the one with “more” votes, providing a visual representation of the
concept for the children. They then create a graph comparing the votes of boys and girls.
Teachers’ use of graphic representations is an effective way to teach concepts and to
engage children. Another powerful use of representation is to engage children in creating
their own representations. This activity is a defining characteristic of the Reggio Emilia
approach and one of their many contributions to the knowledge base of early childhood.
Loris Malaguzzi (1998) described the purpose of representation as clarifying chil-
dren’s understanding. George Forman, one of the earliest disseminators of the Reggio
approach in America, described children’s use of graphic representation in Reggio as
“not learning to draw, but drawing to learn” (Forman, 1994). Reggio educators (Edwards,
Gandini, & Forman, 2012) view graphic representation as a communication tool that is
simpler and clearer than words and, therefore, an invaluable way to help children clarify
and extend their thinking—that is, deepen their conceptual understanding. Because chil-
dren are trying to communicate with others through their drawings, clay models, or other
representations, they often pause to clarify their ideas before putting them down on paper
and making them visible to other people. Important thinking is going on at such moments.
One example of how representation reveals and challenges a child’s thinking is re-
lated to a study of rain (from the Hundred Languages of Children exhibit, Commune of
Reggio Emilia, Italy, cited in Landry & Forman, 1999). After many days of rain, teach-
ers asked children, “Where do you think rain comes from?” Children expressed various
theories, such as “the Lord makes the rain.” But Simone, age 5½, explained, “The sun
heats the rain that has fallen and that’s how it goes away afterwards. It goes back into the
clouds and then it starts to rain again.” From her explanation, it seems that Simone has a
good understanding of the rain cycle.
After writing down (representing) children’s theories in words, their teacher asked
them to draw pictures of where the rain comes from. Simone’s detailed drawing included
classification systems
Systems teachers use to help
children build concepts by
identifying similarities and dif-
ferences or by comparing and
contrasting objects and ideas.
graphic representation The
process of depicting thoughts
and ideas through drawing,
modeling, or other media.
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach292
pipes or tubes going up from the ground to the sky to convey the water. Thus, when asked
to represent her theory, the child had to further elaborate on it. By engaging children in
graphic representation of their theories, the teacher got a much clearer picture of Sim-
one’s understanding—somewhat different from her seemingly accurate verbal representa-
tion. Additionally, other children might challenge her theory—“Look outside, I don’t see
any pipes”—causing her to reflect on and probably rethink her ideas.
Strategies That Promote Higher-Level Thinking
and Problem Solving
Strategies that are effective in building higher-level thinking and problem solving are
those that integrate teaching of metacognitive skills. Metacognitive activities engage
children in thinking and reflecting about their own learning. Early childhood education
has a long tradition of incorporating these strategies in effective ways (Copple, Sigel, &
Saunders, 1984; Hohmann & Weikart, 2002). We next describe three strategies that not
only engage children’s metacognition but also contribute to their achievement in school
and life.
Planning and Reflection Many early childhood programs offer children choices
during center time, but planning is more than making choices. Planning requires children
to make intentional choices and encourages them to identify their goals, consider the op-
tions for achieving them, make predictions, and anticipate consequences (Epstein, 2012).
Reflection is remembering with analysis, which is more than just memory and re-
call of events (Epstein, 2012). Teachers help children go beyond remembering what they
did to becoming aware of what they learned, what was interesting, how they felt about
the experience, and what they can do to build on and extend the experience. Planning and
reflection promote intentionality and metacognition among teachers as well as children.
Reciprocal Teaching One of the best-researched strategies available to primary
grade teachers is reciprocal teaching (Palincsar & Brown, 1984). Reciprocal teaching in-
volves teachers working with groups of children to enhance their reading comprehension
(Oczkus, 2010). The learning strategies that children develop make them better readers
but can also be applied to other areas of the curriculum such as social studies or science.
For an example of this effective practice in action, read the feature titled What Works:
Reciprocal Teaching.
Generate and Test Hypotheses Tisha, a second grader, stares up at the sky for a
long time and announces, “I think we’re going to have a bad storm. It was hot but now it’s
cold, and see those cumulus clouds.” Impressed, her grandma asks her where she learned
all that. “We’re studying weather all year in my class. We go outside every day.”
At least once a week, Tisha’s class looks at the weather map online, discusses what
has been happening during the last 24 hours, and then goes outside and observes the sky
in the morning and again in the afternoon. The children make predictions about what
they think will happen before the next school day, explaining the reasoning behind their
predictions. The next morning, they discuss their hypotheses and the extent to which they
were correct. If their predictions were accurate, they identify the observations that were
the most helpful. If their predictions were not accurate, they try to figure out what they
missed or misunderstood (adapted from Marzano, Pickering, & Pollock, 2001, p. 103).
In the above scenario, Tisha’s teacher uses a strategy that draws on children’s meta-
cognitive abilities. Hypothesis generating and testing is the strategy of applying previ-
ously acquired knowledge to a new situation by making a prediction and then observing
and reflecting on the outcome. Using this strategy, learners activate prior knowledge,
gather new information, and expand and deepen their understanding of concepts. The
greatest benefit of hypothesis testing comes when learners explain their thinking, which
deepens understanding (Dean et al., 2012).
hypothesis generating and
testing Applying previously
acquired knowledge to a new
situation by making a predic-
tion and then observing and
reflecting on the outcome.
metacognitive activities
Activities that engage children
in thinking and reflecting about
their own learning.
planning Requires children to
make intentional choices and
encourages them to identify
their goals, consider the op-
tions for achieving them, make
predictions, and anticipate
consequences; helps build
children’s higher-level thinking
and problem solving.
reflection Teaching strategy in
which teachers help children
go beyond remembering what
they did to becoming aware of
what they learned, what was
interesting, how they felt about
the experience, and what they
can do to build on and extend
the experience.
reciprocal teaching A strategy
that promotes’ children’s read-
ing comprehension and higher-
order thinking by engaging
them in summarizing, question-
ing, clarifying, and predicting.
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Chapter 9 Teaching to Enhance Learning and Development 293
What Works
Reciprocal Teaching
Reciprocal teaching engages children in summarizing, question-
ing, clarifying, and predicting—all metacognitive strategies and
higher-level thinking skills. Reciprocal teaching is also a good
example of scaffolding because, at first, the teacher models the
use of effective strategies, such as summarizing a passage that is
read and asking questions, and then she gradually turns over those
tasks to individual children, as seen in the example that follows.
Ms. Leon, a second-grade teacher, works with five children as
they read the tale The Emperor’s New Clothes. Having pre-
viously modeled the strategies of summarizing, questioning,
clarifying, and predicting, Ms. Leon chooses a student leader
to take on these tasks with the group.
Summarizing After the children silently read a short passage,
she asks Christopher, acting as the student leader, to summarize
what they read. Christopher says, “The emperor is like the king of
the country. He’s kind of ugly but he always wants to look good
by getting new clothes.” Ms. Leon gives cues to help Christopher
elaborate on the story, “What did the emperor do to get new
clothes?” “Oh, yeah, he hired some tailors,” Christopher says.
Questioning Next, the student leader asks the other children
some questions to identify important information in the passage.
Christopher asks, “Were those guys
really tailors?” The other children try
to answer the question based on their recollec-
tion of what they read.
Clarifying Then, the student leader tries to clarify confusing
parts in the passage or asks the other children for clarification.
“How did the tailors trick the emperor?” Ermalinda answers,
“They weren’t really tailors, and they just pretended to sew new
clothes to cheat the emperor.”
Predicting The student leader asks the other children to
predict what will happen in the next section, “What do you
think will happen when the emperor walks down the street in his
underwear?”
From this brief example, we see that reciprocal teaching
engages children in assuming the role of teacher and involves
them in higher-level thinking processes and metacognitive
strategies.
Source: Based on Reciprocal Teaching at Work: Powerful Strategies and
Lessons for Improving Reading Comprehension (2nd ed.), by L. D. Oczkus,
2010, Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Hypothesis testing is used in science curricula because it actively engages children
in applying the scientific method: Begin with a hypothesis, test it with an experiment,
make observations and gather data, and then confirm or disconfirm the initial hypothesis.
However, hypothesis testing is not exclusively used for science; in fact, it is used in all
kinds of problem-solving situations, such as those encountered in mathematics or social
studies or when negotiating social problems among peers. Consider how hypothesis test-
ing is used in the following example:
A small group of preschoolers wants to construct model cars to use on the race track
they have built. Their teacher asks them to hypothesize about what kinds of materials
they could use to get the wheels to turn, and the children offer suggestions:
Mary: Straws with buttons glued on the ends.
Damon: Donuts. (Several children laugh.)
Teacher: Why do you think donuts wouldn’t work?
Gina: We’d eat them before we finished the car!
Damon: But maybe something like a donut because a wheel needs to have a hole in
the middle.
Damon and his friend Jaleel search for objects among the collage art materials that
might work to test their hypothesis, while Mary and her friend glue the buttons.
Later the teacher and children describe what happened with their experiments and
whether their hypotheses were accurate. The girls admit that although the buttons are
round, the glue makes them stationary and, therefore, not very good wheels.
In the previous sections, we described an array of teaching strategies and how teach-
ers apply them to make learning meaningful for children, to help them learn concepts, and
scientific method Method of
beginning with a hypothesis,
testing it with an experiment,
making observations and gath-
ering data, and then confirming
or disconfirming the initial
hypothesis.
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach294
to engage them in higher-level thinking. To be an effective teacher, you will need to have
all of these strategies in your repertoire and know when and how to use them.
Grouping as an Instructional
Approach
In Chapter 8, we described how the environment influences children’s behavior and helps
teachers create caring communities. At the same time, the environment provides a pow-
erful context for learning. Environments communicate messages to children about what
kind of learning is valued and what their role is in the process. For example, a classroom
with rows of individual desks and the teacher’s desk in the front sends the message that
children work only as individuals and teachers control the dissemination of knowledge.
On the other hand, a classroom with tables that encourage groups of children to work
together, an open space for class meetings and discussions, and learning centers for chil-
dren to choose where they will work and play sends an entirely different message. In
the latter environment, the expectation is clear that the teacher and children will work
together in various learning contexts.
The Learning Environment
Appropriate learning environments for children will vary depending on the age of the
children, the time of the year, and the topic of study. Child-centered environments are
organized so that many materials are accessible to children. In preschools, children have
access to blocks, dramatic play props, puzzles and other manipulative toys, art materials,
and books. In primary-grade classrooms, children might have books to read, science tools
to explore and investigate, math games, computer centers, and other learning materials.
Table 9.2 lists the types of centers available in a challenging, engaging preschool and
kindergarten learning environments and materials that they might include.
Learning in the Whole Group Whole group, which is also called circle time or
class meeting time, provides a valuable context for class discussions, music and move-
ment, planning for the day or for special experiences such as visitors or field trips, and for
children to share their experiences and ideas. Whole group is a time to build a sense of
community and shared purpose.
Children benefit most from whole group time when a teacher uses it to orient them to
upcoming activity that will occur during center time or projects. One research study found
that, although rarely done, when preschool teachers model or demonstrate an activity in
advance and explain the rationale for it, children’s general knowledge, mathematics, liter-
acy, vocabulary, and self-regulation significantly improved (Cameron & Morrison, 2011).
Research with preschoolers demonstrates that during large-group times, teachers’ ex-
planations and use of challenging vocabulary is related to improving learning outcomes
for children (Dickinson, 2001), as in this example:
Prior to a visit by a local police officer, Margo gathers her whole class of preschoolers
on the rug. She explains, “Officer Gardner is coming tomorrow. She will be wearing
her uniform and her badge that identify her to everyone as a police officer. She wants
to tell you some ways to stay safe because keeping people safe is the main job of
the police. I’ll write on our chart some questions you want to ask her.” During this
brief introduction, Margo provided the children with a concise explanation of what to
expect. She also clarified the meanings of the vocabulary she used, such as uniform,
badge, and identify.
Teachers may also engage the whole group in discussion, using questions to prompt
and sustain the interaction. For example, a teacher might have her third-grade children
✓ Check Your Understanding 9.3: Connecting Teaching Strategies and Learning Goals
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Chapter 9 Teaching to Enhance Learning and Development 295
Classroom Connection
Watch this video to see how a
first-grade teacher effectively uses
grouping and various instructional
strategies to teach important
content and skills. What do you
observe about the children’s en-
gagement in each context? What
are the benefits for children’s
learning of using different ways of
grouping for instruction?
http://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.
com/_blue-top_640x360_ccv2/ab/
streaming/myeducationlab/WSO_
Vignettes/G1_Dana-Surveys.mp4
Table 9.2 Learning Centers and Suggested Materials
Developmentally appropriate learning environments include a wide variety of materials organized in centers to
promote child-chosen experiences as well as small- and large-group instruction.
Learning Center Examples of Materials
Library area Culturally and linguistically appropriate books and literacy materials of all kinds (storybooks, informa-
tion, poetry, wordless, leveled readers), listening center with earphones and CDs, puppets and puppet
theater, flannel board
Writing center All types of paper, envelopes, blank notebooks and journals, variety of pencils, pens, markers, word
walls, letter stamps, alphabet cards, computers with writing software and Internet, mobile digital
devices
Mathematics Variety of objects to count, sort, and order (buttons, bottle caps), manipulatives (peg boards, Legos),
tangrams, pattern blocks, number cards, interlocking cubes, attribute games, cuisinare rods, graphing
mats, dice, card and board games, puzzles, gaming apps
Science Plants, pets, fish tank, natural objects (shells, rocks, leaves, soil), tools for investigating and recording
(magnifying glasses, stethoscope, magnets, funnels, lenses, balance scales, journals, clipboards)
Music and movement Musical recordings from diverse cultural groups for listening and dancing, rhythm instruments, picture
songbooks, props for movement (scarves, flags, streamers), CD player and headsets
Art Many different kinds of paper; large variety and many colors of crayons, markers, pencils, chalks, and
paint; easel; clay, playdough, and tools for sculpting; scissors, paste, glue, collage materials; construction
materials (foam pieces, wood scraps, wire, pipe cleaners, recyclable materials); water and sand table; art
and photograph books from diverse cultural groups, posters, light table, overhead or LCD projector
Dramatic play Dress-up clothes, mirrors, home-like materials reflecting children’s cultures, child-sized furniture,
phone, empty food containers, cookbooks, junk mail, calendars, culturally sensitive dolls and acces-
sories, props for pretending various occupations or settings such as store, restaurant or doctor’s office,
cash registers, measuring cups and spoons, store coupons, magazines, books, paper; open-ended
materials (large pieces of fabric, cardboard boxes)
Blocks Unit blocks, large hollow blocks, props (people and animal figures, transportation vehicles, dress-up
clothes), open-ended materials (cardboard boxes, plastic tubing), literacy materials (writing tools and
paper, signs, books about transportation and architecture)
Technology Computers, digital media (iPad, tablets, smartphone), printers, Web cam, digital camera, scanners,
digital microscope, whiteboard
Sources: Based on “Teaching in the Kindergarten Year,” by C. Heroman and C. Copple, 2006, in K Today: Teaching and Learning in the Kindergarten
Year, edited by D. F. Gullo, Washington, DC: NAEYC; and The Right Stuff for Children Birth through Age 8: Selecting Play Materials to Support
Development, by M. B. Bronson, 1995, Washington, DC: NAEYC.
working in small groups on an investigation of batteries and electricity. Each
group will share their theories about how electricity works with the rest of
the class.
In general, the younger the child, the shorter the length of time she or he
should spend in whole-group experience. Young children are easily distracted,
and the context is less effective if overused (Montie, Xiang, & Schweinhart,
2006). Nevertheless, if children are actively engaged in a large group, mentally
and/or physically, this setting can be an effective learning context where chil-
dren have the opportunity to express themselves, to hear the opinions of others,
and to feel part of the larger learning community. The important caveat is that
teachers need to take their cue from the children. If interest wanes during whole
group, it is best to bring the group time to a close and move on to another activ-
ity setting or actively engage all the children in singing or movement.
Learning in Small Groups Small groups, usually composed of four
to six children, are especially valuable learning contexts for two reasons. First,
they provide the opportunity for more focused attention and individualized
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach296
Becoming an Intentional Teacher
Working in Small Groups
Here’s What Happened With my kindergarten class, I
decided to play a marble game to engage them in thinking
about measurement and also the processes of predicting,
observing, and recording results. After explaining the game,
I organized children into groups of three or four. Each had
a hollow piece of plumbing pipe and a marble. With one
end of the pipe on the ground, a child held the other end.
Each group dropped a marble down the pipe to see how far
it would travel out the other end. After the initial try, the
children held the pipe at different angles to see if the angle
affected the distance the marble traveled. The children re-
corded how far the marble went in an initial try and then
tried to get it to roll farther based on where they were hold-
ing the other end of the pipe. I asked each group questions
as the game proceeded to engage them in thinking about
and predicting what would happen.
Here’s What I Was Thinking I planned the marble game
as a small-group activity for several reasons. Small groups of
children are better than large groups for focusing their atten-
tion on an idea. When each child can participate more active-
ly in investigating, predicting, and recording measurements,
they care more about the outcome—in this case, making the
marble go farther than it has before. They pay attention to
what affects the distance it rolls, and they are motivated to
work out a way to measure if they’ve succeeded in improving
their previous results. Small groups allow the children to par-
ticipate and, at the same time, allow me to observe what each
child does and does not understand and engage each child in
the learning experience at his or her own level.
I typically put together these small
groups during center time. I invited
a group of children to work with me;
if there was something else the chil-
dren really wanted to do instead, I allowed them to choose.
It was rare, however, for them to pass up this opportunity—
they loved the extra interaction of small groups, and I
worked hard to make these experiences engaging.
I formed groups that were mixed with respect to the chil-
dren’s developmental levels, or what I thought their abil-
ity would be on this task. I thought that five children
were starting to grasp the general idea of standard units
in measurement—a big breakthrough that many children
don’t make until age 7 or 8. I dispersed those children
among the five groups I worked with. I encouraged these
five children to explain their ideas to the others because it
helps them get a firmer understanding of the concepts. And
the exposure the less advanced children get gives them a
new idea to chew on.
Reflection A large body of research supports the ben-
efits of teaching children in small groups, yet most teachers
rarely use this approach. Why do you think this is so? What
conditions might make teachers more likely to decrease
time spent in whole-group instruction and increase small-
group experiences for children?
Source: Based on The Young Child and Mathematics, by J. V.
Copley, 2000, pp. 103–104, Washington, DC: NAEYC.
instruction from the teacher. Teachers can give children immediate, high-quality feedback
and also evaluate their performance more accurately (Abou-Sayed, 2011). Second, small
groups give children the opportunity to interact with and learn from peers and also engage
in hands-on experiences (Wasik, 2008). Teachers also use small groups for a focused
learning experience such as introducing a new skill or concept.
Small groups are highly effective for learning vocabulary, literacy, and mathemat-
ics (Dickinson & Smith, 1993; Morrow & Smith, 1990; NRC, 2009). Reading a story
to a small group makes it easier for teachers to engage children in conversation before,
during, and after reading, which has been found to be especially beneficial for build-
ing vocabulary and other literacy skills (Gonzalez et al., 2014; Whitehurst & Lonigan,
1998). Despite a great deal of research supporting the positive effects of small group
instruction, only 6% of preschoolers’ day is spent in small group interaction (Early
et al., 2005).
One of the greatest benefits of small-group interaction is the back-and-forth ex-
changes among children, which can scaffold children’s learning just as teacher inter-
actions can. Small groups also provide the opportunity for active engagement in the
learning experience. Without such active involvement, the benefit of small groups goes
unrealized. Children should have the opportunity to participate in more than one small
group each day, depending on the instructional goals, and should work with peers of
varying ability levels (Bates, 2013). For an example of grouping as an instructional
strategy, read the feature titled Becoming an Intentional Teacher: Working in Small
Groups.
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Chapter 9 Teaching to Enhance Learning and Development 297
Teaching in Learning Centers Effective early childhood classrooms provide an
extended period of time, from 45 to 90 minutes, for children to engage in child-initiated
experiences in learning centers (Epstein, 2013; Sylva et al., 2010). These defined areas
of the classroom have particular purposes. The library area promotes book reading and
listening. A block area provides for building, pretending, and learning mathematics con-
cepts. Art and writing centers promote creative expression, symbolic representation, and
development of fine-motor skills. Manipulative toys such as peg boards, beads, and Legos
offer opportunities to practice fine-motor skills and solve problems. The dramatic play
area promotes symbolic pretend play, self-regulation, and language interaction.
During learning center time, children have opportunities to plan, initiate, and make
choices and to practice their developing skills, which is essential for mastery. Learning
centers provide natural laboratories for children to work out social problems with other
children and to practice their language. Center time also promotes decision-making skills
because children make choices about how they will spend their time, what they will do,
and with whom they will play.
Effective teachers use center time to engage children in one-on-one, extended con-
versations (Dickinson, 2011). During this period in which children are engaged with
various tasks, such as writing, doing a puzzle, or pouring water, teachers are available
to scaffold individual children’s learning as needed. Finally, center time also provides an
Language Lens
Teachable Moments with Dual Language Learners
For children who are learning English, every moment in
the classroom is a teaching and learning opportunity.
They may be wearing winter clothes for the first time,
riding a school bus, and meeting people who do not look
or sound like them. Learning a new language takes time,
effort, and intentional teaching. Teachers need to take
advantage of every teachable moment. Here are some
points for teachers to keep in mind:
• As a role model of the language, speak slowly but
not loudly, simplifying your vocabulary and sentence
structure as you might for a younger child. Over time,
work toward more challenging vocabulary, sentences,
and short conversation.
• Use your body and facial expressions to communicate.
For instance, to emphasize words like under, through,
around, or on top, play with children around a table
to physically demonstrate these words and concepts.
• Use repetition. Be as clear as possible in pronuncia-
tion and diction, which may mean opening the mouth
wider because children look for facial clues.
• Use large-group time to engage children in the joy of
group movement and exercise, singing and choral rep-
etition, preparing children in advance for upcoming
activities.
• Use small-group time, which is especially effective for
dual language learners because it allows for active par-
ticipation, individual attention, and experiences with
objects. For example, if children are learning about
vegetables, have real broccoli, carrots, and squash for
them to see, touch, and taste.
• Use small groups of children with the same home lan-
guage to introduce new concepts in the home language
first.
• Vary the composition of groups, at times bringing to-
gether learners who speak the same language and,
at other times, children from two or more language
groups.
• Provide a visually rich environment with pictures and
words in multiple languages.
• Organize centers with language learning in mind, in-
cluding spaces for individuals such as a listening
center with tapes in the home language, tablets or
smartphones with translation apps, or a computer with
programs in both languages.
• Provide private, quiet spaces for children to de-stress—
being surrounded by an unfamiliar language for long
periods of time can be overwhelming for anyone.
• Outdoor playtime is a great venue for children to learn
new English words for physical actions and social in-
teractions. Create games that repeat words like run,
kick, walk, jump, throw over, or throw under. Making
friends and playing together motivate children to learn
a new language.
• Give special attention to particular sounds that may
not exist in the child’s home language. For some
Spanish-speaking children, it may be the /ch/ or /sh/ or
/w/ pronunciations; for some Asian children, it may be
the /r/ or /th/ sounds.
• Encourage children’s efforts at speaking the new lan-
guage; avoid correcting children by simply rephrasing
and repeating.
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach298
excellent opportunity for teachers to observe and assess children’s developing capabilities
in various contexts.
All of the grouping approaches described previously—the arrangement of the learn-
ing environment and materials, centers, large group, small groups, and individual ac-
tivities—provide excellent opportunities for teachers to support dual language learners.
Read the Language Lens: Teachable Moments with Dual Language Learners feature for
suggested strategies.
In the previous sections, we described the various contexts commonly found in
early childhood classrooms: whole group, small group, and learning centers. Center
time is an excellent opportunity for children to engage in their favorite activity—play
(Wiltz & Klein, 2001). Play is also a highly effective context for learning and teaching, as
described next.
Play as a Context for Learning
The word play is used to describe different types of activities, including constructive
play and games with rules as well as pretend play. In the previous discussion of learning
centers, we saw how teachers’ behaviors support learning during various forms of play. In
this section, we explore teachers’ roles during sociodramatic play, a particularly effective
form of play for developing children’s self-regulation, problem-solving, and language and
literacy skills (Bodrova & Leong, 2007; Diamond & Lee, 2011; Smilansky & Shefatya,
1990).
Rarely is play thought of as a teaching strategy. Researchers define play as child-
initiated experience, and, in fact, children themselves see play as something they control
(Singer, Golinkoff, & Hirsh-Pasek, 2006; Sutton-Smith, 1980). Nevertheless, decades of
research on play demonstrates that teachers have important roles in children’s play and
they can help play achieve its full potential as an effective learning experience for children
(Singer et al., 2006; Zigler, Singer, & Bishop-Josef, 2004). The key is not to take over or
turn play into a formal lesson.
During sociodramatic play, children pretend, create a theme, use props, develop roles,
and follow rules related to the roles. Moreover, sociodramatic play involves language in-
teraction (Bodrova & Leong, 2007), as we see in this example:
In her Head Start classroom, Marita Lewis sets up a grocery store with food boxes,
plastic fruit and vegetables, shopping carts, a cash register, and check-out counter.
She adds paper and pencils for writing shopping lists, play money, and paper receipts.
As 4-year-old Carey pushes her cart up to the counter, the “cashier” Angela, her
classmate, asks, “Paper or plastic?” After Carey selects, “Paper,” Angela, continues
to recite the script of a cashier to the best of her recollection, “Credit card or money?”
Meanwhile, sitting nearby, Marita is approached by LaToya who needs help writing
her shopping list. She wants to add bananas. Marita says, “BBBBananas” drawing
out the /b/ sound at the beginning of the word. “What letter does it start with?” “B!”
shouts LaToya, who quickly starts to write a B on her list.
Teachers’ Involvement during Play
Research reveals that teachers play a variety of roles during children’s play that can
be placed on a continuum from minimal to maximum teacher involvement (Jones &
Reynolds, 2011). Figure 9.3 depicts the continuum of teacher roles in play (Johnson,
Christie, & Wardle, 2005). As the figure illustrates, the effective facilitating roles are the
ones in the middle of the continuum.
The two extremes of teacher behavior, either uninvolved or overly directive, have a nega-
tive effect on play. If teachers are uninvolved and ignore children during play, using playtime
✓ Check Your Understanding 9.4: Grouping as an Instructional Strategy
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Chapter 9 Teaching to Enhance Learning and Development 299
to do paperwork or housekeeping tasks, children’s pretend play tends to become simplis-
tic, repetitive, and raucous, featuring themes like monsters and superheroes (Johnson et al.,
2005). In these situations, the play often turns into a disciplinary situation with the teacher
only stepping in to police behavior. Consequently, the learning potential of play is lost.
At the other end of the continuum, teachers are ineffective if they take too much control
of children’s play, either by trying to direct what children do from the sidelines or by redi-
recting the play away from what the children are doing toward the teacher’s goal. Situations
where teachers are maximally involved cease to be child-initiated play, and most of the time,
children will simply withdraw mentally from the pretend scenario or leave the scene entirely.
So we see that using play as a context for teaching and learning requires teachers to
walk a fine line between doing too little and doing too much. Next, we discuss several
effective roles of teachers during play.
Teachers’ Role during Play
The four roles in the midrange of the continuum are onlooker, stage manager, co-player,
and play leader. These roles are all effective in helping children get involved and stay
engaged in play situations. In each of these roles, the teacher becomes more involved in
the play scene. At the same time, the teacher adapts her role as the children play, depend-
ing on their interests and needs.
Onlooker In the onlooker role, teachers act as the audience for children’s play. They
position themselves nearby, acknowledging and encouraging children’s play by nodding,
smiling, or making positive comments. The onlooker role lets children know that play is
valued and important, and encourages them to persist. In the onlooker role, teachers ob-
serve and assess children’s competencies exhibited during their play interactions. Based
on these observations, the teacher intentionally decides whether and how to become more
involved in the play (Jones & Reynolds, 2011).
Stage Manager As the name implies, stage managers do not actively enter the play;
they instead set the stage by providing the props and theme. They are also available to
respond to children’s requests for materials or assistance. In the grocery store play de-
scribed previously, Marita acted as a stage manager, having prepared the setting, which
encouraged children’s involvement. Stage managers scaffold children’s learning, as when
Marita helped LaToya with her shopping list. Teachers as stage managers also make sug-
gestions to help extend the play. For example, if LaToya began to lose interest, Marita
might ask, “What else do you need for your dinner tonight?”
Co-Player As co-players, teachers actually join in and take an active role in the
play. Co-players are equal play partners with children, but it is best if teachers take the
Uninvolved
Minimum
involvement
Maximum
involvement
Effective facilitative roles
LEAST instrusive
Tends to have
negative effect
MOST instrusive
Tends to have
negative effect
Onlooker Stage manager Co-player Play leader
Director
Re-Director
onlooker Teachers act as the
audience for children’s play.
stage manager Teachers set
the stage for children’s play by
providing the props and theme
and being available to respond
to children’s requests.
co-player Teachers actually
join in and take an active role
in children’s play.
FIGURE 9.3 Continuum of Teacher Roles in Play Teachers can use various strategies to support
children’s play—from minimal to maximum involvement—as depicted on this continuum.
Source: From Johnson, James E.; Christie, James F.; Wardle, Francis. Play, Development and Early Education,
1st Ed., © 2005. Reprinted and electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper
Saddle River, New Jersey.
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach300
Play is a valuable context for children’s learning. But children don’t automatically play productively. How
can teachers support play to benefit children without taking over?
subordinate role in the drama, such as the patient in the doctor’s office or the passenger
on the airplane, leaving the prime roles of doctor or pilot for the children. As a co-
player, the teacher is careful to let the children take the lead. This role provides ample
opportunity, however, for the teacher to model play skills, including pretending with
objects and roles, turn-taking, ways to enter an ongoing scene, and vocabulary (Johnson
et al., 2005, p. 272). Consider how the teacher accomplishes all of these goals in the
following play situation:
In Sascha Britt’s preschool classroom, the children are playing pet store as part of their
study of domestic animals. Sascha arrives cradling a stuffed dog and says, “I just got
a brand new puppy. I don’t know what I’m going to need to take care of him. Can you
help me?” The children scramble about looking for supplies on the shelves of their
store. Martha says, “He’ll be hungry. Here’s some dog food.” Dominic chimes in, “He
has to take walks. You better get him a leash.” “I think he needs a nice soft bed,” says
Emory, who looks around but can’t find anything to fit the bill. Instead, he picks up the
pillow off the doll bed and hands it to his teacher. Sascha replies, “I’m glad I came to
this store. You have lots of supplies. How much will this cost?”
Play Leader This role involves teachers’ direct participation in children’s play, but
exerts more influence than the co-player’s role. As the play leader, the teacher deliber-
ately attempts to enrich and extend the play episode, suggesting a theme and introducing
new props or plot elements. Teachers become play leaders when children have difficulty
beginning sociodramatic play or when play breaks down:
After several days playing in the grocery store, the children’s play becomes repetitive
and fewer children choose to play there. To spark some interest, Marita puts herself
in the role of store manager.
Marita: This store is losing business. I think it needs some new attractions for shop-
pers. What if we reduce the prices on everything and have a sale?
Josh: We’ll have to change all the signs.
Marita: What else could we do to get more customers?
Toby: We could put in a McDonald’s like they have at the mall.
play leader Teachers
participate in children’s
play; includes making
deliberate attempts to enrich
and extend the play episode.
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Chapter 9 Teaching to Enhance Learning and Development 301
The children quickly embrace Toby’s idea. Josh starts to draw a big “M” for the
McDonald’s sign, while other children start gathering props for the food. Toby’s sug-
gestion leads to many changes in the dramatic play episode with new roles such as
cook that extend the play over several days.
Because sociodramatic play is such an effective learning context, teach-
ers need to be aware of and use the full range of roles and strategies available
to them in supporting children’s make-believe play. Although some educators
believe that pretend play comes naturally to children and that adults are not
needed, this is a misperception. In fact, children who are skilled “ players”
during preschool most likely had parents or caregivers who played with them
beginning as babies and toddlers (Elias & Berk, 2002).
Today’s teachers report that many children, often children from low-in-
come backgrounds but also their middle-class peers, are unskilled at pre-
tend play when they come to early childhood programs. Their play tends
to be repetitive and immature. In situations such as these, teachers in the
role of stage manager can coach children from the sidelines to improve
play behaviors or, as co-players or leaders, they can model and scaffold
appropriate play behavior.
Research demonstrates that participation in sociodramatic play has posi-
tive effects on children’s language, social, and cognitive development (Barnett
et al., 2008; Bodrova & Leong, 2007; Diamond, 2012). To be effective, however, teachers
must be intentional in their role in children’s play. Play has a long tradition in early child-
hood programs as well as a thorough, although sometimes contradictory, research base.
In the next section, we discuss a more recent educational phenomenon, digital media in
schools and child care centers.
Teaching with Digital Media
At a very young age, most children today are expert users of every type of technologi-
cal device and application—digital media, smartphones, touch tablets and apps, e-books,
social networking, whiteboards, video games, computers, Internet, digital cameras, and
video camcorders. As these words are written, new and emerging technologies are being
developed at lightning speed.
Research on Digital Media
Digital media is ubiquitous in children’s lives. A survey by Common Sense Media (2013)
found that increasing numbers of children are using mobile devices at younger and
younger ages, and for longer periods of time. In 2013, about 80% of children used a mo-
bile device for playing games or apps compared to 38% just two years before, and 38% of
children under 2 used them (Common Sense Media, 2013). More than 75% of all children
under age 8 have access to smartphones or tablets at home.
Although a digital divide and an “app gap” continue to exist, access is increasing for
lower-income families (Common Sense Media, 2013). Within 2 years among lower-income
families, smartphone ownership went from 27% to 51%, and tablet ownership increased
from 2% to 20%. Despite this increase, the gaps remain large. For example, although 20%
of lower-income children have a tablet device at home, 63% of higher-income children do.
And about one-third of lower-income parents have downloaded educational apps compared
to 75% in higher-income families. Lack of technological opportunity is one more potential
contributor to the achievement gap, leaving large numbers of children unprepared for suc-
cess (NAEYC & Fred Rogers Center on Early Learning and Children’s Media, 2012).
✓ Check Your Understanding 9.5: Play as a Context for Learning
Classroom Connection
The children in this video are pre-
tending to run a restaurant. What
roles does the teacher play in the
restaurant scenario? How does
she support children’s engage-
ment in sociodramatic play?
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Although we know that young children spend a considerable amount of time using
mobile devices, research on the effects on their development is relatively slim. One study
examined preschoolers’ use of iPads and three types of apps—gaming apps that children
often enjoy and master quickly, creating apps with which children can build or draw
something, and e-books (Cohen Group, 2011). The researchers found that children em-
braced the apps that share characteristics with all effective early childhood experiences:
learning by doing, building on interests and prior skills, self-pacing, and offering “a
no-fail environment and endless possibilities and outcomes” (Cohen Group, 2011, p. 2).
Although research on the effects and benefits of mobile digital media is limited, stud-
ies on the use of desktop computers demonstrate that they can be highly effective in pro-
moting children’s learning as long as software is developmentally appropriate and children
are in control (NRC, 2009; Sarama & Clements, 2002, 2004). Unlike adults, who tend to
work at computers in isolation, preschool and primary-grade children willingly seek peer
involvement and conversation if the software is engaging and interactive. Placing two seats
in front of a computer or having two or more children share a tablet encourages interaction.
Using technology in early childhood programs is not without controversy. Much of
the criticism focuses on the negative effects of passive television viewing; promotion of
violence, sexuality, and commercialism; and the importance of limiting children’s screen
time for their physical health and overall development (Levin, 2013). The debate becomes
complicated, however, because all “screens” are not equal (Kleeman, 2010; Lerner &
Barr, 2014). Television often becomes background noise that harms language develop-
ment and social interaction (Lerner & Barr, 2014). The quality of television content also
matters. Nevertheless, decades of evidence exists demonstrating the educational bene-
fits of programs such as Sesame Street and Super Why! (Linebarger, McMenamin, &
Wainwright, n.d.; Wainwright, 2006).
Using Technology and Digital Media to Teach
Digital media, mobile devices, and Web 2.0 tools for education, communication, social
networking, and user-generated content have transformed every aspect of children’s lives,
including how teachers use technology in the classroom and how teacher education is
delivered. The early childhood technology market is vast and growing, with tens of thou-
sands of apps available. Of the 100 top-selling education apps in Apple’s iTunes App
store, almost three quarters are aimed at preschoolers and primary-grade children (Shuler,
2012).
Bombarded by an ever-changing technological landscape, teachers must make
informed decisions about effective uses of technology and also teach children to be critical
thinkers and consumers of media. NAEYC and the Fred Rogers Center for Early Learn-
ing and Children’s Media (2012) take the position that “technology and interactive media
are learning tools that, when used in intentional and developmentally appropriate ways
and in conjunction with other traditional tools and materials, can support the development
and learning of young children”(p. 1). (This statement focuses on interactive media, not
television.)
In the past, conversations have focused on how much time children should spend
with screens, which remains a critical issue. But the NAEYC–Fred Rogers Center posi-
tion raises the most challenging question for early educators: What is developmentally
appropriate digital media, and how can it contribute to children’s learning? Research by
the RAND Corporation (Daugherty, Dossani, Johnson, & Wright, 2014) identifies these
considerations:
• Technology use should be well integrated into the larger curriculum.
• Most of the time, children should use technology in collaboration with peers and/
or adults.
• Apps and other software should be engaging and interactive, but also have clear
educational goals that are achievable by children in the targeted age group.
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Chapter 9 Teaching to Enhance Learning and Development 303
• Devices should be sturdy, and easy for children to operate and manipulate; for ex-
ample, tablets can be adapted and help develop fine-motor skills.
• Digital media should promote active experiences rather than sedentary activity.
Mobile devices have the potential advantage of being incorporated into children’s ac-
tive play. Read the feature Promoting Play: Teaching and Learning through Transmedia
Play for some examples.
Teaching and Learning through Transmedia Play
Early childhood professionals sometimes view
technology and play as an either/or choice. They are
concerned that mobile digital devices take valuable
time away from children’s self-initiated, social play.
One solution that addresses both children’s need to
learn through play and their motivation to engage
with the newest technologies is transmedia play.
Transmedia simply means “across media.” Thinking
creatively across digital media tools and applica-
tions and how they can be integrated in a play-rich
curriculum leads to exciting, new possibilities, as in
the following example.
With funding from the U.S. Department of Educa-
tion’s Ready to Learn initiative, the Early Learning
Collaborative of the Hispanic Information Televi-
sion Network (HITN) launched an initiative for 3- to
5-year-old children to help prepare them for success
in school and later life. The Collaborative developed
research-based digital media applications, known as
the Pocoyo® PlaySet™, in collaboration with Zinkia
Entertainment. Pocoyo is a delightful little character
who, along with his friends, teaches English lan-
guage vocabulary while having fun adventures. Each
PlaySet is presented as a playground with lots of
options for playful engagement, organized around a
theme to help children learn concepts as well as tar-
get vocabulary words. PlaySets are designed to meet
Head Start Learning Outcomes and Common Core
State Standards. They focus on English language
development, early literacy, and math skills in an
integrated curriculum approach.
One English language development theme, Things
That Go, teaches vocabulary related to transpor-
tation and also positional words to describe ob-
jects (above, under, behind). Children also learn
to compare and sort objects by attributes (which
objects go together). Another English language
development theme is Grow It! which teaches target
vocabulary and science concepts related to plants
and food.
The Playgrounds are transmedia because they
combine interactive games, songs, and bilingual
story books in engaging instructional applications.
Both native English speakers and dual language
learners enjoy playing and learning with Pocoyo
and acting out Pocoyo’s adventures. The Early
Learning Collaborative also distributes education-
al materials to parents, teachers, and other adults
to interact with the child around the PlaySet
content.
Transmedia initiatives for primary-grade children
often build off storytelling applications. These go
beyond traditional reading experiences in the early
grades to creating stories using various forms of
digital media and engaging children in writing and
telling their own stories.
Playing with interactive media is now a major activ-
ity in the lives of young children. What’s impor-
tant is to ensure that such experiences maintain
the benefits of open-ended play while achieving
the potential of the latest technologies to expand
children’s worlds and their learning.
Sources: T is for Transmedia: Learning through
Transmedia Play, by B. Herr-Stephenson, M. Alper, E.
Reilly, and H. Jenkins, 2013, Los Angeles and New
York: USC Annenberg Innovation Lab and The Joan
Ganz Cooney Center at Sesame Workshop, retrieved
October 1, 2014, from http://www.annenberglab.com/
viewresearch/46; “Initiative,” by HITN Early Learning
Collaborative, 2014, retrieved November 15, 2014, from
http://earlylearningcollaborative.org/products/.
Promoting Play
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http://www.annenberglab.com/viewresearch/46
http://www.annenberglab.com/viewresearch/46
http://earlylearningcollaborative.org/products/
http://earlylearningcollaborative.org/products/
Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach304
Classroom Connection
As you watch this video, reflect
on the many ways first-grade
teacher Eric Crouch, uses digital
media in his classroom. What
appear to be the benefits for
children’s learning of integrat-
ing technology in curriculum and
instruction?
https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=IzSNdxsfk0Q
Use of assistive technology may
be part of a child’s IEP. Well-
designed assistive technology
can be valuable for children
with and without disabilities.
Effective teachers integrate interactive media into curriculum and in-
struction throughout the day. For example, children can use e-books inde-
pendently and do online research for projects or research on topics of study.
Teachers as well as children use digital cameras regularly to document chil-
dren’s progress and products. Children can use a program to create their own
story by clicking on the characters and events of their choosing. In addi-
tion, the Internet allows communication with other children or adults, such
as favorite authors, in other cities, states, or countries. Through technology,
a second-grade class can take an electronic field trip and regularly monitor
the growth of the baby panda at the National Zoo via the zoo’s website. In
turn, during an actual field trip to the zoo, children can use a mobile device
to view the native environments of pandas in China and access information
about other species of bears.
Numerous digital media resources are available that make learning mean-
ingful, promote concept development, and engage children in higher-level thinking and
problem solving. For example, the International Children’s Digital Library (http://www.
childrenslibrary.org) provides access to children’s books in diverse languages including
Spanish, Arabic, Swahili, Chinese, Thai, Farsi, and many more. The digital format makes
it possible for books to be projected onto large screens for whole-group reading or by an
individual child to build on home language and culture. Imagine the pride on children’s
faces upon seeing their home language shown so much respect.
Other software is designed primarily for children to practice basic skills such as pho-
nics or counting. A teacher might introduce a concept like rhyming in whole-group time,
and then during center time, the children can play a rhyming game on a tablet or lap-
top. Choosing appropriate digital media is like choosing books or any other educational
resource. Educators making decisions about technology need to carefully evaluate the
philosophy and purpose as well as the developmental, individual, and cultural appropri-
ateness of the resource. For example, providing bilingual software may be an excellent
decision.
Just as digital media has created limitless options for social in-
teraction and information dissemination, the use of technology in
classrooms has endless possibilities. These possibilities are achieved,
however, only if intentional teachers make good choices about de-
velopmentally appropriate interactive media and teach children how
to use these resources well. Interactions with media should be play-
ful and creative, promoting exploration, problem-solving, pretend,
physical activity as with Wii or Kinect, and social interaction. The
key is for children and teachers to jointly engage with media. All
experts in children’s digital media agree on one major criterion—to
the extent possible, children themselves should be in control of the
medium (Donohue, 2015). The most innovative and effective tech-
nological devices and apps empower children to take charge of their
learning (Bailey & Blagojevic, 2015).
Assistive Technology for Children
with Diverse Abilities
One of the most valuable uses of technology is that it can empower
children with disabilities to participate more fully and successfully
in inclusive classrooms. The Individuals with Disabilities Educa-
tion Act (IDEA) defines assistive technology as “any item, piece
of equipment, or product system whether acquired commercially off
the shelf, modified, or customized, that is used to increase, maintain,
or improve functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities.”
assistive technology A piece
of equipment or product that
is used to increase, maintain,
or improve the functional
capabilities of individuals with
disabilities.
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http://www.childrenslibrary.org
http://www.childrenslibrary.org
http://https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IzSNdxsfk0Q
http://https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IzSNdxsfk0Q
Chapter 9 Teaching to Enhance Learning and Development 305
Assistive technology incorporates a wide range of options designed for many differ-
ent purposes, offering various benefits to children with special needs. Technology can be
essential for successful inclusion by not only ensuring children access to a setting, but
facilitating their participation and providing the supports they need (DEC & NAEYC,
2009).
For example, a child with cerebral palsy can use a device that supports him to stand at
an easel or another device to help him grip a pencil. A girl with attention deficit disorder
can use headphones at a computer to decrease distractions from the classroom. Assis-
tive technologies such as these help children to function independently and support their
inclusion in classrooms with their peers (Hooper & Umansky, 2010). Such technology is
valuable for children without disabilities as well.
Many assistive technology devices are available, ranging from low-tech toys to com-
plex communication systems (Heward, 2013). Children who lack the physical ability to
write can use voice-activated computer software to express their ideas and feelings. Chil-
dren who cannot speak can use communication boards that they touch with a hand, foot,
or other body part to activate a voice that speaks for them. The options are considerable,
depending on the creativity of individuals and the resources available.
If appropriate, the use of assistive technology will be part of a child’s individual
education plan (IEP). Teachers working in inclusive settings need to be prepared to use
whatever technology is required to successfully include children with disabilities and
special needs and help them achieve individualized learning goals.
✓ Check Your Understanding 9.6: Teaching with Digital Media
. . . Ms. Hanson’s Classroom
In this chapter, we provided a conceptual framework that enables teachers to build a repertoire of ef-
fective teaching strategies. We also cited research demonstrating that current practices in preschool
and primary-grade classrooms could be improved to reflect what is known about effective teaching. At
the outset, we visited Sally Hanson’s kindergarten class, where she used various strategies to help the
children achieve literacy goals. Having now explored the array of effective strategies that make up a
teacher’s repertoire, we can analyze what Sally was doing and why.
Sally’s goal was for all of the children to make progress on some of the Common Core standards. Be-
cause the children have differing skill levels and prior knowledge, however, she adapted her teaching to
match their needs. She used encouragement, cueing, and questioning as needed for different children.
She provided scaffolding for Elena and Lucy, adapting her instruction to help them do tasks that they
could not do independently. Homemade books and posted words helped several children to function
with less of her direct support. Sally provided a more fixed form of support for Marguerite to focus her
attention on the order of the letters in her name. Sally activated prior knowledge for Logan and Gabe and
added challenge to extend their learning. She used direct instruction with Tommy, who was struggling
to form the letter T. Any one of these strategies would have been less effective if used with every child.
Intentional teachers know the children in their classroom as well as their curriculum goals. They
flexibly draw on their professional knowledge of teaching strategies to effectively promote children’s
learning and development. ■
Revisiting the Case Study
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach306
Key Terms
■ acknowledging
■ advance organizers
■ apprenticeship
■ assistive technology
■ child-initiated
experiences
■ classification systems
■ closed questions
■ co-construction
■ conceptual frameworks
■ co-player
■ demonstrating
■ direct instruction
■ encouragement
■ effective teaching
■ facilitating
■ feedback loop
■ graphic representation
■ hypothesis generating
and testing
■ K-W-L
■ learning strategy
■ metacognitive activities
■ modeling
■ onlooker
■ open-ended questions
■ pedagogy
■ planning
■ play leader
■ questioning
■ reciprocal teaching
■ reflection
■ scaffolding
■ scientific method
■ stage manager
■ supporting
■ teacher-initiated
experiences
■ teaching strategy
■ wait time
Dombro, A. L., Jablon, J., & Stetson, C. (2011). Powerful
interactions: How to connect with children to extend their
learning. Washington, DC: National Association for the
Education of Young Children.
Donohue, C. (Ed.). (2015). Technology and digital media
in the early years: Tools for teaching and learning. New
York: Routledge.
Epstein, A. S. (2014). The intentional teacher: Choosing
the best strategies for young children’s learning (Rev.
ed.). Washington, DC: National Association for the
Education of Young Children.
Jacobs, G., & Crowley, K. (2014). Supporting students,
meeting standards: Best practices for engaged learn-
ing in first, second, and third grades. Washington,
DC: National Association for the Education of Young
Children.
Children’s Technology Review
Edited by Dr. Warren Buckleitner, an expert on early
education and technology, CTR is both a website and an
annual e-book publication that provides detailed reviews
of thousands of apps as well as reviews of new techno-
logical devices and their utility for young children.
Readings and Websites
• Effective teaching is a science, informed and guided
by research. Teaching, however, is also an art because
it requires vision, creativity, and decision making.
• The most effective teachers have a large repertoire of
research-based teaching strategies, including acknowl-
edging and encouraging, giving quality feedback,
modeling, demonstrating, giving cues and hints, add-
ing challenge, questioning, co-constructing learning,
giving direct instruction, and scaffolding.
• Children learn best when teaching strategies build on
their prior knowledge (make learning meaningful),
build conceptual understanding, and promote higher-
order thinking and problem solving.
• An intellectually engaging learning environment pro-
vides various contexts that offer different opportunities
for learning and types of teacher–child interactions:
individual interactions, whole-group meetings, small
groups, center choice time, and opportunities for play.
• Teachers use play as a teaching strategy by taking on
various roles—onlooker, stage manager, co-player, and
play leader—to help children get involved and stay
engaged in play situations.
• Digital media can be effective in supporting all children’s
learning and development. Assistive technology can en-
able children with and without disabilities to participate
more fully and successfully in inclusive classrooms.
Chapter Summary9
✓ Demonstrate Your Learning
Click here to assess how well you’ve learned the content in this chapter.
M09_BRED6702_03_SE_C09.indd 306 10/7/15 2:28 PM
Chapter 9 Teaching to Enhance Learning and Development 307
Common Sense Media
Go to this website and click on “Best Apps and Games”
for up-to-date reviews of apps by age group. The criteria
these experts use to rate apps are useful lenses for teachers
to use in selecting apps on their own. The organization also
conducts and disseminates research on educational media.
National Center for Quality Teaching and Learning
Sponsored by the Office of Head Star, this Center’s
website provides videos of effective instructional prac-
tices, Webinars, written resources, and a library of visual
supports and classroom activity suggestions based on the
latest research.
TEC Center at Erikson Institute
On Erikson’s Technology in Early Childhood website,
you will find videos, webinars, and other resources on the
most effective, current practices for using technology to
teach young children.
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10
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
10.1 Define curriculum.
10.2 Describe the components of an effective curriculum.
10.3 Explain how standards influence curriculum planning.
10.4 Evaluate how various approaches to curriculum planning engage children’s
interest and promote their learning.
10.5 Compare the focus and goals of various comprehensive curriculum models.
10.6 Apply content standards and child development knowledge to planning
e ffective curriculum.
Planning Effective
Curriculum
Learning Outcomes
© Ariel Skelley/Blend Images/Getty Images
M10_BRED6702_03_SE_C10.indd 308 10/7/15 2:47 PM
309
This is an exciting week at Ross Elementary School, a public school serving prekindergarten through fifth-grade students. All the classes are engaged in a school-wide project called Career Explorations: What
Do I Want to Be When I Grow Up? The project is designed to help children achieve the following goals: learn
about a variety of careers and occupations; build their self-concepts about the world of work; understand that
what they are studying now is preparing them for their future careers; connect character and careers; and set high
expectations and goals for themselves.
To begin the project, parents and community members are invited to spend about 30 minutes in each of the
classrooms explaining their work. The younger children eagerly await their visits with a police officer, doctor, and
veterinarian. The primary-grade classes are thrilled to meet a real pilot. Among their other visitors are a librarian,
chef, author, and artist/illustrator. Prior to the visits, teachers prepare the students by asking them to come up
with six good questions for the experts. Plus, the children ask the expert how they use what they learned in school
in their job or in their everyday life—whether science, social studies, math, or any other subject. Most visitors are
asked, “Why did you choose this job?” and “What is the best part of it?” Their answers cause the children to reflect
on the type of character needed to perform each job and whether they are suited for it. For example, 5-year-old
Maisie changes her mind about being a veterinarian when she realizes that the vet may be there when the dogs
die. She decides to be an author instead.
Beyond the presentations by parents and community volunteers, children explore the world of potential careers
via technology. Working in class sessions with their teachers or using individual time to explore on computers or
tablets, they visit an interactive career website that has information, games, and apps related to about 100 different
career options. For example, Kids Search allows them to click on their interests, such as sports, computers, and
traveling, or their favorite school subject, perhaps music or geography, and learn how it applies to real jobs. The
older children seek out the section devoted to unusual occupations such as aerial cinematographer, digital artist,
forensic crime scene investigator, toy designer, highway worker, landscaper, language translator, or marine animal
trainer. As children became more interested, they conduct more research and connect
via e-mail with other career experts such as zookeeper, Army captain, scientist, secret
service agent, inventor, professional soccer player, and even an astronaut.
After the information-gathering portion of the project, children create
posters and write essays and poems addressing the question, What do I
want to be when I grow up? that are displayed in the school
hallway. There’s also a career dress-up and hat day where
everyone dresses as their favorite job. The project culminates
with a poster and essay contest, voted on by the
children in each class. The majority vote for the
astronaut as favorite poster, which appears in
Figure 10.1. ■
Case Study
E
ven the most uninformed visitor to this school could not fail to observe the content
of the curriculum during this brief visit. Clearly, the curriculum is focused on a
social studies topic—the career awareness study—into which other subjects are
integrated. But the curriculum also incorporates state learning standards related to char-
acter development, communication, collaboration, and making connections. The children
are speaking and listening, and reading and writing about a topic of interest and learning
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach310
FIGURE 10.1 Career
Awareness Poster The
school-wide career awareness
project engaged children’s
interests while also addressing
several state learning
standards.
Engaging Interactions and Environments
Research-Based
Curricula and
Teaching
Practices
Ongoing
Child
Assessment
Highly
Individualized
Teaching and Learning
FIGURE 10.2 Framework for Effective Practice Choosing and implementing a strong curriculum is
one of the four pillars of effective practice—depicted as a house in this model developed by The National
Center on Quality Teaching and Learning.
Source: National Center on Quality Teaching and Learning, 2011, U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services, Administration for Children and Families, Office of Head Start. http://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/hslc.
new vocabulary words and concepts. Skills such as using
technology, planning, and researching are also addressed.
The theme is literally “played out” on dress-up day, where
children use the language they are learning as well as their
social skills. The curriculum is so rich and engaging that
there are very few discipline problems; the school hums
with children’s happy voices, smiles, and laughter.
The goal of this chapter is to help you understand the
complexity of planning effective curriculum and the inten-
tional teacher’s roles in working with curriculum. We begin
by defining the term curriculum and describe ways of or-
ganizing curriculum plans. We discuss the early childhood
profession’s indicators of effective curriculum and the role
of standards. Next, we describe some frequently used cur-
riculum models. Finally, we present a model for planning
curriculum that demonstrates the connection between disci-
pline-based content and child development knowledge.
Defining Curriculum
Curriculum is usually thought of as the “what”—the content that children are
learning—while teaching is the “how.” In early childhood education, it is especially
difficult to separate curriculum from teaching. There is no one agreed-on understanding
of curriculum that is a comfortable fit for this diverse field. In this chapter, however,
we present our vision of early childhood curriculum and its contributions to children’s
learning.
We begin by illustrating the relationship of curriculum to other aspects of the
complex role of the teacher. Figure 10.2 is a visual representation of the elements of
M10_BRED6702_03_SE_C10.indd 310 10/7/15 2:48 PM
http://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/hslc
Chapter 10 Planning Effective Curriculum 311
everyday practice that foster children’s learning and development, depicted as a house
(National Center on Quality Teaching and Learning [NCQTL], 2011). The foundation of
the building is engaging interactions with children that build positive relationships and
create a caring community. The two pillars that support the structure are (1) choosing
and implementing a strong curriculum, and (2) using regular assessment of children’s
skills. Each of these pillars supports the roof—individualized teaching strategies that
ensure each child’s progress.
Although in reality these structural components of practice are integrally connected,
in this book we address each in a separate chapter. In Chapter 8, we describe the foundation
of a caring community; Chapter 9 presents evidence-based teaching strategies; Chapter 11
discusses ongoing assessment of child progress; and in this chapter we describe curricu-
lum content and planning.
What Is Curriculum?
Curriculum is a written plan that describes the goals for children’s learning and develop-
ment and the learning experiences, materials, and teaching strategies that are used to help
children achieve those goals (NCQTL, 2011). The goals include the knowledge, skills, and
dispositions (or attitudes and approaches toward learning) that we want children to achieve.
Curriculum content—what children are learning about—is vitally important.
One of the strongest predictors of preschool children’s later academic success is their
general understanding of the world—what’s happening in nature and what people do
and say (Grissmer, Grimm, Aiyer, Murrah, & Steele, 2010). The achievement gap in
our schools is now widely understood to be a knowledge gap that must be addressed
if all children are to reach their full potential (Christodoulou, 2014). Moreover, young
children want to learn. They are curious about their world and everyone and everything
in it. As 4-year-old Ryan said when asked what he likes about preschool, “I learn stuff!”
The word curriculum is often used in relation to various models, approaches, or
frameworks. Because these general terms are sometimes used interchangeably, we pro-
vide definitions and examples of each in the next sections.
Curriculum Models, Approaches,
and Frameworks
A curriculum model is a research-based, idealized version of what and how teaching and
learning should occur. Widely used early childhood curriculum models include the High-
Scope Curriculum, Creative Curriculum, Montessori method, and Bank Street, which are
based on theories of child development and learning. To ensure fidelity, that is, faithful
implementation of the curriculum model, developers typically provide professional de-
velopment for teachers in how to implement the model.
A curriculum approach describes the main elements or direction of a program (Roop-
narine & Johnson, 2013) and is less detailed than a model. For example, Reggio Emilia
educators purposely call their work the Reggio Emilia approach and reject the word model.
They do not see their work as a model to be imitated or adopted, but rather as a set of princi-
ples to be applied in various contexts with diverse children, families, and teachers (Edwards,
Gandini, & Forman, 2012). Similarly, the project approach (discussed later in the chapter) is
not a curriculum, but a method of engaging children with curriculum content.
Curriculum is sometimes defined as a framework; however, a curriculum framework
is more precisely defined as a guide for designing or choosing a curriculum. For example,
most state departments of education write curriculum frameworks that influence or deter-
mine which commercial curriculum packages school districts purchase. A state reading
framework would include ways of grouping for and differentiating instruction and how
much time should be devoted to language arts. A published curriculum that did not address
the standards would not be used in that state.
curriculum A written plan that
describes the goals for chil-
dren’s learning and develop-
ment, and the learning experi-
ences, materials, and teaching
strategies that are used to help
children achieve those goals.
curriculum model A research-
based, idealized version of
what and how teaching and
learning should occur.
fidelity Faithful implementa-
tion of a curriculum model.
curriculum approach
Describes the main elements
or direction of a program; is
less detailed than a curriculum
model.
curriculum framework A
guide for designing or choosing
a curriculum.
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach312
Written Curriculum Plans
Different types of written plans can be used to guide instruction and meet the needs of
specific groups of children. These include research-based curricula, teacher-developed
and locally developed plans, and published curriculum resources.
Research-Based Curriculum Current trends place increasing emphasis on for-
mal, research-based curriculum in early childhood education. In an effort to increase ac-
countability, federal laws require that public schools as well as Head Start programs use
scientifically based curriculum. Scientifically based curriculum, also called research-
based, derives from research evidence about what kinds of learning outcomes relate to
later achievement and what types of teaching and learning experiences help children
achieve those outcomes (National Institute for Literacy, n.d.).
Validated curriculum is scientifically based curriculum that has been evaluat-
ed and has demonstrated its effectiveness in producing desired learning outcomes. A
growing number of validated early literacy, mathematics, and social-emotional cur-
ricula have been developed for preschool and primary grades (Institute of Education
Sciences, 2009). Despite the current emphasis on research-based curriculum, the early
childhood field has a long history and comfort with teacher-developed and locally
developed plans.
Teacher-Developed Plans Because teachers know individual children best and
are most familiar with the context in which children live, teachers often prepare their
own curriculum plans. For example, Dominique and Tami teach a group of 2-year-olds.
Their child care center has goals for the children such as fostering their language and
helping them learn about the physical world. Each week, Dominique and Tami meet to
prepare written plans that help them think in advance about their goals and the kinds of
experiences and materials they need to prepare. Such advance planning frees them to
focus their attention on the children. This week, the group is exploring water by play-
ing in the water table, splashing in a wading pool outside, and blowing bubbles. Tami
suggests putting ice cubes in the water table to encourage new words like freezing, melt-
ing, and floating. Dominique thinks of adding food coloring to create more interest and
challenge.
Locally Developed Plans In other cases, an agency such as a child care program
or a school district develops a written plan. In these situations, a curriculum special-
ist or team of teachers develops a plan that is designed to achieve the program’s goals
for children. For example, Frankie Sanders’s job is education leader for a chain of
employer-supported child care centers. To ensure consistency across the 10 centers in
the agency and meet the parents’ goal that their
children will be prepared for kindergarten, she
develops, with input from the teachers, the
curriculum based on the state early learning
standards. The teachers will use the plan flex-
ibly, but its existence helps keep them focused
on important goals for children and prevents
missed opportunities for learning.
Published Curriculum In the primary
grades, more than 80% of teachers use some
form of published curriculum (Shanahan,
2006). These decisions may be made at the
state, district, or school level. In such situa-
tions, a committee, which usually includes
teachers, reviews the available options and
makes a decision about which curriculum
scientifically based
curriculum Derives from
research evidence about what
kinds of learning outcomes
relate to later achievement and
what types of teaching and
learning experiences help chil-
dren acquire those outcomes;
also called research-based.
validated curriculum Curricu-
lum that has been evaluated
and its effectiveness
demonstrated.
Curriculum for very young
children is often developed by
teachers. Even for toddlers,
having a curriculum plan helps
teachers prepare engaging
learning opportunities.
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M10_BRED6702_03_SE_C10.indd 312 10/7/15 2:48 PM
Chapter 10 Planning Effective Curriculum 313
resource to adopt. Periodically, state departments of education review new editions of
primary-grade curricula in subject areas such as reading, mathematics, and science and
identify a list of approved programs from which schools may choose.
The universal pre-K movement has led to greater involvement of public schools in
preschool as well as calls for alignment of pre-K with K–12 curricula. As a result, all ma-
jor publishers of K–12 curricula now publish curricula for 3- and 4-year-olds (Goffin &
Washington, 2007). The greater availability of published curricula for preschoolers adds
another factor to the curriculum decision-making process at that level (National Center on
Quality Teaching and Learning, 2014).
Written curriculum plans, including those that are commercially published and used
in primary grades, are by no means uniform. Some curricula provide an organizing struc-
ture and require a lot of initiative on the part of the teacher and children. Others provide
goals, suggested activities to help children achieve those goals, and recommended teach-
ing strategies. Usually, curriculum packages include teacher’s guides with many options
for learning experiences, strategies, and resources, from which teachers choose those that
fit their goals for children. In other cases, the curriculum is more prescriptive, and less
choice is available or expected (Beatty, 2011).
Advantages of Written Curriculum Plans Whereas critics of written plans
believe that they limit teachers’ creativity, decision making, and responsiveness to indi-
vidual children, this is not necessarily true. One advantage of written curriculum plans
is that they can be evaluated. Written plans make it possible for administrators, teachers,
families, funders (such as taxpayers, families, or contributors), evaluators, and other in-
terested parties to review, debate, and potentially revise the program’s goals, expectations,
and learning opportunities for children. Written plans can also be evaluated for their re-
sponsiveness to cultural and linguistic diversity and to community values.
Putting expectations for children in writing also means that teachers can evaluate
whether they are developmentally appropriate. For instance, if the kindergarten curricu-
lum calls for all children to learn to read, teachers who know the children can determine
that this expectation is too high for most, but may be appropriate for some.
The Teacher’s Role
Among teachers’ most important responsibilities is planning and implementing intention-
al curriculum. With increasing calls for accountability and rising expectations, providing
teachers with thoughtfully planned, research-based curriculum resources can free them
to focus on adapting their teaching for individual children’s abilities, needs, and interests.
Instead of using all of their time preparing lessons and locating related resources, teachers
can instead spend their valuable time observing and assessing children’s learning and
adapting their teaching. In cases such as these, the written plan serves as a scaffold for
teachers, providing them with the support they need to go beyond and do more on their
own (Kauffman, Johnson, Kardos, Liu, & Peske, 2002).
Curriculum plans do not take the place of teacher creativity or decision making. Early
childhood leaders frequently use pejorative terms such as “curriculum in a box” or “canned
curriculum” to describe any published curriculum resource (Frede & Ackerman, 2006;
Jones & Nimmo, 1994). These terms imply that such products are by definition less desir-
able than teacher’s “homemade” curriculum. Terms like “canned,” “in-a-box,” and “home-
made” are analogous to food preparation. There was a time when all food preparation was
from scratch, and the only good cooking was completely homemade. Some people still
look back on this time with nostalgia. But in an age of microwave and prepared foods,
even the best cooks don’t make everything from scratch, such as homemade pasta. The
analogy is offered not to justify commercial curricula, but to acknowledge that good teach-
ers can produce high-quality educational experiences using either emergent curriculum or
published curriculum resources. Similarly, published curriculum does not automatically
produce poor teaching.
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach314
Research shows that no curriculum is teacher proof, and that teachers’ qualifica-
tions as well as how they teach content matter (National Center for Children in Poverty
[NCCP], 2007). Teacher-proof curriculum is the concept that curriculum can be designed
to control for variations in teacher behaviors and professional preparation. The concept
is talked about a lot, but it is a myth. There is no such thing as teacher-proof curriculum.
Teachers matter, regardless of the type of curriculum they are given.
Rather than dichotomize curriculum as either completely teacher-planned and emerg-
ing from children’s interests or commercially published and scripted, consider a more
complex range of curriculum options. Table 10.1 describes a continuum of types of curri-
cula available and the impact on the teacher’s role. The primary-grade examples illustrate
various approaches to teaching reading (Commeyras, 2007).
In Table 10.1, we suggest a way of conceptualizing curriculum plans while at the
same time thinking about the teacher’s role in relation to those plans. Two basic points
should be clear: (1) in some cases, curriculum is developed very close to the classroom
and is highly open-ended, flexible, and responsive to individual children. Teachers plan
instruction to fit the needs of individual children and the class as a whole, responding
and adapting to children’s interests, motivation, and understanding. (2) In other cases,
curriculum is developed at a distance from the classroom and is highly prescribed.
Teachers pace instruction to ensure the curriculum scope and sequence is covered so that
children are exposed to and learn concepts that prepare them for formal assessment and
learning goals and expectations. In reality, curriculum is usually somewhere in between
these two extremes.
Rather than dichotomize curriculum as either emergent or scripted, this table describes a continuum of types of
curriculum and the impact on teachers’ roles.
Type of Preschool
Curriculum
Type of Primary-Grade
Curriculum
Teacher’s Role in Curriculum Implementation
(in collaboration with other teachers and families)
Emergent curriculum, e.g.,
Reggio Emilia approach,
or curriculum based on
children’s interests
A teacher-developed literacy
lesson
Identify developmental and learning goals.
Know hierarchy of skills and knowledge in each curriculum area.
Observe and assess children’s interests and progress.
Prepare the environment and obtain resources.
Plan interest-based curriculum to help children achieve goals.
Adapt teaching to help individuals make progress.
Curriculum model with
linked assessment tools and
professional development,
e.g., Creative Curriculum,
HighScope, Tools of the
Mind
A guided reading lesson using
leveled readers as defined by
Fountas & Pinnell (1996).
Observe and assess children’s interests and progress.
Prepare the environment and plan learning experiences within the
suggested framework.
Use intentional teacher-guided and child-guided strategies.
Adapt teaching to help individual children make progress toward
identified goals.
Published curriculum with
Teacher’s Guide, e.g.,
Pearson’s Opening World of
Learning (OWL) or DLM Early
Childhood Express
A basal reading program from
a major publisher, e.g., Scott
Foresman
Observe and assess children’s interests and progress.
Reference Teacher’s Guide to identify scope and sequence.
Make decisions about how to use or adapt suggested learning plans.
Adapt teaching, including suggested scripts or prompts to help
individuals make progress.
Prescribed/scripted
curriculum, e.g., Open Court
or Direct Instruction
A scripted lesson from
Reading Mastery (formerly
DISTAR)
Implement prescribed curriculum closely to ensure fidelity to program.
Use program’s assessment tools to track children’s progress.
Maintain children’s attention through positive responses.
Remain sensitive to children’s responses and plan for needs.
Adapt teaching to help children make progress.
Table 10.1 Continuum of Curriculum Approaches and the Teacher’s Role
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Chapter 10 Planning Effective Curriculum 315
The complexity of the roles of teachers is only alluded to in Table 10.1. Nevertheless, even
this cursory description reveals the relationship of curriculum and teaching. At one extreme,
teachers have huge responsibilities and are expected to create almost everything while at the
same time ensuring that children achieve important learning outcomes. At the other extreme,
teachers’ expertise is underestimated and undervalued, especially if principals or supervisors
do not permit them to deviate from a prescribed script, a growing concern of early educators.
Regardless of the type of curriculum used by a program or school, teachers need to ap-
ply their professional expertise. For this reason, all along the continuum, we acknowledge
that teachers must observe and assess children and adapt their teaching to help individuals
make progress. That adaptation may take many forms, such as adjusting student groupings,
daily schedules, the nature of teacher-child interactions, or the amount and kind of scaf-
folding provided. The feature Becoming an Intentional Teacher: Shaping Curriculum to
Connect with Children’s Needs and Interests describes one teacher’s thinking as she uses
the curriculum as a springboard to adapt plans for individual children. In general, curricu-
lum should be selected or developed using the criteria that we describe in the next section.
✓ Check Your Understanding 10.1: Defining Curriculum
Components of Effective
Curriculum
Now that we have established a common vocabulary with which to discuss curriculum,
we turn to a discussion of indicators of effective curriculum. According to the posi-
tion statement on curriculum, assessment, and program evaluation of NAEYC and the
Becoming an Intentional Teacher
Shaping Curriculum to Connect with Children’s
Needs and Interests
Here’s What Happened I’ve been teaching first grade
for 4 years now, and this year the district adopted a K–2
curriculum. It isn’t bad, but I believe it’s far more effective
when used with flexibility and a close eye on what the chil-
dren need and are ready for. Consequently, I made quite a
few changes. My principal has agreed to my modifications
as long as I can make a good case for them.
Last month we were working on measurement, and the kids
wanted to measure their bean plants. Some of the plants
were growing like gangbusters and others were not. We
made a chart of the plants’ heights, and the kids wanted to
know why the plants varied so much in size. This seemed
like the perfect time to get into the unit on plant growth,
so I moved this lesson up in the curriculum sequence. We
did several experiments on the effects of water and light,
giving the children more experiences in measurement and
recording results.
Here’s What I Was Thinking When I switch the order
of the curriculum plan, there’s always a good reason. As
in this case, I like to capitalize on what the children are
engaged in right then and make the learning more mean-
ingful, as I hoped to do with the bean plants. Some areas
of the curriculum, such as phono-
logical awareness or number, have a
learning path that is sequenced, with one concept or skill
building on another. For other things in the curriculum, the
order doesn’t matter so much. Before changing the order
of topics substantially, I have to think about this. I have to
consider whether the change would affect the way the chil-
dren’s learning proceeds and whether there are any related
skills where the learning path would be negatively affected.
Besides changing the order of lessons in the packaged cur-
riculum, I sometimes adjust the pace. I may see that we
need a detour or to slow down to work on a skill the chil-
dren must master before going on. In other cases, some
children may be ready for more challenge and I want to
keep them engaged. Sometimes it’s just a few children
who need these kinds of adaptations; sometimes it’s the
class as a whole.
Reflection In what other ways might this teacher adapt
the curriculum plan for the group as a whole? What could the
teacher do if a few children showed no interest in this topic?
What problems might arise when a teacher changes the order
or pace of a school-wide curriculum?
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach316
National Association of Early Childhood Specialists in State Departments of Education
(NAECS-SDE) (2003), programs should implement curriculum that is “thoughtfully
planned; challenging, engaging, and developmentally appropriate; culturally and linguis-
tically responsive; comprehensive and likely to promote positive outcomes for all young
children” ( p. 1). These guidelines set a high standard.
With the proliferation of options available today, making decisions about which curricu-
lum to choose can be daunting. To assist with this task and to help professionals evaluate
whether a specific curriculum is effective, the Office of Head Start (National Center on Qual-
ity Teaching and Learning, 2014) developed a consumers’ guide. The evaluation criteria used
in the guide are congruent with the NAEYC and NAECS-SDE (2003) position statement.
Listed in Table 10.2, the criteria apply to planning, developing, and implementing effective
curriculum.
In evaluating effective curriculum, it is important to consider the challenge of pro-
viding culturally and linguistically responsive curriculum. Several different curriculum
The Head Start Bureau’s standards for effective curriculum are congruent with the position statements of major
early childhood organizations.
Component Key Considerations
Based on current knowledge
of child development
Are essential principles of how children develop and learn reflected in the curriculum philosophy
and planned experiences?
Is evidence based Has the curriculum been rigorously evaluated? Is there evidence of its effectiveness with diverse
groups of children—in terms of ethnicity/race, language, and socioeconomic background?
Shows positive effects on
child outcomes
Do children who experience the curriculum demonstrate positive learning and developmental
outcomes
Is comprehensive across
learning domains
Does the curriculum address “the whole child”—all domains of development (cognitive, social,
emotional, and physical)—and all content areas such as literacy, mathematics, science, social
studies, health and physical education, and the arts?
Covers learning domains in
depth
Is there an organized scope and sequence in each of the learning domains that describes progressive
steps and individual learning experiences? Does the curriculum build on prior learning and experiences?
Clearly defines specific
developmentally appropriate,
learning goals
Does the written plan address important goals such as the standards of the disciplines (mathematics
or literacy)? Are the goals reasonable expectations for most children within the age range for which
the curriculum is designed?
Includes well-designed
learning experiences
Does the curriculum provide opportunities for children to be active and engaged both mentally and
physically?
Emphasizes responsive
teaching
Do learning experiences include both child-focused exploration and investigation and teacher-guided
instruction? Is curriculum responsive to children’s interests? Does it promote positive interactions
among teachers and children?
Supports individualized
instruction
Is the curriculum flexible enough for teachers to adapt to individual variation in children? Can the
curriculum be adapted for children with special needs?
Is culturally and linguisti-
cally appropriate
Does the curriculum promote positive images of children’s cultural identities and home languages
and also recognize and build on their competence?
Includes ongoing assessment
tools and strategies aligned
with goals and activities
Is there support for teachers to analyze and use assessment results to adapt and individualize
instruction, and help children to make continued progress?
Provides professional
development
Are there initial and ongoing professional learning opportunities to ensure that teachers implement
the curriculum with fidelity?
Supports family involvement Are materials and strategies provided for families to extend children’s learning at home?
Source: Based on Preschool Curriculum Consumer Report, by National Center on Quality Teaching and Learning, 2014, Washington, DC: U.S. Department
of Health and Human Services, Office of Head Start, retrieved January 8, 2015, from http://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/hslc/tta-system/teaching/practice/
docs/curriculum-consumer-report .
Table 10.2 Components of Effective Curriculum
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Chapter 10 Planning Effective Curriculum 317
approaches are used to accommodate dual language learners (Espinosa, 2013). Read the
Language Lens: Curriculum Approaches for Dual Language Learners feature and con-
sider the potential strengths and weaknesses of each approach.
This brief examination of indicators of effective curriculum demonstrates the role of
standards on current thinking about curriculum. The connections between learning stan-
dards and curriculum are becoming increasingly important and powerful in education, as
we discuss in the next section.
✓ Check Your Understanding 10.2: Indicators of Effective Curriculum
Language Lens
Curriculum Approaches for Dual Language Learners
Schools today serve increasing numbers of dual language
learners, with most speaking Spanish as a home lan-
guage. Many of these children are growing up in homes
below the poverty level and need excellent educational
experiences to help close the achievement gap (Reardon,
2011). The following are brief descriptions of commonly
used approaches for educating dual language learners:
• English immersion. All the instruction is in English
throughout the child’s school career. Students may
receive assistance from specialists in English as a sec-
ond language, but the classroom teacher uses English
only.
• English-Plus-Spanish. Programs use English and
Spanish in a wide range of formal and informal teach-
ing and learning experiences. For example, instruction
might be English, but teachers use Spanish to explain,
clarify, or ask questions to assess children’s under-
standing. Teacher–child conversations occur in both
English and Spanish. Sometimes children are taught
academic subjects in Spanish until their English is
sufficiently developed.
• Two-way dual immersion approach. In these programs,
half of the instruction takes place in English and the
other half occurs in the second language, usually
Spanish, but perhaps a Native American language or
other language such as Mandarin. The goal is for all
the children to become bilingual and biliterate and
achieve academic standards.
Consider each of these approaches and how they might
affect Antonia Zapeda, who is starting kindergarten:
Antonia’s family came to the United States from Mexico
1 year ago and want very much for their children to suc-
ceed in school, but they are struggling to learn English
themselves. Antonia’s language development in Spanish
is advanced; however, she tends to be shy in new situ-
ations, relying on her brothers to pave the way for her.
Put yourself in Antonia’s shoes as she encounters school
for the first time. What would her experience be like?
How would she feel about her home language and family?
What will she be learning? How successful will she be in
mastering curriculum content? The school district’s cur-
riculum approach for dual language learners like Antonia
is likely to have a significant impact on her later success
in school and life, depending on the type of approach
used. For example, in an English immersion situation,
she is likely to struggle both emotionally and academi-
cally despite her competence and knowledge in her home
language. In fact, research finds that English immersion
is not an effective approach. An English-Plus-Spanish
program would be much more likely to build her confi-
dence, competence, and English proficiency.
By contrast, consider what Antonia’s experience might be
like in a two-way dual language program:
In the morning, Ms. Cafritz does all of the teaching in
English, and in the afternoon, Mr. Jimenez teaches in
Spanish, or vice versa. All of Antonia’s friends at school
are learning both English and Spanish. Her new best
friend, Joy, speaks English at home and has trouble with
some of the sounds in Spanish, so Antonia helps her
when they are on the playground. They laugh together
about how funny each other sounds. During Spanish in-
struction time, Antonia knows most of the answers to the
teacher’s questions and often speaks up, while Joy lis-
tens more. After several months, Antonia becomes more
confident in English, mixing languages on the playground
with her friends but trying to answer the teacher’s ques-
tions in English. Her parents are proud when she begins
to read in English as well as Spanish. They are impressed
that she is learning so many new Spanish words while
also learning English.
In your career as a teacher, you are likely to work in situ-
ations with different policies regarding dual language
learners. As you do, remember Antonia. Be intentional in
your approach, considering children’s best interests and
respecting the languages and cultures of the families.
Source: Based on Challenging Common Myths about Young
English Language Learners: An Update to the Seminal 2008
Report, by L. Espinosa, 2013, New York: Foundation for Child
Development.
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach318
A major portion of the day in
primary grades is devoted to
reading and writing instruction
using published curriculum.
Intentional teachers know that
regardless of the source of
the curriculum, their role is to
adapt the plan for individual
children.
The Role of Standards
in Curriculum
One of the most influential trends in education today is the standards movement. By the
beginning of the 21st century, each of the discipline-based content organizations had de-
veloped standards for what students should know and be able to do at various grade levels,
which in turn influenced the content of state standards. Also highly significant was the
development of K–12 Common Core standards for English language arts (reading, writ-
ing, speaking, and listening) and mathematics (Common Core State Standards Initiative,
2011a, 2011b). This initiative is designed to prepare all students for college and careers
by bringing greater consistency and higher expectations to school curriculum across the
country. By 2015, 44 states and the District of Columbia adopted the Common Core as
the framework for their school standards.
What Are Standards?
Every state has standards for K–12 schools, 49 states have developed early learning stan-
dards for preschool, and many even have infant/toddler standards (Barnett, 2010). To
understand the relevance and impact of the standards movement, it is important to under-
stand the language of standards.
• Learning standards are expectations for student learning.
• Content standards describe what students should know and/or be able to do with-
in a particular discipline such as math or science.
• Performance standards, or benchmarks, describe the knowledge or skill that stu-
dents should acquire by a particular point in their schooling, usually tied to grade
or age level.
How Do Standards Affect Curriculum?
Standards are not curriculum; nevertheless, they have a powerful influence over curriculum
development. Today, curriculum is usually designed for the express purpose of helping
children achieve standards (Rose, 2010). Similarly, assessment of learning is linked to
achieving standards (Gewertz, 2014). Ideally, the goals of a curriculum include, but are
not necessarily limited to, the relevant early learning standards (Bredekamp, 2009). As
teachers implement curriculum, they should regularly assess children’s learning and adapt
the curriculum and their teaching to ensure that children make progress toward the stan-
dards. In such a scenario, standards guide but do not determine or standardize the cur-
riculum (Bredekamp, 2009).
Because curriculum is inf luenced by
standards, it is essential that standards be
comprehensive and developmentally appro-
priate. Yet this may not be the case; an evalu-
ation of state early learning standards found
uneven attention to all areas of child devel-
opment and learning (Scott-Little, 2011). For
example, although every state addresses the
areas of language and cognition, less con-
sistent attention is paid to social-emotional
development, physical health and develop-
ment, and approaches toward learning such
as curiosity and persistence. In some cases,
standards may underestimate children’s
competence, such as the standard of counting
learning standards Expecta-
tions for student learning.
content standards Describe
what students should know
and/or be able to do within a
particular discipline such as
math or science.
performance standards
Describe the knowledge or skill
that students should acquire
by a particular point in their
schooling, usually tied to grade
or age level; also known as
benchmarks.
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Chapter 10 Planning Effective Curriculum 319
only to 10 in kindergarten (National Research Council [NRC], 2009). In others, they
overestimate it, such as expecting 4-year-olds to segment or blend phonemes, a task
more appropriate for late kindergarten or first grade (Neuman & Roskos, 2005).
Alignment of Standards and Curriculum
across Age Groups
A major trend in education is the move to align standards and curriculum from birth
through age 8 and beyond. Alignment means that standards and curriculum are designed
to progress as children get older so that they acquire the foundations of skills and knowl-
edge to continue to achieve (Kauerz & Coffman, 2013). Alignment also reflects the fact
that many curriculum areas such as mathematics are sequential, with later understandings
built on earlier ones. Further, if done well, alignment should support developmentally ap-
propriate practice because the expectations for an older age group may not be appropriate
for younger children.
Even with alignment, in each of the broad age periods of early childhood—infants/
toddlers, 3- through 5-year-olds, and primary grades—standards and the curriculum take
a different form with different emphases. The NAEYC and NAECS/SDE (2003) position
statement on curriculum, assessment, and evaluation describes how the focus of curricu-
lum changes at each period of the early childhood age continuum.
Curriculum for Infants and Toddlers A thoughtfully planned, challenging,
and engaging curriculum for infants and toddlers focuses on, but is not limited to (Copple,
Bredekamp, Koralek, & Charner, 2013a):
• Relationships that promote a sense of identity, security, and social interaction
• Language development
• Exploration of the physical world and play
Most states now have early learning guidelines for infants and toddlers. These stan-
dards are usually organized around developmental domains and by age spans such as
young infants (0 to 8 months), mobile infants (about 6 to 18 months), and toddlers (16 to
36 months). In addition to developmental domains such as physical and social, the guide-
lines may include precursors of learning in subject areas such as literacy, science, and math-
ematics. An added feature of guidelines for very young children is that they usually include
suggestions for what adults can do to promote children’s ongoing progress, as illustrated in
Figure 10.3, from Oklahoma’s early learning guidelines for infants and toddlers.
Effective curriculum for babies and toddlers is highly individualized and respon-
sive to children’s needs and interests, while also extending their language and learning
(Gonzalez-Mena & Eyer, 2014). High-quality programs for babies and toddlers use an
emergent curriculum process, in which learning experiences are responsive to chil-
dren’s interests (Lally, Mangione, & Greenwald, 2006). Guidelines such as the one de-
picted in Figure 10.3 can assist teachers as they observe children, assess their capacities,
and respond by enriching and extending the play or by adding novelty and complexity.
Curriculum for Preschoolers Thoughtfully planned curriculum for 3- through
5-year-olds addresses the development of the whole child, including physical well-being
and motor development, social and emotional development, approaches to learning such
as curiosity and persistence, language development, and cognition and general knowledge
(NAEYC & NAECS/SDE, 2003). At the same time, the curriculum builds knowledge and
skill in literacy, mathematics, science, social studies, and the visual and performing arts.
In preschool, integration across subject-matter areas is the primary planning strategy,
although at times the curriculum will focus on one area such as math or early literacy
(NAEYC, 2009). Play and projects are particularly valuable ways of bringing curriculum
content to this age group. In fact, research shows that in content-rich classrooms with
engaging social studies and science, children play in more complex and high-level ways
(Nayfeld, Brenneman, & Gelman, 2009).
alignment Standards and
curriculum progress as children
get older so that they acquire
the foundations of skills and
knowledge to continue to
achieve.
emergent curriculum Cur-
riculum that develops in an
educational environment in
response to children’s interests
and needs rather than accord-
ing to predeveloped plans.
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach320
Classroom Connection
This video shows a first-grade
classroom completing lessons from
the English Language Arts cur-
riculum. As you watch, think about
what teachers do during the plan-
ning phase to present a coherent,
organized curriculum. Consider
the impact that standards have on
the curriculum and other aspects
of their teaching and children’s
learning experiences.
Standard—Pre-Writing: The child will explore different tools
that will lead to making random marks, scribbles, and pictures
Young Infant: 0–8 months
The Baby Might: Begin to develop eye-hand coordination and
intentional hand control.
The Baby Might for
Example: The Teacher Can:
Reach, grasp, and put
objects in his/her mouth
Allow infant to grasp finger or other
object while holding, feeding, or
playing.
Provide infant safe items, including
color contrasting and assorted
shapes and sizes, for the child
to practice grasping, reaching,
releasing, and grasping again. (For
example: rattles, teething rings, etc.)
Bring hands together to
middle of body, hold toys
with both hands or pass
objects from one hand to
the other.
Place objects near infant, giving
the infant opportunity to reach with
either hand or both.
FIGURE 10.3 Example of Early Learning Guideline for Infants and Toddlers—Pre-Writing
Many states now have early learning guidelines for babies and toddlers which can be helpful if they are
developmentally appropriate.
Source: From Oklahoma Early Learning Guidelines for Infants, Toddlers, and Twos: Ages 0 through 36 Months,
no date, by Oklahoma Department of Human Services and Oklahoma Child Care Services, retrieved January 13,
2015, from http://www.okdhs.org/nr/rdonlyres/dcbc98d7-48b3-42c3-befe-c4abe6f486ac/0/1023_oklahomaear
lylearningguide_occs036mo_04012011 .
Almost every state has early learning standards for preschoolers, and most of these are
based on the Head Start Child Development and Early Learning Framework (Head Start,
2010a), which is depicted in Figure 10.4. In addition to all the areas of development and
learning listed the figure, the Head Start framework addresses English language develop-
ment for dual language learners.
Each of the broad goals in the Head Start framework include examples of
benchmarks that describe widely held expectations for children’s development
and learning. For example, a curriculum designed to help children achieve the
early literacy goals would provide materials, time, and opportunities to engage
in writing. For example, a preschool science curriculum about eggs hatching
provides ample opportunities for children to draw and write in their journals
about their observations of an incubator and chicks. An egg-hatching project
also addresses one of the science standards: “Observes, describes, and discuss-
es living things and natural processes” (Head Start, 2010a, p. 18). These are a
few examples of how curriculum is designed to help children meet learning
standards and how standards guide curriculum development.
Curriculum in Kindergarten and the Primary Grades In
primary school, the curriculum focus shifts to knowledge and skills in the
subject-matter areas. These include language, literacy, mathematics, science,
social studies, health, physical education, and the visual and performing arts.
Goals should continue to address the importance of social-emotional devel-
opment and approaches to learning including motivation, curiosity, creativ-
ity, and initiative. Other essential non-content goals include self-regulation
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Chapter 10 Planning Effective Curriculum 321
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evelop
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Kno
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e and Skills
Family and Community
History and Events
People and the
Environment
Music
Creative Movement
and Dance
Art
Drama
Scienti�c Skills and Method
Conceptual Knowledge
of the Natural and Physical World
Physical Health Status
Health Knowledge
and Practice
Gross Motor Skills
Fine Motor Skills
Social Relationships
Self-Concept and
Self-Ef�cacy
Self-Regulation
Emotional and
Behavioral Health
Initiative and Curiosity
Persistence and
Attentiveness
Cooperation
Book Appreciation
Phonological
Awareness
Alphabet Knowledge
Print Concepts and
Conventions
Early Writing
Receptive English language skills
Expressive English language skills
Engagement in English literacy activities
Domain
Domain element
English Language
Development
The ten domains above
apply to all children.
One domain, English
Language Development,
applies only to children
who are dual language
learners (DLLs). These
children speak a language
other than English at home.
Number Concepts and Quantities
Number Relationships and
Operations
Geometry and Spatial Sense
Patterns
Measurement and
Comparison
Reasoning and
Problem Solving
Symbolic
Representation
Receptive
Language
Expressive
Language
E
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L
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These domains and domain
elements apply to all
3 to 5 year olds in Head Start
and other early childhood
programs, including dual
language learners and children
with disabilities.
FIGURE 10.4 Head Start Child Development and Early Learning Framework The development
and learning goals articulated in the Head Start Framework are congruent with preschool learning
standards in many states.
Source: Head Start Child Development and Early Learning Framework: Promoting Positive Outcomes in Early
Childhood Programs Serving Children 3–5 Years Old, Head Start, 2010, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services.
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach322
and executive function abilities such as problem solving, planning, focused attention, and
persistence.
Challenging and engaging curriculum for this age group helps children develop and
use oral and written language, mathematical and scientific thinking, and investigation
skills across the disciplines. Curriculum in the primary grades should help children de-
velop a sense of their own competence and confidence—Erikson’s notion of mastery. The
overarching goal of the primary grades, however, is learning to read. As described previ-
ously, many states now use the Common Core standards. Figure 10.5 is a Common Core
writing standard for kindergarten through second grade. Consider how this standard is
designed to promote alignment of curriculum across grade levels and how these standards
build on the infant/toddler and preschool standards presented in Figures 10.3 and 10.4.
During your career as a teacher, you will confront many decisions about curriculum
that will be related to standards. Having discussed indicators of effective curriculum and
the role of standards, we now turn to a discussion of general approaches to planning cur-
riculum. These approaches share the goal of making curriculum meaningful and interest-
ing to children and, therefore, more effective.
✓ Check Your Understanding 10.3: The Role of Standards in Curriculum
Approaches to Planning Curriculum
A plan helps guide teachers in making decisions about what, when, and how to teach. In
other words, curriculum is not a set of random activities that children might find enjoy-
able; instead, the activities must be connected in a coherent way to content goals and
teaching strategies (NAEYC & NAECS/SDE, 2003). There are several ways of organiz-
ing a coherent curriculum. These include emergent curriculum, integrated curriculum,
thematic curriculum, webbing, the project approach, and scope and sequence.
Emergent Curriculum
Early childhood education has a strong tradition of emergent curriculum. According to
this perspective, the focus should be on children, not on curriculum. Emergent curricu-
lum is “what happens in an educational environment, not what is rationally planned to
Kindergartners Grade 1 Students Grade 2 Students
Use a combination of
drawing, dictating, and
writing to compose
opinion pieces in which
they tell a reader the
topic or the name of the
book they are writing
about and state an
opinion or preference
about the topic or book
(e.g., My favorite book
is . . .).
Write opinion pieces in
which they introduce the
topic or name the book
they are writing about,
state an opinion, supply
a reason for the opinion,
and provide some sense
of closure.
Write opinion pieces in
which they introduce the
topic or book they are
writing about, state an
opinion, supply reasons
that support the opinion,
use linking words (e.g.,
because, and, also) to
connect opinion and
reasons, and provide a
concluding statement or
section.
FIGURE 10.5 Example of Common Core English Language Arts Standard Common Core State
Standards are not a curriculum. They are designed to promote consistent, high learning standards across
states and alignment across grade levels.
Source: Common Core Standards for English Language Arts, by Common Core State Standards Initiative, 2011,
Washington, DC: Council for Chief State School Officers and National Governors Association, retrieved January 13,
2015, from http://www.commoncorestandards.org. © Copyright 2010. National Governors Association Center for
Best Practices and Council of Chief State School Officers. All rights reserved.
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http://www.commoncorestandards.org
Chapter 10 Planning Effective Curriculum 323
happen but what actually takes place” (Jones & Nim-
mo, 1994, p. 12). Advocates of emergent curriculum
believe that children’s interests and needs, rather than
a predetermined plan, should determine what goes on
in a classroom. They assume that a written curricu-
lum plan may be too rigid to be responsive to chil-
dren’s individual and cultural variation.
Although emergent curriculum places consid-
erable emphasis on following children’s interests,
it does not mean that nothing is planned and that
everything emerges solely from the children. Eliza-
beth Jones, one of the foremost proponents of emer-
gent curriculum, describes it as a planning process
in which teachers work from children’s interests,
creating webs of possibilities that become tentative
plans for experiences (Jones & Nimmo, 1994). What
follows depends on children’s responses, with the
teacher observing what happens and evaluating and
adjusting the plans as needed:
Monday morning in John and Bettina’s preschool
class begins with a class meeting in which chil-
dren talk about their weekend experiences.
Courtney: “My dad took me and my cousins to
a museum and we saw dinosaur bones. They
were humongous.”
Shauntae: “I went there. My mom only came up
to the dinosaur’s knee.”
The discussion continues, with children becom-
ing more animated by the minute. John and Bettina look at each other and smile.
Their plan was to introduce a discussion about families. They don’t think that di-
nosaurs are the best topic of study because young children can’t grasp concepts of
historical time and extinction. At the same time, the teachers recognize that young
children are drawn to dinosaurs because they are “manageable monsters.” They de-
cide that with this much enthusiasm generated, following the children’s interest could
open up new possibilities.
Bettina: “It looks like you want to learn more about dinosaurs. Let’s
start by thinking about everything we already know and writing
down what we want to find out.”
Later, Bettina and John meet to map out how a study of dinosaurs can
help them meet the goals of their original plan. They decide that it will
be a novel way to help children learn math concepts, including classifi-
cation and measurement, and some of the “big ideas” in science such as
change and living/nonliving things.
One of the goals of this chapter is to address the tendency in the field
to view emergent curriculum and written curriculum as complete opposites.
To be effective, curriculum planning needs to be intentional while at the
same time responsive to children’s interests and needs. In other words, goal-
directed written curriculum must be flexible and adapt to children’s inter-
ests and needs, and emergent curriculum must use children’s interests to
help them achieve important learning goals. Whichever approach a program
chooses, to be effective, children’s learning must benefit. One way to help
children achieve important goals while also responding to their interests is
to use an integrated curriculum, defined next.
Within a broad topic of study
such as transportation, teachers
build children’s language and
other skills. This child learns
accurate terms for vehicles and
motions in the context of an
exciting real-life experience.
Classroom Connection
In this video, a preschool teacher’s
personal experience propels an
in-depth curriculum study on the
hospital. What do you observe
about the teacher’s planning
and role in the study? How do
children’s interests and curiosity
influence the decisions and
what learning goals are being
addressed?
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach324
Integrated Curriculum
A curriculum can be focused on one subject area such as mathematics
or science, or it can be comprehensive, addressing all learning goals
for a specified age or grade level. It may also focus on various devel-
opmental domains such as cognitive, physical, language, and social-
emotional. Integrated curriculum addresses learning goals across
multiple areas of curriculum at the same time (Fantuzzo, Gadsden, &
McDermott, 2010). For example, it might address literacy and social-
emotional goals within a single experience or lesson, such as when
a preschool teacher reads books about feelings or making friends. A
third-grade reading curriculum can include biographies of histori-
cal figures such as Harriet Tubman or Abraham Lincoln. In this way,
children acquire knowledge of both history and literacy in the same
experience.
Integrated curriculum is useful for several reasons. First, it helps
address the challenge of covering many learning goals in a limited pe-
riod of instructional time. Recall our visit to Ross Elementary School
in the opening vignette of this chapter. The school-wide project inte-
grated various subject areas such as social studies and literacy. The
children engaged in reading and writing about a topic of interest—what they want to
be when they grow up. At the same time, the children learned concepts about the world
of work and the relevance of education, symbolic representation, and technological
skills. Figure 10.6 shows how a first grader’s career awareness poster demonstrates her
achievement of these goals.
Integrated curriculum helps children make connections between skills and knowl-
edge in various domains and decreases wasted time when no learning occurs. Integrated
curriculum is usually organized around a topic of study or theme, which we discuss next.
Thematic Curriculum
Another advantage of integrated curriculum is that curriculum can be organized
around topics (also called units) that children find interesting or engaging. This type
of integrated curriculum is called a thematic curriculum, in which a broad topic of
interest or a “big idea” provides the basis for making connections across learning
goals. The life cycle of birds, for example, can be the organizing structure for several
weeks or longer.
Thematic curriculum not only motivates children but also builds deeper concep-
tual understanding (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000). For example, a predictable
interest of preschool children—building with blocks—provides a basis for integrating
curriculum around the theme of construction. Children’s interest in building structures
becomes a vehicle for teaching concepts of physical science, such as how buildings
stand up or how roofs are constructed to make enclosed spaces (Chalufour & Worth,
2004). A construction study helps children understand math concepts such as counting,
measuring, and classification, which they will need when they decide how to balance
a skyscraper. Children also learn vocabulary words related to building. Books, such
as Alphabet under Construction by D. Fleming (2006), can bring in literacy skills.
A neighborhood walk to see architecture, historical structures, or civic buildings ad-
dresses social studies standards.
For thematic curriculum to be effective, however, it is important that teachers se-
lect truly “big” ideas—concepts that are rich enough to be studied in depth and lead to
new learning. Consider the difference between a unit on teddy bears and one on living
bears—there is no comparison in terms of the concepts that can be explored. Yet children
love teddy bears, so a teacher might be tempted to pursue that interest despite its shallow
nature. How then do teachers decide whether a topic is sufficiently rich to pursue? One
strategy is to use webbing, discussed next.
integrated curriculum
Addresses learning goals across
multiple areas of curriculum at
the same time.
thematic curriculum Way of
integrating curriculum in which
a broad topic of interest or a
“big idea” provides the basis
for making connections across
learning goals.
FIGURE 10.6 First-grader’s
Career Awareness Poster
This first-grader’s career aware-
ness poster illustrates how
the project addressed several
learning standards at the same
time, including social studies,
literacy, and art.
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Chapter 10 Planning Effective Curriculum 325
Webbing
In Chapter 9, we discussed teaching strategies that build children’s understanding.
These included using advance organizers and graphic representations such as K- W-L.
Webbing is another example of a graphic organizer and also an effective planning
tool that teachers use to organize curriculum content. For an example of a planning
web based on a concept that children are learning, see the photo on page 338. Web-
bing serves many valuable functions in early childhood curriculum. It helps teachers
organize their planning and acts as a conceptual organizer for children’s thinking and
learning. Webbing graphically represents the connections children make among facts
and larger concepts.
Webbing is a useful tool for all of the ways of organizing curriculum discussed thus
far: emergent, integrated, and thematic. But it is particularly valuable as a core component
of the project approach, a topic to which we turn next.
The Project Approach
Engaging children in projects or investigations, a concept going as far back as John
Dewey and an integral part of the Bank Street approach, continues to be one of the
most popular activities among early childhood teachers and children (Helm, 2014;
Helm & Katz, 2010). A project is an in-depth investigation of a topic worth learning
more about, usually involving a small group but occasionally the whole class. The key
feature of a project is that it is a research effort focused on finding answers to questions
posed by the children, the teacher, or the teacher working with the children (Katz &
Chard, 2000).
Benefits of Projects The project approach is not a curriculum; rather it is a way
of engaging children’s minds with curriculum content and processes (Helm & Katz,
2010). In the project approach, teachers guide children through in-depth studies of real-
world topics of interest to children. When teachers implement the project approach well,
children can be highly motivated, feel actively involved in their own learning, and pro-
duce high-quality work (Helm, Beneke, & Steinheimer, 2007).
Well-planned and implemented projects engage children’s interests and eagerness to
learn, focus their attention, and are lots of fun. More important than simple enjoyment
is the fact that projects or investigations are effective ways of integrating curriculum
content and promoting children’s understanding and thinking. Consider the following
example of a project that integrates social studies and other areas of the curriculum,
shared by Gail Joseph:
One morning at the Active Learning Center, the organic milk delivery service mistak-
enly left chocolate milk. Before she notices, the teacher, Diane, asks Lamont and Sara
to bring it to the kitchen because they have the “milk deliverer” job today. Lamont
and Sara shriek as they carefully lift a glass bottle filled with chocolate milk out of the
box. They head for the classroom to find Diane, but along the way they tell each child
in the class about the yummy mistake, “We got chocolate. It’s brown!”
By the time they reach Diane, there is a line of children asking if they can have
the chocolate milk with their snack. After Diane agrees, a more dedicated line of
inquiry ensues. “Who left this for us?” “How do they make it brown?” “Does it cost
more money?” “Can we have it again?” Diane sees that the milk mistake has the po-
tential for an interesting project.
At group time, Diane asks the children to list what they know about chocolate
milk and what else they want to find out. She records their ideas on chart paper.
During the next 2 weeks, the children learn a lot about chocolate milk. They write
stories about the “chocolate mistake” in the writing center. They write letters to the
milkman, thanking him for the mistake. They examine the price list to compare the
cost of chocolate and plain milk. They make chocolate milk and graph how many
children like chocolate versus plain milk (a skewed distribution for sure!).
webbing A planning tool that
teachers and children create
together to organize curriculum
content.
project An in-depth investiga-
tion of a topic worth learning
more about, usually involving a
small group, but occasionally
the whole class.
project approach Strategy for
conceptually organizing cur-
riculum by engaging children
in in-depth investigation of
a topic, focused on finding
answers to questions posed by
the children, the teacher, or
the teacher working with the
children.
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach326
The milk investigation goes into greater depth when the children take a field
trip to the dairy and learn about “organic” milk, and why people might prefer it to
nonorganic. They observe dairy cows and see milking machines. The children also
learn how the milk is transported to the customers and why they use glass bottles.
On the trip, they discover that the empty bottles are recycled, which prompts one of
the children to propose a “recycler” job in the classroom. The children learn that not
all people drink milk and the reasons why. They learn why regular milk is healthier
than chocolate.
During the last week, the children decide to have a “chocolate milk celebration”
with their families. They make invitations, propose and vote on the menu, and help
develop displays documenting their field trip and what they’ve learned. They also
offer a book signing for the class book they title The Chocolate Mistake.
At the end of the project, Diane revisits the chart created a few weeks ago and
asks the children what they have learned. It is clear that they thoroughly enjoyed the
project and learned a lot about chocolate milk. But they learned much more about
social studies, including concepts about culture, health, community, the environment,
diverse beliefs, production of goods and services, and economics, and they also en-
gaged in reading, writing, mathematics, and science.
Phases of a Project The previous example illustrates the phases of a project:
• Phase 1: Beginning a project. The beginning phase occurs when a possible topic
emerges either from the children’s interest or from an idea initiated by the teacher.
During this phase, the class might create a K-W-L list or web of what they know
and what they want to find out. At this stage in a project, the teacher needs to de-
cide whether the topic is appropriate, practical, and consistent with the goals of
the curriculum (Helm & Katz, 2010). In the scenario above, Diane recognizes that
the children are very interested in the chocolate milk, although the interest was a
fortuitous mistake. Other ways to discover or cultivate children’s interest could
be through bringing something into the classroom, such as a hen that a teacher
brought in, or through a story. The key is to notice what children are interested in
The project approach is an excellent way to engage children’s interest while meeting learning goals. Proj-
ects have three phases: cultivating children’s interest, preparing for and conducting the investigation, and
a culminating event.
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Chapter 10 Planning Effective Curriculum 327
and to follow it. The next step is to develop a web of children’s thoughts and ques-
tions about the topic.
• Phase 2: Developing a project. In this phase, children begin to think about and en-
gage in an investigation of the topic. The questions children want answered should
be broad enough to allow for substantive research. They might take a field trip as
Diane’s class did when they went to the dairy, hear from visiting experts to learn
more about the topic, or conduct experiments.
• Phase 3: A culminating event. An event can be arranged that involves com-
municating, sharing, and presenting the work of the project to others. Diane’s
class held a chocolate milk celebration to share with their families all they had
learned.
The project approach draws on and cultivates children’s interests as it builds their
motivation to learn. But more important, it engages children in thinking and problem
solving, finding answers to their questions, and building content knowledge and skills.
Research on the project approach finds that although it is challenging to implement, it is
most effective when teachers have content knowledge themselves (David, 2008).
In previous sections, we described several well-known approaches to organizing cur-
riculum content in early childhood settings. Next, we turn to a different approach, orga-
nizing curriculum sequentially.
Scope and Sequence
In recent years, research on early learning has provided greater insight about which
skills are foundational in content areas such as reading and mathematics (National
Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 2000, 2006; National Early Literacy Panel, 2008;
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, 2000; NRC, 2009). This
knowledge is useful in developing the scope and sequence of a curriculum, especially in
areas where sequential learning is particularly important. In mathematics, for example,
children need to have a basic understanding about number before they can tackle num-
ber operations such as adding and subtracting. Scope refers to the particular focus of
the curriculum at a given point in time; that is, how much of a larger content area will be
addressed. Sequence, as the word implies, is the order in which knowledge and skills
will be taught.
Scope and sequence are familiar terms in elementary education, where the curricu-
lum is more closely linked to teachers’ guides and textbook series for children, but is
relatively new in the preschool world. Scope and sequence curriculum provides teachers
with guidance about what to teach and when. For example, learning to read involves many
different abilities that children acquire over time. A primary-grade reading curriculum
identifies the expectations for children’s reading achievement at each age level (the scope
of what is to be learned) and suggests an order in which reading skills should be taught as
well. However, because children’s acquisition of skills and knowledge does not occur in
a predetermined order and because many skills are acquired simultaneously, curriculum
sequences should not be applied rigidly.
In the previous sections, we described several ways of planning curriculum: emer-
gent, thematic, integrated, webbing, the project approach, and scope and sequence. Ear-
lier, we described types of plans, from teacher developed to commercially published. All
of these curriculum approaches can be used from preschool through primary grades. For
example, although a second-grade teacher is highly likely to use a published reading pro-
gram with a predetermined scope and sequence, she may also use an integrated science
curriculum and the project approach to teaching social studies.
Having defined curriculum and explored indicators of effective curriculum, next we
go deeper into the concept of curriculum models. In the following section, we describe
well-known, though somewhat different, models of early childhood curriculum.
✓ Check Your Understanding 10.4: Approaches to Planning Curriculum
scope The particular focus of
the curriculum at a given point
in time; that is, how much of
a larger content area will be
taught.
sequence The order in which
knowledge and skills will be
taught.
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach328
Research-Based Early
Childhood Curricula
Effective early childhood curriculum focuses on both the process of teaching and the
content of what children are learning. Two types of early childhood curricula exist: (1)
comprehensive models that address the whole child, and (2) focused curricula that target
a content area such as science or a developmental domain such as social-emotional.
Comprehensive Curriculum
Several research-based comprehensive curriculum models are widely used—HighScope,
Creative Curriculum, Core Knowledge, and Tools of the Mind. HighScope and Creative
are the most widely used curriculum models in Head Start and public prekindergarten
programs (Zill, Sorongon, Kim, Clark, & Woolverton, 2006). In this section, we discuss
the key components of each of these models.
HighScope Curriculum The HighScope curriculum was first developed by David
Weikart and his colleagues, who launched the Perry Preschool Project in the early 1960s.
HighScope is a validated curriculum because research has demonstrated that using it
has lasting positive effects on children’s long-term success in school and
in life (Schweinhart, Barnes, & Weikart, 1993; Schweinhart et al., 2005;
Schweinhart, Weikart, & Larner, 1986). An evaluation of the Georgia univer-
sal prekindergarten program found that the HighScope curriculum positively
predicted children’s language, literacy, math, and social skills in kindergarten
(Henry et al., 2004).
The HighScope curriculum reflects current research and provides guid-
ance for teachers’ scaffolding learning based on a constructivist view of child
development (Epstein & Hohmann, 2012). The curriculum emphasizes that
children need to be engaged in active learning—direct, hands-on experience
with people, objects, events, and ideas. Teachers and children play an active
role in the HighScope curriculum, functioning as partners in learning.
A key element of HighScope’s curriculum is the plan-do-review process
that begins with a small-group time during which children plan what they want to do
during work time—that is, the area they plan to visit, the materials they will use, and the
peers they will play with. The children then have a work time of about an hour for carrying
out their plans. Following this period is another small-group time for children to review
and recall with the teacher and the other children what they have done and learned. The
HighScope curriculum is effective because it intentionally promotes use of higher-order
thinking skills and executive function (Heckman, Pinto, & Savelyev, 2013). Many early
childhood programs offer children choices during play time, but planning is more than
making choices.
The content of the HighScope preschool curriculum consists of a set of 58 key
developmental indicators that describe goals across 10 child-development areas. For
example, there are two key indicators for the goal area “Approaches to Learning”:
(1) making and expressing choices, plans, and decisions, and (2) solving problems en-
countered in play. The key developmental indicators provide a framework for teachers
to use as they plan activities and observe children’s progress.
An online assessment system, the COR Advantage (Epstein, Marshall, & Gainsley,
2014), is available and is a key to effective implementation. It is an 8-point rating scale
that can be used by any program serving infants through kindergarten. HighScope also
provides a specific literacy component; a mathematics-focused curriculum, Numbers
Plus; and an infant/toddler curriculum (Post, Hohmann, & Epstein, 2011). The High-
Scope Educational Research Foundation assumes that teachers need professional devel-
opment to implement the curriculum at a high level.
Classroom Connection
Watch this video to see how
teachers use the plan-do-review
process, an essential element of
the HighScope Curriculum that
contributes to its effectiveness.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v
=8X6ncsGkAxA&list=PL3176BC
D80C15A22F
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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8X6ncsGkAxA&list=PL3176BCD80C15A22F
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8X6ncsGkAxA&list=PL3176BCD80C15A22F
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8X6ncsGkAxA&list=PL3176BCD80C15A22F
Chapter 10 Planning Effective Curriculum 329
Play is an integral component of the HighScope curriculum. But what sets
HighScope’s approach apart, and what has been emulated by many other programs, is
its emphasis on children planning their play. To see an example of this effective prac-
tice in action, read the feature titled Promoting Play: Involving Children in Planning
Their Play.
Involving Children in Planning Their Play
When children engage in planning, they use their
minds actively. As they work out what they will do,
children become initiators, problem solvers, and art-
ists who make things happen and create meaning
for themselves and others. To help children develop
the ability to plan, consider the following strategies.
Make Planning a Regular Part of the Day If tasks that
require planning become a routine classroom activ-
ity, children are more likely to improve their plan-
ning skills. To encourage children to plan tasks and
events, it is useful to have a designated planning
time, such as just before center time. You can plan
with children in small groups, pairs, or individually,
making sure each child gets to express his or her
intentions. Children benefit from planning in small
groups because the thoughts and elaborations of
others often spark their own ideas. For example,
notice how the teacher is talking with a group of
4- and 5-year-olds about what they will do during
center time:
Jason: I’m going to make a race track in the block
area.
Teacher: You made a track yesterday that
stretched all the way to the bookshelf.
Mike: Me and him made it together. Today we’re
gonna make a longer one.
Teacher: It sounds like Jason and Mike are plan-
ning to work together today.
Darya: I’m going to work together, too.
Teacher: Who are you planning to work with?
Darya: With Mei Lin.
Mei Lin: Let’s fill all the jars with water and make
them sing.
Darya: First let’s make the water orange. I’ll mix
the watercolors while you get the jars.
Teacher: Let me know when the jars are ready to
sing. I want to hear them.
encourage Children to elaborate on Their Plans For inex-
perienced planners, try simple follow-up questions:
“What will you need to do that?” Sometimes a
comment about what the child is doing elicits more
details than a question would. When the teacher
observed 4-year-old Mitch’s behavior, she said,
“You’re barking like a dog,” to which Mitch replied,
“I’m a lost dog and I want you to find me.”
In your eagerness to assist younger children, don’t
overlook opportunities to promote older children’s
progress as planners as well. Encourage them
to give specifics about where they will work, the
materials they intend to use, the sequence of
their activities, and the outcomes they expect to
achieve. When Rachel announces she is going to
draw the family dog, her teacher says, “I wonder
how you’re going to show the puppies growing
inside Daisy.” This comment encourages Rachel to
consider such issues as size and spatial relation-
ships as she plans her drawing.
Write Down Children’s Plans Written plans communi-
cate that children’s ideas are valuable. Take dicta-
tion when children describe what they will do and
how they will go about it. Encourage older 4-year-
olds and kindergarten children to begin writing their
own ideas. Documenting children’s work through
writing, drawing, and photography—which children
and teachers can be involved in—helps young
learners become more conscious of the process
and value of planning. Children can also look back
to their documented plans as they reflect on their
experiences and compare their intentions with the
actual outcomes.
Source: Based on “How Planning and Reflection
Develop Young Children’s Thinking Skills,” by A. S.
Epstein, 2003, Young Children, 58(5), pp. 28–36.
Promoting Play
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach330
Creative Curriculum Creative Curriculum System for Preschool, developed by
Diane Trister Dodge and her colleagues (2010), is a comprehensive curriculum address-
ing all areas of child development as well as literacy and mathematics. Revised in 2010,
the curriculum identifies intentional teaching strategies and learning sequences, provides
guidance for book discussions, and suggestions for “mighty minutes”—ways to support
learning during transitions and routines. It includes integrated topics of study such as
clothing, building, trees, and recycling. Creative Curriculum’s goals are described in a
developmental continuum that guides teachers’ observations and assessment of children’s
progress and their planning, called GOLD™.
Creative Curriculum strongly emphasizes the learning environment, children’s play,
and child-initiated activity. The learning environment is the organizing framework of the
curriculum. Teachers use children’s involvement in centers in the classroom, including
blocks, dramatic play, toys and games, art, library, discovery (science center), sand and
water, music and movement, cooking, computers, and outdoors, to foster development
and learning (Dodge et al., 2010).
The Creative Curriculum has evolved over the years, drawing on the work of several
learning theorists, including Maslow, Erikson, Piaget, Vygotsky, and Gardner. These in-
fluences have contributed to the teacher’s role as observing, reflecting, and responding
to children in their environment in order to facilitate and scaffold their development and
learning. The Creative Curriculum has a program for infants, toddlers, and twos (Dodge
et al., 2010). Materials are available in English and Spanish.
Both HighScope and Creative Curriculum are child-centered curriculum models that
focus on the goals as well as the process of how children learn and develop, reflecting
a constructivist theoretical perspective. HighScope’s distinguishing characteristic is the
plan-do-review learning process, whereas Creative Curriculum emanates from the learn-
ing environment. Another approach to curriculum development focuses on content: what
children should know and be able to do. This is the key component of the Core Knowl-
edge curriculum.
Core Knowledge In 1986, E. D. Hirsch Jr., professor at the University of Virginia,
founded the Core Knowledge Foundation, a nonprofit organization that promotes greater
excellence and fairness in education. The concept is based on the fact that successful
education systems in other countries tend to teach a common core of knowledge to all
children. The premise of Core Knowledge is that equal educational opportunity can be
guaranteed for every child, including children from low-income families, only by explic-
itly identifying the competencies and knowledge that all children should acquire (Hirsch &
Wiggins, 2009). Hirsch believes that the achievement gap in American schools is ac-
tually a result of inequity in exposure to curriculum content. This belief led the Core
Knowledge Foundation to develop a curriculum sequence for prekindergarten through
eighth grade.
The Core Knowledge preschool sequence (Core Knowledge Foundation, 2013) is
designed to be a coherent, content- and language-rich curriculum that offers a progression
of skills and knowledge across all areas of development as well as mathematical reason-
ing and number sense, orientation in time and space, scientific reasoning and the physical
world, music, and visual arts.
These areas of skill and knowledge are similar to those included in the other cur-
riculum models described previously. However, the Core Knowledge preschool sequence
differs from those approaches in at least two ways:
• Specificity regarding content. The preschool sequence identifies specific experi-
ences, knowledge, and skills for all children, including particular stories, fables,
legends, nonfiction books, songs, rhymes, and poems. A month-by-month planning
guide promotes the concept of a sequence of knowledge and competencies building
on one another. Although the program is flexible, it does establish expectations that
all the content and language should be incorporated in order to prepare children for
the next level of curriculum.
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Chapter 10 Planning Effective Curriculum 331
• Lack of specificity regarding pedagogy. The Core Knowledge preschool sequence
specifies what to teach, not how to teach. It does not advocate any particular ap-
proach, but rather a wide range of strategies that includes teacher-directed large-
and small-group experiences as well as children’s play and discovery learning.
Tools of the Mind Based on Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of learning, the Tools
of the Mind curriculum is designed for preschool through second grade (Bodrova &
Leong, 2007). The comprehensive curriculum provides teachers with ideas and strategies
to support children’s development of executive function, self-regulation, and academic
skills. The curriculum emphasizes the teacher’s role in scaffolding children’s learning
along with child-directed experiences and teacher-supported socio-dramatic play. Teach-
ers engage in ongoing assessment of children’s development to provide individualized
scaffolding in which they increase or decrease their level of support depending on the
degree to which children independently perform specific skills (Blair & Raver, 2014). The
curriculum is designed to achieve two main, interrelated goals:
1. Development of foundational cognitive abilities that include self-regulation of be-
havior, emotions, and cognition; memory; and focused attention (Blair & Raver,
2014; Diamond & Lee, 2011).
2. Learning academic skills aligned with the Common Core standards, such as lit-
eracy, mathematics, and science (Blair & Raver, 2014).
The central element of Tools of the Mind is using high-level, mature socio-dramatic
play to develop children’s self-regulation. Such mature play includes a theme, roles
with rules, language, and symbolic props such as using a rhythm stick standing for a
magic wand.
To make play a more effective learning experience, teachers engage children in play
planning before and even during the play. Children produce their own play plans, which
include written and graphic descriptions of what the child intends to do during the play.
By writing and/or drawing their plans, the children’s writing abilities improve over time,
a process called scaffolded writing. Children state their plans verbally, and the teacher
draws lines on the paper for each spoken word. This serves as a short-term memory scaf-
fold as children write and draw their plans. Over time, teachers help children make more
complex plans, encouraging two or more children to plan together to build friendships
and collaborative learning.
To enhance the quality of the play, teachers also provide children with relevant expe-
riences that will inform their play. For example, a trip to the firehouse helps children learn
about the roles and scenarios that occur there. But teachers do not leave the learning to
chance. They ask the firefighters and other workers to demonstrate for children what they
actually say before and after the fire bell goes off. Such experiences expand children’s
vocabulary and use of complex language, which they then practice during play.
One of the key aspects of Tools of the Mind is that it is based on the assumption
that if children lack underlying cognitive skills such as self-regulation, trying to teach
them academic skills is more difficult and inefficient. As a result, activities in Tools
of the Mind promote these abilities simultaneously. Teachers organize the classroom
routines to eliminate or minimize situations that tend to interfere with the development
of self-regulation, such as long periods of whole-group instruction or lengthy waits for
a turn.
Teachers embed self-regulation practice in all activities. For example, a preschool
teacher might use props to scaffold children’s practice of conversation turn-taking. After
the teacher explains what to do with the props, Kesharia holds a cardboard ear to prompt
her to listen, while Ashanti holds a cardboard mouth assigning him the role of speaker.
Then, they switch roles.
Considerable research has been conducted on the effectiveness of Tools of the Mind.
Read the What Works: Using Tools of the Mind to Close the Achievement Gap feature to
learn the results of a rigorous evaluation of the curriculum and its lasting impact on kin-
dergarten children’s self-regulation and academic skills.
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach332
Focused Curriculum
The four curricula described previously are comprehensive, addressing the learning and
development of the “whole child.” Historically, in early childhood education, compre-
hensive curriculum has been essentially the only approach. Recently, however, there has
been an explosion in curriculum development among researchers as well as publishers,
much of which focuses on a single area such as literacy, mathematics, or social-emotional
development. Perhaps because these curricula are targeted to relatively specific goals,
several have been found to be more effective in improving children’s outcomes than com-
prehensive approaches (Yoshikawa et al., 2013).
For example, in an effort to improve the quality and consistency of preschool class-
rooms, one large urban school district implemented a literacy curriculum, Opening the
World of Learning (OWL) (Schickedanz & Dickinson, 2012), and a mathematics cur-
riculum, Building Blocks (Clements & Sarama, 2007a), system-wide. An evaluation of
the program found significant positive effects on children’s literacy, language, early math,
and executive function abilities (Weiland & Yoshikawa, 2011). The researchers concluded
that using a uniform curriculum and intentional teaching strategies with professional de-
velopment for teachers made the difference. The effects on executive function were espe-
cially important because these abilities are vital for later success.
Similarly, one study (Wilson, Dickinson, & Rowe, 2013) found that the OWL cur-
riculum produced large improvements in literacy and language outcomes for all children
What Works
Using Tools of the Mind to Close the Achievement Gap
The Tools of the Mind curriculum is based on the premise that de-
veloping young children’s executive functions—flexible thinking,
focused attention, and working memory—and self-regulation of
emotions and behavior is the key to their later academic success
and social competence. Neuroscientists and child development
researchers are finding strong support for the effectiveness of the
curriculum in achieving this objective.
A well-designed evaluation study involving 29 schools, 79
kindergarten classrooms, and 759 children compared the im-
pact of Tools of the Mind to the traditional curriculum. What was
unique about this study was that it not only assessed children’s
executive function abilities and academic skills, but it also tested
saliva samples to compare children’s stress levels.
At every grade level, Tools of the Mind has the same overarch-
ing goals, but the teaching strategies and learning activities vary by
age group. At the kindergarten level, children meet with teachers to
create and implement weekly learning goals and plans. Instead of
the strong emphasis on sociodramatic play that occurs in preschool,
Tools of the Mind kindergartens use dramatization. Children “play
out” the stories that they are learning to read, beginning with fairy
tales and moving to chapter books, rather than pretending about ev-
eryday experiences. This intentional pretend play develops language,
vocabulary, reading, and creativity. By contrast, the traditional, aca-
demically focused kindergarten classrooms typically allow only 10 to
15 minutes of play during free choice time and have no materials to
support pretend play or connect it to literacy learning.
Another major difference between Tools of the Mind class-
rooms and the traditional kindergartens is the emphasis on peer
interaction and teacher scaffolding to
support higher-order thinking and pro-
mote social competence and intrinsic motiva-
tion. Children talk with teachers, question, and reflect on their
own understanding. Mistakes become learning opportunities.
The study found that children in Tools of the Mind classrooms
performed better on neurologically based executive function tasks
such as focusing attention, ignoring distractions, and working mem-
ory. Children’s reading, vocabulary, and mathematics also improved
at the end of kindergarten and even better reading and vocabulary
results were achieved in first grade. Significantly, these differences
were greater in schools serving children in poverty.
One of the most encouraging aspects of the study is the neu-
robiological findings. Children in the Tools of the Mind kindergar-
tens demonstrated lower levels of stress. Given the heightened
academic demands of kindergarten resulting in increased stress
for all children coupled with the toxic stress associated with pov-
erty, lowering stress is essential. Children cannot learn effectively
if they are anxious, worried, or unable to focus. This study demon-
strates that through teacher-scaffolded support of executive func-
tion and self-regulation, Tools of the Mind can benefit children
in high-poverty schools academically, physically, and emotionally,
and has the potential to close the achievement gap.
Source: “Closing the Achievement Gap through Modification of Neurocog-
nitive and Neuroendocrine Function: Results from a Cluster Randomized
Controlled Trial of an Innovative Approach to the Education of Children
in Kindergarten,” by C. Blair and C. C. Raver, 2014, PLoS ONE, 9(11),
e112393, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0112393.
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Chapter 10 Planning Effective Curriculum 333
but especially for dual language learners. These children performed nearly as well or
better than native speakers at kindergarten entry, and reached national norms on standard-
ized tests. Dual language learners in OWL classrooms performed better on expressive and
receptive vocabulary than those who did not experience the curriculum.
The Reggio Emilia Approach
The internationally known schools of Reggio Emilia, Italy, have been called “the place
theory and practice touch like the magic moment when night becomes day” (quoted in
Bredekamp, 2008b, p. 49). Since the approach was first introduced in the United States, it
has inspired teachers throughout the country and made major contributions to the knowl-
edge base (Baldini, Cavallini, Moss, & Vecchi, 2012; Edwards, Gandini, & Forman, 2012).
The Schools of Reggio Emilia, Italy The city-run preschools and infant/tod-
dler centers serving children from birth through age 6 originated as a movement among
parents following World War II. Founder Loris Malaguzzi was inspired by the parents
and committed himself to the continued evolution of the schools until his death in 1994.
Malaguzzi used the metaphor “the hundred languages of children” to connote the
complex elements of the approach. First and foremost, the metaphor communicates the
inherent genius of every child. Secondly, the “hundred languages” stand for the processes
of children’s learning as well as how they demonstrate it. In addition, “languages” are
various forms of media—drawing, sculpting, writing, photography, video, music, dance,
words, numbers, and so on—that are used to promote and display children’s understand-
ing of the world. By focusing attention on what children are capable of doing, the Reggio
approach has made young children’s amazing competence visible to the world.
The Reggio Emilia approach is not a curriculum, nor is it a model. It draws on several
theories in an integrated fashion, but also goes beyond them. For example, a visitor to the
schools would see evidence of Vygotskian sociocultural theory in the collaborative proj-
ect work among small groups of children and also in the co-construction of knowledge
between teachers and children. In addition, teachers and peers place themselves in zones
of proximal development, continually scaffolding each other’s learning. Teachers often
act as provocateurs for children, deliberately creating what Piaget termed disequilibrium,
to drive children’s learning.
Principles and Values of the Reggio Emilia Approach The Reggio Emilia
approach is based on a set of core values and principles (Gandini, 2008). However, the
complexity and uniqueness of the approach cannot be reduced to a list of principles. Anyone
attempting to implement a Reggio-inspired program should devote considerable study to
the intricacies of its cultural origins and theoretical
underpinnings (Rinaldi, 2006; Vecchi, 2010). A brief
summary of its core components follows.
The Image of the Child The foundation of the
Reggio Emilia approach is the image of the child as
rich in potential, strong, and powerful with rights as
a citizen and contributing member of the commu-
nity. In Reggio, children with special rights (what
Americans call children with special needs) are
given precedence in school enrollment.
Children’s Relationships and Interactions
Malaguzzi (1993) called the approach “an educa-
tion based on relationships.” Teachers stay with
the same group of children for 3 years and focus
on reciprocal relationships among children (often in
small groups) and the community.
The Reggio Emilia approach
has inspired schools in the
United States to rethink the
environment and children’s
representational ability. What
does this Reggio-inspired learn-
ing environment communicate
about and to children?
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach334
The Role of Parents Malaguzzi often said that the school has three protagonists with-
out which schools do not exist: children, teachers, and parents. The active participation
of parents is essential to the operation of the schools; parents are deeply involved in the
learning activities of the children.
The Role of Space: An Amiable School The environments convey the message that
“this is a place where adults have thought about the quality and the instructive power
of space” (Gandini, 2008, p. 25). Americans are struck by the aesthetic beauty of the
schools, but each element is designed for a purpose, such as to promote small-group in-
teraction or display evidence of the process of children’s learning.
Teachers and Children as Partners in Learning Although highly knowledgeable,
teachers do not consider themselves experts who impart knowledge, but rather partners
with children in the journey of discovery. They act as a resource to children, asking
provocative questions, exploring children’s thoughts and hypotheses, and learning along
with them.
Curriculum as a Process of Inviting and Sustaining Learning There is no preset cur-
riculum in Reggio schools. Teachers prepare a declaration of intent about possible learn-
ing experiences they will offer to children, but the curriculum emerges from children’s
interests in topics or questions and their desire to find out more or to solve a problem.
However, teachers do have goals and plan in advance for possible directions the work
will take. They listen carefully to children and regularly meet to discuss how to further
children’s involvement and deepen their understanding.
The Many Languages of Children Each school has a special teacher, called an atelieri-
sta, who is knowledgeable about the visual arts and works closely with the other teachers
and children. Each preschool has an atelier, a specially equipped studio that contains a
wide range of materials and resources that are used by children to represent their ideas
and thinking and in projects.
In the United States, the Reggio Emilia approach is sometimes described as an art
program. However, the Italians see the children’s work as symbolic representation that
is an integral part of learning. When children represent the same concept using different
media, their understanding deepens. For example, drawing a horse in two dimensions
conveys a partial concept of the animal. Constructing a three-dimensional model of a
horse in clay requires thinking about how the horse stands up and how it runs.
Learning through Projects Short- and long-term projects are a major teaching and
learning strategy in Reggio schools. Facilitated by teachers, children work in small groups
on a topic or a problem of interest to them. Ideas for projects, great and small, grow out
of children’s experiences or chance encounters. An invitation from the town to design a
theater curtain for the opera house led to a lengthy project that included generating artistic
designs, making computer models, painting large murals, and exploring cloth production.
The project culminated in a celebratory unveiling (Vecchi, 2002).
The Power of Documentation The growth in children’s thinking that occurs through
project work is captured in one of the most compelling and unique aspects of the ap-
proach: documentation. As a project proceeds, teachers and the atelierista carefully ar-
range and display transcripts of children’s discussions, photographs of them at work, and
representations of their thinking and learning in various media (drawings, sculptures,
and constructions). These documentations can be interpreted as assessments, but they are
more like records of the processes of learning and problem solving in groups of children.
What goes on in children’s minds cannot be seen, but documentation makes learning vis-
ible (Reggio Children & Project Zero, 2001). Documentation powerfully communicates
the competence of children to parents, community members, and policy makers. Teachers
use documentation to help children revisit their experiences, remember and analyze their
thinking, and deepen their understanding.
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Chapter 10 Planning Effective Curriculum 335
Finally, play is a vital part of Reggio schools, although most written
accounts or presentations about Reggio in the United States fail to talk about
play. One must observe in the schools to see that play is as important to the
Reggio Emilia approach as it is to developmentally appropriate practice.
The Influence of the Reggio Emilia Approach One of the
most important contributions of Reggio Emilia is the deeper understanding
of how representation not only reflects what children know and can do but
also changes it (Vecchi, 2010). Other practices that have expanded theoretical
understandings are the role projects and documentation can play in higher-
order thinking and memory, and the effectiveness of collaboration and co-
construction as teaching and learning strategies. Although these practices are
not entirely new to the United States, the quality of implementation in Reggio
is beyond what is usually seen here, with few exceptions.
The Reggio Emilia approach is deeply rooted in the sociocultural context of its re-
gion and town in Italy. Therefore, it cannot be successfully imitated in a different cultural
milieu. Instead, many American educators learn from and with Reggio educators, and are
inspired by the possibilities inherent in their work (Biddle & White, 2010; Scheinfeld,
Haigh, & Scheinfeld, 2008).
Research on Preschool Curriculum
The irony of mandates for research-based curriculum is that there is a limited body of
well-designed research on the comparative effectiveness of preschool curricula. However,
as we see from the studies cited previously, this situation is changing (Bierman, 2011;
Fantuzzo et al., 2010; Yoshikawa et al., 2013). In the last decade, expansion of publicly
funded preschool has increased demand for accountability and newly developed curricu-
lum. As a result, research has increased as well.
In the past, much of existing research compared the effectiveness of teacher-
directed instruction and more child-initiated, play-oriented approaches to curriculum.
In fact, these studies were more about particular teaching strategies than evaluations of
curricula.
The federal government funded a large-scale study to evaluate the effectiveness of
various preschool curricula (Preschool Curriculum Evaluation Research Consortium,
2008). After 6 years of work, however, this large-scale study raised more questions
than it answered. The results demonstrated that children make learning gains in most
well-designed curriculum approaches; however, there are very few significant differences
between the curricula. Several lessons can be drawn from the mixed results of curriculum
research to date. Ample evidence exists that a well-planned, research-based curriculum is
an essential element of an effective early childhood program (Bierman, 2011; Bowman,
Donovan, & Burns, 2001; Landry, 2005). The bottom line is that to be most effective,
teachers need both good curriculum knowledge and understanding of child develop-
ment (Cunningham & Davidson, 2007; Siraj-Blatchford, Muttock, Sylva, Gilden, & Bell,
2003). Teachers who have this knowledge possess the fundamental resources for planning
and implementing an effective curriculum, which is described in the next section.
✓ Check Your Understanding 10.5: Research-based Curriculum
A Model for Planning
Effective Curriculum
In this section, we present a general model for planning effective curriculum that applies
across the full age range of early childhood as well as in diverse settings. This model for
developing and planning curriculum is shown in Figure 10.7 (Bredekamp & Rosegrant,
Classroom Connection
As you watch these children and
teachers in a Reggio-inspired
primary school, reflect on
how curriculum planning and
implementation occurs and how
the principles of the Reggio
approach are demonstrated.
https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=kPmuYVn6AOg
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach336
1995; Rosegrant & Bredekamp, 1992). In the sections that follow, we briefly describe
the sources of knowledge that are brought together in a coherent curriculum, and then
we provide examples of applying the planning model in action. All good early childhood
curriculum needs to focus first on children, as we discuss next.
The Child in the Sociocultural Context
Early childhood curriculum is often called child centered; accordingly, this model places
the child at the center of curriculum planning. In a child-centered curriculum, learning is
an interactive process—children change from exposure to the curriculum, and the curric-
ulum changes in response to the learner’s progress. Teachers involve children in planning
by determining what they already know, as well as what they want and need to know. As
curriculum is implemented, teachers continually assess children’s abilities and interests
and adapt the curriculum and teaching in response.
However, children do not grow and learn in isolation; in early childhood classrooms,
children are part of a group. The group, in turn, exists in a larger context of a program or
school, a community, state, and nation. Therefore, the model situates the child in a so-
ciocultural context that influences what is included in the curriculum (Bronfenbrenner &
Morris, 2006).
The cultural values of families and the community always influence curriculum deci-
sions. For example, a faith-based private school may include religious study in its cur-
riculum, whereas a public school may avoid reference to religious activity of any kind.
Similarly, if the program serves a cultural community that values interdependence over
independence, a focus on the individual child at the center of the curriculum may not be
appropriate. Most likely, families would prefer a model with children as part of a cultural
group as its focus.
Conceptual
organizers
(Projects,
topics of study)
Child
development
knowledge
Socio-cultural context
Discipline
based
knowledge
(Science, social
studies)
Continuum of
development
and learning
FIGURE 10.7 Child-Centered Curriculum Planning Model This model depicts the major sources
of knowledge that must be considered in planning an effective, child-centered curriculum.
Source: Based on “Reaching Individual Potentials through Transformational Curriculum,” by T. Rosegrant and
S. Bredekamp, 1992, pp. 66–73, in Reaching Potentials: Appropriate Curriculum and Assessment for Young
Children, Vol. 1, edited by S. Bredekamp and T. Rosegrant, Washington, DC: NAEYC. Reprinted with permission
from the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC). www.naeyc.org
M10_BRED6702_03_SE_C10.indd 336 10/7/15 2:48 PM
http://www.naeyc.org
Chapter 10 Planning Effective Curriculum 337
In this model of curriculum planning, culture is not viewed as a separate source of
curriculum, but rather as the context within which all curriculum decisions are made.
Therefore, culture influences all of the aspects of curriculum planning, as we describe in
the sections that follow on each dimension of the model.
Sources of Curriculum
As illustrated in Figure 10.7, curriculum planning draws on four sources:
1. The content of the disciplines. Much of the curriculum comes directly from the
subject-matter disciplines: what children need to know and be able to do in sci-
ence, mathematics, language arts, health, social studies, and the arts. Such con-
tent gives curriculum intellectual integrity; that is, it teaches accurate information
about how the world works and how to obtain new knowledge. However, the con-
tent of the disciplines can be abstract and removed from children’s direct experi-
ences. Therefore, early childhood curriculum needs to be conceptually organized.
2. Conceptual organizers. We have already discussed several approaches to concep-
tually organizing curriculum. Conceptual organizers make content knowledge
more meaningful, interesting, and understandable for young children. For exam-
ple, children can learn key scientific concepts by planting a garden or studying the
effects of light on shadows.
3. Child development knowledge. Knowledge of how young children develop and
learn is critical in planning curriculum that will reach all children. Research on
children’s cognitive, language, social, emotional, and physical development al-
lows teachers to anticipate whether curriculum goals will be achievable and chal-
lenging (that is, developmentally appropriate).
4. Developmental/learning continuum. A developmental continuum is a predict-
able, but not rigid, sequence of typical developmental accomplishments within age
ranges (McAfee & Leong, 2011). A learning continuum (also called a learning
trajectory or learning path) is similar to a developmental continuum but focuses
on sequences of knowledge or skill in a content area such as mathematics or physi-
cal education, with each level more sophisticated than the last (Clements & Sarama,
2009; Sarama & Clements, 2009). (The terms developmental continuum and learn-
ing trajectory are often used interchangeably.) Research-based developmental and
learning continua are the basis for planning the scope and sequence of a curriculum.
Teachers use a continuum of development and learning in a curriculum area to
determine when, where, and how to provide individual instruction and scaffolding.
This model illustrates how both content knowledge and child development knowl-
edge must be considered in planning effective early childhood curriculum. If state learn-
ing standards are well done, they should play a role in guiding discipline content and
the developmental/learning continua. The goal of this curriculum planning model is for
early childhood programs from birth through age 8 to teach the whole child—the think-
ing, feeling, moving, expressing, creating, problem-solving, interacting human being.
Applying the Curriculum Model in Practice
In the following example, we see teachers putting the planning model into practice.
Jamie, who is hearing-impaired, is a 4-year-old in Kathleen and Cheryl’s classroom.
Before school started, Kathleen took a brief course in American Sign Language to
ensure that she could communicate with him and to teach the other children some
essential signs.
On the first day of school during morning meeting, the children become fasci-
nated by Jamie and Kathleen’s ability to talk with their hands and want to learn signs
themselves. Jamie begins to feel comfortable and make friends. Kathleen and Cheryl
soon observe the children’s general fascination with the power of communicating
with hands and launch a curriculum project about hands.
conceptual organizer Ways
of organizing curriculum, such
as the project approach, that
make content knowledge more
meaningful, interesting, and
understandable for children.
developmental continuum A
predictable but not rigid se-
quence of typical developmen-
tal accomplishments within age
ranges.
learning continuum, learn-
ing trajectory, or learning
path Similar to a developmen-
tal continuum, but focuses on
sequences of knowledge or skill
in a content area.
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach338
Intentional teachers can use chil-
dren’s interests to plan curriculum
that meets many learning goals.
One child’s use of American Sign
Language can lead to a project
about hands as evident in this
preschool concept web.
The project begins with the children generating a con-
cept web about all the things that they do with their hands
using materials such as sand and clay—squeezing, covering,
pressing, and transferring (see photo on this page). The con-
cept web introduces many new vocabulary words, as well
as new signs to practice with Jamie. The teachers decide to
set up two play areas to extend the interest in hands. One is a
clothing store that includes props such as gloves and mittens
of various colors and fabrics, as well as clothing that requires
zipping, buttoning, or other fine-motor skills. They also set-
up the woodworking table for carpentry, which requires eye-
hand coordination skills as well as creativity.
Angelique: I’m going to visit my grandma in Alaska, so I
need a heavy coat and warm gloves.
Mitchell, the store manager: What kind?
Angelique, pointing to her hands: I want pink ones.
Mitchell sorts through his boxes and replies: We got red,
green, and blue gloves. I got pink mittens. They’ll be
warm.
Angelique: No, they won’t. Gloves are better. I’ll look
online.
Overhearing their conversation, Kathleen raises the ques-
tion at group time—which is warmer, gloves or mittens?
The children vote and make a graph of their answers. Most
choose gloves. They begin an experiment to see which is
actually warmer and explore the larger question of how
people stay warm.
In large group, the children also enjoy fingerplays and songs such as “Where Is
Thumbkin?” and “I Have a Family in My Hand.” At small group time, Cheryl reads
The Mitten to four children. Kathleen plays a math game with several others, chal-
lenging them to find everything in the classroom that comes in pairs like hands. After
looking everywhere and feeling stumped, Ross shouts with glee, “Ear lobes!”
Over time, the study expands to investigate the type of jobs that require working
with hands, some requiring strength and others finesse, such as musicians, painters,
computer scientists, and many others.
This glimpse into Kathleen and Cheryl’s classroom finds happy children, laughing
and playing together. What is not immediately apparent, however, is the planning that has
gone into the curriculum. To begin, the teachers identified the topic of hands as a con-
ceptual organizer for several reasons. They had observed how much interest the children
showed in Jamie’s capacity to communicate with his hands and how they could do it, too.
Thus, Jamie became a leader in the study. Also the teachers could predict that preschool-
ers are generally interested in their own bodies and mastering new skills, in this case zip-
ping, tying, or keyboarding.
Next, the teachers considered how well the topic promotes child development. They
agreed that it would provide opportunities to build cognitive processes such as matching,
describing, organizing, and categorizing by size, color, and function (dress-up, carpentry,
inclement weather). The topic promotes physical development such as practicing fine-motor
skills and eye-hand coordination. The clothing store and other activities such as modelling
with clay encourage social interaction and turn-taking as well as language development.
As for content knowledge, the study supported children’s learning in every discipline
area listed below.
Mathematics: counting by ones and twos; ordering by size (hands are different sizes);
learning about patterns and relationships (clothing designs are in patterns; hands
have similarities and differences)
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Chapter 10 Planning Effective Curriculum 339
Science: learning technology about tools and materials we use with our
hands; physical properties (some gloves are water repellant, others
are not); learning about body warmth
Language and literacy: vocabulary (nouns such as fist, tight, loose, and
verbs such as transfer, squeeze, grab, pinch); books, songs, and fin-
gerplays; nonverbal communication using gestures, body language,
and signing
Social studies: economics of buying and selling clothing; cultural dif-
ferences related to when and what kind of clothing to wear or what
jobs people do
Health: gloves and clothing for protecting hands from injury and weather
The final element of the curriculum model is that teachers need to know
the continuum of development and learning in each area so they can adapt
the curriculum to accommodate individual differences in children. Although
we raise this issue at the end of the chapter, it is the most important aspect of
implementing an effective curriculum.
Adapting for Individual Differences
One important criterion in planning curriculum for every age group is the need to
adapt for individual differences in children, including children with special needs.
The Including All Children: Individualized Education Plans: Meeting Individual Chil-
dren’s Needs feature illustrates how a teacher uses her general curriculum goals as a
framework.
Classroom Connection
As you observe this preschool
classroom in Hawaii, note how
all the elements of the child-
centered curriculum planning
model are used during their
in-depth study of birds.
In Kiara’s Head Start classroom of 14 three-year olds,
three of the children, Nikki, Devren, and Theo, have in-
dividualized education programs (IEPs). Once a month,
Kiara meets with the children’s IEP team to brainstorm
ideas for addressing their individual goals in the context
of the general curriculum and daily routines. First, the
team considers the current IEP objectives for each child:
• Nikki: Improve fine motor skills such as holding
writing instruments and cutting; identify colors and
shapes; demonstrate one-to-one correspondence.
• Devren: Make requests; initiate interactions with
his peers; watch, listen, and participate in large-
group settings.
• Theo: Ask for help when needed; label objects;
share toys and materials.
During the meeting, the team considers these individ-
ual goals along with the curriculum plan for the entire
class, which at the moment is a unit on transportation.
With this approach, the children with special needs do
not need to be segregated from their peers for one-on-
one direct instruction, and they have many opportuni-
ties to learn and practice skills. Because the curriculum
topic is interesting and motivating for young children,
learning occurs more quickly for children with special
needs.
To ensure sufficient practice opportunities throughout
the day, Kiara prepares an activity matrix (page 340)
that describes the opportunities to embed the children’s
learning goals in the daily schedule and lesson plans.
Classroom teachers and early childhood special edu-
cators can collaborate to create fun, meaningful cur-
riculum that provides powerful motivation for children,
both with and without special needs, to practice im-
portant skills throughout their day.
Effective curriculum planning involves several key
steps, whether curriculum is locally developed or pur-
chased. Curriculum should be selected or developed
using the NAEYC key indicators. If teachers use a pub-
lished program, they need to use it flexibly and adapt
it in response to children’s cues and information ob-
tained from ongoing assessment. Similarly, if teachers
develop their own curriculum plans, they need to en-
sure that those plans reflect the most current knowl-
edge from the disciplines as well as research on child
development and learning.
Including All Children
Individualized Education Plans: Meeting Children’s
Individual Needs
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach340
Teachers must take into account that children vary enormously on practically every
dimension of development and learning. These differences are manifest in rates of devel-
opment; prior experiences, which greatly influence learning; diverse cultural and linguis-
tic backgrounds; and the existence of specific abilities and disabilities.
Understanding students’ diverse needs is critical in implementing curriculum and
adapting for individual variation. Regardless of the type of curriculum used, teachers need
to apply their professional expertise. Adaptation may take many forms, such as adjusting
the groupings, the time schedule, the nature of teacher-child interactions, or the amount
and kind of scaffolding provided.
✓ Check Your Understanding 10.6: A Model for Planning Curriculum
Nikki Devren Theo
Arrival Have Nikki “sign in” for the day
holding an adaptive marker.
Have Devren be the greeter
and ask children if they would
like to sign in.
Have Theo be in charge of the
dry erase markers for sign-in
time so that he has opportu-
nities to share.
Breakfast Nikki will be the helper and set
out plates and utensils at each
place mat. She will help “take
orders” by making a mark on her
paper for each child who wants
milk.
Serve some of Devren’s fa-
vorite foods at mealtime to
encourage him to verbalize his
requests.
Provide Theo’s favorite snack
( crackers) inside a jar with a
lid and wait for a request for
help to open and provide the
snack. Put the lid back on
when done so that Theo will
ask for help again.
Group time Have Nikki hand out colored bus
circle time props (she waits for
peer to request a specific color).
Sing modified version of “Wheels
on the Bus,” i.e., “The red bus
goes . . .”
Have Devren collect circle
time props, initiating to each
peer,
“___, please hand me your
bus.”
Have Theo label the color
pattern of the bus props the
children use: red, green, blue.
Free choice/
centers
Provide colored train tickets to
correspond with colored train car.
Ask Nikki to identify the colors
of both.
Devren can be the engineer
and request tickets from
peers. At art, keep glitter in
sight but out of reach and
have Devren request to use it.
Have train engineer clothes
available for dramatic play.
Prompt Theo to ask for help
with dressing.
Outdoor play Take colored sidewalk chalk out-
side. Have Nikki draw and iden-
tify chalk colors.
Put teeter-totter and Sit and
Spin (Devren’s favorites) out-
side to increase initiations
with peers.
Make a scavenger hunt of
transportation objects out-
side. Have Theo label the
items as he finds them.
Small group/
tables
Make trains out of shapes. Have
Nikki identify different shapes.
Put peer in charge of highly
preferred art material. Devren
has to initiate with a peer to
make a request.
Close lid on glue after each
use. Prompt Theo to ask for
help.
Story Ask questions about the colors
and shapes in the book.
Let Devren sit close to teacher
and hold favorite item during
story to increase engagement.
Ask object identification
questions after reading the
story to Theo.
Departure Have children identify a shape
and color before leaving to get
their coats.
Have children identify a shape
and color before leaving to get
their coats.
Have children identify a shape
and color before leaving to get
their coats.
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Chapter 10 Planning Effective Curriculum 341
. . . Ross Elementary School
In this chapter, we described indicators of effective curriculum and provided a model for planning cur-
riculum that draws on both content knowledge and knowledge of child development, while also placing
children at the center of the planning process. At the outset, we saw a career awareness project involv-
ing all the children from pre-K to fifth grade. Now we can revisit the school and think about the project
in relation to what we have learned about curriculum.
To implement the principles of effective curriculum, the teachers had thoughtfully planned what they
wanted children to think about and learn during this study, and also considered the relevant learning
standards. Although it was a school-wide project, the activities varied by grade level to be developmen-
tally appropriate and connected to children’s predictable interests.
Children were active and engaged as they interacted with the visiting experts, drew pictures for their
posters, and wrote essays and poems. They used various forms of technology for research and to commu-
nicate with other experts. The project addressed several state learning goals including English language
arts and social studies. But children also learned about other disciplines, new concepts, and vocabulary
in their discussions with professionals—such as how they use math and science in their work. The study
drew on children’s interests, connected what they are learning in school to the real world, and motivated
them to continue learning. This activity illustrates integrated curriculum in action, with children’s experi-
ences contributing to different areas of their development and learning at the same time.
With regard to the planning model used in this classroom, the curriculum is based in the discipline
of social studies, but content is made accessible to children through a topic that fascinates them: their
own lives and future careers. At the same time, children are learning the key concepts and tools of in-
quiry used by researchers. For example, they investigate using the Internet and interview experts. They
enhance their language and literacy as they learn new words and concepts related to the occupations
they are studying.
Child development knowledge is reflected in providing developmentally appropriate experiences,
including play and book reading. At the same time, teachers assess each child’s progress in relation to
learning goals, and support their developing abilities, as when they evaluate their writing, observe their
symbolic representation ability in drawings, and listen when they engage in conversation with experts
and peers. As this school-wide project demonstrates, effective early childhood curriculum is not only
motivating and engaging but also intellectually challenging for children and teachers. ■
Revisiting the Case Study
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach342
Key Terms
■ alignment
■ conceptual organizers
■ content standards
■ curriculum
■ curriculum approach
■ curriculum framework
■ curriculum model
■ developmental
continuum
■ emergent curriculum
■ fidelity
■ integrated curriculum
■ learning continuum,
learning trajectory, or
learning path
■ learning standards
■ performance standards
■ project
■ project approach
■ scientifically based
curriculum
■ scope
■ sequence
■ thematic curriculum
■ validated curriculum
■ webbing
Demonstrate Your Learning
Click here to assess how well you’ve learned the content in this chapter.
✓
• Curriculum is a written plan that describes the goals
for children’s learning and development, and the learn-
ing experiences, materials, and teaching strategies that
are used to help children achieve those goals.
• Scientifically based curriculum derives from research
evidence about what kinds of learning outcomes
relate to later achievement and what types of teaching
and learning experiences help children acquire those
outcomes. Scientifically based curriculum has been
evaluated, and it has demonstrated its effectiveness.
• Effective curriculum is thoughtfully planned; chal-
lenging, engaging, and developmentally appropriate;
culturally and linguistically responsive; comprehen-
sive; and likely to promote positive outcomes for all
young children.
• Learning standards define what is to be taught and
what kind of performance is expected. Standards pro-
vide guidance to curriculum developers and teachers
about what and when to teach particular content.
• Effective approaches to planning early childhood
curriculum include emergent curriculum, integrated
curriculum, thematic curriculum, webbing, the project
approach, and scope and sequence.
• Curriculum models are idealized versions of what and
how teaching and learning should occur. Frequently used
early childhood curriculum models include HighScope,
Creative Curriculum, Core Knowledge, and Tools of the
Mind. The Reggio Emilia Approach is a comprehensive
approach to early childhood education and curriculum
that has inspired programs throughout the world.
• A child-centered model of curriculum planning draws on
content knowledge, conceptual organizers, knowledge
of child development, and developmental and learning
continua. All four dimensions of the model are influ-
enced by sociocultural contexts.
Chapter Summary10
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Chapter 10 Planning Effective Curriculum 343
Helm, J. H. (2014). Becoming young thinkers: Deep
project work in the classroom. New York: Teachers College
Press.
Jacobs, G., & Crowley, K. (2014). Supporting stu-
dents, meeting standards: Best practices for engaged
learning in first, second, and third grade. Washington,
DC: National Association for the Education of Young
Children.
National Center on Quality Teaching and Learn-
ing. (2014). Preschool curriculum consumer report.
Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services, Office of Head Start. Available online.
Wien, C. A. (2014). The power of emergent curricu-
lum: Stories from early childhood settings. Washington,
DC: National Association for the Education of Young
Children.
Common Core State Standards Initiative
On this website, you will find complete copies of the
Common Core standards, information about state
adoption, answers to frequently asked questions and
responses to commonly-held myths about the initiative.
Edutopia
Sponsored by the George Lucas Educational Founda-
tion, Edutopia’s website contains innovative resources to
implement project-based learning, social and emotional
learning, comprehensive assessment, integrated curricu-
lum, and effective use of technology.
Project Approach
Visit this website, directed by Sylvia Chard, to find a
wealth of resources for using the project approach includ-
ing rich project examples for pre-K to grade 12, and
downloadable study guides.
Readings and Websites
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11
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
11.1 Define assessment literacy, and identify the terms teachers must know and
use to become assessment literate.
11.2 Identify purposes for assessing young children.
11.3 Describe the most important indicators of effective assessment.
11.4 Apply effective strategies for gathering and recording evidence to support
teaching, and children’s learning and development.
11.5 Explain features of standardized testing, and evaluate its appropriate and
inappropriate uses.
Assessing Children’s
Learning and Development
Learning Outcomes
© Studio 8/Pearson Education
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345
F irst-grade teacher Bonnie Kinsela begins every day with group meeting. She reads a story and calls on children to check their understanding of the story. Then she and her students discuss their day. Today, Bonnie
makes short notes and a few checkmarks on her clipboard as the children transition to their literacy centers. She
notes that Alexi and Nassim are able to answer questions about key details in the story. This is one of the Common
Core standards, and Alexi and Nassim have not previously demonstrated this ability. She is pleased, and wonders
if this is because they followed this particular story or if their listening comprehension has improved. She makes
a note to observe this skill again.
Literacy block follows. Bonnie finds herself intensely engaged in a cycle of assessment and instruction, working
with some children individually and others in small groups. Bonnie takes notes about each child as she observes
one group writing a play. She uses her iPad to take photos of an in-progress poem that Ariana is writing and
uploads it to the online assessment site. She’ll use this example for Ariana’s portfolio and share it at the next
Professional Learning Community (PLC) meeting. The kindergarten teachers requested some examples of the
kinds of creative writing the first graders are doing to help them adapt some experiences for their writing centers.
Approaching the listening center, Bonnie notices that Bella and Cal are arguing over the headphones. Cal
becomes angry, unplugs the headphones and raises them over his head, about to throw them. He then lowers
them and looks to Bonnie for assistance. She draws the children’s attention to the visual schedule in the center
and helps them plan when each has a turn. Both children calm down. Bonnie is grateful that their school district
has integrated social-emotional assessment scales into ongoing assessment tools. Cal has made great progress in
developing emotion regulation. The assessment scale has helped Bonnie understand the gains he has made, and
how he can continue to grow in this regard. She jots a note that Cal looked for help in this situation and will enter
this into his assessment profile later.
After listening to two groups in guided reading, Bonnie calls Devin and Egan over for reading. Devin has a
diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and has an IEP to help meet his educational needs. Devin sounds out
words and reads aloud well; however, he has trouble comprehending meaning in the text. Egan is his best friend,
and Devin listens well and follows Egan’s lead for reading time. Devin’s annual IEP review meeting is approaching,
and Bonnie wants to make certain that she has data that represents Devin’s literacy progress and ongoing needs.
Last week, she used a standardized tool to assess Devin’s reading comprehension, but now she wants to assess
his supported level of comprehension. She suspects that Devin will demonstrate better comprehension when
reading high interest content with a supportive peer. Using her iPad, Connie tapes the session to share a clip with
his parents before the IEP meeting. The boys have a great interactive reading session,
and Devin demonstrates higher level skills than on the standardized measure. Both
are valuable data, but Bonnie is pleased that she is able to show the higher edges of
Devin’s ability.
Over the course of the literacy block, children engage in rhyming
games at the writing center. Although their interactions are sometimes
silly, and need a bit of redirection to complete their work,
Bonnie observes that the children produce some high-level
rhyme and rhythmic patterns. Her poetry unit is scheduled
for later in the year, but it seems as though
the children’s interest is peaked now. Bonnie
decides to modify her teaching plan to capitalize
on children’s interests. ■
Case Study
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach346
B
onnie’s school is in their second year using the Common Core to guide instruction.
This means making sure that all her first graders meet literacy standards for read-
ing, writing, and language. Sometimes the work related to tracking and addressing
the standards can seem overwhelming. However, Bonnie also finds that the structure helps
her to ensure that she is addressing all of the important literacy needs of first graders.
Accurate assessment of children’s learning and development is a vital component
of effective practice in early childhood education. The profession has a long history of
studying children, and observation of young children is essential to providing develop-
mentally appropriate practice (Reifel, 2011). To a large extent, early childhood educa-
tion has grown because research based on assessments of children’s learning has found
that high-quality programs have positive, lasting effects on children’s development. The
closely related field of early intervention is steeped in the necessity for and value of as-
sessment for educating children with special needs. Recently, the school accountability
movement and federal policies have placed considerable emphasis on testing in the early
years of school to ensure that all children achieve reading and mathematics skills.
The goal of this chapter is to prepare you to achieve the most important purpose of
assessment: to improve children’s learning and development. If children are to benefit
fully from early childhood programs, intentional teachers must know why, what, and
how to assess. Like many other areas of education, assessment has its own— sometimes
bewildering—vocabulary and jargon. We begin by helping you learn the language of
assessment. Then we discuss four fundamental purposes of assessment and connect
these to various tools and procedures. We present indicators of effective assessment. The
chapter concludes with a discussion of appropriate and inappropriate uses of standardized
tests and of program evaluation and accountability.
Learning the Language
of Assessment
The first step in understanding and using assessment appropriately and accurately is for
teachers to acquire the vocabulary of assessment. As teachers become more experienced
in using various assessment methods and tools, their knowledge of assessment—their
assessment literacy—grows and deepens. Broadly defined, assessment is the ongoing
process of gathering evidence of children’s learning and development, then organizing
and interpreting the information in order to make informed decisions about instructional
practice (McAfee, Leong, & Bodrova, 2015). Evidence is an outward sign or indication
of children’s learning, such as their response to a question or their solution to a problem
(McAfee et al., 2015). Therefore, assessment involves using multiple sources of evidence
systematically collected over time from which professionals make judgments about spe-
cific actions to take on behalf of children.
Each of the many different types of assessment has various implications for how and
when it is conducted. We begin by describing assessment in its broadest terms— formative
and summative—and then describe more specific types of assessments.
Formative and Summative Assessment
Formative assessment is the process of gathering information about children and using
it to plan effective and individualized instruction (Riley-Ayers, 2014). The information
obtained from formative assessment helps form the next steps in the teaching and learning
process. In practice, formative assessment is so closely linked to teaching and curriculum
that teachers may not even recognize it as assessment.
At the end of an educational experience, student progress is assessed using a
summative assessment, which sums up or evaluates the effectiveness of an experience
after it concludes. Evaluation is the process of making a judgment about assessment
results and is frequently considered the last step in assessment (McAfee et al., 2015).
assessment The ongoing pro-
cess of gathering evidence of
children’s learning and devel-
opment for informed decisions
about instructional practice.
evidence An outward sign or
indication of children’s learn-
ing, such as their response to a
question or their solution to a
problem.
summative assessment
Assessing student learning
at the end of an educational
experience to evaluate the ef-
fectiveness of the experience.
evaluation The process of
making a judgment about
assessment results; frequently
considered the last step in
assessment.
formative assessment The
process of gathering infor-
mation about children and
using it to plan effective and
individualized instruction.
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Chapter 11 Assessing Children’s Learning and Development 347
In a college English course, for example, the instructor’s feedback on student essays is
formative assessment, whereas the final exam is summative. Similarly, in a preschool or
primary classroom, summative assessment may occur at the end of the year, when teach-
ers compare their observations of children’s progress to those they conducted when the
school year began.
Informal and Formal Assessments
Assessments are often identified as informal or formal. Informal assessment
refers to information that is gathered for teachers’ use to make everyday class-
room decisions or adjustments to teaching (McAfee et al., 2015). For instance,
while reading a storybook to her preschool class, Abby Cosgrove observes that
some children are listening intently while others are clearly uninterested and
not following the story. She uses this informal observation of children’s cues to
quickly adapt her behavior. “This is a very long story,” she says. “I will finish
reading it during choice time if you want to hear the rest. Right now, let’s all
reach for the sky . . . turn around . . . touch the ground . . . and sit down.” As
Abby slowly gives each direction, all of the children become engaged in the
physical movement and return their attention to her. “Now who has a song for
us to sing?” In this example, Abby used her informal assessment of the children
to adapt her teaching and engage them in the learning process.
A formal assessment is an assessment that follows a specific procedure and uses a
specially designed instrument or tool. Teachers often use such assessments to report re-
sults to others. Formal assessments include structured child observations or assessments
that produce specific scores. Formal assessment, in contrast to informal assessment, is
also used to describe any method of gathering information that is standardized, a topic
discussed later in this chapter.
Observation
Observation of children’s behavior and development is the most important and frequently
used assessment strategy. Observation can be used for both formative and summative
evaluation, informal or formal. Teachers observe informally on a daily basis as part of the
instructional process, and they also assess children formally using rigorously designed
observational tools.
One type of formative assessment is curriculum-embedded assessment, which is
based on teacher observation that is integrated into the curriculum and not conducted
as a separate procedure. The teacher assesses the children while
teaching using the classroom activity itself—for example, when
a teacher listens to children describe their reasoning or watches
them write. A similar formative assessment strategy is play-based
assessment, in which the context for observing and interacting
with children is the children’s play.
Performance Assessment
Performance assessment, also known as authentic assessment,
is used to determine what children know and can do from their
demonstration of a skill or their creation of a product. Consider,
for instance, how figure skaters are judged on the basis of their
skating performance, not on whether they can draw a skating ma-
neuver or write a description of how to do a triple axel.
For children, authentic assessment engages them in tasks that
occur in real-life contexts, whether in the classroom or on the
playground, or in situations as close as possible to that context.
For example, to assess children’s reading ability, a teacher listens
informal assessment
Gathering information for
teacher’s use to make everyday
classroom decisions or adjust-
ments to teaching.
formal assessment
Assessment that follows a specif-
ic procedure and uses a specially
designed instrument or tool.
curriculum-embedded
assessment Formative assess-
ment that is integrated into the
curriculum; this assessment
does not occur as a separate
procedure.
Classroom Connection
How does this teacher use
observation as a source of informal
assessment in her classroom?
What are some of the benefits of
this type of observation?
http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=RyQpNhaWz0c
Accurate assessment is
essential for effective practice.
Intentional teachers observe
children and gather information
about their learning and devel-
opment to plan curriculum and
adapt their teaching.
©
M
on
as
h
ee
F
ra
n
tz
/O
JO
I
m
ag
es
/G
et
ty
I
m
ag
es
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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RyQpNhaWz0c
Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach348
to them read aloud rather than giving them a multiple-choice test. Assessments such as
this, which call for a child to produce a response rather than select from a list of possible
responses, are also called alternative assessments (Gullo, 2006).
Dynamic Assessment
Based on Vygotsky’s concept of the zone of proximal development, dynamic assess-
ment analyzes a child’s performance not just in terms of what the child can do inde-
pendently, as most assessment procedures require, but what the child can do with the
assistance of a teacher or peer (McAfee et al., 2015). A teacher may provide prompts,
cues, hints, or questions that elicit a child’s response. Analyzing the
amount and kind of assistance the child needs to perform a task provides
information about the child’s current level of understanding and skill and
also guides the next steps in teaching (McAfee et al., 2015).
Standardized Testing
Many people hear the word assessment and automatically think of testing.
Standardized assessment refers to the assessment of all children, using the
same procedures and performing the same task under the same conditions.
The thought behind standardizing procedures is that it leads to less biased
and more objective results.
Although assessment is sometimes used as a synonym for testing, test-
ing is only one part of the larger concept of assessment. Testing is a sys-
tematic procedure for evaluating a child’s behavior and knowledge, which
results in the assignment of a score (McAfee et al., 2015). Therefore, a test is a snapshot
of a child’s performance or knowledge that is administered to an individual or group
under controlled conditions. Some tests are teacher developed, whereas others are de-
veloped by test publishing companies. Some, but not all, commercially published tests
are standardized.
Standardized testing uses prescribed methods for administering and scoring and
needs to meet technical standards for educational and psychological testing (American
Educational Research Association, American Psychological Association & National
Council on Measurement in Education, 2014). These standards are designed to ensure
that tests have high levels of reliability and validity.
Reliability Reliability is the extent to which the results obtained from a test are
accurate and consistent over time. A test is said to be reliable if the tool is likely to get the
same or similar results when used by different people or on different days. To understand
the concept of reliability, consider an example unrelated to education: measuring cooking
ingredients. If a recipe calls for 1 cup of flour, even a beginning cook would reach for
a standard, 8-ounce measuring cup. If one cook used a demitasse cup, another chose a
giant-size coffee mug, and another filled a tea cup half full, the final results would vary
considerably. The standard measuring cup, therefore, is reliable, whereas the other cup
selections are not.
Validity Validity means that the instrument measures what it purports to measure. For
example, a test designed to measure children’s physical skills should not depend on chil-
dren’s ability to understand verbal directions; in such a case, the test is really a measure
of the children’s language.
In revisiting our cooking example, suppose we are trying to measure volume.
There are a number of ways to measure volume, such as using a liquid measuring cup
or an 8-ounce standard cup, which would yield an equally accurate amount of f lour
for a recipe. However, if we tried to measure f lour with a yardstick, which is for mea-
suring length, the results would be not only messy but also inaccurate and, therefore,
Classroom Connection
Observe how this teacher uses
formative assessment while
teaching literacy. What are some
examples you observe in which
the teacher uses the curriculum
to assess and her assessment to
inform curriculum? What other
forms of assessment is she using?
https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=dxAXJEK–qk
play-based assessment
Similar to curriculum-
embedded assessment, but
the context for observing and
interacting with children is the
children’s play.
performance assessment
or authentic assessment
Determines what children
know and can do from their
demonstration of a skill or their
creation of a product.
alternative assessments
Assessments that call for a
child to produce a response
rather than select from a list of
possible responses.
dynamic assessment
Analyzes a child’s performance
not just in terms of what the
child can do independently, but
what the child can do with the
assistance of a teacher or peer.
standardized assessment
Assessment of all children
using the same procedures and
performing the same task under
the same conditions.
testing A systematic procedure
for evaluating a child’s behavior
and knowledge that is then as-
signed a score.
standardized testing Uses
prescribed methods for admin-
istering and scoring.
reliability The extent to which
the results obtained from a test
are accurate and consistent
over time.
validity The degree to which
an instrument measures what it
purports to measure.
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Chapter 11 Assessing Children’s Learning and Development 349
lacking validity. If a standardized test lacks reliability or validity, the results it yields
are meaningless.
Types of Standardized Tests
In addition to reliability and validity, standardized tests involve one of two ways of scor-
ing. They may be either norm referenced or criterion referenced.
Criterion-Referenced Tests Criterion-referenced tests compare a person’s score to
a predetermined level of performance. They are designed to measure how well an individual
has learned a specific body of knowledge and skills (FairTest, 2007). Third-grade standardized
achievement tests administered by state departments of education are criterion-referenced
tests. The criterion for passing is a preset number of correct answers, which presumably rep-
resents how much a child has learned. Similarly, the SAT test is a criterion-referenced test,
with different colleges setting the cut-off score, or criterion, needed for admission.
Norm-Referenced Tests By contrast, norm-referenced tests compare an indi-
vidual’s score to that of other test takers—who knows the most and who the least? Scores
are reported by percentage rank, with half scoring above and half scoring below the mid-
point or average (FairTest, 2007). Many school-administered tests are norm referenced.
For example, screening or diagnostic tests used in the process of identifying children’s
special needs compare children’s scores to that of other children to determine if their de-
velopment is within the typical, or “normal,” range.
Norm-referenced tests are developed by giving the tests to large numbers of children
and comparing their scores. These tests result in a distribution of scores that look like a
bell or normal curve, with most people scoring at the midrange and fewer scoring at the
higher and lower ends. For example, on a hypothetical vocabulary test of 4-year-olds,
most children’s vocabulary might average about 1,200 words, whereas some know as
many as 2,500 and others know as few as 400.
In administering a norm-referenced test, it is essential to know the characteristics
of the group used to develop the norms—that is, the norming group. In the vocabulary
test example, the norming group is the thousands of 4-year-olds whose vocabularies
were measured. If a norm-referenced test is used, the administrator needs to consider
the composition of the norming group in terms of gender, ethnicity, age, socioeconomic
background, culture, language, and inclusion of children with disabilities. If the norming
group differs a great deal from the group of children with whom the test will be used,
the results may not be accurate or reliable. For example, if a vocabulary test designed to
identify language delays were given to a child who is learning English, the result might
indicate a learning problem where none actually exists.
The language of assessment is complex. In practice, terminology is often misused
or used inconsistently. Teachers need to be clear about the concepts underlying the
words; they need to become assessment literate. Now that we have established a common
vocabulary with which to discuss assessment, in the next section we describe fundamental
purposes of assessment.
✓ Check Your Understanding 11.1: Learning the Language of Assessment
Purposes of Assessment:
Why Assess?
Before engaging in any form of assessment, teachers need to ask, “What is the purpose
of the assessment?” The answer to this question determines all aspects of how the assess-
ment will be conducted, including:
• Who is to be assessed
• What is to be measured and with what tool
norm-referenced tests Tests
that compare an individual’s
score to that of other test
takers.
criterion-referenced
tests Tests that compare a per-
son’s score to a predetermined
level of performance.
normal curve A distribution
of scores that looks like a bell
shape, with most people scor-
ing at the midrange and fewer
scoring at the higher and lower
ends.
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach350
• Who will conduct the assessment and
when
• What technical requirements are needed
for the assessment
• How the results will be interpreted and
used.
In early childhood programs, the four
basic purposes of assessment are (1) to im-
prove teaching and learning, (2) to identify
children with special learning or develop-
mental needs, (3) to evaluate programs, and
(4) to demonstrate accountability (National
Research Council [NRC], 2008). First, we
discuss these purposes and then we give ex-
amples of informal and formal assessments
related to them.
Assessing to Improve Teaching and Learning
Effective teaching cannot occur without ongoing assessment. The first step in develop-
mentally appropriate practice—meeting the learner or monitoring children’s progress—
requires assessment. Consider the following examples of how teachers use the informa-
tion they gather to make decisions about curriculum planning and teaching:
In David Billings’s preschool, a curriculum goal is for children to distinguish begin-
ning and ending sounds in words. David first introduced these skills using poems and
songs during whole-group time. But when he finds that a few children can’t pick out
the rhyming sounds, he plans to work with them in a small group, playing rhyming
games and reading rhyming books.
Margie Wasky regularly monitors whether her second graders comprehend what
they read. She discovers a few children who read very fast but can’t accurately an-
swer questions about the passages they read. She has these children read aloud to
each other in pairs, and finds that reading more slowly with expression to a partner
improves their understanding of what they’ve read.
In these examples, we see that planning
and adapting curriculum and teaching practices
requires ongoing assessment. These teachers
assessed children’s learning by observing and
documenting and then ref lecting on and inter-
preting the information. They then adapted their
teaching and planned curriculum accordingly.
Although we address teaching, curriculum, and
assessment in separate chapters in this book,
in reality they are integrally connected. What
happens in one area inf luences and is inf luenced
by what happens in the others, as depicted in
Figure 11.1.
Many schools now use systematic, ongoing as-
sessment as an integral part of three-tiered- models
of instruction such as Response to Intervention
(RTI), which we describe in Chapter 5. In this
framework, children’s learning is assessed regu-
larly and teaching adapted accordingly. Based on
assessment data, some children receive more indi-
vidualized instruction in reading and mathematics
Intentional, effective teaching
begins with observing and get-
ting to know each child.
Observing and
collecting
evidence
Recording and
documenting
Re�ecting on
and
interpreting
evidence
Individualizing
teaching
strategies
Planning and
adapting
curriculum
FIGURE 11.1 Cycle of
Assessment, Teaching,
and Curriculum Effective
curriculum and teaching
depend on systematic, ongo-
ing assessment as depicted in
this cycle.
©
S
u
za
n
n
e
C
lo
u
ze
au
/P
ea
rs
on
E
d
u
ca
ti
on
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Chapter 11 Assessing Children’s Learning and Development 351
or other areas; a few children receive highly individualized interventions (National Center
on Response to Intervention, 2010).
Teachers are the primary assessors as well as the primary audiences for classroom
assessment. In early childhood, much classroom assessment is informal and performance
based, relying heavily on teacher observations. Because everyday decisions are not high
stakes, and easily corrected, classroom assessment does not need to meet technical stan-
dards for reliability and validity. For instance, if participation in the small group doesn’t
help Jamal’s rhyming, David begins working with him one-on-one and also gives his
mother some ideas to try at home.
Nevertheless, teacher observations and judgments can be unreliable, invalid, or bi-
ased. This is why teachers need to use many sources of information. They should ob-
serve children in different situations over time, rather than base their conclusions about
children’s ability on one encounter. Intentional teaching depends on accurate assessment
tools, which we discuss later in this chapter.
Identifying Children with Special Learning
or Developmental Needs
This purpose of assessment encompasses routine checks for vision, hearing, and immu-
nization to ensure healthy development as well as identification of physical, cognitive, or
emotional disabilities. Regular health checks by physicians beginning at birth may also
uncover possible disabilities or special needs. Vision and hearing problems, if undetected,
can have long-term consequences for children’s learning, so early health screenings are
essential for every child.
Because the benefits of early intervention are well established, professionals have
an ethical as well as a legal responsibility to accurately identify young children with
special needs and help them access appropriate services (Division for Early Childhood
[DEC], 2014). These decisions have lasting consequences for individual children;
therefore, the instruments used need to meet high standards of reliability and validity
(McAfee et al., 2015). Screening and diagnostic tests are used as part of a two-step
process of identifying children who may have disabilities or special learning or devel-
opmental needs.
Screening Screening tests, also called developmental screening, are administered to
all children, usually in preschool or kindergarten, as the first step in a process to deter-
mine which children are at risk of a possible disability or learning problem. Teachers or
other professionals administer these brief tests, which include general items on motor
development, perception, language, and cognitive development. A screening test is like
the toy screen used in a sandbox; most of the grains of sand will pass through readily,
but a few will be left for closer inspection. In many preschools and child care programs,
screening is a well-established rite of fall.
The process is not foolproof, and some children may have problems that go unde-
tected. Therefore, teachers and families play a critical role in contributing information
to the screening and identification process. Information on a child’s functioning should
be drawn from multiple sources, and include family members in the screening process
(DEC, 2014). As teachers assess children’s progress on a daily basis, they may obtain
information that raises concerns that formal screening may confirm or deny. Those few
children who do not pass the initial screening may or may not have a more serious condi-
tion; to make this determination, diagnostic testing is required (DEC, 2014).
Diagnostic Testing Diagnostic tests are designed to gather information to identify
the specific learning or developmental delays a child may have and to plan educational
interventions. The second part of the two-step process is a complete diagnostic evalua-
tion designed to identify the child’s areas of need and strength, to prepare individualized
goals, and to plan activities and supports. Multiple sources of information are used, such
screening tests Tests admin-
istered to all children, usually
in preschool or kindergarten,
as the first step in a process to
determine which children are
at risk of a possible disability
or learning problem; also called
developmental screening.
diagnostic tests Tests
designed to identify the
specific learning or develop-
mental problems a child has
and to plan interventions; must
be administered by specially
trained professionals.
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach352
as medical evaluations, standardized tests, and teacher and
parent observations in authentic contexts. The Division
for Early Childhood (2014) recommends that assessment
for children with disabilities include input from the fam-
ily and address children’s interests, needs, and personal
characteristics in addition to intellectual and ability testing.
Furthermore, testing should be done in the child’s domi-
nant language, and should consider other cultural factors.
Diagnostic tests require specialized training to administer
and interpret and, therefore, are given by special educators,
school psychologists, speech pathologists, or therapists.
For the first two purposes of assessment—to support
learning and to identify children with special needs—the
target of assessment is the individual child. Next we turn to
assessment purposes, for which information is gathered on
groups of children.
Evaluating Program Quality
Program evaluation is the process of gathering information
about the quality of the classroom and its effects to determine
whether the program is achieving its goals and objectives.
Observational instruments that are often used to evaluate the
quality of children’s experiences are the Early Childhood
Environment Rating Scales for infants, toddlers, preschool-
ers, and school-agers (Harms, Clifford, & Cryer, 2014) and
the Classroom Assessment Scoring System for preschool
through primary grades (Pianta, La Paro, & Hamre, 2008).
These tools are frequently used to evaluate the quality of
programs as part of state Quality Rating and Improvement
Systems and in Head Start and public prekindergarten.
Some types of program evaluation such as licensing or accreditation may not require
information about children’s performance. Increasingly, however, program evaluation in-
cludes data on child outcomes—how well the group of children as a whole is achieving
the goals of the program. The results of assessment for program evaluation are usually
aggregated; that is, they are combined and reported as total scores for the group rather
than scores attached to individual children.
The audience for program evaluation data is usually policy makers or funders who
want to know if a program represents a cost-effective use of public or private dollars.
Although stakeholders need accurate program evaluation data for future decision making,
the stakes for such assessment are not as high as for accountability assessment.
Assessing for Accountability
Closely related to program evaluation, assessment for accountability is, by definition,
high-stakes testing. Accountability is “holding teachers, schools, or programs respon-
sible for meeting a required level of performance” (McAfee et al., 2015). Accountability
requirements often specify what children should know and be able to do based on state
learning standards. The audiences for accountability data include federal, state, and local
policy makers; parents; and the general tax-paying public.
As we discussed earlier, the stakes attached to accountability testing are high. By
the same token, holding schools accountable can lead to more attention being focused
on the children who need it and on improvements in teaching and learning (Au, 2007).
The standards for accuracy of accountability testing must be extremely rigorous because
scores are attached to individuals—children and teachers—rather than a group or program
(NRC, 2008).
program evaluation The pro-
cess of gathering information
about a program’s quality and
effectiveness.
accountability The process
of holding teachers, schools,
or programs responsible for
meeting a required level of
performance.
One of the most important
purposes of assessment is
screening and identification
of children with special needs.
To ensure accurate identi-
fication, valid and reliable
measures must be used along
with information from parents
and teachers.
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Chapter 11 Assessing Children’s Learning and Development 353
Table 11.1 Matching Purpose and Types of Assessment
Each type of assessment has specific purposes. To yield accurate results, assessment tools must be used for
the purposes for which they were developed.
Types of Assessment
Purpose Formal Informal
To monitor children’s progress and make
decisions about teaching and learning
Published, validated observation tools and
rating scales; criterion-referenced achieve-
ment tests
Observation; interviews, analysis of
work samples; teacher-made tests and
procedures
To identify children who may have special
needs
Developmental screening tests to be fol-
lowed by diagnostic evaluation for those
identified; norm-referenced standardized
tests with high reliability and validity
Structured observation of behavior and
performance by teachers; information
from parents
Program evaluation Validated observational measures of
classroom quality and teacher-child
interactions; criterion-referenced tests
for samples of children keyed to program
goals
Surveys of children, teachers, and
parents; data collected by teachers from
informal classroom assessments including
observations, performance assessments,
and portfolios
Accountability Criterion-referenced standardized achieve-
ment tests
Data collected by teachers from informal
classroom assessments including observa-
tions, performance assessments, and
portfolios
Source: Adapted from “Reaching Potentials through Appropriate Assessment,” by T. W. Hills, 1992, pp. 43–63, in Reaching Potentials: Appropriate
Curriculum and Assessment for Young Children, Vol. 1, edited by S. Bredekamp and T. Rosegrant, Washington, DC: NAEYC. Reprinted with
permission from the National Association for the Education of Young Children.
Connecting Purposes and Types of Assessment
As we have seen, each of the four purposes of assessment demands various types of tools
and procedures. Given that all effective assessment decisions require multiple sources
of information, teachers need to know which kinds of assessment are most effective for
which purposes. Table 11.1 provides examples of formal and informal assessment tools
appropriate for each of the four purposes.
Using assessment tools for the right purpose is essential. However, other important
indicators of effective assessment exist and are described in the next section.
✓ Check Your Understanding 11.2: Purposes of Assessment: Why Assess?
Indicators of Effective Assessment
According to the NAEYC and the National Association of Early Childhood Specialists
in State Departments of Education (NAECS-SDE) (2003), ethical, appropriate, valid,
and reliable assessment is a central part of early childhood education. These profes-
sional associations call for assessment methods that are “developmentally appropriate,
culturally and linguistically responsive, tied to children’s daily activities, supported by
professional development for teachers, inclusive of families, and connected to beneficial
purposes” (NAEYC & NAECS-SDE, 2003, p. 2). The ultimate goal of all early child-
hood assessment should be to benefit children by making sound decisions about teaching
and learning, providing access to intervention services, or improving the quality of the
program.
Early childhood professional organizations have established guidelines for effective
assessment and evaluation (DEC, 2014; NAEYC & NAECS-SDE, 2003). Key indica-
tors of effective assessment practices are described in Table 11.2. To implement these
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach354
Due to the power of assessment results to effect children’s lives, assessment practices must meet high,
professional standards, as described in this table.
Indicators Key Considerations
Ethical principles guide assessment practices. Children should never be denied opportunities or services on the basis of assess-
ment findings. Decisions should never be made on the basis of a single assessment
or test score. Assessment findings should remain confidential.
Assessment instruments are used for their
intended purposes.
Using a measure for a different purpose inevitably invalidates the results. For
example, a developmental screening test should be used as the first step in an
identification process, not as a measure of kindergarten readiness.
Assessments are appropriate for the ages
and other characteristics of children being
assessed.
Assessments should be used with groups of children who are similar to the group
with which the measure was validated in terms of age, culture, home language,
socioeconomic status, and abilities and disabilities.
Assessment instruments comply with profes-
sional criteria for quality.
Test development must meet technical guidelines for reliability and validity.
What is assessed is developmentally and
educationally significant.
Because assessment takes up considerable time and resources, it should address
the important learning goals and standards that are emphasized in the curriculum.
Assessment evidence is used to understand
and improve learning.
Good assessment teaches teachers about children. That knowledge needs to be put
to use in individualizing instruction or adapting curriculum, or else both teachers’
and children’s time and effort are wasted.
Assessment evidence is gathered in realistic
settings and situations that reflect children’s
actual performance.
This indicator calls for authentic performance assessment based on the results
of teachers’ observations of children in context, interviews, and on collections of
children’s work.
Assessments use multiple sources of evidence
gathered over time.
Repeated, systematic observation, documentation, and other forms of criterion- or
performance-based assessment are needed to accurately assess young children.
Screening is always linked to follow-up. When screening or informal assessment indicates a possible problem, referral to
specialists for diagnostic assessment follows. Labeling a child as having a disabil-
ity is never made on the basis of a brief screening or one-time assessment.
Use of individually administered, norm-
referenced tests is limited.
Formal, standardized, and norm-referenced tests are potentially beneficial as part
of the process of identification and diagnosis of special needs.
Professionals and families are knowledgeable
about assessment.
Teachers as well as families need to see assessment as a tool to improve outcomes
for children. Parents are not simply audiences for assessment information; they are
also important sources of information about children’s capabilities at home and in
the community that must be considered in the assessment process.
Source: Early Childhood Curriculum, Assessment, and Program Evaluation: Building an Effective, Accountable System in Programs for Children
Birth through Age 8. Joint Position Statement, by National Association for the Education of Young Children and National Association of Early
Childhood Specialists in State Departments of Education, 2003, Washington, DC: NAEYC. Reprinted with permission from the National Association
for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC). www.naeyc.org.
TAblE 11.2 Effective Assessment Practices
assessment practices, teachers need to understand the implications for assessing very
young children, English language learners, and children with special needs, discussed in
the sections that follow.
Developmentally Appropriate Assessment
Most parents, grandparents, and teachers would agree with the statement “Young chil-
dren are not good test takers.” But why is this statement a truism? Sound assessment of
young children is difficult for several reasons: (1) the nature of typical child development,
(2) children’s sensitivity to context, and (3) their lack of motivation, as well as (4) their
inability to perform many of the tasks required by traditional assessments (McAfee et
al., 2015). For assessment to be developmentally appropriate, each of these factors must
be taken into consideration.
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http://www.naeyc.org
Chapter 11 Assessing Children’s Learning and Development 355
The Nature of Child Development Many of the characteristics of young
children make it difficult to obtain trustworthy assessment information. Children’s
development is rapid, uneven, and embedded in their own cultural and linguistic con-
texts (McDevitt & Ormrod, 2013). For example, 2½-year-old Brian barely said a word
at child care, and then one day he got so excited about the new set of trucks that he
couldn’t stop talking. Four-year-old Wyatt spent all day showing off how he could bal-
ance on one foot, but when his aunt arrived to pick him up, he refused to demonstrate
this newly acquired skill.
Young children’s development and learning is marked by spurts and plateaus
(McAfee et al., 2015). For months, 6-year-old Aura struggled during language arts
period. Then in March, she seemed to have an “ah-ha” moment. She stopped guessing
at words she didn’t know and began really reading for the first time. At times, children’s
development may even go backward. Three-year-old Jacob seemed to have thoroughly
mastered the potty until his baby sister was born, and then he started having accidents
every day.
Children’s progress is also uneven across different developmental areas. Five-year-
old Claudio has the vocabulary of an 8-year-old and can read at the second-grade level,
but he struggles to regulate his emotions and is aggressive when frustrated. If only
Claudio’s reading skills were assessed, we would have a skewed picture of his school
performance.
Language development is also a work in progress during early childhood. Most types
of assessment require that children understand directions, know particular vocabulary
words, or be understood by an adult, perhaps even a relative stranger. Limited language
skills can easily interfere with obtaining an accurate picture of children’s competence.
Accurate assessment of children who are learning two languages raises an additional set
of concerns, which are addressed later in this chapter.
Children’s Sensitivity to Context The context where an assessment takes
place, either informal or formal, can affect children’s performance. Context includes
the physical setting, whether in the classroom, home, or on the playground, and the
social setting: one on one, small group, or whole group. A familiar context can serve
to make children comfortable and relaxed and more likely to perform naturally and do
their best.
A strange or unfamiliar context, either in terms of the place or the people, can be
distracting or even stressful. Consider Hugo, who is a relatively fearless 5-year-old. Be-
cause Hugo usually charges into new situations head first, his mother wasn’t concerned
about taking him to the community center for kindergarten readiness testing. But Hugo
became so interested in seeing the other children and examining the lines on the f loor
of the basketball court that he didn’t attend at all to the tasks the kindergarten teacher
asked of him.
Context influences not only children’s attention to the assessment task but also their
actual performance. Young children behave differently at home than at family child care,
the child care center, or school. Five-year-old Dolly goes to gymnastics with her mom and
can do backflips and cartwheels, but when her teacher at school asks her to skip, Dolly
says, “I don’t know how.” Perhaps Dolly didn’t demonstrate her advanced physical skills
at school because she didn’t want to be different from the other children, but maybe she
just wasn’t interested in skipping. Motivation, as well as context, is a big factor in obtain-
ing accurate assessment of young children.
The Role of Motivation Assessment is “an adult’s agenda” in which young
children have little interest (Hills, 1992). Children are most likely to be motivated in
situations that appeal to their interests and cultivate their curiosity, that offer choices of
activities and materials, and that provide active involvement with other people. Many
formal assessment procedures do not allow for any of these conditions. Young children
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach356
are not interested in being assessed. They may be removed from the usual activity set-
ting, and their movement, talk, and expression of feelings may be restricted (Hills, 1992).
As children get older, they can reflect more on their performance and competence
and can be encouraged to do their best in an assessment situation (Hills, 1992). For some
children, demonstrating their competence will become intrinsically motivating. In gen-
eral, however, assessment results will be more accurate if children’s interests are taken
into consideration. For example, second-grader Laticia loves stories about horses and
reads these stories with more expression than she does other books.
A final developmental constraint on assessment is children’s ability to perform the
tasks required. Group-administered, paper-and-pencil tests are especially challenging for
children before third grade (NAEYC & NAECS/SDE, 2003). They may not be able to
follow the directions and may not understand why the teacher can’t help today. Some
children may not have the fine-motor skill to fill in the bubble carefully or may generally
operate at a slower pace than the others.
Characteristics of Developmentally Appropriate Assessment Even
a cursory discussion of typical child development characteristics leads to the conclusion
that the younger the child, the more difficult it is to obtain accurate assessment (Mindes
& Jung, 2015). Therefore, assessment can be considered developmentally appropriate
when it:
• draws on multiple sources of evidence, especially observations by teachers and
parents who can observe children’s performance in various contexts over time.
• occurs in a variety of situations representing children’s typical range of activities,
in the regular classroom or at home.
• makes children feel comfortable, which means that they are assessed by familiar
adults, or that parents or other known adults can stay with them.
• accommodates children’s rapid developmental changes. This doesn’t mean that as-
sessment consumes other important teaching and learning experiences, but rather
that it occurs frequently but is embedded in children’s ongoing experiences.
• engages children’s interest and is within their range of ability. For example, instead
of requiring a child to circle the picture of four kittens, the item requires the child
to count four toy plastic kittens, one for each of her friends.
Culturally and Linguistically Responsive
Assessment
Developmentally appropriate assessment must be culturally and linguistically responsive
(Ritchie & Willer, 2008a). One of the biggest challenges is serving the needs of dual
language learners because, to some extent, all as-
sessments of children are fundamentally measures
of language ability (Espinosa, 2010a). Children’s
ability to demonstrate their learning depends a great
deal on their language capacity, both to understand
the demands of the task and to respond either to a
teacher’s question or a written test. Although the
role of language in assessment is relevant for all
children, it is of special concern for children whose
home language is not English.
In many instances, the only way to get a fully
accurate picture of children’s learning is to assess
them in their home language. But even if valid and
reliable assessment tools were available in mul-
tiple languages, which they are not, such assess-
ments are not a foolproof solution. All languages,
Accurate assessment of
children whose home language
is not English is difficult. Stan-
dardized tests are often not
reliable. How can teachers get
accurate information about the
abilities of English language
learners?
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Chapter 11 Assessing Children’s Learning and Development 357
including English, have dialects, so translations do not always solve the problem. A
child from Mexico and one from Peru may not understand the same Spanish transla-
tion of a test. Nonetheless, children should be assessed in their dominant language
(usually home language for young children) and in other languages they are learning,
Often their language competence is found in the combination of their capacity in each
language (Atkins-Burnett, Bandel, & Aikens, 2012; DEC, 2014).
Determining whether a child is sufficiently proficient in English for accurate test-
ing is also difficult. Academic language used in schools is quite different from the
conversational language children use on a daily basis. Linguists estimate that it takes
4 to 7 years to acquire proficiency in academic English (Garcia, 2005). A child may
speak English well on the playground or in casual conversation, yet struggle with the
language of an assessment. Because of this, it is especially important to include fami-
lies in assessment of dual language learners. Some research suggests that parents are
often more reliable reporters of their children’s vocabulary learning than are teachers
(Vagh, Pan, & Marcella-Martinez, 2009). The importance of linguistically appropriate
assessment is illustrated in the Language Lens: Involving Parents in Assessment of Dual
Language Learners feature.
Language Lens
Involving Parents in Assessment of Dual Language Learners
The only way to obtain an accurate, meaningful assess-
ment of dual language learners’ competence is to draw on
many different sources of information. Teachers’ obser-
vations and conversations with children are invaluable,
but information gleaned from families is essential in
determining dual language learners’ proficiency in each
language.
Most parents are good judges of their children’s language
ability, but many teachers are unsure of how to efficiently
obtain the needed information. Following are interview
questions for teachers to ask of parents to effectively in-
volve parents in assessing their child’s language. The in-
terview would need to be conducted in the parents’ home
language or translated for them. Here are some of the
important questions to include:
1. What name do you use for your child? How did you
decide to give your child this name? Does this name
have a particular meaning or translation?
2. What language(s) do you use to talk to your child?
Who else does your child spend time with and what
language do they use?
3. Tell me your opinion about how well your child speaks
each language. (The same questions would be asked
about the home language and English.)
(0) My child cannot speak (e.g., Spanish, Tagalog,
etc.), has a few words or phrases, but cannot pro-
duce sentences (e.g., “I want cookies”). My child
understands only a few words.
(1) My child cannot speak ____________, has a few
words or phrases, but understands the general
idea of what is being said.
(2) My child has limited proficiency in __________
with grammatical errors, has limited vocabulary,
but understands the general idea of what is
being said.
(3) My child has good proficiency in _________ with
some grammatical errors, has some social and
school vocabulary, and understands most of what
is said.
(4) My child has native-like proficiency in ________
with few grammatical errors, has good vocabulary,
and understands most of what is said.
4. How much does your child use each language?
(0) Never speaks (e.g., Spanish, Tagalog, English,
etc.), never hears it.
(1) Never speaks __________, hears it very little.
(2) Speaks __________ a little, hears it sometimes.
(3) Speaks __________ sometimes, hears it most of
the time.
(4) Speaks __________ all of the time, hears it all of
the time.
Of course, there is much more teachers need to learn from
parents about their children, such as their interests, rou-
tines, cultural preferences, and much more. But conducting
an interview such as one described here, whether during a
home visit before the school year begins or in writing, is an
essential first step in getting to know a child who is learn-
ing more than one language and becoming the best possible
teacher for that child.
Source: Based on “How Can Teachers and Parents Help
Young Children Become (and Stay) Bilingual” by P. O. Tabors
and L. M. López, 2005, pp. 14–16, and “Assessment of
English Language Learners: Challenges and Strategies” by
V. F. Gutiérrez-Clellen, 2005, pp. 47–51, both in Head Start
Bulletin: English Language Learners, Vol. 78, Washington,
DC: Head Start Bureau, Administration on Children, Youth and
Families, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach358
Accurate assessment of dual language learners poses difficult challenges for
teachers and educational leaders (Atkins-Burnett et al., 2012). Children’s language
and prior knowledge are closely tied to their culture, yet assessment materials do not
take into account culturally inf luenced variations in knowledge and skills. For ex-
ample, a language assessment may ask children to identify items that are unique to
U.S. culture, such as a hamburger. Inclusion of many such culturally biased items in a
measure biases the outcome for individual children and misrepresents their abilities.
High-stakes standardized testing is particularly problematic, as the following exam-
ples demonstrate.
Children’s learning is a product of their experiences, which occur in cultural contexts.
For example, a standardized test asks where to find a lion, and 4-year-old Omari replies,
“In the park.” His answer, accurate in his native Kenya, is marked incorrect because the
correct answer in the test manual is “in the zoo.” Such cultural influences exist within
the United States as well. Consider a test item that asks children to point to a picture of
a swamp. Imagine the blank stares of children living in New York City or rural Nebraska
when presented with such a request, compared to the nodding heads of those from parts
of Florida or Louisiana. Omari’s experience and its consequences are powerful reminders
not only of the importance of using linguistically appropriate assessment tools but also the
risks of high-stakes testing.
Individually Appropriate Assessment
for Children with Special Needs
Young children with disabilities or special needs face a lifetime of being assessed. Fed-
eral laws govern how, when, and under what conditions children with disabilities are to
be assessed and how assessment information should be used by teachers in implement-
ing individualized education plans and individualized family service plans. Further-
more, the Council for Exceptional Children’s Division for Early Childhood (2014) has
established recommended practices for screening, establishing eligibility for special
education services, individualized planning, monitoring child progress, and assessing
child outcomes for reporting. Ensuring that assessments are individually appropriate
for all children may require accommodations or modifications to the tools or proce-
dures used.
Accommodations are changes in assessment procedures, materials, or setting to
eliminate barriers related to the child’s disability that might keep children from dem-
onstrating their full capabilities (Pretzel, Hiemenz, & Kahng, 2009). Assessments for
children with disabilities should take child’s age and developmental level into account
(DEC, 2014). A child with a physical disability might be allowed to answer questions
verbally rather than in writing. A child with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder
(ADHD) might be given more time or allowed to take a test in a separate place away
from distractions.
Modifications are changes in the assessment that alter what the assessment measures
or what the results mean (Pretzel et al., 2009). For example, rather than asking Jade, a
child with special needs, to point to pictures of objects to measure her receptive vocabu-
lary, her teacher talks with Jade as she plays with real toys and makes notes of which ones
Jade names correctly.
The process of identifying children for special education services requires the use
of many different sources of information, including standardized, norm-referenced tests.
Even with these various sources, however, the wide use of standardized tests with children
who have special needs is fraught with problems (Macy & Bagnato, 2010). Because stan-
dardized tests are based on norms of typically developing children, the results are often
not relevant or useful to the goals for a child who has a disability. It is important to use
tools that are very sensitive to identify children’s progress, as changes are sometimes small
(DEC, 2014). Moreover, considerations needed to make assessment developmentally
appropriate and authentic are even more important for children with special needs, such
accommodations Changes in
assessment procedures, ma-
terials, or setting to eliminate
barriers related to the child’s
disability that might keep chil-
dren from demonstrating their
full capabilities.
modifications Changes in an
assessment that alter what the
assessment measures or what
the results mean.
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Chapter 11 Assessing Children’s Learning and Development 359
Individually appropriate assessment of young children
with special needs requires that professionals and
family members work together and respectfully share
useful information. In the following contrasting sce-
narios, we see how important individually appropriate
assessment practices are for children as well as their
families:
The O’Briens’ 4-year-old son, Dan, has been
diagnosed as having developmental delays in lan-
guage, cognitive, and social development. During
a conference with his teacher, Ms. Blako, about
Dan’s progress, Mrs. O’Brien becomes increas-
ingly discouraged as she is told, once more, what
her child cannot do and that he is functioning at
the 24-month level on a norm-referenced test.
Ms. Blako explains that they will continue to work
with Dan on colors, writing his first name, and
counting to 20. Mr. O’Brien is frustrated because
these are the same skills Dan has been working
on all year. Mrs. O’Brien is concerned that Dan
still isn’t potty trained and doesn’t seem to have
friends. Ms. Blako smiles and suggests some good
books on toilet training. The O’Briens leave feel-
ing belittled, apprehensive, and concerned about
Dan’s remaining preschool year and pending transi-
tion to kindergarten.
In contrast, consider the conference between
Larisha’s mother, Tina, and the preschool teacher,
Stephanie. Larisha, who has cerebral palsy, attends
an inclusive preschool. The meeting is attended
not only by Tina and Stephanie but also the physi-
cal therapist, speech-language pathologist, and
psychologist, who all know Larisha and her family
well. The purpose of the conference is to discuss
what Larisha does well at home and at school and
to establish new goals for her. Stephanie shares the
results of her observations of physical, language,
social, and emotional skills that Larisha displayed
during the last several months. Tina shares what
she has observed Larisha doing at home. The team
agrees that Larisha is showing impressive growth
and is making progress toward full participation
in all aspects of the preschool day. They identify
target skills in functional and pre-academic areas
to work on with her over the next few months:
1. In the morning, sign in by writing her initials on
the attendance board, and put her things in her
cubbie.
2. Initiate play with peers, not just her cousins at
home.
3. Watch, listen, and participate in small- and
large-group times, including singing songs and
answering questions about stories and lessons.
Larisha can sit in a supportive chair to stabilize
her trunk (rather than on the carpet).
4. Pedal and steer a tricycle. The physical therapist
agrees to modify the trike so Larisha can reach
the pedals and grasp the handles better.
5. Recognize when she needs to use the restroom,
notify the teacher, and complete toileting activi-
ties independently. Stephanie will provide infor-
mation for how to work on this at home as well.
Tina says that her number-one priority is for Larisha
to have friends, and the team agrees to include
this as an area of focus. Tina leaves the conference
feeling heard, valued, and inspired about Larisha’s
progress and her future skill development.
The difference between these two assessment scenar-
ios is profound. Dan’s parents were passive recipients
of information. Dan’s assessment focused solely on
traditional academics rather than his overall develop-
ment. This led to underestimating his skills as well as
to setting goals that are of questionable value to his
family.
In sharp contrast, Larisha’s family is part of the team,
providing valuable information about her development.
Her teacher uses observational assessment, focusing
on skills in all developmental domains—the skills that
Larisha needs to function well in the classroom, on
the playground, or at home. Both her teacher and her
mother can use the assessment information to identify
goals for Larisha’s further development.
Including All Children
Individually Appropriate Assessment Practices
as learning about their functioning in multiple environments, including home, school,
child care, and community (DEC, 2014).
Early childhood special educators strongly advocate a play-based approach to assess-
ment that focuses on children’s functional skills, the essential abilities needed to fulfill
goals parents have for their children such as communicating, making friends, and learning
self-help skills (Macy & Bagnato, 2010). As described earlier in this chapter, play-based
assessment involves systematic observation of children’s behavior and skills in the con-
text of their play. The feature titled Including All Children: Individually Appropriate
Assessment Practices discusses assessment practices for children with special needs.
functional skills The essential
abilities needed to fulfill goals
parents have for their chil-
dren, such as communicating,
making friends, and learning
self-help skills.
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With increased demands for demonstrating program effectiveness and accountabil-
ity, teachers must be knowledgeable consumers of assessment information. It is usually
the classroom teacher who must explain the results of testing to parents or children, and
teachers themselves most often feel the pressure of testing and assessment. Nevertheless,
teachers’ most important use of assessment is to improve learning outcomes for children,
as discussed next.
✓ Check Your Understanding 11.3: Indicators of Effective Assessment
Observation and Recording
to Improve Learning
Like every other aspect of intentional teaching, assessment engages teachers in profes-
sional decision making. They must decide what evidence is important to collect, as well
as how and when to gather information. The process of gathering evidence of children’s
learning is also called documenting and involves two kinds of decisions: (1) how to gather
information about children, and (2) how to record the findings (McAfee et al., 2015).
Thinking of these processes separately opens up more options for assessment, or more
“windows” into children’s learning (McAfee et al., 2015).
Observation is the most frequently used method of gathering information. However,
there are many ways of recording findings from observation—among them, anecdotal
records, checklists, or rating scales—that increase teachers’ options for learning about
children. In the sections that follow, we describe ways teachers can observe and collect
information about children, and then we describe various ways to record or document the
information for later reflection and analysis.
Observing and Gathering Evidence
The most effective classroom assessment procedures need to be part of every teacher’s
repertoire. These include systematic observation, eliciting responses from children, col-
lecting work products, and gathering information from family members and other adults
(McAfee et al., 2015). We begin with observation, which is the foundation of effective,
developmentally appropriate practice (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009).
Keen observation skills are the most important assessment tool a teacher can
develop and use. Effective teaching requires positive relationships and building on
children’s prior learning. Therefore, teachers must know as much as possible about
children’s strengths, needs, interests, temperament, typical behavior, and much more.
Careful observation is the best way to get to know individual children, especially in-
fants, toddlers, and young preschoolers who have limited ability to create products and
communicate verbally. During preschool, kindergarten, and the primary grades, teach-
ers continue to regularly observe children’s interests, interactions, and performance
of tasks to assess their skills and understanding as part of an overall assessment plan
(Mindes & Jung, 2015). Since play is so central to young children’s experiences, it is
also an important context for assessing children’s interests, interactions, and skills.
In the feature Promoting Play: Play as an Assessment Context, read how one teacher
uses play to assess and document children’s progress, and applies the information to
inform her teaching.
Accurate, objective observation can be quite difficult. Consider the fact that eye-
witness accounts of events tend to vary considerably. Likewise, even everyday experi-
ences may be described differently by different participants. For instance, a teenager’s
view of a holiday gathering she didn’t want to attend would be quite different from her
grandmother’s, who savored seeing the whole family together. Similarly, if two teachers
observe the same preschooler’s boisterous behavior, one might see happiness where the
other sees rowdiness.
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Chapter 11 Assessing Children’s Learning and Development 361
Play as an Assessment Context
Adele understands that schools have increased
expectations of kindergarteners’ academic perfor-
mance over the years. But her professional educa-
tion convinced her that much of young children’s
learning happens in the context of play. Adele uses
intentional, short periods of direct instruction, and
includes longer periods of supported and free play
for children to learn and practice. However, Adele
also knows that play is where children’s learning
and development is demonstrated, and she takes
full advantage of play as an assessment context.
Because she often uses the project approach, Adele
engages children in the assessment process as well.
All of Adele’s centers are stocked with reading and
writing materials and appropriate learning equip-
ment. Children are encouraged to experiment and
imagine. Problem solving and socio-dramatic play
are valued equally. As part of their “Food” study,
children play and demonstrate learning in a grocery
store center. Food items are sorted and priced, and
children add and subtract pennies to spend their
grocery money and fulfill their planned grocery lists.
At the garden center, children plant different seeds
and nurture their growth. They compare different
types of plants as they grow, writing descriptions
and recording plant growth. They use a classroom
iPad to take photos and record oral descriptions of
their garden progress. Children compare how carrots
grow in soil that is fed different ways. They have
conversations about the weather, pretending to be
farmers, and consult a website called “Old Farmer’s
Almanac for Kids.”
Everywhere in Adele’s classroom, children are
engaged, exploring, and producing products that
provide evidence of powerful learning. For each
project, children create vocabulary lists that they
use in their writing, and they work together to pro-
duce a class book. The book becomes part of their
classroom library.
Adele uses video, audiotape, photographs, and
paper products to document children’s learning.
After collecting artifacts, she consults her online
assessment tool, identifies the area of evidence,
and rates the products according to proficiency. She
meets with each child every two weeks for portfolio
review, and helps children to set learning goals for
the upcoming weeks. Children’s learning goals are
posted on the online assessment tool, which parents
can access. Using play as a context for learning
and assessment keeps Adele focused on children’s
development, while also addressing learning stan-
dards. All the while, children are motivated to learn
and to take responsibility for their learning.
Promoting Play
learn to Observe Systematic observation means that teachers focus their attention
on individual children or groups, watch what children do as they work and play together,
and listen carefully as they speak. Table 11.3 lists the important skills of systematic ob-
servation that every effective teacher needs and why.
At times, teachers stand back and observe children as they engage in the ongoing life
of the classroom or on the playground. Who does Marcus play with and for how long?
Does he play alone or with a friend? At other times, teachers arrange specific tasks or
activities and observe children’s performance. First-grade teacher Ms. Victor adds fre-
quently used words to the “word wall” each week and observes which children refer
to them as they are writing. In most situations, teachers are participant-observers who
converse with children, listen carefully, and assess while they teach individuals as well as
small and large groups.
Observation is most effective if teachers think in advance about what they want to
observe while remaining flexible to observe events as they proceed. Janice planned to
observe the babies in her care during feeding time to see how their fine-motor skills
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach362
Effective teachers must be skilled observers in order to assess children’s learning and development accurately,
as described in this table.
Effective Observation Practice Explanation
1. Describe behavior objectively
and avoid judgmental labels
An objective statement (“During clean-up time, David ran from one center to another for
10 minutes making siren sounds”) provides specific information that can be interpreted
more accurately as more evidence is gathered. A judgmental statement (“David is hyperac-
tive”) may be meaningless or inaccurate, and can lead to false assumptions and ineffective
interactions with a child.
2. Observe in different contexts Children’s behavior varies depending on the context, their engagement, and interest. David
loves center time and will engage with table toys for extended periods of time, but often acts
out during cleanup. Observing his behavior in only one context would be misleading.
3. Observe at different times of
the day
Children’s behavior and learning are affected by many variables such as fatigue, hunger,
boredom, exhilaration, fear, and anxiety. Accurate interpretation of behavior and effective
teaching depends on having the most complete information.
4. Observe children as individuals
and in groups
Children learn and display their learning, both as individuals and as members of groups. Ob-
taining the most complete picture of a child’s abilities, such as their language, social skills,
and problem solving, requires observing their interactions with other children.
5. Plan to observe each child during
a given time period each week
Teachers’ time is limited by many conflicting demands. Too often, some children receive
most of the teachers’ attention while others are overlooked. To guard against this natural
tendency, teachers need to set aside specific times weekly to systematically observe each
child, if only for 10 minutes.
6. Devise a system for recording
information that works for you
Every system for observing and recording assessment evidence places demands on teachers’
time and energy. Teachers need to experiment with and adopt strategies that work for them
whether using sticky notes, strategically placed clipboards, iPads, laptops, digital cameras,
or handheld devices.
7. Be aware of and avoid individual
and cultural biases
The same behavior may be interpreted differently depending on a teacher’s personal or cul-
tural perspective. Such bias can never be completely eliminated but requires that teachers
become self-aware and strive for understanding of others’ points of view.
8. Gather information from other
teachers and parents
The eye of the beholder always influences what is observed and how it is interpreted. The
best way to avoid misinterpretation and inaccurate conclusions is to gather information
from as many people as possible who interact with children in various contexts. Parents and
other family members are essential informants about what children know and are able to do
outside of school.
TAblE 11.3 learning to Observe
were developing. She observed that two of the 13-month-olds, Josie and Ana,
could pick up the cereal on the highchair tray. However, 15-month-old Tania
became frustrated and started to cry. Janice watched to see whether and how
soon Tania would calm herself before she had to intervene. In this case, an
observation of fine-motor skill turned into an observation of emotional self-
regulation, an example of the kind of shift that occurs constantly in early
childhood programs.
Elicit Responses from Children Aspects of children’s learning
and development that cannot be directly observed, such as their concep-
tual understanding or reasoning, can be elicited from children through
questioning, conversation, or other informal teacher–child interactions.
Eliciting children’s responses—drawing out their ideas or ref lections—is
an efficient way of gathering information; this way, teachers do not have
to wait for behaviors or responses to occur spontaneously (McAfee et al.,
2015).
Classroom Connection
The teacher in this video uses
observation regularly and in-
tentionally to learn about the
children in her class. How might
her observations influence her
assessments of the children’s
learning progress and her plan-
ning for future instruction?
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Chapter 11 Assessing Children’s Learning and Development 363
Teachers can have interviews and conferences to
elicit children’s ideas, problem-solving strategies, and
feelings (McAfee et al., 2015). Interviews usually in-
volve the teacher asking predetermined questions that
are designed to reveal what children understand. For ex-
ample, rather than asking a closed question such as “How
many is 9 + 5?” the teacher might ask, “How would you
figure out what 9 + 5 is?” Such an open-ended question is
valuable because it requires an extended response that re-
veals more about children’s thinking and understanding.
Conferences engage children in reflecting on their
own work. Second-grade teacher Ernestine Cunningham
holds regular writing conferences with her students to
discuss the child’s writing samples and identify ways to
edit or improve them.
Small-group discussions provide opportunities to elicit children’s thinking in collabora-
tion with other children. At the end of each science unit, rather than giving a multiple-choice
test to see what facts children remember, third-grade teacher Devon Kerns meets with small
groups of children and asks them to discuss the phenomenon they have been studying. Dur-
ing one such discussion, Mr. Kerns begins this way: “We’ve been learning about sinking and
floating. So why don’t giant ships weighing several tons sink?” The children’s responses
reveal varying degrees of understanding of the concept of displacement. Barry stays silent
until the end when he admits, “I think there’s something magic going on.”
Collect Work Products Much of children’s work and play produces a product
such as a drawing, a painting, a construction in a particular medium, a piece of writing, a
dramatic performance, or speaking in a group. These products, if systematically collected
over time, provide evidence of changes in children’s development and learning. Examples
of individual work might be one child’s journal or an art project.
Teachers may also collect or evaluate the work of a group, such as a mural, or a com-
pilation of children’s observations from a field trip, such as a PowerPoint presentation
with digital photos. Portfolio assessment, which is discussed later in the chapter, is one
strategy for systematically collecting and analyzing children’s work samples.
Gather Information from Family Members Parents are often thought of
as the audience for assessment information, passively receiving report cards or listening
attentively during parent–teacher conferences. However, teachers must not only give in-
formation to parents, they must get information from parents as well. Parents can provide
insights about children’s behavior and capabilities outside the school or child care center.
They can also serve as key informants about children’s culture and language. Family
involvement is so necessary to valid assessment of children with disabilities and special
needs that it is legally required (DEC, 2014).
Each of these methods of gathering assessment information has advantages and dis-
advantages, which are summarized in Table 11.4.
Effective assessment systems—those that provide valid, reliable, and useful informa-
tion for decision making—use all the ways of gathering evidence discussed in previous sec-
tions. Intentional teachers regularly gather evidence and then use it to inform their teaching
decisions about individual children. In the feature Becoming an Intentional Teacher: Using
Assessment to Inform Teaching, we see this process in action for one teacher.
Recording What Children Know and Can Do
Observation, eliciting children’s responses, collecting work samples, and other authentic
assessment procedures are generally informal and, therefore, not subject to the technical
requirements of standardized testing. Nevertheless, for informal assessment results to
interviews Teacher-created,
predetermined questions that
are designed to reveal what
children understand.
Observing children’s behavior is
important but it doesn’t reveal
what children are thinking.
To find out more, intentional
teachers interview individuals
or conference with small groups
of children.
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach364
Teachers can gather assessment information in several ways, but they should consider the advantages and
disadvantages of each method.
Method Advantages Disadvantages
Observation • Truly authentic assessment
• Best way to obtain information about
children’s behavior
• Can observe without interfering with the
ongoing activities in the classroom
• Can see children’s performance in relevant
context (play, routines, group projects,
outdoors)
• Time consuming
• Children’s thinking and/or problem solving
cannot be directly observed
• Can distract teachers from interacting with
children
• Can be affected by individual and cultural
biases
Eliciting Responses from
Children (interviews, confer-
ences, and discussions)
• Saves time
• Provides insight into children’s thinking and
learning that cannot be directly observed
• Engages children in thinking and reflecting
about their own learning—important meta-
cognitive processes that contribute to further
development
• Demonstrates a child’s ability in interaction
with other children and adults
• If children do not respond, teachers may
inaccurately assume that they don’t know the
answer
• Wording of questions may influence the
child’s response
• Cultural or emotional factors such as lack of
self-confidence may inhibit child’s response
Collecting Work Products • Gathered over time
• Provide multiple sources of information
• Can be used to evaluate children’s progress
and analyze where help is needed
• Concretely demonstrate children’s progress
to parents and to children themselves
• Teachers may not be sure which products to
keep, how many to save, and how to evaluate
them
• Organization and storage can be difficult
Information from Family
Members
• Provide insight into children’s cultural and
linguistic backgrounds
• Describe children’s abilities in familiar
context
• Required for children with disabilities and
special needs
• May be intimidating or threatening to
families
• Language and/or cultural differences may
create communication barriers
• May not be reliable
Source: Based on Assessing and Guiding Young Children’s Development and Learning 6th edition, by O. McAfee , D. Leong, and E. Bodrova, 2015,
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson; and Observing Development of the Young Child, 8th edition, by J. J. Beaty, 2013, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
TAblE 11.4 Methods of Gathering Assessment Information: Advantages and Disadvantages
be accurate and useful, they need to be as objective and nonbiased as possible. Various
methods of documenting assessment are designed to increase the likelihood of gathering
reliable and valid information. We turn now to a description of the most commonly used
methods of documentation. These methods include descriptive records, frequency counts,
checklists, rating scales and rubrics, and portfolios.
Descriptive Records Narratives are stories in which the narrator stands outside the
experience and describes the people, situation, and events that occur. The same is true of
narrative approaches to observation. Narrative records are teachers’ attempts to record
detailed descriptions of children in a situation or event that is the focus of the observa-
tion (McAfee et al., 2015). It is important for narrative records to focus on the observed
behavior rather than implying judgment. “Kery kicked over Stan’s building, threw the
sand toys on the floor, and pushed Mimi down” is much more informative and useful later
than “Kery was disruptive at school today.”
Teachers use various methods of collecting anecdotal records for later reflection and
analysis. They may take brief notes while observing children in action or as soon as pos-
sible, adding more detail later. After documenting their observations, teachers reflect on
narrative records Teachers’
attempts to record detailed
descriptions of children in a
situation or event that is the
focus of the observation.
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Chapter 11 Assessing Children’s Learning and Development 365
Becoming an Intentional Teacher
Using Assessment to Inform Teaching
Here’s What Happened Four-year-old Moses is a gentle
boy who plays alone and rarely speaks up. I made a point
of observing Moses with other children during center time
and when we were doing things that interested him. I also
spoke with his mother.
One morning, I observed Moses in the block corner with
two other boys for 7 minutes. Buddy and Eugene were
building a house and kept up a running conversation about
what they were doing. Buddy: “This is the bathroom right
here. This is the bathtub and toilet.” Eugene, picking up a
block: “This is the frigerator.” Moses sat silently right next
to them, frowning, and watching every move they made.
After 6 minutes, Moses went to the shelf, picked up three
plastic people, and said, “This is fun, too.” Buddy grabbed
the people from Moses’s hands, put them in the house, and
said, “This is my family, my mommy and daddy.” Frowning,
Moses quietly sat down and continued to observe. He then
picked up the bin of plastic people figures and went to the
table to play with them alone.
Here’s What I Was Thinking Before I can take ac-
tion to help a child, I need to know as much as possible
about the child’s skills, abilities, and needs. That’s where
assessment comes in. Maybe Moses did not successfully
join the play because he was intimidated by Buddy, in
which case I would focus attention on helping him become
more comfortable expressing him-
self. Or maybe he was behind in
language and vocabulary develop-
ment, so I should work on that.
Observing him in different situations was the key. I also
needed to ask Moses open-ended questions about how he
felt about the experience. It could have been that his sad
face and frown meant that he longed to join in the play, or
he could have been patiently but unhappily waiting a turn
to play alone with the blocks.
From my observations and conversations with Moses’s fam-
ily, I now have a working hypothesis. It seems likely that
not participating in cooperative play is related to his limited
vocabulary and lack of experience interacting with other
children because he is an only child. To help Moses with
both of these issues, I will set up situations to encourage
his ease when talking with others. I will also plan some
activities that work directly on his social skills. This ob-
servation also gave me insights into Buddy’s and Eugene’s
behaviors, and I plan to work with them on their skills at
making friends.
Reflection How else might the teacher have interpreted
her observations of Moses’s behavior during the play se-
quence? What other tools could she use to assess his social
skills and then plan accordingly?
and interpret their records and plan how to improve teaching and learning. Anecdotal
records should include the date and time of observation, names of children observed, lo-
cation of the incident such as lunch table or hallway, and what the children said and actu-
ally did (Mindes & Jung, 2015). Figure 11.2 presents contrasting examples of anecdotal
records about the same situation. A teacher would have difficulty interpreting the first
example because it is too general and judgmental to be helpful. By contrast, the second
example lends itself to deeper reflection and more effective intervention.
Here are some types of narrative records:
• A running record is a chronological record, much like a diary, of an individu-
al child’s behavior that helps teachers better understand that behavior (Wortham
& Hardin, 2015). The diary format allows the teacher to compare and analyze a
child’s behavior and development over time. Ms. Dollan worries about Jennifer’s
shyness and is concerned that it is interfering with her ability to become involved
and learn in kindergarten. She keeps a running record for 1 week, noting as many of
Jennifer’s social interactions as she can observe. At the end of the week, Ms. Dollan
is surprised to find that Jennifer engages much more than she thought; Jennifer just
tends to wait and observe before she gets involved.
• Anecdotal records are short descriptions of incidents, or anecdotes, involving one or
more children (McAfee et al., 2015). “Monday 5/8—When I read Hansel and Gretel
to 5 children, Sam (a child with special needs) sat up front and counted the pebbles on
the page. He kept his eyes glued to the story for 15 minutes. He frowned when the chil-
dren were lost and smiled at the ending. He picked up the book on his own afterward.”
When his teacher, Joanne, reflects on her anecdotal record about Sam, she realizes that
previously she underestimated Sam’s attention span. Sam’s attention during whole
running record A chronologi-
cal record, like a diary, of an
individual child’s behavior that
helps teachers better under-
stand that behavior.
anecdotal records Short
descriptions written by teachers
and based on observations of
incidents, or anecdotes, involv-
ing one or more children.
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach366
group wanders, but she had never assessed it in the small-group context before. Joanne
is looking forward to sharing this newly found strength with Sam’s dad.
• Videotapes, audiotapes, and digital photography are tools for capturing ongoing
streams of behavior or performances that are difficult to document in writing. Do-
reen videotaped a small group of 5-year-olds as they discussed how they would
build a replica of the zoo’s panda house in their classroom. When she played back
the tape with the children, she discovered that the group really listened to each
other’s ideas, abandoned some, and agreed on others, which she later helped them
implement.
The benefits of such detailed observations are that they are open-ended and f lexible
and provide a wealth of information. Children can be assessed in the context of regular
classroom routines and activities so their behavior is most natural and authentic. The
primary disadvantage of narrative records, on the other hand, is that they are time con-
suming to both record and interpret. However, using technology can increase the ease
of collecting and evaluating narrative data. Other assessment tools and methods are
available that essentially count or tally what
is observed.
Frequency Counts In some cases,
teachers need to know how often a behavior
occurs—the frequency—and/or how long it
lasts—the duration. For example, to intervene
with a child who hits, teachers begin by keep-
ing track of how often the negative behavior
occurs. Then, once an intervention plan is in
place, they can use a frequency count to evalu-
ate its effectiveness.
Teachers use frequency counts, also
called event sampling, to tally each time a
specific behavior occurs. The teacher sim-
ply makes a mark whenever a child demon-
strates a behavior or participates in an activ-
ity, as shown in Figure 11.3. For example, the
teacher was concerned about Avery’s contin-
ued crying after several weeks of school, but
her mother dismissed it as a phase. Based on
the frequency count, the teacher decided to
keep more detailed narrative records of the
Example 1
Child’s Name: Ledo
Date:
Setting:
Activity:
Example 2
Child’s Name:
Date:
Setting:
Activity: −
−
−
−
−
–
FIGURE 11.2 Contrasting Examples of Anecdotal Records Compare these examples of anecdotal
records. Which one provides more useful information for the teacher?
frequency counts Method
used by teachers to keep track
of how often a behavior occurs.
FIGURE 11.3 Sample Frequency Count Chart
A frequency count chart such as this is simple to use and can provide teachers
with helpful information about children’s behavior.
Source: McAfee, Oralie; Leong, Deborah J.; and Bodrova, Assessing and Guiding
Young Children’s Development and Learning, 8th ed., © 2015. Reprinted and
electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle
River, New Jersey.
Child’s Name: Avery Lucas
Date: 10/1 to 10/4
Time: 9.00 to 10:30
Setting: Classroom
Behavior: Crying
Date Frequency Day Total
9/21 //// / 6
9/22 /// 3
9/23 //// 5
9/24 //// 5
Total 19
//// /
////
////
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Chapter 11 Assessing Children’s Learning and Development 367
child’s behavior and convinced Avery’s mother to work with her to ease her adjustment
to school.
Frequency counts serve a valuable but limited function. They are easy to use and help
teachers quickly gather general information about children’s participation and experi-
ence. However, they do not provide contextual information about what occurs before and
after a specific behavior. For that evidence, teachers need to supplement frequency tallies
with narrative records or checklists, addressed next.
Checklists One of the most commonly used recording methods, checklists, are practi-
cal and versatile tools for gathering assessment information about almost any aspect of
children’s behavior, skills, or attitudes (McAfee et al., 2015). They can be based on learning
standards in literacy or mathematics, or on sequences of development such as physical or
social skills. Some checklists are designed by teachers; others are commercially published.
Some checklists require marking only “yes” or “no” as to whether a child engages in
a behavior (such as “Follows two directions”). Other, more open-ended checklists require
the teacher to make a judgment of the degree to which a child has mastered a skill. Teach-
ers may make notes while observing children and then use those notes to complete the
checklist at a later time. One of the strengths of checklists is that they focus teachers’ ob-
servations; in effect, checklists tell teachers what to look for and which skills are impor-
tant. Checklists can provide data that can be analyzed and compared over time and also
aggregated for a group of children. Their limitation is that no checklist can adequately
capture the complexity of an individual child’s competence.
Rating Scales and Rubrics Rating scales and rubrics record teachers’ judg-
ments about how a child’s performance compares to that of peers or to a predetermined
standard (McAfee et al., 2015). Ratings should be based on sound assessment evidence
collected over time. Rating scales require the assessor to evaluate an individual on a
characteristic and then rank the individual’s ability on a continuum from low to high
frequency or quality (McAfee et al., 2015). For example, a frequency scale might rate
whether a child performs a skill “usually,” “sometimes,” “seldom,” or “never.” A scale
designed to rate the quality of a child’s performance might be “exceeds standard,” “meets
standard,” or “making progress toward standard.”
Rubrics are descriptive rating scales that include clear descriptions of each point
on the scale or guidelines for making judgments about a rating (McAfee et al., 2015).
Figure 11.4 shows a sample rubric of the geometry item from COR-Advantage, the
revised Child Observation Record, developed by the HighScope Educational Re-
search Foundation ( Epstein, Marshall, & Gainsley, 2014). COR-Advantage articulates
8 levels of development or learning because it is designed for children from infancy
through age 5. Note that in this instrument, all 8 levels of the rubric are described.
This specificity helps teachers make more accurate ratings and increases reliability
between teachers. The tool also includes additional descriptions of what behaviors
to observe as well as examples of anecdotal observations that would lead teachers to
make their ratings.
Rating scales and rubrics are relatively quick and systematic ways of keeping track of
children’s progress, and they assist teachers by focusing their observations and evidence
collections. Rubrics are more reliable than rating scales because the guidelines for rating
are explicit, which helps teachers make more accurate judgments. Rating scales and ru-
brics also help teachers identify where children are in relation to program objectives, and
help guide curriculum planning and teaching. Some commercially published authentic
assessment tools that use rating scales and/or rubrics have been validated (i.e., they meet
standards for reliability and validity).
Portfolios Portfolios are systematic and organized collections of children’s work
and demonstrations of their progress relevant to the goals of the curriculum (Mindes
& Jung, 2015). Portfolios have several benefits. They focus on how individual children
checklists Practical and
versatile tools for gathering
assessment information about
children’s behavior, skills, or
attitudes.
rating scales Method of
recording teacher’s judgments
about how a child’s perfor-
mance compares to that of
peers or to a predetermined
standard.
rubrics Descriptive rating
scales that detail the qualities
related to each rank on the
scale; includes clear descrip-
tions of each point on the scale
or guidelines for making judg-
ments about a rating.
portfolios Systematic and
organized collections of chil-
dren’s work and demonstrations
of their progress relevant to the
goals of the curriculum.
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach368
change over time, rather than comparing children to each other. Teachers create portfo-
lios to document how well children are learning the content of the curriculum. In addi-
tion, portfolios provide concrete and meaningful information about children’s progress
to share with parents, other teachers, administrators, specialists, and even the general
public (Gullo, 2006).
The materials contained in a portfolio provide teachers and children with the oppor-
tunity to reflect together on children’s progress, as evident in Figure 11.5. Most teachers
involve children in selecting work to be included in a portfolio. This requires children to
think about which of their products are worth keeping and evaluate the quality of their
own performances.
The contents of portfolios can vary, but they need to be consistent among children
in a group. Generally, portfolios include dated samples of children’s work represent-
ing at least the beginning, middle, and end of a school year. These samples should
include teacher notes about context or children’s verbal comments made about the
work. A portfolio may also include anecdotal or other narrative records plus obser-
vational checklists related to curriculum goals. One widely used, validated portfolio
assessment system that includes all these elements
is the Work Sampling System, designed for children
from preschool to grade 6 (Meisels, Marsden, Jablon,
& Dichtelmiller, 2013).
Documentation as Dynamic Assessment
Earlier in this chapter, we defined documenting as the
process of collecting and recording evidence about chil-
dren’s learning and development. The word documenta-
tion is often used to refer to the recorded evidence that
is then analyzed and interpreted. However, the influence
of the Reggio Emilia approach on early childhood prac-
tice (Edwards, Gandini, & Forman, 2011) created a new,
expanded definition of documentation.
Teachers can assess children’s learning by document-
ing a project or activity through note-taking, photography,
Your Child’s Portfolio
In your child’s Portfolio, you will find . . .
Best read book orally recorded with written
reflection (child selected)
Writing piece with written reflection (child selected)
Math piece with written reflection (child selected)
Sample of best handwriting
Strengths and goals (teacher and child selected)
Math reflection
School, family, and friends reflection
Field trip reflection
FIGURE 11.5 Sample
Contents of a Second-
Grade Child’s Portfolio The
contents of a child’s portfolio
serve as important evidence of
children’s learning over time.
Level 0
Child tracks
a moving
object.
Level 1
Child fits an
object into
an opening
that is the
correct size.
Child moves
him- or
herself
or objects in
response to
a simple
position or
direction
word.
Child
recognizes
and names
two-
dimensional
shapes
(circle,
triangle,
square,
rectangle).
Child
transforms
(composes or
decomposes)
shapes and
identifies the
resulting
shape(s).
Child
describes
what makes
a shape a
shape
(identifies
shape
attributes).
Child names
a three-
dimensional
shape (cube,
cylinder,
pyramid).
Child
describes
three-
dimensional
shapes to
compare
their
similarities
and
differences.
Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5 Level 6 Level 7
Geometry: Shapes and Spatial Awareness
FIGURE 11.4 Rubric Example from COR-Advantage Rubrics are valuable assessment tools
because having specific descriptions for each point on the scale helps teachers make more accurate and
reliable ratings.
Source: “Geometry: Shapes and Spatial Relations” by A. S. Epstein, B. Marshall, and S. Gainsley,
© 2014, in COR Advantage 1.5 Scoring Guide, Ypsilanti, MI: HighScope Press, pp. 50–51. Used with
permission.
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Chapter 11 Assessing Children’s Learning and Development 369
audiotaping, videotaping, and collecting samples of student work. Through the
children’s verbal expression, writing, drawing, and construction, researchers
and teachers are able to see what the children understand and how they convey
their ideas and knowledge.
From carefully studying the children’s work and tapes of their discus-
sions, teachers are able to see what misconceptions and areas of incomplete
knowledge the children have, as well as in their writing, communication
skills, and pictorial representation. This information guides their planning
of what additional experiences and instruction to provide next. Characteris-
tics that make documentation a unique assessment tool include the follow-
ing (Helm, Beneke, & Steinheimer, 2007; Reggio Children & Project Zero,
2001):
• Involves teachers intensely observing and recording, using all forms of
technology and displaying children’s processes of thinking and prob-
lem solving as they work together on projects.
• Captures the collaborative interaction that occurs among teachers
and children and depicts the process of learning rather than any one
product.
• Encourages children to revisit and remember their experiences as they
examine the documentation, which extends and deepens their learning.
• Draws parents into the life of the school through compelling, visual
evidence of their children’s competence.
• Serves as research on children’s thinking and learning processes that contributes to
teachers’ professional development.
• Provides evidence of children’s competencies that cannot be measured on more
formal tests, such as their ability to collaborate with other children.
As we saw with ways of gathering assessment information, every method teachers
use to record assessment information has strengths but also limitations, which are de-
scribed in Table 11.5.
Effective solutions to these challenges are now available through the use of technol-
ogy. To learn more about these powerful assessment resources, read the What Works:
Using Technology to Assess Learning feature.
Interpreting and Using Evidence to Improve
Teaching and Learning
So far we have described two major steps in classroom assessment: (1) gathering ev-
idence of children’s development and learning, and (2) recording the findings. The
next step is interpreting and using the evidence to plan curriculum or adapt teaching
strategies.
Accurate interpretation and effective use of assessment evidence depend on how
well teachers know what children should accomplish at developmental junctures and
when those junctures occur. This means that every teacher needs to be familiar with
the continuum of development and expected learning sequences relevant to the age
range he or she teaches. Given the wide range of individual variation, in fact, early
childhood teachers should be familiar with the full range of development from birth
through age 8.
A developmental continuum is a predictable, but not rigid, sequence of typical ac-
complishments within age ranges that is used to plan curriculum. A developmental con-
tinuum is an effective assessment tool because it helps teachers to focus attention on what
is important to assess—what children can do—and to identify goals for continued prog-
ress (McAfee et al., 2015; McDevitt & Ormrod, 2013). When teachers are familiar with
predictable sequences of learning and development, they can use these to assess where
children are in the sequence and adjust their teaching to help them progress.
developmental continuum
A predictable, but not rigid,
sequence of typical accom-
plishments within age ranges
that is used to plan curriculum;
also an effective assessment
tool used to focus teacher
attention on what is important
to assess—what children can
do—and to identify goals for
continued progress.
Classroom Connection
Observe how teachers in this
Reggio-inspired classroom use
documentation as evidence of
learning and development in
children’s portfolios. How do
teachers then use this informa-
tion to inform the curriculum?
What are some strengths of using
this approach?
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach370
Teachers need to use various ways of recording assessment information but they should consider the advantages
and disadvantages of each, as described in this table.
Method Advantages Disadvantages
Descriptive records
(narrative, running,
anecdotal)
• Provide rich, detailed information about children’s
behavior in context
• Can be objective
• May assess individuals or groups
• Time-consuming and difficult to record streams
of behavior
• May be judgmental
• May be difficult to interpret
Frequency counts
(event sampling)
• More objective because focuses on specific
behavior
• Document how often behavior occurs
• Show change in behavior over time
• Not time-consuming
• Efficient
• No description or information about behavior and
context
• May lead to biased view of child because often
focuses on one negative behavior
Checklists • Efficient way of gathering information
• Helps teachers know what to observe
• Can be completed quickly and easily
• Data can be analyzed and compared over time
• Can be scored for individuals and groups
• No information provided about context
• Can’t capture the complexity of a child’s
performance
• Provide limited guidance for teachers’ decisions
Rating scales and
rubrics
• Focus teachers’ observations on specific goals
• Help teachers understand development and learn-
ing progressions
• Relatively quick and easy to use
• Can assist curriculum planning and teaching
• Data can be analyzed and compared over time
• Can be scored for individuals and groups
• Limited information about context
• Ratings may not be reliable across teachers or
children
• Scores can oversimplify complex behavior and
ability
Portfolios • Demonstrate an individual child’s progress over a
long period of time
• Include multiple sources of information (photos,
videos, work samples, teacher’s and parents’
observations)
• Can be passed along to next teacher (with parents’
permission)
• Difficult to organize, store, and access easily
• Teachers may not be sure which products to keep,
how many to save, and how to evaluate them
Documentation as
dynamic assess-
ment
• Makes learning visible to children, teachers, and
families
• Uses multiple sources of information (videos, au-
dio recording, photos, observations, work samples)
• Displays children’s thinking and problem solving
as they work together on projects
• Helps teachers assess children’s understanding
and misconceptions
• Illustrates both individual and group learning
• Time-consuming to collect information and create
display panels
• Requires large amount of space
• Does not identify their individual child’s work,
which may frustrate parents
Sources: Based on Assessing and Guiding Young Children’s Development and Learning, 6th edition, by O. McAfee, D. J. Leong, and E. Bodrova,
2015, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson; and Observing Development of the Young Child, 8th edition, by J. J. Beaty, 2013, Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Pearson.
TAblE 11.5 Methods of Recording Assessment Information: Advantages and Disadvantages
Learning standards set curriculum goals for what a child should know and be able to
do. They also guide the development of assessments. Effective teachers interpret and use
the assessment information they have gathered and recorded in relation to learning stan-
dards. For instance, Micah observes that at the midpoint of the year, most of the children
in his preschool class can recognize the first letter in their names and maybe one other
letter. Is this good or bad? Unless Micah is familiar with early learning standards in the
area of literacy, he can’t make a judgment about whether his children are achieving at an
acceptable rate. Similarly, four of the children in Micah’s class do not speak in complete
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Chapter 11 Assessing Children’s Learning and Development 371
What Works
Using Technology to Assess Learning
Teachers can be overwhelmed at the prospect of recording their
observations, keeping track of all the data they collect about
children’s progress, and compiling portfolios of children’s work.
Fortunately, technology including smartphones, digital cameras,
tablets, and laptops is now available that can minimize these dis-
advantages and support teachers to reliably assess and document
children’s learning.
One such example is the 36-item online COR-Advantage, an
authentic assessment tool for evaluating the development and
learning of children from birth through age 5, developed by the
HighScope Educational Research Foundation (Epstein, Marshall,
& Gainsley, 2014). This system enables teachers to use the In-
ternet and a smartphone or tablet to record and store anecdotal
records and to generate scores, charts, and graphs of children’s
progress, and narrative reports for individuals and for the group.
The data can be aggregated to meet reporting requirements of
school districts or Head Start. Children’s files can be easily updat-
ed with new information. Scanned artwork, photographs, sample
writing, or video clips may also be included. Families can access
their child’s online community, view uploaded attachments, and
participate in the assessment process.
Similarly, the Creative Curriculum System for birth through
kindergarten includes an authentic observation assessment that is
also available online, Teaching Strategies GOLD. Teachers observe
and document children’s learning and development and upload
evidence to an online portfolio. Using this evidence, they rate chil-
dren’s progress on a continuum of 38 objectives for learning and
development. Children’s individual portfolios can be shared with
families, and with therapists and school districts for children who
receive special educational services (with the family’s permission,
of course). The online system also offers a process to ensure that
results are reliable among different observers. Teaching Strategies
GOLD is aligned with the Creative Curriculum, allowing teachers to
access teaching strategies connected
to the items they assess.
Wireless Generation is an educational
technology company that is best known for innovative use of
handheld devices to assess children’s learning during classroom
interactions. Its mCLASS: Circle assessment for 3- to 5-year-olds
includes note-taking tools and observational checklists to moni-
tor social and emotional development. The system also provides
brief tasks to measure critical skills for early literacy, such as
phonological awareness and letter knowledge as well as math-
ematics. The data is synced to the Web and provides analysis and
reports to help teachers identify areas of concern or strength for
each child. For K–3 and up, the company offers similar software
on handheld devices that assess children’s literacy and math
skills.
Many educational software companies provide electronic
portfolios that can be used to create, preserve, and store chil-
dren’s work using digital technology. With smartphones and tab-
lets that allow teachers to photograph, scan, and record video
and audio products, the possibilities for storing work samples
and performances are almost endless. The long-term storage
capabilities make it possible to continue to track children’s
progress across grades and to produce a permanent record for
children’s families.
These and other technology-based assessment systems
help teachers assess and are designed to be closely connected
to curriculum. They provide suggestions for individual and group
learning experiences and intentional teaching strategies. Thus,
technology not only lightens the time-consuming demands of
gathering assessment information but also links results to improv-
ing teaching and curriculum planning. With the speed of technol-
ogy advancement, we can hardly imagine what solutions lay in
the future.
sentences. Because Micah is familiar with the developmental continuum of language,
he realizes these children are significantly behind their peers in language. He adds book
reading and additional one-on-one conversation time to his teaching plan, continues to
observe and record their language, and seeks out the speech pathologist to consider sys-
tematic evaluations.
Effective assessment systems—those that provide valid, reliable, and useful informa-
tion for decision making—gather evidence from many sources. An example of such a sys-
tem designed for children from birth to 3½ years of age, a notoriously difficult age group
to accurately access, is the Ounce Scale (Meisels, Marsden, Dombro, Weston, & Jewkes,
2003). The tool includes an Observation Record, an album for gathering the family’s re-
sponses, and Developmental Profiles and Standards to use in completing the observation
and analyzing the evidence.
The role of authentic assessment in effective practice for children from birth to age 8
is now widely accepted. At the same time, educational policy and practice in elementary
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach372
schools has become increasingly dominated by standardized testing, a controversial topic
that is discussed next.
✓ Check Your Understanding 11.4: Observation and Recording to Improve Learning
Standardized Testing
of Young Children
Anyone who has attended school in the United States in the past half century is intimately
familiar with the regular rituals of standardized testing. We have all taken some form
of state-mandated achievement test at some time in our educational careers. Most of us
took the SAT or ACT to get into college. In many states, passing standardized tests is
required to become a certified teacher. Despite educators’ concerns and increasing doubts
expressed by the general public, standardized testing is inescapable in today’s political
climate. Therefore, teachers must be more knowledgeable than ever about the content
that will be tested as well as the appropriate and inappropriate uses of standardized tests.
Types of Standardized Tests
There are many types of standardized tests. Most standardized tests can be categorized
as achievement tests, aptitude or ability tests, readiness tests, or screening and diagnostic
tests (McAfee et al., 2015).
Achievement Tests One of the most familiar types of standardized tests are achieve-
ment tests such as the SAT, the Iowa Test of Basic Skills, or the California Achievement
Test. Achievement tests are designed to measure what children have learned in general
or in a content area such as reading or mathematics. The test items are a sample of the
curriculum content, and children’s responses are an indication of what they have learned.
Recent examples of achievement tests are those administered to meet federal require-
ments or state learning standards.
Readiness Tests School readiness tests are typically administered before entrance
to kindergarten (Snow, 2011). Some norm-referenced readiness tests are considered apti-
tude tests because they purport to predict whether children are sufficiently developed to
benefit from kindergarten instruction. These tests are especially problematic because the
younger the child, the more difficult it is to obtain an accurate assessment of what she or
he has learned, much less what the child is capable of learning in the future (NAEYC &
NAECS-SDE, 2003).
The fact is that children’s scores on readiness tests actually reflect their past experi-
ences and opportunities to learn and, hence, are more accurately categorized as achieve-
ment tests (Snow, 2011). The use of readiness tests to keep children out of kindergarten
is considered inappropriate by NAEYC and other early childhood professional organiza-
tions because it denies children what they need most: the opportunity to attend school
(Snow, 2011).
Aptitude or Ability Tests Aptitude tests are presumably designed to measure
not what children have already learned, but their potential for learning in the future
(McAfee et al., 2015). Consequently, scores on aptitude tests are intended to predict
future performance. As such, they are sometimes used to identify children for gifted and
talented programs. One example is a career aptitude test used to determine if an indi-
vidual’s abilities are a good match to learn the skills required of a job, such as piloting
an airplane.
In education, intelligence or IQ tests such as the Stanford-Binet or the McCarthy
Scales of Children’s Abilities are aptitude tests. Such tests are controversial because
achievement tests Tests
designed to measure what chil-
dren have learned in general
or in a content area such as
reading or mathematics.
readiness tests Achievement
tests administered to children
at entry to kindergarten.
aptitude tests Tests designed
to measure children’s potential
for learning in the future.
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Chapter 11 Assessing Children’s Learning and Development 373
children’s scores will naturally be inf luenced by
their prior experience. If children do not perform
well on such tests, it may be because they have not
had the opportunity to learn rather than because
they are incapable of learning. Before addressing
the controversies and concerns about standardized
testing, it is important to recognize the benefits
and well-intended purposes for using standardized
tests.
Appropriate Uses of
Standardized Testing
Standardized tests are not inherently good or evil.
Although some published tests do not meet techni-
cal requirements for reliability and validity, many
others are technically sound. As described earlier in this chapter, standardized tests have
particular characteristics and specific purposes for which they have been developed. When
used for these purposes, they can have utility; that is, they can be used to benefit children.
The most positive uses of standardized tests are: (1) to help identify and diagnose chil-
dren with special needs, (2) to serve as a source of information for assessing children for
instruction, and (3) to provide information for program evaluation and accountability.
Tests are also used for research purposes.
Standardized testing has appropriate uses as long as the instruments are technically
sound, used for the purposes for which they were designed, used to benefit children,
and used in conjunction with other sources for decision making. Throughout your career
as a teacher, you will face decisions about using standardized tests. Although there are
appropriate uses for standardized testing, there are controversies and concerns that sur-
round their use, which we discuss next.
Concerns about Standardized Testing
High-stakes testing refers to the use of standardized test scores to make decisions that
have potential long-term consequences for individual children, teachers, or schools.
Today’s school accountability movement has increased the amount of high-stakes testing.
Test results can lead to children being retained in grade, a decision with lifelong conse-
quences. School districts use children’s test scores in teacher performance evaluations
and even for decisions about teacher pay. Schools are ranked on websites according to test
scores. When the stakes surrounding testing become so high, unintended consequences
may result, such as narrowing the curriculum to teach only what is tested, or even cheat-
ing by giving children assistance or changing the conditions under which a test is admin-
istered (Au, 2007; Meisels, 2007).
High-stakes accountability testing can have adverse consequences for teaching prac-
tices in primary grades that trickle down into kindergarten and preschool. Among the
major concerns about standardized testing are potential for bias and negative effects on
curriculum and teaching.
bias in Standardized Tests One of the biggest fallacies of standardized tests
is that they are completely fair and objective (Horton & Bowman, 2002; Santos, 2004).
Although objectivity is the intent behind standardization, that goal has not been reached.
The only truly objective part of standardized tests is the scoring, often done by machine
(FairTest, 2006). The choice of test content, wording of items, and determination of the
correct answer is decided by human beings who have their own subjective perspectives
(FairTest, 2006). As a result, it is virtually impossible to develop a truly objective test, free
of all cultural and other forms of bias.
utility Used to benefit children.
high-stakes testing
Using standardized test scores
to make decisions about
individual children, teachers,
or schools that have potential
long-term consequences.
Portfolios are a valuable
alternative to standardized
testing for evaluating children’s
learning. Parents can see
authentic evidence of chil-
dren’s progress, and children
themselves can feel proud of
their accomplishments.
©
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Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach374
Negative Effects on Curriculum and Teaching The power of paper-and-
pencil, multiple-choice tests to drive what happens in schools is well documented (Ravitch,
2010). Although testing was a controversial issue before federal laws such as No Child
Left Behind and Race to the Top were introduced, since these policies went into effect,
schools report narrowing of the curriculum to put more focus on the content that is being
tested, especially reading and math. This means that other areas of the curriculum such as
physical education, the arts, and even academic subjects such as social studies are sacri-
ficed. Some schools have even taken away recess to allow more time for reading practice.
Another negative effect of standardized testing is on instruction itself. Because mul-
tiple-choice tests tend to measure basic skills and factual knowledge, instructional prac-
tices are adversely affected (Ravitch, 2010). Instead of using effective teaching practices
that emphasize learning as a socially constructed process, direct instruction on the basic
skills that will be tested takes precedence in many classrooms. The “one right answer”
format fails to reveal children’s true competence. Consider 4-year-old Lulu’s experience
during such a test (G. Joseph, personal communication, June 2011):
Tester: “What do you do when you’re cold?”
Lulu: “I start to shiver” [which is not the “correct answer” in the test booklet].
Tester: “What else do you do?”
Lulu: “The hair on my neck starts to stand up.”
Tester, in somewhat frustrated voice: “What do you do if you don’t want to be cold?”
Lulu, with a slightly disdainful look: “I put a coat on” [which is seemingly the only
“correct” answer to the question].
Without the extended conversation, the tester would judge Lulu to be incorrect and her
rich language expression would have been missed.
Perhaps the biggest problem with large-scale standardized testing for accountabil-
ity is that it often fails to achieve its well-intended purpose, which is to improve learn-
ing outcomes for individual children (Ravitch, 2010). Test scores become available after
children have moved on from the classroom that is being evaluated. More important, the
results of such tests are not useful for informing curriculum and teaching. A single score
in no way describes the complexity of children’s achievement, as the following example
demonstrates.
A study that analyzed the results of children who failed the state fourth-grade reading
test shows the ineffectiveness of large-scale testing in improving teaching (Valencia
& Buly, 2004). The researchers wanted to understand why these children were expe-
riencing reading difficulty. Among the students in their study, they identified six very
different clusters of reading problems. For example, one group of children could read
fast, but didn’t understand what they read. Another group of children had good com-
prehension skills but slow decoding ability, which interfered with their comprehend-
ing what they read. In addition, the researchers found considerable variance among
individual children that would call for different kinds of reading support. Some of
the children failed the test by only one or two points. Fewer than 10% of the children
were identified as “disabled” readers. These few children are what we picture when
we hear that large numbers of children failed the state tests.
As the researchers concluded, the standardized test score alone does not begin to
describe the complexity and diversity of the reading difficulties children face. Neither
is it useful in helping teachers address children’s individual problems. Although their
conclusion could extend to other areas of the curriculum as well, it is particularly ironic
here, since improving reading achievement is the primary goal of so many accountability
efforts.
Currently, the Common Core State Standards and the Kindergarten Entry Assess-
ments standards are generating the most heated discussion and controversy related to
assessment for children, teachers, schools, and districts. These issues are described in the
sections that follow.
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Chapter 11 Assessing Children’s Learning and Development 375
Assessment and the Common Core
The Common Core State Standards (CCSS) have changed the landscape of child assess-
ment—directly in kindergarten and higher grades, and indirectly in preschool. States are
simultaneously interpreting the standards for curriculum while attempting to assess what
children are learning and how well teachers and schools are teaching. In order to manage
the large task of integrating standards, and aligning curriculum and assessment, states
have formed consortia to establish guidelines and develop products. Two such consortia
are the Smarter Balanced Assessment Consortium (http://www.smarterbalanced.org) and
the Partnership for Assessment of Readiness for College and Careers (PARCC) (http://
www.parcconline.org). Both groups developed assessment approaches aligned to the
CCSS in English language arts and mathematics. The groups differ in how technology is
used to achieve their assessment goals. While PARCC uses computerized assessments,
Smarter Balanced uses computer adaptive assessment with which it is possible to indi-
vidualize a student’s questions.
Because the Common Core standards focus on higher-level competencies such as
problem solving, analyzing, and interpreting evidence, the assessments differ from other
large-scale testing efforts that rely on machine-scored, low-level multiple-choice ques-
tions. For example, Common Core assessments require written responses to open-ended
questions and keyboard skills.
Many are uncomfortable with several aspects of the assessments, including the
increased difficulty and developmental appropriateness of the grade-level content, the
new types of testing needed, new testing formats, and the difficult task of schedul-
ing test administration. Some states are developing formative assessments for K–3, in
an effort to be more developmentally appropriate. However, the ultimate test will be
whether CCSS and its aligned curricula and assessments are able to enhance learning
for all children.
Kindergarten Entry Assessment
While early childhood teachers are being trained to be keen observers and skilled at forma-
tive assessment, many states and school districts are developing and using Kindergarten
Entry Assessments (KEAs). The U.S. Department of Education’s Race to the Top— Early
Learning Challenge grants (RttT-ELC) stimulated this trend. The goals for KEAs as part
of this federal grant program include the following (Scott-Little, Bruner, Schultz, &
Maxwell, 2013):
• Assess the extent to which the state’s children are “ready” for formal schooling.
• Identify and target populations of children that require extra educational effort.
• Guide kindergarten teachers in their efforts to support children’s development
and learning.
• Inform and engage parents in their children’s development and learning.
• Provide information about needed professional development for teachers.
The Early Learning Challenge grants emphasize that KEAs are not designed or in-
tended to function as high-stakes assessment and should adhere to the NRC’s recommen-
dations on assessment in early childhood (NRC, 2008). NAEYC (Snow, 2011) echoes
these recommendations and asserts that KEAs can have value for identifying children
with special educational needs and targeting effective interventions, but cautions that the
tools used must have strong psychometrics (reliability and validity) and be administered
in ways consistent with developmentally appropriate practice.
For dual language learners, assessments should be culturally appropriate, include
the child’s family in the process, and be administered by someone who has linguistic and
cultural competence that aligns with the child’s experience (Espinosa & Garcia, 2012).
Although these standards may be difficult to achieve, they are necessary conditions to
increase the validity of assessment for dual language learners. Used properly, KEAs could
prove to be a valuable tool for states and school districts in determining what supports are
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http://www.parcconline.org
http://www.parcconline.org
Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach376
. . . Ms. Kinsela’s Classroom
At the outset of this chapter, we met a first-grade teacher, Bonnie Kinsela. During the course of a
two-hour literacy block, Bonnie’s work demonstrates the positive power of informal as well as formal,
authentic assessment to improve teaching and learning outcomes for young children. Bonnie smoothly
embeds assessment in her curriculum and teaching as she helps children to document their work. She
uses technology to keep track of her observations, narrative records, ratings of children’s performance,
and portfolios. The children in her classroom clearly benefit from their district’s emphasis on using as-
sessment to support the progress of all children.
Bonnie’s experiences expanded her thinking about assessment. She knows the benefits of using
standardized measures for screening and diagnosing children’s special needs, and for documenting
IEP progress. At the same time, she realizes that using observation and other tools to formally and in-
formally assess children’s learning and development provides her with essential information to make
good decisions about her teaching. Most important, she now believes that assessment is not an add-on
to her job, but rather an integral aspect of her role as an intentional teacher. Using assessment wisely
and accurately is essential if children are to benefit from their school experiences.
Assessing children’s progress on specific literacy goals helps Bonnie see the need to adapt and in-
dividualize her teaching. The families she works with are integrally involved in the assessment process,
examining online portfolios, sharing anecdotes, and marveling at their own children’s competence. In
Bonnie’s program, assessment meets the ultimate test—it benefits children and their families. ■
Revisiting the Case Study
Chapter Summary11.
• Assessment literacy is teachers’ understanding and
using the vocabulary of assessment and testing.
• Assessment is the ongoing process of gathering evi-
dence of children’s learning and development, and then
organizing and interpreting that information in order to
make informed decisions about instructional practice.
• Early childhood programs have four basic purposes
for assessment: (1) to inform teaching and promote
learning, (2) to identify children with special learning
or developmental needs, (3) to evaluate programs, and
(4) to demonstrate accountability.
• Indicators of effective assessment include (1) using
multiple sources of evidence; (2) using assessments
only for the purpose for which they are reliable and
valid; and (3) considering what is developmentally
appropriate, culturally and linguistically responsive,
✓ Check Your Understanding 11.5: Standardized Testing of Young Children
needed for early childhood programs and for teachers in planning the kindergarten cur-
riculum and adapting for individual children.
Despite the challenges and controversies surrounding testing of young children,
accurate assessment of young children’s development and learning is an essential com-
ponent of developmentally appropriate practice. Intentional teachers use the effective
assessment strategies described in this chapter to meet children where they are in order
to plan curriculum and adapt their teaching to help children achieve challenging goals.
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Chapter 11 Assessing Children’s Learning and Development 377
and individually appropriate for all children, including
children with special needs.
• The most effective methods for collecting evidence to
improve learning and development are observing chil-
dren’s behavior and performance, eliciting responses
from children, collecting work products, and gathering
information from family members.
• Accurate interpretation and effective use of assessment
evidence depend on teachers’ knowing what and when
children should be accomplishing certain developmen-
tal tasks and learning skills.
• Benefits of standardized tests include: (1) they help
to identify and diagnose children with special needs,
(2) they serve as a source of information for assess-
ing children for instruction, and (3) they are one
source of information for program evaluation and
accountability.
• High-stakes accountability testing can have adverse
consequences for teaching practices in primary grades
that trickle down into kindergarten and preschool,
including biased results and negative effects on cur-
riculum and teaching.
Key Terms
■ accommodations
■ accountability
■ achievement tests
■ alternative assessments
■ anecdotal records
■ aptitude tests
■ assessment
■ authentic assessment
■ checklists
■ criterion-referenced tests
■ curriculum-embedded
assessment
■ developmental
continuum
■ diagnostic tests
■ dynamic assessment
■ evaluation
■ evidence
■ formal assessment
■ formative assessment
■ frequency counts
■ functional skills
■ high-stakes testing
■ informal assessment
■ interviews
■ modifications
■ narrative records
■ normal curve
■ norm-referenced tests
■ performance assessment
■ play-based assessment
■ portfolios
■ program evaluation
■ rating scales
■ readiness tests
■ reliability
■ rubrics
■ running record
■ screening tests
■ standardized assessment
■ standardized testing
■ summative assessment
■ testing
■ utility
■ validity
Curtis, D., & Carter, M. (2013). The art of awareness:
How observation can transform your teaching (2nd ed.).
St. Paul, MN: Redleaf Press.
McAfee, O., Leong, D., & Bodrova, E. (2015). Assessing
and guiding young children’s development and learning
(6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Center on Enhancing Early Learning Outcomes
(CEELO)
This website has many resources on assessment to sup-
port children’s learning, including products developed to
support states’ efforts.
Early Learning Challenge Collaborative
This website has valuable information about Kindergar-
ten Entry Assessments and discussion points for using
with colleagues and families.
Smarter Balanced Assessment Consortium and
Partnership for Assessment of Readiness for College
and Careers
These websites describe states’ efforts to collaborate
on the development and implementation of state-level
assessments designed to measure students’ progress on
meeting Common Core State Standards.
Readings and Websites
Demonstrate Your Learning
Click here to assess how well you’ve learned the content in this chapter.
✓
M11_BRED6702_03_SE_C11.indd 377 10/7/15 3:00 PM
12
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
12.1 Describe the continuum of language development from birth to age 8.
12.2 Identify effective strategies teachers can use to promote children’s language
learning.
12.3 Explain how children acquire a second language and describe effective
strategies for teaching dual language learners.
12.4 Analyze effective teaching strategies to promote key early literacy skills that
predict later success in reading.
12.5 Discuss the components of effective literacy instruction in the primary
grades and the impact of Common Core English Language Arts standards.
12.6 Demonstrate how children learn to communicate through the visual arts,
music, movement, dance, and drama, and effective strategies for engaging
children in arts education.
Teaching Children to
Communicate: Language,
Literacy, and the Arts
Learning Outcomes
© Mike Kemp/Getty Images
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379
Thurgood Marshall Early Learning Center is a public school, serving prekindergarten through second grade. In April, the whole school faculty plans to focus on art appreciation and communication. Each class
takes a field trip to the local art museum. In preparation, the kindergarteners take a virtual tour on the museum’s
website and identify pictures they’d like to see on their visit. The teacher, Ms. Barker, prints copies of the favorites
to focus the children’s attention. Each group of four children chooses one painting, such as one depicting bright
sunflowers by Vincent Van Gogh. Meeting with children in small groups, Ms. Barker stimulates their conversations
with open-ended questions such as “What do you see in this painting? What do you think the artist was feeling/
thinking?”
After their discussions, each group tries its hand at producing paintings on the same theme as the artist. Using
their own attempts at spelling, children write about or dictate to the teacher descriptions of their paintings and how
they compare to the original: “I painted yellow flowers, too, but mine are little,” explains Elijah.
Before the visit, the teacher projects paintings by each of the artists on the interactive whiteboard for the whole
group to compare subjects, styles, and colors. At the gallery, the groups look carefully for their “own” painting,
and the teacher asks if they are surprised by what they see.
Bruce [upon encountering the Van Gogh]: It looks rough!
Ms. Barker: How a painting feels is called texture. The painter used thick layers of paint.
Marion [pointing to the copy in his hand]: But here it looks smooth.
Ms. Barker [reinforces the new word]: That’s true. The texture of the copy isn’t rough. It’s smooth.
Tallulah: The sunflowers are so yellow. They almost hurt my eyes.
Ms. Barker: The color in the painting is brighter and more intense than in the copy.
After the trip, children discuss and write about what they observed, and do more painting. Their paintings and
the words they use to describe them are far more detailed than before their visit. The field trip stimulated a new
interest which leads to playing Museum Mix-Up on the iPad, a game developed by the Fred Rogers Center to help
children discover great works of art.
Similar experiences occur in other classes, and the teachers set up an art gallery in the hallway. Children display
their paintings next to the posters of the great artists’ works that inspired them. In the first and second grades,
the teachers and children do Internet research, read short biographies of some of the
famous artists, and write summaries to display on the gallery walls. The first graders are
surprised to learn that many famous artists painted outside. The teachers
set up easels outside so children can paint the views from their school.
Their vocabulary for colors expands as they try to mix new variations
to match what they see, such as lavender, chartreuse, or
magenta.
The art study lasts several weeks, during which children
increase their language and literacy skills. They
sharpen their observation skills, learn descriptive
vocabulary, and broaden their understanding
of how art is used for communication and
expression. ■
Case Study
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Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach380
I
n this chapter, we address fundamental areas of the early childhood curriculum: language
and literacy development. Speaking and understanding, reading, and writing are the foun-
dation of all other learning in school and essential for success in life. Also in this chapter,
we address the arts, a content area that, in contrast to literacy, is often seen as expendable.
Today’s emphasis on reading and test scores now drives the curriculum to a large extent. Some
schools have eliminated the arts altogether; others use them only as a reward for good behav-
ior. This chapter views the arts as an essential means of communication for young children
and demonstrates their connection to other areas of communication: language and reading.
Although we focus on the integration of the arts, we also believe in art for art’s sake, especially
for young children for whom art experiences contribute to development in so many ways.
First, we address the all-important area of language development—how both first and
second language develops and ways teachers can scaffold children’s language learning.
Next, we discuss the foundations of literacy from birth through age 5, as well as the key
components of reading instruction in the primary grades. We then turn to the creative arts,
describing goals for art education and teaching strategies to enhance children’s enjoyment
and engagement in the arts.
Children’s Language
Development
After 3 months of separation, 4-year-old Liam is excited to see his Nana. He talks and
talks as she tries to quiet him for bedtime. Finally, in exasperation, he says to her, “But
I have so many words for you, and they never get tired.”
Seeing their language skills blossom is one of the most delightful aspects of teaching
young children. Perhaps the most important task of the first 5 years of life is development of
language because it supports learning in so many other areas. Language is a strong predictor
of later success in learning to read and write (National Institute of Child Health and Hu-
man Development [NICHD], 2000; Neuman & Wright, 2013). Likewise, children who are
skilled communicators demonstrate better social competence and emotional self-regulation.
The Critical Importance of Language
Development
Because children seem to learn language naturally, adults often assume that it is simply
the product of maturation, like learning to walk. But it is not. Biology primes humans for
language, but the language children speak is learned over many years through verbal in-
teraction with adults and other children (Neuman & Wright, 2013). By the time they reach
preschool, children are experienced users of language. However, the amount and type of
language they use may differ from the language used in the school because children’s
speech is acquired in the context of their home and cultural and linguistic community.
Language learning is far from complete when children enter kindergarten or even
finish elementary school. Human beings learn language throughout school and life. Un-
doubtedly, as a college student, you continually add new words to your vocabulary. As a
teacher working with a diverse population of children and their families, you will find that
your vocabulary will continue to expand.
Types of Language
There are basically two types of language: receptive and expressive. Receptive language
is the ability to understand what is being said. Expressive language is the ability to com-
municate through use and knowledge of spoken language. Receptive language skills—
listening and understanding—develop earlier than the expressive abilities of speaking
and communicating. At any point in time, children understand more words and more
advanced sentence structures than they use.
receptive language The ability
to understand what is being said.
expressive language The abil-
ity to communicate; use and
knowledge of spoken language.
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Chapter 12 Teaching Children to Communicate: Language, Literacy, and the Arts 381
Vocabulary Vocabulary is a combination of receptive and expressive language—that
is, the number of words a person knows and uses when listening or speaking (Snow,
Burns, & Griffin, 1998). An important goal of all teaching is to increase both the quan-
tity and quality of children’s receptive and expressive vocabulary. It is not enough that
children speak a lot. We must pay attention to the range of words they understand and
use—the use of pronouns, prepositions, adverbs and adjectives, and other parts of speech
(Snow et al., 1998).
Vocabulary words are the labels children use for concepts they are learning, as well as
for those they already know and understand. Consequently, the more limited the vocabu-
lary, the more limited the child’s understanding of the world is (Neuman & Wright, 2013).
A child who knows the words mail, stamp, envelope, address, package, and delivery has a
more refined concept of the postal system than a child who refers to all of those concepts
as mail.
Grammar Another important element of language development is the complexity of
sentence structure children use, referred to as syntax or grammar. As children become
more skilled users of language, their syntax becomes more complex. For example, a tod-
dler may say, “Me go” to indicate he wants to play outside. But a preschooler will use a
more conventional sentence structure such as “I wanna go to the playground and climb
the ladder swing.”
A related goal is for children to begin to acquire script language—the typical ways
that people communicate in different settings. For example, what the doctor says is dif-
ferent from what the grocery clerk says. Similarly, the way one talks at school is different
from the way one talks at home or on the playground. Learning the language of school,
what is called academic discourse, is important for school success, and it is not an auto-
matic process. For example, if you have ever seen children “play school,” you have seen
how they rehearse the script that teachers use (and it is not always comfortable for adults
to watch their behavior played back for them).
Language Differences in Children
During the preschool years, language develops far more rapidly than at any other time, but
there are enormous individual differences (Hart & Risley, 1999). Of particular concern
is that differences in children’s language abilities exist between socioeconomic groups
as early as 18 months of age (Hart & Risley, 2003). Recent research finds that not only
does the size of very young children’s vo-
cabularies differ, but also how quickly they
process and respond to language (Fernald,
Marchman, & Weisleder, 2013). These
differences become greater over time and
contribute to the persistent achievement
gap in our country (Neuman & Wright,
2013). Therefore, programs serving chil-
dren from low-income families and chil-
dren from diverse linguistic and cultural
backgrounds must take on the challenge of
accelerating children’s language progress.
Effects of Early Language Expe-
rience A classic study of early language
acquisition found that socioeconomic
background was a major factor affecting
young children’s language development
(Hart & Risley, 1995). The researchers
videotaped language interactions between
vocabulary A combination
of receptive and expressive
language; the number of words
a person knows and uses when
listening or speaking.
syntax Grammar and sentence
structure.
script language The typical
ways that people communi-
cate in different contexts or
settings.
academic discourse The
language of school, which is
important for school success.
Children’s language devel-
opment affects all areas of
their learning as well as their
social-emotional development.
Intentional teachers use every
opportunity to help children
learn language.
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Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach382
parents of different income levels and their children from infancy to age 3. The study
found that, over the course of a year, children of parents who were professionals were ex-
posed to more than 11 million words. In contrast, children whose families were receiving
public assistance were exposed to only 3 million words.
Researchers estimated that during the first 4 years of a child’s life, an average child in
a professional family would have accumulated experience with almost 50 million words,
whereas an average child living in poverty would have been exposed to 13 million words
(Hart & Risley, 1995). Consequently, children’s vocabulary growth reflected their experi-
ence. By age 4, children from more affluent homes had vocabularies approximately three
times as large as those of children living in poverty.
It is important to note that Hart and Risley (1995) found economic advantage to be
the only factor related to language differences. Race/ethnicity, gender, or birth order of
the child made no difference. The researchers also cautioned about negatively judging the
parents, who are coping with the many stresses of poverty:
Particularly striking among the welfare parents was their resilience and persistence in
the face of repeated defeats and humiliations, their joy in playing with their children,
and their desire that their children do well in school. They could spend an hour on a
bus holding a feverish child and wait longer than that in a public health clinic. But
these parents did not talk to their children very much. (Hart & Risley, 1995, pp. 69–70)
The large vocabulary difference between income groups has come to be called “The
30 million word gap” (Hart & Risley, 2003). Public recognition of this disparity helped
propel the White House to convene a summit called “Bridging the Word Gap” in 2014 and
to propose increased investments in early education.
Recently, concerns have been raised about the interpretation of these findings. Re-
searchers at the White House summit emphasized that just increasing the number of
words children hear is not enough; more important is the complexity and variety of words
that children learn (Quenqua, 2014). Additionally, the Hart and Risley study involved a
small number of families. SES may no longer be as influential a factor because many
of today’s economically advantaged parents spend more time on handheld devices than
in conversation with their children. Nevertheless, an achievement gap persists, and chil-
dren’s language capacity is a contributing factor.
To address this gap in children’s language development, teachers must first under-
stand how language typically develops. Teachers must also be aware that many types of
disability affect communication; some individual children will need access to assistive
technology—called augmented communication devices and/or sign language.
Developmental Continuum: Oral Language
Language development follows a relatively predictable sequence, but there are individual
differences that are well within the range of normal (Hart & Risley, 1999). In addition,
as we saw in research cited earlier, if children have many opportunities to speak and be
spoken to, they are likely to develop richer, more complex language. The Developmental
Continuum: Oral Language feature provides an overview of the typical progression of
language development and how children of different ages communicate.
Impact of Common Core Speaking
and Listening Standards
The Developmental Continuum provided here describes widely held expectations for
typical language development. However, the K–3 Common Core Speaking and Listening
standards (2011a) establish specific expectations by grade level. For example, kinder-
gartners need to participate in collaborative conversations in small and large groups and
confirm their understanding of a read-aloud book by asking and answering questions.
Standards at each grade level build on earlier abilities and become progressively more
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Chapter 12 Teaching Children to Communicate: Language, Literacy, and the Arts 383
Developmental Continuum
Oral Language
Age of Child Developmental Expectations
Birth to about
8 months
• Communicate through behaviors rather than words; signal distress by crying. Caregivers
need to interpret babies’ sounds and gestures.
• Smile or vocalize if they want someone to pay attention or play.
• Begin vocalizing vowel sounds called cooing. Soon after, they begin to babble, producing
consonant/vowel sounds such as “ba.”
• Continue to babble using all kinds of sounds and will play with sounds when alone.
• Begin to understand familiar names such as those of siblings or pets.
• Laugh and appear to listen to conversations.
Between 8 and
18 months
• Become more purposeful in their communications.
• Use facial expressions, gestures, and sounds to get their needs met. (If a bottle falls from
a high chair tray, instead of just crying, the 14-month-old may grunt and wave at the floor.)
• Understand many more words than they can say.
• Speak in long, babbled sentences that mirror the cadence of conventional speech.
• Soon start to shake their head “no” and begin to use the word me.
• Usually crack the language code and begin to use their first words between 12 and
18 months.
From 18 to
24 months
• Experience a burst in vocabulary and begin to combine words into two-word utterances
called telegraphic speech. Like old-fashioned telegrams, they waste no words in commu-
nicating their message: “No nap.”
Ages 2 to 3 • Progress from using two-word combinations (my truck) to three- and four-word sentences
with words in the correct order more often (Where’s my truck?).
• Speaking vocabulary may reach 200 words.
• Use adjectives and adverbs. (Give me my blue truck now.)
• Most children’s speech becomes more understandable. Constantly ask, “Wassat?” as
they seem to want to name everything.
Ages 3 to 6 • Have a vocabulary of about 1,000 words.
• Although some may still have difficulty, most are better able to articulate some of the
more difficult sounds, like s, th, z, r, and l.
• Can initiate and engage in more complex conversations.
• Use 1,500 to 2,000 words as vocabulary expands rapidly during kindergarten.
• Usually speak clearly and are lively conversation partners with adults and other children.
The primary grades • Language development continues at a rapid pace.
• During these years, children need a large vocabulary to learn to read and to comprehend
what they read. Explicit teaching of vocabulary needs to be an instructional goal.
• At the same time, the more children read, the more words they learn because the lan-
guage of books is more elaborate than everyday conversation. Some researchers estimate
that children need to learn 3,000 words a year throughout the elementary school years.
Sources: Based on Assessing and Guiding Young Children’s Development and Learning, 6th
edition, by O. McAfee, D. Leong, and E. Bodrova, 2015, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson;
Learning Language and Loving It: A Guide to Promoting Children’s Social, Language,
and Literacy Development in Early Childhood Settings, 2nd edition, by E. Weitzman and
J. Greenberg, 2002, Toronto: The Hanen Centre.
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Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach384
challenging. For example, kindergartners need to have back-and-forth conversations; first
graders’ conversations need to build on what the other person says through questions and
comments; and second graders need to have multiple exchanges that link what they say
to the other person’s comments. Obviously, these standards directly affect how teachers
teach. Teachers have to move beyond “yes or no” questions to provoking more intellectu-
ally engaging, stimulating conversations among children.
In the previous sections, we described the critically important role of early experi-
ence to language development and expectations across the period from birth to age 8.
Next, we describe what adults can do to help develop children’s communication skills.
✓ Check Your Understanding 12.1: Children’s Language Development
Scaffolding Children’s
Language Development
Public reports about the “30 million word gap” have garnered considerable media atten-
tion that can lead to inaccurate information about how to help children develop language.
As we’ve seen, it isn’t just the quantity of words that children hear, it is the quality and
complexity of their language experience. Children learn language and expand their vo-
cabulary from their interactions with more competent speakers. However, effective teach-
ing strategies differ based on the age of the children. Next we discuss developmentally
appropriate ways of promoting language in each age group.
Supporting Language Development
in Babies and Toddlers
Depicting language development as a progression may imply that it happens
automatically. Although very young children learn to talk without formal in-
struction, adults play a critical role in supporting that process.
Talk to Babies and Toddlers The role of conversational partner is
especially important for teachers working with babies and toddlers because
the first 3 years of life are prime time for developing language. Neverthe-
less, some teachers and parents of very young children persist in the view
that there is no reason to talk to children who can’t talk back. The opposite
is true. From the earliest moments of life, babies are trying to communicate.
Teachers need to talk as if the child can talk back and respond to almost any
attempt to communicate.
If you are like most adults, your interaction with a baby may sound like a high-
pitched voice saying this: “Hi, baby. How are you this morning, baby, baby?” You pause.
The infant moves his mouth, waves his arms, or just looks at you intently. And now you
say, “Oh, you had a good sleep, did you? Are you ready to have some fun today?” When
the baby gurgles, you say, “You are ready, aren’t you? Jesse’s ready, ready to play!”
Adults (and even older children) talk to babies differently than they do to each other.
The high-pitched tone of voice that adults tend to use naturally with babies is called
parentese or motherese, and researchers have observed its use around the world (Rivera-
Gaxiola, Silva-Pereyra, & Kuhl, 2008). What’s more, they know that babies like it. Infants
consistently prefer hearing parentese to adult conversation. In laboratory studies, they
show this preference by turning their heads one way to trigger a tape of parentese more
often than they turn it the other way to hear a tape of adult-to-adult conversation.
Effective communication begins as babies pay attention and respond. When the child
initiates, teachers need to respond enthusiastically and then wait for a response. They
interpret what babies are trying to communicate and expand on the message with words.
Classroom Connection
Watch this video and listen to the
teacher as she takes time to have
a conversation with a toddler
during play to develop a warm
relationship with the child and
expand his language.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v
=ZUajb1Ll2qQ&list=PLoYCO2fw
BJJpPrIy7mLNSWnOPoSKdMk-R
parentese The high-pitched
tone of voice adults and even
children tend to use naturally
with babies; also called
motherese.
cooing Vocalizing vowel
sounds.
babble Producing consonant/
vowel sounds such as “ba ba.”
telegraphic speech Combining
words into two-word utterances.
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Chapter 12 Teaching Children to Communicate: Language, Literacy, and the Arts 385
Teachers shouldn’t pressure young
children to talk. Communication needs
to be meaningful; it should not test
children with obvious questions such
as “What are you doing?” or direct
them with comments like “Put the car
on the road” (Greenberg & Weitzman,
2014). Instead, the teacher might say,
“Your car is going fast.” If the com-
ment sparks the child’s interest, the
child might respond, “Fast.” Then it’s
the teacher’s turn: “You’re making the
car go very fast.”
Describe Their Experiences
One of the most effective ways of
building language in babies and tod-
dlers is to use play-by-play language or running commentary during routines and social
interactions with babies and toddlers. Think of watching a sporting event on TV. A play-
by-play announcer describes the action even though you’re seeing it before you. This sort
of commentary connects actions and objects with words and familiarizes babies with the
cadences of speech. Here’s an example of play-by-play during a typical routine, with the
words tied to each action: “Let’s change your diaper now. I need to pick you up. You’re
such a big boy. Let’s lie down on the changing table. You can hold your horsie. We need
to take off these wet pants” and on and on.
Finally, to promote language in babies and toddlers, two very important points must
be kept in mind. First, children need a lot of opportunities to play with different kinds of
toys, to touch real objects, and to move around. Think of the many different words a child
could learn from playing in water, eating applesauce, climbing on a low ramp, rolling a
ball, or looking at a cardboard book. Secondly, in each of these situations, teachers need
to supply the words. While children play on a ramp, the teacher can introduce the words
slide, roll, climb, fast, shiny, push, and many more.
As children’s understanding and language use improves, teachers need to adapt their lan-
guage by using longer, more complex comments and more sophisticated vocabulary. Many
of these same strategies apply to promoting language with preschoolers, discussed next.
Scaffolding Preschoolers’ Language
Development
Research demonstrates that several strategies are particularly effective in promoting pre-
schooler’s language acquisition (Dickinson, 2011; Neuman & Wright, 2013). These strat-
egies include modeling language, conversation, listening, decontextualized speech, and
intentional teaching of new words.
Model Language and Complex Vocabulary Teachers do a lot of talking and
are important role models for children. Therefore, they need to use standard grammatical
speech. They also need to recognize that many of the grammatical errors children make,
such as I goed to the store or three sheeps, show their efforts to learn a language rule. As
they learn the rule, like using s to indicate plural, they overgeneralize it. Instead of point-
ing out the mistake, a more effective approach is to pick up on what the child says and say
it correctly. A child might say, “I gots two foots,” to which the teacher replies, “Yes, you
have two feet so you need two socks.”
Similarly, if children speak a dialect or vernacular version of English, teachers
should not correct or prohibit their speech. Doing so tells children that the speech of
their family and their cultural group is inferior. This negative message may inhibit
play-by-play language Lan-
guage that describes what is
happening during routines and
social interactions with babies
and toddlers; also called run-
ning commentary.
Infants and toddlers are learn-
ing language and also literacy
skills from birth. What do you
think this child is learning from
examining a cardboard book?
©
J
u
le
s
S
el
m
es
/P
ea
rs
on
E
d
u
ca
ti
on
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Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach386
children’s attempts to communicate. A more effective alternative is to help children
see that there are different ways to say the same thing. For example, a child might say,
“He ain’t got no shoes.” Rather than correcting the double negative, the teacher could
say, “Yes. He doesn’t have any shoes. He’s barefoot.” Especially as children get older,
the teacher should intentionally draw their attention to the fact that there are different
ways to say the same thing.
Engage in One-to-One Conversation One of the most effective strategies for
promoting children’s language development is engaging them in one-to-one conversa-
tions (Dickinson, 2011; Neuman & Wright, 2013). When children are served in groups,
the task of supporting each child’s language acquisition and understanding what they are
trying to say can be daunting. Too often, the children whose language is most advanced
are spoken to more often. This leads to a vicious cycle where those children who are
lagging behind get less language interaction than they need, while those who need less
actually get more (Bredekamp, 2002).
Extend Conversation One of the best ways to build children’s vocabulary is to
increase the amount of talk in the classroom and to intentionally extend conversations.
Extended discourse occurs when adults talk with children in ways that build on and
expand what the children say (Dickinson & Tabors, 2001). Researcher David Dickinson
encourages teachers to “strive for five,” that is, five back-and-forth exchanges during a
conversation with a child. In short, teachers need to use fewer conversation closers and
more conversation stretchers, as described in Table 12.1.
Build Listening Comprehension Conversation involves turn-taking. One per-
son speaks and the other person listens. Listening is critical to understanding what is said.
In addition, listening comprehension prepares young children for later reading compre-
hension (Jalongo, 2008). As important as listening is, most teachers do not treat it as a
skill to be taught. When adults tell children to “Listen,” they often mean “Behave” or “Do
as I say.” No wonder children often tune out the word.
Young children need to listen in order to learn; therefore, they need to learn to listen
(Jalongo, 2008). Because teachers or parents tell children, “Be quiet, sit still, and listen,”
listening may seem to be a passive activity. However, effective listening is an active pro-
cess. Listening is “the process of taking in information through the sense of hearing and
making meaning from what was heard” (Jalongo, 2008, p. 12).
To promote listening and understanding, teachers should model good listening for
children. They can use the conversation stretchers and avoid the conversation closers,
listed in Table 12.1 and depicted in the following example:
Ms. Abell’s kindergarten class gathers around her for meeting time. The children
become excited when they spy the “mystery box,” which signals that they are going
to play one of their favorite games.
Ms. Abell, putting her hand inside the box: I’m touching something that is hard and
has points on one end.
The children take turns guessing: A pencil. . . . A knife. . . . A carrot.
Ms. Abell: Listen to my clue. I said points.
Ashley: I know. It’s scissors. (The other children nod and agree.)
Ms. Abell, feeling in the box: “That’s close, but it has four points, called prongs.”
Because prongs is a new word for them, the children need other clues. Ms. Abell says,
“Who can remember all the clues?” After Dorsey lists the clues so far, Ms. Abell adds
another one: “You use it at lunchtime.” Soon, Robin figures out that the mystery item
is a fork.
This game is only one of the ways in which Ms. Abell promotes listening skills. During
center time, a group plays a matching sounds Lotto game. Two children from Cambodia
extended discourse Talking
with children in ways that build
on and expand what they say.
listening The process of taking
in information through the
sense of hearing and making
meaning from what is heard.
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Chapter 12 Teaching Children to Communicate: Language, Literacy, and the Arts 387
listen to a story on tape in their home language. Ms. Abell sets up a treasure hunt where
children must listen and follow a series of directions to find the surprise.
Use Decontextualized Speech One of the most effective ways to expand chil-
dren’s language is to use decontextualized speech. This is talk about events, experiences,
or people that are beyond the here and now or that inhabit children’s imaginations. Such
interaction requires children and adults to use more complex and varied vocabulary in
explanations, descriptions, dialogue, and pretend talk.
Decontextualized speech can be complicated because the speaker and the listener
can’t rely on cues from the context to understand the communication. When children talk
about the here and now, the context permits using words like this, that, there, here, and it.
These are words that children already know. Such conversation doesn’t require or chal-
lenge them to use more descriptive language to be understood.
Furthermore, decontextualized speech is valuable preparation for reading (Snow et
al., 1998). In spoken communication, lots of cues such as gestures, facial expressions,
physical space, and objects are available. If someone says, “Take your seat,” the listener
The examples in this table help teachers become more aware of how they can encourage and extend conversa-
tions with children or unwittingly close off communication.
AVOID Conversation Closers—Types of Teacher Talk That Cut Off Conversation with Individual Children
Conversation Closers Examples
Answering own questions—talking for children
or over children
Teacher speaking without waiting for a reply: “How did you like our trip to the
firehouse, Jack? I bet you liked hearing the fire bell. I saw you looking at the pole.
That was neat.”
Moralizing Jack: “I wanna ring that bell.”Teacher: “You can’t ring the bell. It’s not allowed.”
Using empty praise or phrases Teacher: “That’s nice, Jack.” “Good boy.”
Time-passing remarks Jack: “Can we drive the truck?” Teacher: “We’ll be going pretty soon.”
Focusing on safety and rules Jack: “Look, I found a caterpillar.” Teacher: “You’ll have to wash your hands now.”
TAblE 12.1 Improving Teacher–Child Conversations
decontextualized speech Talk
about events, experiences, or
people that are beyond the
here and now or that inhabit
children’s imaginations.
INCREASE Conversation Stretchers—Types of Teacher Talk That Extend One-to-One Conversation and
Contribute to More Turn-Taking
Conversation Stretchers Examples
Focusing on and adding details “The firefighter’s boots are tall. Let’s see how big they are compared to your
shoes, Jack. They’re gigantic. Why do you think they have these handles?”
Expanding and asking questions “It sounds like you want to build a firehouse out of your blocks with a pole. What
materials will you need?”
Repeating important words “Here’s the fire extinguisher. We have a fire extinguisher like this at school. Who
remembers where we keep the extinguisher?”
Sharing own experiences “When I was on my way to school, I heard an ambulance siren. It startled me.”
Explaining terms “A false alarm. False means it is not real. So a false alarm means there isn’t a
real fire.”
Wondering aloud “I wonder what it would be like to work in a fire station. . . .”
Using wait time Give plenty of time (5 to 10 seconds) for children to respond, especially less ver-
bal children. The other children and you will learn that waiting for a less verbal
child can sometimes yield keen insights.
Source: Based on Oral Language and Early Literacy in Preschool: Talking, Reading, and Writing, 2nd edition, by K. A. Roskos, P. O. Tabors, &
L. A. Lenhart, 2009, Newark, DE: International Reading Association; Learning Language and Loving It: A Guide to Promoting Children’s Social,
Language, and Literacy Development in Early Childhood Settings, 2nd edition, by E. Weitzman and J. Greenberg, 2002, Toronto: The Hanen Centre.
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Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach388
quickly understands that he is being told to sit down. But if the same sentence appears
in writing, the reader would have to figure out whether it means sit in a chair or pick up
a cushion. This is just one example of the important connection between speaking and
reading.
Teach New and Rare Words Four-year-old Liam has a new baby brother named
Ryan. Liam decides that the baby should be named Nathan, after his best friend at pre-
school. The first few days after Ryan comes home from the hospital, Liam persists in
calling him Nathan. His parents don’t correct him, but they keep calling the baby Ryan.
Sitting next to his mom and Ryan on the couch one day, Liam thoughtfully says, “We can
call him Rynathan. That will be a compromise.”
Liam’s advanced vocabulary, which also includes words such as actually, amazing,
entertaining, and nocturnal, did not develop by chance. His parents and teachers talk with
him, use these words regularly, and explain and show what they mean.
Learning new words occurs through repeated exposure to the words in a context
where the meaning becomes clear. Liam’s parents undoubtedly negotiate with him rather
than get into power struggles. For example, if he wants to watch TV and his mother wants
him to go outside, she might say, “Let’s compromise. You can go outside while it’s still
light, and we’ll tape the program so you can watch it later.” After hearing and using this
word several times, Liam begins to use it himself.
Teachers need to use explicit instruction to expand children’s vocabulary, and should
intentionally introduce new and rare words—multisyllable, sophisticated words that are
not typically part of a child’s vocabulary (Collins, 2012; Neuman & Wright, 2013). For
example, in The Tale of Peter Rabbit, Peter’s coat gets caught in the fence and the birds
implore him to exert himself. Before reading the book, the teacher introduces these words
with simple definitions, “Implore means to ask someone to do something you really want
them to do” and “Exert means to try really hard.” During the reading, she pauses at the
sentence to ask the children what it means. Then later she reinforces the learning by using
the new words repeatedly, sometimes jokingly, “I implore you to get your coats on,” and
encouraging children to use them.
Use Interactive Book Reading One of the most effective ways to promote chil-
dren’s language and increase their vocabulary is to engage in interactive book reading
(McGee, 2013). In many classrooms, storybook reading is the favorite activity of teachers as
well as children. However, teachers usually read books only to the whole group (Dickinson,
2011). At times, reading is seen as entertainment only; at other times, teachers use it as a tran-
sition activity, with children taking turns to go wash their hands while the teacher reads. These
practices are missed opportunities
for learning. Instead, interactive book
reading can serve many valuable pur-
poses for individual children, as we see
in the following example (based on
Connect Module 1—Embedded Inter-
ventions, http://www.community.fpg
.unc.edu/connect-modules/learners
/module-1):
Four-year-old Tristan eagerly joins
a group of friends in his Head Start
classroom during choice time. At
least 10% of Head Start children
have identified disabilities, and
like the majority of those children,
Tristan has a speech and language
delay. His teacher, Ms. Freedman,
uses interactive book reading to
rare words Multisyllable words
that are not typically part of a
young child’s vocabulary.
Effective teachers read to
children in small groups. In a
group of five or six, children
can see the pictures, ask ques-
tions, and talk about the story
before, during, and after the
reading.
©
D
ea
n
M
it
ch
el
l/
Ve
tt
a/
G
et
ty
I
m
ag
es
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http://www.community.fpg.unc.edu/connect-modules/learners/module-1
http://www.community.fpg.unc.edu/connect-modules/learners/module-1
Chapter 12 Teaching Children to Communicate: Language, Literacy, and the Arts 389
help meet Tristan’s speech therapy goals and also build all the children’s language de-
velopment. As she reads a book specially made by Tristan’s therapist to a small group
of five children, all the children respond to the language prompts. The children love it
when Ms. Freedman passes around a mirror and they see how to put their lips together to
make the /M/, /B/, /P/ sounds. In this inclusive classroom, Tristan receives peer support to
improve his speech articulation, and the other children serve as language models for him.
Reading in Small Groups Research shows that book reading is most effective
when it occurs in groups of four to six children (Karweit & Wasik, 1996; Morrow, 1988).
The power of reading is not in the book alone, but in the conversation about the book
among teachers and children before, during, and after reading (Gonzalez et al., 2014).
This type of interaction is more likely to occur in a small group than in the whole group
or even in a one-on-one reading situation (Bates, 2013; McGee, 2013). Reading in small
dialogic reading Interactive,
shared picture book reading
during which the adult and the
child gradually switch roles so
that the child learns to become
the storyteller with the as-
sistance of the adult, who plays
the role of active listener and
questioner.
What Works
Dialogic Reading
Dialogic Reading is interactive, shared picture book reading that
enhances children’s language and literacy skills, according to the
What Works Clearinghouse at the U.S. Department of Education.
During the shared reading practice, the adult and child gradually
switch roles so that the child learns to become the storyteller with
the assistance of the adult, who plays the role of active listener
and questioner.
Teachers can use dialogic reading with children individu-
ally or in small groups. While reading books with the children,
the teacher uses five types of prompts or questioning strategies
to stimulate children’s language interaction. A handy mnemonic
device to remember the prompts is the word CROWD. The table
below lists the prompts with examples of questions from a reading
of The Tale of Peter Rabbit, by Beatrix Potter.
The CROWD prompts are used by the adult in a reading tech-
nique called PEER:
Prompts the child to say something
about the book.
Evaluates (listens to) the child’s response
to decide how to respond.
Expands the child’s response.
Repeats the prompt.
As the child becomes increasingly familiar with a book, the
adult reads less, listens more, and gradually uses more high-level
prompts to encourage the child to go beyond naming objects in the
pictures to thinking about what is happening in the pictures and
how this relates to the child’s own experiences.
Research on dialogic reading demonstrates that it enhances the
language skills of children from middle- and upper-income families
more than typical picture book reading alone. More important, stud-
ies conducted with children from low-income families found sub-
stantial positive changes in the development of children’s language.
Prompt Description Example
Completion prompt Child completes an incomplete sentence. Teacher: “Peter Rabbit got stuck in ________.”
Recall questions Teacher asks questions about the book the child
has read.
Teacher: “What did Peter lose in the garden?”
Open-ended questions Teacher encourages child to tell what is happening
in a picture.
Showing the picture of Peter caught and the birds
flapping their wings, the teacher asks: “How are the
birds helping Peter?”
Wh- questions Teacher asks Wh- questions about the pictures in
books. These questions help children think about a
character’s motives or feelings.
Teacher: “Why do you think Peter went in the gar-
den even though his mother told him not to?”
Distancing questions Teacher relates pictures and words in the book to
children’s own experiences outside of the book.
Teacher: “Have you ever been scared like Peter?
What happened? What did you do?”
Source: Based on Dialogic Reading (What Works Clearinghouse Intervention Report), by Institute of Education Sciences, 2007, Washington, DC: U.S.
Department of Education, retrieved February 20, 2012, from http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2sql/content_storage_01/0000019b/80/29/
e1/30 .
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Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach390
groups and rereading the same book are especially effective strategies for dual language
learners and children from low-income families (McGee, 2013; Schickedanz & Collins
2013).
Small groups make it possible for each child to see the pictures, follow the print,
participate in a discussion, and comprehend the story better. Small-group reading makes
it more feasible for teachers to interact with children before, during, and after reading.
This is particularly valuable when the book has a complex narrative and rare words.
A narrative is a story with a beginning, middle, and end; characters; dialogue; and a plot
with a problem to solve or a dilemma to be resolved. Interactive, shared book reading is a
highly effective strategy for expanding children’s language and listening comprehension.
To learn more about this research-based practice, read the What Works: Dialogic Reading
feature.
Reading to the Whole Group The effectiveness of small-group reading does not
mean that teachers should never read to the whole group. If the book is relatively short
and involves children’s active participation and predictable text, whole-group reading
may be the best choice. Predictable books use parallel text structures that become famil-
iar to children, such as those in Bill Martin’s Brown Bear, Brown Bear or Dr. Seuss’s Hop
on Pop. The whole group can chime in during Eric Carle’s The Very Hungry Caterpillar
with predictable text such as “But he was still hungry.”
Throughout the first five years of life, children develop language and early literacy
skills simultaneously, and the two are interrelated (Dickinson, 2011; Shanahan & Loni-
gan, 2013). Reading to children enhances their language because the structures and words
used in books are more complex than those used in everyday speech. Knowing more
words, in turn, helps children make sense of print and find what they read more meaning-
ful and interesting. Talking with children about what is read further boosts vocabulary and
comprehension. But what about children who don’t speak the language of the classroom?
Next, we discuss the timely topic of learning in two languages.
✓ Check Your Understanding 12.2: Scaffolding Children’s Language Development
Dual Language Learning
Consider these two phrases: English language learners and dual language learners.
The first communicates that the focus is on children learning English. In contrast, dual
language learning conveys that children are learning two languages—their home
or first language as well as English or another second language. Effec-
tive teachers understand the process by which children acquire a second
language and how best to support children as they learn two languages
(Espinosa, 2013).
How Children Learn a Second Language
Acquiring two or more languages is a complex process that doesn’t happen
as easily for young children as some people think. Generally, children take
one of two paths to becoming bilingual—either simultaneous or sequential
(Genesee, Paradis, & Crago, 2011). When children learn two languages at the
same time during the earliest years of life—simultaneous acquisition—their
dual language development is similar to that of monolingual children, those
who are learning only one language. All over the world, children grow up in
homes learning multiple languages from birth. Sometimes one language will
become more dominant depending on the context. Similarly, it is normal for vocabulary
development in each language to be uneven (Espinosa, 2013).
narrative A story with a begin-
ning, middle, and end; charac-
ters; dialogue; and a plot with a
problem to solve or a dilemma
to be resolved.
predictable books Books with
controlled vocabulary using
parallel text structures that
become familiar to children.
dual language learning
Simultaneously learning two
languages: the home or first
language as well as English or
another second language.
Classroom Connection
In this video, experts from the
University of Eastern Connecticut
describe and demonstrate the
continuum of second language
acquisition as well as effective
teaching strategies for dual lan-
guage learners.
https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=09PrmLppQ1A
simultaneous acquisition
Learning two languages at the
same time during the earliest
years of life.
completion prompt A prompt
that requires the child to
verbally complete the end of a
sentence.
recall questions Questions
asked by the teacher about
a book to see what children
remember.
open-ended questions Ques-
tions asked by the teacher that
encourage a child to tell what
is happening in a picture.
distancing questions Ques-
tions that relate pictures and
words in the book to children’s
own experiences beyond the
book.
Wh- questions Questions that
begin with “Why” or “What”
to get children thinking about
characters’ motives or feelings.
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http://https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=09PrmLppQ1A
Chapter 12 Teaching Children to Communicate: Language, Literacy, and the Arts 391
By contrast, many children, especially in the United States, are sequential
language learners. They learn a second language after their first language is relatively
well established (Espinosa, 2013). Learning two languages sequentially is a more com-
plicated, highly individual process that varies with children’s personality, experience,
and other factors but tends to follow a relatively predictable pattern, described in the
next section.
Developmental Continuum: Dual
Language Acquisition
The sequence of second language acquisition is described in the feature Developmental
Continuum: Second Language Learning. The length of time individual children spend at
each level varies, and unlike learning their home language, learning a second language is
a conscious process that requires effort.
Young children who are learning a new language will often alternate between the
two languages even within the same sentence. When children understand and use ele-
ments of both their home language or dialect and English, they code switch, also called
language mixing. Teachers aren’t always sure what to do about it. Code switching is a
well-developed skill in most bilingual, bicultural individuals, and it contributes to their
ability to think and analyze complex problems and express emotions (Garcia, 2005). To
learn more about this skill and how teachers should respond to it, read the Culture Lens:
Understanding and Responding to Code Switching feature (see page 393).
Teaching Dual Language Learners
Several myths about teaching dual language learners continue to persist despite research
to the contrary. Some of the most common myths are that children must learn one lan-
guage before they can learn another, that learning a second language delays or interferes
with learning the first, or that learning more than one language harms brain functioning
(Espinosa, 2013). In fact, learning two languages does not confuse or overwhelm chil-
dren, nor does it delay their English acquisition.
Research demonstrates that beginning at birth, all children have the capacity to learn
any of the world’s languages and the younger the child’s brain, the greater its capacity to
learn more than one language (Rivera-Gaxiola, Silva-Pereyra, & Kuhl, 2008). Moreover,
bilingualism in children from ages 4 to 8 has long-term positive effects on cognitive de-
velopment and executive function, including the ability to think flexibly and solve prob-
lems that require taking different perspectives (Rodriguez, Carrasquillo, & Lee, 2014).
This may be because bilingualism regularly requires children to mentally shift between
two language systems.
Some non-English-speaking parents are so concerned that their children learn Eng-
lish that they avoid speaking their native language and want early childhood programs to
do the same. In these cases, teachers need to help parents understand that it is important
for children to have a strong foundation in their home language. Maintaining and devel-
oping the home language is vital for nurturing family relationships and cultural values
(Rodriguez et al., 2014).
As for school achievement, the more words and concepts children know in their first
language, the more likely that knowledge will transfer as children become proficient in
English (Espinosa, 2013). Learning to read is also more effective when instruction occurs
in the home language (Cheung & Slavin, 2012). Children who receive content instruction
in their home language perform better academically later in school than those enrolled in
programs designed primarily to teach them English (Rodriguez, Carrasquillo, & Lee, 2014;
Thomas & Collier, n.d.).
The reality of so many dual language learners in today’s classrooms means that teach-
ers have a special responsibility to help children make progress in understanding and
speaking both English and their home language. A growing body of research finds that
sequential language learning
Learning a second language
after the first language is
relatively well established.
code switch The ability to
understand and use both the
mainstream version of English
and the home dialect or
language.
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Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach392
Stage Description How Teachers Can Help
Stage 1: Home language
Use The child speaks the
home language only.
Even though other people are speak-
ing English, children may not realize or
understand that the two languages dif-
fer. At first, they try to use their home
language, but soon learn that this isn’t
working. At some point, this becomes
frustrating and they stop trying, leading
to the second stage.
Teachers provide cues to help children
make sense of words by pointing to and
labeling objects. At lunchtime, Rachel sits
with a group of Spanish-speaking 4-year-
olds. As they eat, she labels the utensils
and food, speaking slowly and distinctly.
“Spoon,” she says as she picks up her
own. “Here’s your spoon for your soup,” as
she guides Carlos to follow her directions.
Stage 2: Nonverbal,
Observational Period
After children stop try-
ing to speak in their first
language, they enter a
period where they do not
talk at all, but rather
listen and observe.
This period can last for a long time or
can be relatively brief, depending on
the individual. This stage is sometimes
called the silent period, but a better
name is the nonverbal period. Silent
implies that no communication occurs.
Actually, during this period, children are
learning a lot about the new language by
listening and observing, but they are not
verbal themselves. Children may not be
talking, but that does not mean they are
not communicating.
Teachers should not force nonverbal chil-
dren to speak. Instead of talking, children
may try to communicate nonverbally to get
help from adults or other children. They
may point to the object they want or smile
when their request is granted. Gradually,
they begin to rehearse the new language by
speaking some words quietly to themselves
or playing with the sounds. A child says,
“Paint paper” and the teacher interprets
whether the child wants to paint or to take
her picture home.
Stage 3: Telegraphic
and Formulaic Speech
Children have a small,
working vocabulary in the
second language and be-
gin to use it out loud.
Children speak in one- or two-word utter-
ances and repeat routine phrases without
understanding what they mean. At story
time, Carlos automatically says, “It’s
circle time” because he has heard these
words in this context many times.
Teachers give simple choices that require
“yes” or “no” or one-word responses,
such as “Do you want to play with blocks
or paint?” Children can also answer sim-
ple who, what, or where questions.
Stage 4: Productive
language Children begin
producing the new
language. This stage
can take 1 to 2 years,
during which children
gradually produce longer
sentences.
Listening comprehension improves as
receptive language increases. Children
use the social language of the classroom
or playground, such as “My turn now” or
“Be my friend.” They begin to apply the
grammar rules of the new language, but
not consistently. Children are better able
to participate in academic learning.
Rather than correcting “errors,” teachers
strive for communication. Carlos might
say, “I like my school big” rather than
“I like my big school.” His teacher
responds, “I’m glad you like our big
school.” Teachers ask how and why
questions that require short responses:
“How did your shoes get wet?”
Stage 5: Fluent Second-
language Production
Moving from emergent
to fluent language pro-
duction can take 1 to
2 years.
Children can understand what is said in
the classroom and begin to understand
written communications.
Teachers use open-ended questions that
engage children in producing more com-
plex sentences. Second language learn-
ers will probably need extra help in the
early grades, where the curriculum focus-
es on learning to read. Teaching reading
in the home language is most effective.
Developmental Continuum
Second Language Learning
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Chapter 12 Teaching Children to Communicate: Language, Literacy, and the Arts 393
Stage Description How Teachers Can Help
Stage 6: Advanced
language Proficiency
Children have developed understanding
of specialized, content-related vocabu-
lary. It can take from 5 to 7 years for
children to master this level of cogni-
tively demanding language.
Teachers intentionally teach the vocabu-
lary and language skills required for
academic achievement in school. For
example, mathematics requires knowing
words like addend or double-digit mul-
tiplication that are not used in everyday
speech.
Sources: Based on Getting It Right for Young Children from Diverse Backgrounds:
Applying Research to Improve Practice, by L. M. Espinosa, 2010, Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Pearson; Oral Language and Early Literacy in Preschool: Talking, Reading, and
Writing. 2nd edition, by K. A. Roskos, P. O. Tabors, and L. A. Lenhart, 2009, Newark,
DE: International Reading Association.
Code switching is the ability to understand and use both
the commonly accepted version of English and the home
language or dialect. When children are learning a second
language, they often code switch, usually beginning a
sentence in one language and then switching to the other
as in: “I drew a picture de mi madre” or “Mi mano es
dirty.” Code switching is not limited to children. In fact,
bilingual people of all ages alternate between languages
depending on the setting and the topic of conversation.
Many bilingual individuals find that they can best ex-
press their feelings and personal thoughts in their native
language.
In the past, it was assumed that code switching meant
that children were confused or incompetent. But now we
know that the opposite is true: children are able to sepa-
rate the languages in their brains and apply the differ-
ent rules of grammar of each language. Code switching
is actually a sign of children’s growing communicative
competence. They are using all they know to communi-
cate as clearly as they can.
So what should teachers do about code switching? First,
they should expect code switching as a normal aspect
of dual language learning. The most important thing is
not to correct children when they mix languages. Cor-
recting children’s language attempts sends a signal that
they’ve done something wrong. They may stop trying to
communicate in order to avoid making the “mistake” of
code switching.
Instead of focusing on children’s “errors,” teachers
should focus on understanding the child’s message. They
should view code switching as a strength. As always,
teachers should be good language models themselves,
using the same strategies that promote language learning
in all children: listening and responding in a meaningful
way, using real objects and nonverbal cues, intentionally
teaching new words, and extending conversations with
questions and ideas.
Sometimes bilingual teachers think that they can sup-
port dual language learning by alternating languages
themselves. Again, the opposite is true. Children’s brains
will automatically listen and respond to the language
they know best and tune out the other one. To promote
dual language development, bilingual teachers can read
books in each language but should do so at separate
times.
Encouraging children to code switch and responding
positively honors the language system that they already
possess and helps them adapt to different communica-
tion requirements in different situations. And it also
respects and supports their cultural identity because
language and culture are inextricably linked. Teach-
ers should always create a warm, positive classroom
climate in which children feel safe to express them-
selves. Capable code switchers acquire the ability to
think about their own use of language, which serves
them well in other learning situations and has long-
lasting positive effects on language, cognition, and so-
cial development.
Source: Code Switching: Why It Matters and How to Respond, by
National Center on Cultural and Linguistic Responsiveness, no
date, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services, Office of Head Start. Retrieved January 26, 2015, from
http://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/hslc/tta-system/cultural-linguistic
/fcp/docs/code-switching .
Understanding and Responding to Code Switching
Culture Lens
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http://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/hslc/tta-system/cultural-linguistic/fcp/docs/code-switching
Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach394
supporting their home language has distinct benefits for children, as discussed in the Lan-
guage Lens: Teaching Dual Language Learners feature.
In the previous sections, we described how children learn both their first and sec-
ond languages and ways to promote language development from birth through primary
grades. Next we turn to the related topic of how children become literate.
✓ Check Your Understanding 12.3: Dual Language Learning
Early Literacy: Birth through Age 5
Young children begin the process of learning to read and write long before they enter for-
mal school. Decades of research shows that children who enter kindergarten with specific
kinds of knowledge and skill are more likely to become successful readers and writers
(National Early Literacy Panel [NELP], 2008; Shanahan & Lonigan, 2013).
Language Lens
Teaching Dual Language Learners
Of 16 children in Pedro Cordero’s Head Start classroom,
12 speak Spanish as their home language. Pedro inten-
tionally uses both English and Spanish to support explicit
goals for children in each language. During conversations
with individual children, he often speaks Spanish, find-
ing that it helps him get to know the children and build
positive relationships with them. During more formal
gatherings such as story time or small-group activities,
he often speaks English. But he connects new words to
real objects or pictures, and he checks children’s under-
standing regularly. Pedro’s assistant teacher speaks only
English; she and the English-speaking children provide
language models for the dual language learners.
In many states in the United States today, the type of
teaching Pedro does would be prohibited by law in K–12
public schools. In the belief that bilingual education pre-
vents learning English and hurts academic success, some
states have adopted “English-only” laws.
But what does research say about English-only teaching
and children’s success in school? Many studies now sup-
port the long-term benefits of bilingualism. One large-
scale study of 345 Spanish-speaking children in 161
prekindergarten programs found that when teachers
spoke some Spanish, Spanish-speaking children demon-
strated better social skills than children whose teachers
spoke only English. In addition, children whose teach-
ers spoke some Spanish were less likely to be victims of
aggression, bullying, or teasing, and their teachers were
more likely to have a positive relationship with them. The
amount of Spanish that teachers spoke was significantly
related to teachers’ ratings of children’s assertiveness,
attention and task persistence, and ability to get along
with other children. On the other hand, the more English
interactions children had, the more likely they were to
have behavior and learning problems and become easily
frustrated.
An important—and seemingly contradictory—finding was
that the amount of Spanish spoken in the classroom was
not related to a child’s English proficiency. In the study,
teachers spoke Spanish with Spanish-speaking children
only 20% of the time. When speaking directly to Span-
ish-speaking children, teachers who spoke some Spanish
still used English two-thirds of the time. When speaking
to a group, teachers tended to use English. When teach-
ers spoke Spanish, however, they had more elaborate
conversations with children, a key finding considering
the research on the value of extended conversations for
vocabulary development.
The researchers concluded that English-only teaching of
young children may contribute to the achievement gap
rather than help close it. Numerous other studies con-
firm that compared to children in bilingual programs,
children in English immersion programs are more likely
to have low reading and math achievement in fifth grade
and to eventually drop out of school. From the perspec-
tive of research, the Spanish-speaking children as well
as the English-speaking children in Pedro Cordero’s
Head Start class should benefit from his approach to
teaching.
Sources: Based on “Spanish Speaking Children’s Social and
Language Development in Pre-Kindergarten Classrooms,” by
F. Chang, G. Crawford, D. Early, and D. Bryant, 2007, Journal
of Early Education and Development, 18(2), 243–269; “A
National Study of School Effectiveness for Language Minority
Students’ Long-Term Academic Achievement,” by W. P. Thomas
& V. P. Collier, no date, Center for Research on Education,
Diversity, and Excellence, retrieved from http://www.usc.edu
/dept/education/CMMR/CollierThomasExReport .
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http://www.usc.edu/dept/education/CMMR/CollierThomasExReport
Chapter 12 Teaching Children to Communicate: Language, Literacy, and the Arts 395
Developmental Continuum: Early
Literacy Learning
Some of the widely held expectations for children’s literacy development
from birth through age 5 are presented in the Developmental Continuum:
Early Literacy feature. Accomplishing these goals assumes that children
have had good learning opportunities. Individual children’s progress will
vary, depending on their prior experiences with written language and other
factors.
Teachers need to be intentional in promoting children’s language and
literacy learning. This means that they thoughtfully plan and prepare in ad-
vance but are also playful (Roskos, Tabors, & Lenhart, 2009). Children need
to playfully explore and engage in activities involving reading, writing, and
learning letters and sounds. These opportunities are more likely to occur in
a literacy-rich environment.
Literacy-Rich Environments
Some children grow up in homes where they observe family members
reading books and magazines, writing lists, browsing the Internet, or an-
swering e-mail. But access to literacy and technology is unequal in our
society. Aff luent American children may have as many books in their
bedrooms as poor children have in their entire neighborhoods (Neuman &
Celano, 2002).
From their environment, children learn whether literacy is valued and important.
Therefore, every classroom needs to be rich in literacy-enhancing materials and experi-
ences (Roskos & Neuman, 2011). To picture a literacy-rich environment, consider the
following example:
A look into Ms. DeSoto’s preschool room reveals the many ways she creates an
environment that communicates the value of literacy to children and teaches them
important skills. In strategic places, she posts signs, labels, and other print materials
that have real purposes, such as the names of today’s helpers, classroom attendance,
message boxes, menus, and directions. But she is careful not to clutter the classroom
because too much print on the walls becomes as meaningless to children as wallpa-
per. Instead, she engages children in creating and using the print and calls children’s
attention to it as when she points to the written schedule on the wall and says, “Let’s
look at the schedule and see what we will do after lunch.”
One of the children’s favorite spots is the cozy, well-lit library area with its
comfortable, child-size furniture and pictures of favorite story characters. Books
are attractively displayed on open shelves, accessible to children and inviting
their interest, much as bookstores do when they attractively display covers of
new titles. The classroom library is well stocked with at least five books per child,
with two to three per child on display at one time. The collection includes cultur-
ally and developmentally appropriate storybooks, information books, wordless
picture books, and poetry. There are also iPads with e-books and apps in multiple
languages.
Ms. DeSoto places books and writing tools in centers where they are relevant,
such as a book on construction in the block area and paper and markers to make
signs. Even a casual observer notices that books are in children’s hands throughout
the day, not just in the teacher’s hands during story time. Shelves are stocked with
games, toys, and equipment that promote knowledge of letters and sounds such as
alphabet blocks, magnetic letters, and an alphabet puzzle. Handheld digital devices
are available with apps for children to practice letters and phonological awareness
as well as more sophisticated apps with which children practice writing and creating
their own stories.
Classroom Connection
In this video you will see many
examples of how a print-rich
environment can contribute to
children’s early literacy learning.
However, children do not learn
automatically. What should an
intentional teacher do to ensure
that children learn optimally in
such an environment?
M12_BRED6702_03_SE_C12.indd 395 10/7/15 3:10 PM
Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach396
Developmental Continuum
Early Literacy
Age Range Widely Held Expectations
Most babies (about 6 to
12 months)
• Play with books, so books should be sturdy cardboard
• Put them in their mouths, chew them
• Open and close them
• Bang on them
• Look at the pictures briefly
• May look at the book with an adult for a short time
Most toddlers (about 12 to
24 months)
• Love to look at the same book again and again
• Point out pictures to the adult and label pictures with names
• Like to turn the pages (though not in order)
• Sit for a few minutes to look at a book
• Pretend to read by turning the pages and babbling
• Connect the pictures to real objects (point out a doll after seeing the picture
of a doll)
• Take books off the shelf
• Like books with textures or sounds
Most 2-year-olds • Recognize favorite books by their cover
• Listen to short stories and enjoy book-reading routines, such as lap book
reading
• Label objects pictured in books
• Begin to pay attention to print, especially the first letter of their name.
• Play with sounds and enjoy rhymes and songs
• Scribble and gradually produce increasingly controlled scribbles with some
letter-like forms (circles and lines)
Most 3- and 4-year-olds • Enjoy listening to and talking about age-appropriate story books and informa-
tion books
• Understand that print carries a message
• Can follow the sequence of events in a story and answer questions that dem-
onstrate listening comprehension
• Pretend to read and attempt to write
• Recognize familiar labels and environmental print (signs for stores, street signs).
• Understand concepts of print and directionality (English is read left-to-right
and top-to-bottom)
• Attend to chunks of sound in spoken language, identify rhymes and allitera-
tion (silly Susie), clap syllables
• Recognize many letters, especially those in meaningful words
• Make some letter-sound matches (as when attempting to write words)
• Use known letters and letter-like symbols to represent written language
Sources: Based on Learning to Read and Write: Developmentally Appropriate Practices for
Young Children: A Joint Position Statement, by the International Reading Association and
National Association for the Education of Young Children, 1998, Washington, DC: NAEYC;
and Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young Children, edited by C. E. Snow, M. S. Burns,
and P. Griffin, 1998, Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
M12_BRED6702_03_SE_C12.indd 396 10/7/15 3:10 PM
Chapter 12 Teaching Children to Communicate: Language, Literacy, and the Arts 397
Early Literacy from
Birth to Kindergarten
Early literacy is the knowledge and
skills that are the forerunners of con-
ventional reading and writing. Research
demonstrates that specific early literacy
skills predict later success in learning to
read and write (Shanahan & Lonigan,
2013). These predictors do not guar-
antee success, but they do increase the
likelihood of success. More important,
without these abilities upon entrance to
kindergarten, children are more likely
to encounter difficulties in learning to
read (Snow et al., 1998).
Research-based early literacy skills
include phonological awareness, alphabet knowledge, print awareness, and oral language
(NELP, 2008). Other important skills that contribute to later reading include writing (spe-
cifically, name writing), listening comprehension, and motivation to read. In the following
sections, we define and describe each of these skills and effective ways teachers promote
children’s literacy learning. (In the previous sections, we described numerous strategies
for building vocabulary.)
Phonological Awareness and Letter Knowledge Written language is a
symbol system—a code that children need to learn. This code may seem abstract and
beyond young children’s capacity. However, children are constantly exposed to abstract
symbols, including walk/don’t walk symbols, computer icons, pictures to signify male
and female restrooms—the list is endless.
Precisely because written language is a complex symbol system, children need prac-
tice playing with it over many years to become proficient users (Yopp & Yopp, 2009). At
preschool, the two important skills for learning the code are phonological awareness and
learning the alphabet (Shanahan & Lonigan, 2013).
Understanding Phonological Awareness Phonological awareness is the conscious-
ness that the stream of spoken language is made up of smaller units or chunks of sound
(Schickedanz & Collins, 2013). Phonological awareness develops along a continuum,
from recognizing the larger units of sound, such as rhymes (two words ending with the
same sound) and alliteration (two words beginning with the same sound), to the smaller
units such as syllables. A more complex level of phonological awareness involves aware-
ness of parts of syllables.
The most difficult level is phonemic awareness, or recognizing that spoken words
are made up of individual sounds called phonemes. English has approximately 44 pho-
nemes that are represented by the 26 letters of the alphabet either alone or in combination.
The letter m stands for a sound, while the letters th stand for another sound. The word
bat is made up of three phonemes: /b/, /a/, and /t/. If one phoneme is changed—using /m/
instead of /b/—the meaning of the word is changed. Phonemes are important to later read-
ing because written language represents these sounds.
Teaching Phonological Awareness As with virtually every other early literacy skill, chil-
dren do not automatically acquire phonological awareness. Teachers need to intentionally
plan experiences that help children make progress on the phonological awareness contin-
uum, beginning with the bigger chunks of speech (words) and eventually moving to the
smallest ones (individual phonemes). Some preschool teachers provide limited experiences
or continue rhyming activities, although children have acquired this skill rather than moving
Literacy-rich environments
help children experience the
pleasure and power of reading
and writing. In classrooms such
as this one, children use print
for real purposes. What would
children learn about literacy in
this environment?
early literacy Skills and knowl-
edge that come before and lead
up to (forerunners) conven-
tional reading and writing.
predictors Set of early literacy
skills and knowledge that in-
crease the likelihood of later
success in learning to read and
write.
phonological awareness Con-
sciousness that the stream of
spoken language is made up
of smaller units or chunks of
sound.
rhymes Two words ending with
the same sound.
alliteration Two words begin-
ning with the same sound.
phonemic awareness Recog-
nizing that spoken words are
made up of individual sounds
that can be manipulated.
phonemes The individual
sounds of spoken language;
changing one in a word chang-
es the meaning of the word.
©
B
ob
E
b
b
es
en
/A
la
m
y
M12_BRED6702_03_SE_C12.indd 397 10/7/15 3:10 PM
Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach398
on to more complex abilities (Pelatti,
Piasta, Justice, & O’Connell, 2014).
But these activities need to be fun
and playful to ensure children’s par-
ticipation, motivation, and interest
(Yopp & Yopp, 2009).
Learning the Alphabet The ability
to read and write depends on mas-
tering the alphabetic principle, the
understanding that there is a system-
atic relationship between letters and
sounds, and that all spoken language
can be represented by a set of agreed-
on symbols called letters (Adams,
1990). Children will not master the
alphabetic principle in preschool, but
knowing the alphabet at kindergar-
ten entry is the strongest predictor
of success in reading during first grade (Jones, Clark, & Reutzel, 2012). Knowing letters
means remembering their shapes, names, and sounds (Stahl, 2014). Because the names of
many letters mirror the sounds they represent, learning letter names is an important skill.
Teaching the Alphabet Katya, age 2½, and her dad drive to Kmart to buy some clothes.
Her dad points to the large sign and says, “Look, Katya, there’s your K.” Katya wonders,
“This is my store. Why are these people here?”
Like many children her age, Katya has discovered her letter and she feels personal
ownership. But how did this important discovery occur? As her father demonstrated,
Katya’s parents helped her learn the first letter in her name. As with phonological aware-
ness, children need adult support to learn the alphabet.
The alphabet is a set of arbitrary symbols with preset names that require instruc-
tion. Teaching the alphabet is necessary, but how it is taught is also important. Because
adults clearly value this skill, most children are motivated to learn the letters. However,
teachers need to make learning the alphabet meaningful. Teaching one letter a week
or teaching letters without any connection to sounds and words is not effective (Jones,
Clark, & Reutzel, 2012). Letters are not “equal.” Some letters, such as M and S, are
easily mastered because the letter name and sound are very similar; while others such
as Y and C are much more difficult. Focusing on a letter a week gives too much time to
some and not enough to others; it also doesn’t help children compare and see relation-
ships among letters.
As Katya did, children first focus on the letters in their own names. If they frequently
see their name in writing, at some point between about 18 months and age 3, they will
identify the first letter as their own. A child may be affronted if someone else claims the
letter, too. Toddlers love to sing the alphabet song, play with alphabet blocks, and look at
alphabet books.
In the classroom, letters should be where children can see, touch, and manipulate
them, such as magnetic or sandpaper letters (Neuman, Copple, & Bredekamp, 2000).
Name writing is an important ability that helps build all other early literacy skills (Puranik
& Lonigan, 2012). Children need to see uppercase as well as lowercase letters and dif-
ferent fonts of the same letter. This way, children learn the “essence” of the letter symbol
rather than only one representation of it. For a description of how to effectively teach the
letters and sounds, read the Becoming an Intentional Teacher feature.
Print Awareness Print awareness is beginning knowledge about written language.
Various purposes of print include communication, expression, explanation, direction, and
Knowing the alphabet is one
of the best predictors of later
success in learning to read.
What are some developmentally
appropriate ways to teach let-
ters to young children?
alphabetic principle The
understanding that there is
a systematic relationship
between letters and sounds,
and that all spoken sounds
and words can be represented
by a limited set of agreed-on
symbols called letters.
print awareness Beginning
knowledge about written
language.
©
H
er
o
Im
ag
es
/G
et
ty
I
m
ag
es
M12_BRED6702_03_SE_C12.indd 398 10/7/15 3:10 PM
Chapter 12 Teaching Children to Communicate: Language, Literacy, and the Arts 399
information. Concepts and abilities related to print awareness include (Schickedanz &
Collins, 2013):
• Understanding that print performs a variety of functions and purposes
• Recognizing print in the environment (such as in signs or labels)
• Knowing that print, not pictures, carries the message in the story
• Understanding the concept of word—that is, that specific clusters of letters on the
page with spaces between them represent the words said by the reader
• Realizing that print represents speech or thought that is written down
• Realizing that print in English is read left to right, top to bottom
The skills listed above—also called concepts of print or print conventions—are impor-
tant elements of literacy learning (Schickedanz & Collins, 2013). These developmentally
appropriate outcomes are challenging but achievable for preschool children if they have
good teaching and planned learning experiences.
Becoming an Intentional Teacher
Teaching the Alphabet and Phonological Awareness
Here’s What Happened I teach 4-year-olds in a Head
Start program. Our literacy goals include alphabet knowl-
edge, phonological awareness, print concepts, early writing,
and book appreciation. Most of my children have had limited
exposure to books in their homes so I take every opportunity
to integrate literacy learning throughout the day. Fortunately,
our program is well equipped with both traditional reading
and writing materials, and various digital devices including
touch-screen tablets and an interactive whiteboard.
At the beginning of the year, I found that most children
could identify only one or two letters. I began to set aside a
short time each day (a total of about 10 minutes) to focus
on teaching letters and phonological awareness together, in
large- or small-group activities. For example, during morn-
ing meeting, I may use the interactive whiteboard to intro-
duce a new letter—perhaps the beginning letter of a child’s
name or a special day such as Valentine’s. The children can
trace letters and move images around on the whiteboard.
We also play active games like making the letter in the air
or with our bodies. Another activity is for children to go on
a hunt to find the letter in the classroom or in a book, or to
find an object that begins with the letter.
The children especially enjoy focusing on how their mouth
feels when they form letter sounds, which inevitably makes
them laugh. I also demonstrate both the uppercase and
lowercase versions of a letter, starting with those that look
most alike and later moving on to the more difficult ones.
At the end of a week, we review the letters and sounds we’ve
learned. Children may also independently practice their let-
ter skills on the tablets, which I’ve loaded with educational
apps for basic skills such as Elmo Loves ABC and others that
promote vocabulary, writing, and comprehension. I also have
Spanish language apps so that children can learn these skills
in Spanish, which will later to transfer to English.
I find that children’s writing is especially effective in build-
ing their letter-sound knowledge and motivation to learn
letters. Working in small groups
primarily, we begin with the letters
in children’s names. Falicia, Bode,
Keira, and Marcus picked up their
beginning letters right away, while Phillip took longer to
learn the letter P but caught on more quickly to L.
Here’s What I Was Thinking Previously, I thought that
learning the alphabet was a relatively easy skill that children
would pick up from reading books and seeing print in the
classroom. But after I systematically assessed children’s letter
knowledge, I realized that I needed to explicitly teach letter-
sound relationships—always in a fun and engaging way—as
well as embed letter-sound learning in read-alouds, writing,
and other literacy experiences. Given the children’s lack of
prior alphabet knowledge, I found that they needed repeated
opportunities to play with and practice letters and sounds.
Integrating digital media was highly motivating for the children
and me. My two biggest challenges have been to identify high-
quality apps and to find time to scaffold individual children’s
engagement. But almost all the parents have smartphones
and many have tablets, so I recommended some free apps for
children to practice with at home or in the car. And I talked
to parents about how they could play along with their child.
Reflection This teacher intentionally used whole-group,
small-group, and individual instruction as well as print and
digital media to promote literacy skills. She provided more
complex experiences as children mastered new ones. What
other ways could she have taught letter-sound relation-
ships, language, and early literacy?
Source: “Research into Practice: New Insights about Letter
Learning,” by K. A. D. Stahl, 2014, The Reading Teacher, 68(4),
261–265; “Enhancing Alphabet Knowledge Instruction: Research
Implications and Practical Strategies for Early Childhood
Educators,” by C. D. Jones, S. K. Clark, & D. R. Reutzel, 2012,
TEaL Faculty Publications, Paper 404, retrieved from http://
digitalcommons.usu.edu/teal_facpub/404.
concepts of print Beginning
understandings about the
forms and functions of written
language, such as that words
carry messages.
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http://digitalcommons.usu.edu/teal_facpub/404
http://digitalcommons.usu.edu/teal_facpub/404
Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach400
Early Writing Encouraging young children to write is an effective way to help them
learn to read (Schickedanz & Collins, 2013). Research demonstrates that talking, reading,
and writing are developing simultaneously, and that progress in one area supports learn-
ing in the others (NELP, 2008; Snow et al., 1998).
Continuum of Early Writing As children try to write on their own, the writing process
promotes print awareness as well as many other early literacy skills (Schickedanz & Collins,
2013). Children’s writing is another area that tends to follow a developmental progression,
as described in the continuum on page 396 and depicted in the examples in Figure 12.1. At
first, they do not distinguish drawing and writing. But over time they learn the difference
and will label scribbles that are indistinguishable to adults as one or the other. Pointing to an
elongated scribble, 4-year-old Chris identifies it as his name (see Figure 12.1a).
Gradually children’s scribbles become more deliberate and controlled. Between the
ages of 3 and 4, children incorporate letter-like shapes or symbols (circles and straight lines)
and random strings of letters (see Figure 12.1b). Often children begin to identify sounds
within words, and 4-year-olds begin to use invented spelling, at least with initial consonants
in English. Spanish-speaking children tend to use vowels first (Snow et al., 1998). Typically,
the first recognizable word children produce is their name (see Figure 12.1c).
Temporary invented spelling, also called developmental or phonetic spelling, rep-
resents children’s initial attempts to associate sounds with letters, as when a 4-year-old
writes “Mk” for “Mike.” This process of trying to figure out how to write words is an
important step on the way to learning conventional spelling. Observing and talking with
children as they produce these spellings enables teachers to monitor children’s under-
standing of letter-sound relationships. For example, 6-year-old Katie writes: “Good mo-
raning. We are going to be bise [busy]. We are genu go to the postofs [post office].”
Using invented spelling does not interfere with learning conventional spelling. In fact,
the opposite is true. Invented spelling actually accelerates children’s later development
of phonemic awareness and conventional spelling when it is taught in the primary grades
(Snow et al., 1998). With practice and support, primary-grade children’s writing becomes
more conventional as in the example of a first grader’s writing and drawing in Figure 12.1d.
Teaching Early Writing Skills When children see adults writing, they want to write, too.
To encourage and scaffold writing, teachers need to reinforce children’s sense of compe-
tence (Graham & Harris, 2013). Curriculum should expose children to various types of
writing. A cooking project requires them to attend to a recipe. Science experiments require
data collection. Children’s desire to protect a block structure motivates them to write a sign.
It is important that teachers not focus too much attention on children’s handwrit-
ing because that approach is likely to be less meaningful and potentially frustrating for
children. Teachers and parents should not be alarmed when children reverse letters or
even write words as if in mirror-image. These “errors” are normal at this age (Schicke-
danz & Collins, 2013). If children persist in writing letters backwards, however, teachers
scaffold correct production. For example, 4½-year-old Franklin tends to write his name
backwards. Mr. Gandini notices that he starts writing on the right-hand side of the page
and usually runs out of room, so he continues toward the left. He simply says, “Franklin,
why don’t you start your name up here in the left-hand corner of your paper, the way
I write people’s names on their paintings. Then you have plenty of space.”
Book Appreciation and Motivation to Read Children who are motivated to read
show interest in books and reading, connect reading events to real life, and experience the plea-
sure and power of reading (Neuman et al., 2000). All children can come to appreciate books
and find that reading is enjoyable, especially if they are exposed to books at a very early age.
Reading with Babies and Toddlers Earlier in this chapter, we described how interactive
book reading facilitates language development. Reading aloud is especially valuable for
promoting children’s literacy skills and motivation to read. Like so many other aspects of
teaching, appropriate use of books varies with the age of the child.
invented spelling Develop-
mental or phonetic spelling
that represents children’s
initial attempts to associate
sounds with letters.
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Chapter 12 Teaching Children to Communicate: Language, Literacy, and the Arts 401
Babies and toddlers explore and “play” with books. This is why publishers sell board
books and cloth books that can stand up to the onslaught of a baby’s interest. Teachers
should sit with a child on their laps or close by a few children to feel an affectionate con-
nection. They shouldn’t expect children to sit still nor should they try to read a book word
FIGURE 12.1 Progression of Child’s Writing These figures illustrate the typical progression of
children’s writing skills—from scribbles, to letter-like forms, to recognizable letters and words, and then to
complete sentences.
(a) Scribble-writing
(b) Letter-like forms
(c) Prekindergarten name writing
(d) First grader drawing and writing
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
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Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach402
for word or beginning to end. Instead they should describe what they’re doing—“I’m going
to open the book. Now let’s turn the page,” and use simple words to talk about the pictures:
“The fish is swimming. Splish, splash.” Exploring books with babies and toddlers builds
their interest and enjoyment, which is further developed during the preschool years.
Reading Aloud with Preschoolers One of the most important goals of all early literacy ex-
perience is to get children excited about books and eager to learn how to read. In fact, young
children who love books ask for them to be read over and over, memorize them, and proudly an-
nounce that they are reading. For a variety of reasons, however, not every child has these won-
derful early experiences with books. Therefore, preschool teachers must actively make reading
pleasurable and fun, and build children’s appreciation for books and motivation to become
literate. To build children’s motivation to read, effective teachers (based on Head Start, 2003):
• Hold children on their laps or snuggle with them in small groups so their children
can see and touch the book, helping to develop positive feelings about reading.
• Hold the book and turn the pages so children can always see the pictures.
• Read with expression and enthusiasm, using different voices for characters in the
story. Overdramatizing distracts children from attending to the book.
• Occasionally pause to build suspense, to ask children to predict what will happen next,
or to increase their interest (“Uh, oh. Here comes the big bad wolf!”). They pause brief-
ly to clarify the meaning of an unknown word if it is crucial to understanding the story.
• Make sure that books reflect children’s culture, home language, and identity.
• Plan times during the day when children select their own books to look at alone or
with a friend. They allow children to take books home or to receive books to keep.
• Read to children several times a day, every day, expressively and enthusiastically.
• Read favorite books repeatedly when requested. Talk with children about their
favorite books and authors, and encourage children to write or e-mail them and use
the Internet to get more information about authors’ lives and work.
For nearly every child, the process of learning to read becomes difficult at some point,
whether in first grade, when decoding becomes the focus of instruction, or in third grade,
when comprehension takes center stage (Snow et al., 1998). Children who are motivated
to read are more likely to persist when they encounter these challenges. Motivation is also
important because the more a child reads, the better reader he or she becomes (Snow et
al., 1998; Stanovich, 1986). Children who like reading and, therefore, choose to read are
almost always good readers.
Literacy and Background Knowledge Early literacy experiences are now a key
part of every good early childhood program but they should not become the whole curricu-
lum. Because the curriculum lends itself to integration, many teaching strategies are effec-
tive for multiple goals. For example, book reading promotes listening and understanding,
vocabulary development, phonological awareness, alphabet knowledge, print awareness,
knowledge in a subject area such as science, and even social problem-solving skills. Learn-
ing curriculum content builds all-important background knowledge, concepts, and basic
information about how the world works (Neuman, Roskos, Wright, & Lenhart, 2007).
Background knowledge is essential for reading comprehension. Information books are
especially valuable sources of such knowledge. As a result, the Common Core standards
call for a 50-50 balance between fiction and nonfiction reading in kindergarten. Information
books are more cognitively challenging than stories. However, teachers tend to talk less
when reading them, which is a missed opportunity to enhance their value (Price, Bradley,
& Smith, 2012). Exposure to information books and academic vocabulary in the early years
helps prepares children for the texts they will later encounter in elementary school.
Play and Literacy Children’s play provides an excellent and highly motivating con-
text to learn literacy and language. Various types of play can be employed to help children
develop these important skills. Read the feature Promoting Play: How Play Supports
Language and Literacy Development for some examples.
background knowledge
Concepts and basic informa-
tion about how the world works
that is essential for reading
comprehension.
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Chapter 12 Teaching Children to Communicate: Language, Literacy, and the Arts 403
The predictors described in the previous sections are the forerunners of successful
reading and writing. We now turn to the topic of the formal teaching of reading in the
primary grades.
✓ Check Your Understanding 12.4: Early Literacy Birth through Age 5
How Play Supports Language and Literacy Development
Next year, Ms. Keegan’s preschoolers will attend kin-
dergartens in which the curriculum is designed to meet
Common Core standards. She knows how important it
is to prepare them for the rigorous expectations. But
she also understands the value of play for children’s
development and learning and provides various types of
play to help meet her language and literacy goals.
To build children’s speaking and listening skills, she
uses several strategies. She identifies a theme or proj-
ect that children are interested in and key vocabulary
words that are connected to the topic. She intention-
ally teaches new words, frequently repeats them, and
engages children in extended conversations using the
words. Much of this “instruction” happens during
their play, as we see in the following example.
After a visit to the local airport, Ms. Keegan’s pre-
school class wants to take an airplane ride. She
helps them set up an airport and airplane that in-
cludes lots of literacy opportunities: a computer to
make plane reservations; paper and markers to write
tickets, baggage tags, and signs for departures and
arrivals; and magazines and iPads to read on the
plane. They organize chairs into the two aisles of
the plane and choose roles. Two children are the pi-
lots, three are the flight attendants, one is the ticket
agent, another is the baggage handler, and the rest
are passengers. In preparation, one group writes
tickets while another sets up a beverage cart.
As the plane loads, Grayson, the flight attendant,
greets each passenger with a “Welcome aboard”
and tells the assembled group to fasten their seat
belts. The pilots announce that the plane is going to
Disneyland. Most children get deep into the scenar-
io and stay with it for 20 minutes or more. The play
is repeated for several days, with children exchang-
ing roles and practicing the language of air travel.
After a few days, Ms. Keegan invites a real pilot
to visit. She explains her job and introduces new
words. She also describes how pilots read and write
every day. After the visit, children consult Google
maps and other geography apps to identify and
practice writing flight plans.
One of the defining characteristics of sophisticated
socio-dramatic play is the use of language. During
such play, children try to imitate adults, and their
language becomes more complex and sophisticated.
Similarly, when children play out roles in pretend
contexts, they adapt their speech style and employ
the familiar scripts common to those settings. For
instance, the airport, office, and restaurant are differ-
ent contexts, each with its own vocabulary and script.
To stimulate language, teachers may need to take a
role in play to get it going or to extend it to include
more language. For instance, Ms. Keegan might arrive
at the airport and say, “I almost missed the plane.
Can you tell me what to do in case of emergency?
How does the oxygen mask work?” Play provides many
opportunities to practice such verbal interaction with
other children and occasionally with adults.
Ms. Keegan used play to support children’s use
of sophisticated language and extended conversa-
tions. The play also provided many opportunities for
the children to express their ideas and extend their
knowledge of letter-sound relationships through
writing.
Sources: “Learning through Play,” by L. M. Morrow,
S. B. Berkule, A. L. Mendelsohn, A. L. Healey, and
C. B. Cates, 2013, in D. R. Reutzel (Ed.), Handbook
of Research-Based Practice in Early Education,
pp. 100–118, New York: Guilford Press; All about
Words: Increasing Vocabulary in the Common Core
Classroom, PreK–2, by S. B. Neuman and T. S. Wright,
2013, New York: Teachers College Press.
Promoting Play
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Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach404
Literacy in the Primary Grades
In this section, we introduce some of the key terms and issues in teaching reading. We revisit
the reading and writing developmental continuum. Then, we describe the components of an
evidence-based reading program and the importance of digital literacy. We conclude with
a discussion of the impact of the Common Core English Language Arts (ELA) standards.
Learning to Read
Conventional reading is reading in which the reader gains meaning from unfamiliar
text. This is what we think of when we talk about being literate—the ability to read
without conscious effort, the way adults and older children read. English is an alphabetic
language, as are Spanish and many other languages. In these languages, we translate or
encode speech sounds into symbols—the letters of the alphabet—to create writing. Read-
ing requires the ability to decode—that is, to figure out what those symbols represent.
Basically, reading involves two processes:
1. Word identification: the process of decoding unfamiliar words and recognizing
high-frequency (both regularly and irregularly spelled) words by sight, such as the,
with, that, house, dog.
2. Comprehension: the ability to understand what is read and to interpret and ana-
lyze the author’s meaning.
For many decades, there have been heated debates about which of these processes
is more important and needs more attention when teaching beginning reading. Today,
researchers agree that effective reading instruction helps children master the alphabetic
principle and acquire meaning from text—what is called a balanced approach (Inter-
national Reading Association [IRA] & National Association for the Education of Young
Children [NAEYC], 1998; Kim, 2008; Snow et al., 1998). Such an approach is more
likely to be meaningful and motivating for children and, therefore, more likely to help
them become successful readers.
Learning to read is an example of a both/and, not an either/or choice—both decoding
and comprehension are required. Teachers need to realize that it is impossible to understand
what you cannot decode, but it is possible to decode what you cannot understand. Those of
us who have never studied physics, for example, would probably be able to “read” (that is,
decode) the words in a physics textbook, but would have no idea what we’ve read.
Developmental Continuum: Literacy
in Kindergarten and Primary Grades
The Developmental Continuum: Literacy in Kindergarten and Primary
Grades feature describes reading and writing expectations for this age group.
Being familiar with such a continuum is useful for teachers because it identi-
fies the goals for literacy instruction at each age level and helps them assess
children’s progress toward those goals (McAfee, Leong, & Bodrova, 2015).
Children’s progress along the continuum depends to a large extent on
their earlier experience. Children will arrive at kindergarten and first grade
with very different abilities. Some will already be reading; others may know
only a few letters. Therefore, teachers must adapt their instruction to start
where children are and help them make continuing progress.
Evidence-Based Reading Instruction
Given the current understanding of research, the National Reading Panel
identified five components of an evidence-based reading program that are
now widely used in planning and evaluating curriculum (NICHD, 2000).
Classroom Connection
Observe the many ways the
teacher in this video effectively
uses learning centers to imple-
ment a research-based, balanced
approach to teaching reading with
her primary-grade students. What
do you observe about the chil-
dren’s developing skills, under-
standing, and motivation to learn?
conventional reading Read-
ing in which the reader gains
meaning from unfamiliar text.
encode Translating speech
sounds into symbols—the let-
ters of the alphabet—to create
writing.
decode The ability to figure
out what written symbols—let-
ters of the alphabet—represent.
word identification The
process of decoding unfamiliar
words and recognizing high-
frequency (both regularly and
irregularly spelled) words by
sight.
comprehension The ability to
understand what is read and
to interpret and analyze the
author’s meaning; the ability to
make sense of what is read.
balanced approach Effective
reading instruction that helps
children master the alphabetic
principle and acquire meaning
from text.
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Chapter 12 Teaching Children to Communicate: Language, Literacy, and the Arts 405
Developmental Continuum
Literacy in Kindergarten and
Primary Grades
Age/Grade level Widely Held Expectations
Most kindergartners • Enjoy being read to, retell stories and what they’ve learned from information
books
• Experiment with and use early literacy skills
• Respond to open-ended questions that require inferences about a story and
connections to events beyond the story
• Begin to track print when listening to book
• Use language to describe and explain what is read
• Recognize and name all upper- and lowercase letters automatically and makes
most letter-sound matches
• Demonstrate phonemic awareness, blend and segment syllables in words, and
blend and segment onsets and rimes
• Write letters and high-frequency words
• Recognize some words by sight, including common ones (a, the, me, you, is)
• Use phonemic awareness and letter knowledge to write with invented spelling
• May read emergent literacy texts conventionally by the end of kindergarten
Most first graders • Make the transition from experimental to “real” or conventional reading
• Read aloud accurately and with reasonable fluency texts appropriate for beginning
grade 1
• Use letter-sound associations, word parts, and context to identify new words
• Use strategies when comprehension breaks down (picture and context clues,
rereading, predicting, questioning)
• Use reading and writing for various purposes on their own initiative (“I want to
write a Valentine for my mom.”)
• Sound out and represent all substantial sounds when spelling a word
• Identify an increasing number of words by sight, including common irregularly
spelled words, such as said, where, and two
• Write various kinds of texts about meaningful topics (journals, stories)
• Use some punctuations and capitalization correctly
Most second graders • Read more fluently and write various text forms using simple and more complex
sentences
• Use word identification strategies to figure out unknown words
• Use strategies to aid comprehension more efficiently, such as rereading, question-
ing, using context
• Read with greater fluency
• Identify an increasing number of words by sight
• Write about a range of topics for different audiences
• Use common letter patterns to spell words
• Punctuate basic sentences correctly and proofread their writing
• Read daily and use reading to get information on topics of study
(Continued)
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Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach406
Each of these components—phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and
comprehension—is described in the sections that follow.
Phonemic Awareness Phonemic awareness is one of the strongest predictors of
success in reading (Strickland & Schickedanz, 2009). Without it, later instruction in pho-
nics doesn’t make sense. However, although research has found that phonemic awareness
is absolutely necessary for success in reading, it is not by itself sufficient; there is much
more to beginning reading than the spoken sounds of words (NICHD, 2000).
Phonics Phonics is a system of teaching the correspondences between letters or
groups of letters and the sounds they represent. Although the use of phonics to teach
reading has been hotly debated, the value of phonics has long been established as a
necessary component in an effective, research-based program (Chall, 1967; Strickland,
2011). The major issue concerning phonics instruction is not whether to teach phonics
and other skills such as spelling, but how to teach them in engaging ways that support
children’s continued reading development as well as their motivation to read. Whereas
some children need extensive help with phonics, other children do not (Strickland,
2011).
Fluency Fluency refers to rapid, efficient, and accurate word recognition skills that
permit the reader to comprehend the meaning of text (Rasinski, 2009). Fluency is first
apparent when children are able to read out loud quickly, accurately, and with appro-
priate expression. This ability then leads to their ability to comprehend what they read
silently.
Fluency is like the bridge between phonics and comprehension (Rasinski, 2009). If
children’s decoding skills are inadequate, they must slowly sound out and stumble over
each word. By the time they’ve reached the end of the sentence, they’ve forgotten the
words they’ve read and, as a result, the sentence doesn’t make sense. Fluency requires
practice and careful matching of texts to children’s approximate reading ability.
How do children become fluent readers? One way is for teachers to read aloud to
children, modeling the elements of fluent reading (Pikulski & Chard, 2005). Fluency
requires practice. Another way is for children to read short passages to each other in
pairs. Even after children in the primary grades become fairly competent readers, teach-
ers should continue to read to them, using more sophisticated chapter books than students
can read independently.
phonics A system of teaching
the correspondences between
letters or groups of letters and
the sounds they represent.
fluency Rapid, efficient, and
accurate word recognition skills
that permit the reader to com-
prehend the meaning of text.
Age/Grade level Widely Held Expectations
Most third graders • Read fluently and enjoy reading
• Extend and refine their reading and writing for various purposes and audiences
• Use a range of strategies to make meaning from unfamiliar text
• Use word identification strategies appropriately and automatically when encounter-
ing unknown words
• Recognize and discuss elements of different text structures
• Write expressively in various forms such as stories, reports, and letters
• Use a rich vocabulary and complex sentence structure
• Revise and edit their writing during and after composing
• Spell words correctly in final drafts
Sources: Based on Learning to Read and Write: Developmentally Appropriate Practices for
Young Children: A Joint Position Statement, by the International Reading Association and
National Association for the Education of Young Children, 1998, Washington, DC: NAEYC;
Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young Children, edited by C. E. Snow, M. S. Burns, and P.
Griffin, 1998, Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
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Chapter 12 Teaching Children to Communicate: Language, Literacy, and the Arts 407
Vocabulary As described earlier, vocabu-
lary knowledge is perhaps the strongest predic-
tor of reading comprehension (NICHD, 2000).
Children who understand and use more words
to begin with are more likely to recognize these
words in print. When they encounter unknown
words in their reading, they can figure them out
based on what they already know (Snow et al.,
1998).
Because children in the primary grades need
to grow their vocabularies by about 3,000 words
per year, they need to learn about 15 words per
day (Beck, McKeown, & Kucan, 2013). Con-
sequently, vocabulary instruction needs to be
intentional and explicit during these years, espe-
cially for children who are behind in vocabulary
development at school entry (Neuman & Wright,
2013).
Reading Comprehension Reading com-
prehension is the construction of meaning from
unfamiliar text—the ability to make sense of
what is read. A prerequisite for high levels of
reading achievement is a rich amount of back-
ground and content knowledge. The content
that children learn in social studies, science, and
other areas provides essential background knowledge to comprehend what they read. For
this reason, children need a great deal of experience with information (nonfiction) texts in
the primary grades (Duke, 2014).
A solid base of knowledge is essential for becoming a skilled reader and suc-
ceeding in school (NICHD, 2000). By third grade, the curriculum shifts from a focus
on learning to read to an expectation that children read to learn, as they encounter
increasingly more complex textbooks. In fact, the fourth-grade reading slump that
typically occurs in American schools may be caused in part by children’s lack of
content knowledge from which to make sense of more challenging texts (Duke, 2014;
Hirsch, 2007).
Digital Literacy
In 2015, the International Reading Association officially changed its name to the Inter-
national Literacy Association (ILA) to reflect the fact that reading is only part of literacy
today. Children of every age must learn to use technology and digital media to enhance
all their communication skills—reading, writing, speaking, and listening. Across the
curriculum, they need to seek information online and connect that knowledge with what
they learn offline. Children also need to learn the strengths and limitations of various
technological tools and media, and choose those that are suited to their communication
goals.
Life in our technological society, requires more than reading; it requires digital
literacy, the ability to locate, understand, interpret, and evaluate information from mul-
timedia, digital sources (Labbo & Nogueron-Liu, 2013). One of the biggest challenges
teachers face, however, is deciding among the vast number of educational apps and
games that purport to teach children to read. A survey (Guernsey, Levine, Chiong, &
Severns, 2012) of the most popular ones found that despite lofty claims, more than
half focused on very basic skills—letters, sounds, phonics, and word identification.
Only about 10% addressed higher-level abilities such as vocabulary, comprehension,
and storytelling.
digital literacy The ability
to obtain, use, interpret, and
evaluate information available
through multimedia, digital
sources.
Reading information books
in primary grades serves the
dual purpose of helping build
word identification skills and
background knowledge. Both
are needed for reading
comprehension.
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Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach408
Impact of the
Common Core
State Standards
In the past, reading instruction
in kindergarten and the primary
grades focused on such basic skills
as phonics and word identification.
Concerns about uneven, low edu-
cational standards and poor aca-
demic achievement in many states
led to the Common Core State
Standards initiative (2011a). Com-
mon Core standards are designed
to ensure that all children are pre-
pared for college and careers in
reading, writing, speaking, listen-
ing, and language, and they signifi-
cantly raise the bar across all grades.
The Common Core English Language Arts (ELA) standards begin at kindergarten,
but because they are so rigorous, they have had a significant impact on prekindergarten
as well. Many early childhood educators are seriously concerned that the standards are
developmentally inappropriate and that implementing them is harming children (Carlson-
Paige, McLaughlin, & Almon, 2014). Most worrisome is the expectation that kindergart-
ners should “Read emergent-reader texts with purpose an understanding.” Common Core
includes examples of what is meant by emergent-reader story books such as Are You My
Mother? by P. D. Eastman and Green Eggs and Ham by Dr. Seuss, and information books
such as My Five Senses by Aliki.
To help children achieve the overarching goals of comprehension, critical thinking,
communication, and creativity, the ELA arts standards (Common Core State Standards
Initiative, 2015a) emphasize the following:
• Complexity. Students are expected to comprehend complex texts and learn aca-
demic vocabulary that is used in a variety of content areas such as science or social
studies.
• Evidence. Students are required to provide evidence—gleaned from literature and
information books—to support their opinions and conclusions, both verbally and in
their writing. For example, instead of simply asking children if they liked the story
or how it made them feel, the teacher would ask, “What in the story made you feel
(that emotion)?”
• Background knowledge. To build content knowledge, the K–third-grade standards
call for a 50-50 balance between fiction and nonfiction books.
Common Core also stresses that literacy involves using, communicating, interpreting,
and evaluating digital media sources. For example, Common Core assessments are delivered
on computers or tablets requiring students to have technological aptitude and keyboard skills.
The Common Core standards have become a political hot button. Abolishing them
has become part of presidential candidates’ platforms as well as parents’ and some teach-
ers’ agendas. Whether the Common Core is implemented or changed drastically, it has
had a significant impact on the way that literacy is defined and the expectations for teach-
ing and learning.
In previous sections, we discussed the development and learning of verbal and writ-
ten communication skills. In the final sections, we address another dimension of human
communication—the creative arts.
✓ Check Your Understanding 12.5: Literacy in the Primary Grades
Digital literacy is essential
today as children must learn
to find, use, interpret, and criti-
cally evaluate information from
print and nonprint sources.
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Chapter 12 Teaching Children to Communicate: Language, Literacy, and the Arts 409
Communicating Through the Arts
We began this chapter with a visit to a primary school where teachers used children’s art
production and appreciation to teach language, reading, and writing. In previous sections,
we focused on two dimensions of communication: language and literacy. Although it is
true that speaking, listening, reading, and writing skills are essential for school success,
they are not the only ways of communicating and learning, as is clear from Gardner’s
theory of multiple intelligences.
Young children, who tend to be less inhibited than older children and adults, use their
entire bodies to express their ideas and emotions. If encouraged and provided a range of
interesting materials, they can be incredibly creative in representing their world through
traditional and digital media. Children’s enjoyment and accomplishment in the creative arts
depend, in part, on teachers providing adequate materials, time, and instruction in specific
art techniques.
The Value of Creative Arts
The creative arts include visual arts, music, movement, dance, and drama. National
Core Arts Standards for pre-K through grade 12 now exist that address all these areas
plus media arts (National Coalition for Core Arts Standards, 2014). The overarching
goals of the standards are that children create art; perform, present, and produce art;
respond to art (interpret, evaluate, and find meaning in it); and connect art to their lives
and the larger culture. The media arts standards address how all forms of art are cre-
ated and presented using technology and digital media. The Core Arts standards are
designed to align with the Common Core and also elevate the value and importance of
the arts in education.
Each type of creative art supports children’s imaginative thinking and expression of
their ideas and emotions (Isenberg & Jalongo, 2013). Participation in the arts achieves
several goals for children: enhanced cognitive development, promotion of symbolic rep-
resentation, support for creativity, and engagement of children from all cultural and lin-
guistic backgrounds.
As we saw in the case study at the opening of this chapter, the arts also provide an
excellent basis for integrating curriculum. In fact, one study of an arts-enriched inte-
grated curriculum in a preschool serving low-income children found that engaging chil-
dren in music, creative movement, and visual arts improved their school readiness skills
(Brown, Benedett, & Armistead, 2010). And a large body of research demonstrates
that involvement in the arts enhances development and learning throughout schooling
(Munsen, 2013; Ruppert, 2006). Such research contradicts the tendency today to mini-
mize the arts in order to spend more time supposedly preparing children for academic
success.
Creative Arts and Cognitive Development The creative arts contribute to
children’s development in many ways. Engaging in the arts helps children reflect on their
own thinking, which becomes more complex as a result. The following example illus-
trates this relationship between the arts and cognition:
Karen Spitzer’s kindergarten class is involved in a yearlong study of plants and
growing things. In the early days of spring, the children become very excited by the
flowers bursting forth on the grounds surrounding their rural school. Karen guides
the children to observe several types of roses closely. The children take sketch pads
outside and draw the roses, and also take digital photos. When they return to the
classroom, Karen reads an information book about flowers and projects their photos
on the whiteboard. Then, she instructs them to “Use your poet’s eyes (It’s like . . .)
instead of your scientist’s eyes (I see and I describe specifically).” The children write
short poems or sentences about how the flowers make them feel. Next, they create
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Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach410
pictures using various media such as tempera paint, watercolors, colored pencils, and
chalk. Then, the children examine and critique each other’s pictures:
Kehembe: I wanted my roses to be pink, but they look too red.
Chrystal: Yeah. Maybe you could add more white next time.
Tyree: Why don’t you try the chalks? They come in more shades than the watercolors.
Or try the paints because they’re easier to mix colors.
The next day, Karen brings in a dozen roses. She places them in water near the art
area and then gives each child one to hold.
Karen: Now look very carefully at your flower and compare it to your picture.
What do you see?
Chrystal: Ouch! I forgot about the thorns. I’m going to put some in my painting.
Kehembe: My rose isn’t just one color. Even though it’s mostly light pink, there’s
white and some darker pink, too. And the stem is way longer than I thought.
Tyree: I’m going to try making a rose from wire and colored tissue paper so it will
look more like a real one, not flat like my drawing and the photos.
Karen also projects different images of artists’ depictions of flowers. The ensuing class
discussion leads the children to conclude that there isn’t a “right” way to represent an
object—every artist has their own interpretation. In this example, many important things
are going on. Children are having fun creating art. But even more important, they are de-
veloping key abilities: symbolic representation and visual literacy (discussed later in this
chapter), which support language and literacy as well as thinking in all areas.
Symbolic Representation Symbolic representation is the process of mentally using
one thing to stand for something else. When children engage in the visual arts, they are using
various media to represent their concepts of the real world (Thompson, 2013). Language is
a representation of objects, experiences, feelings, and concepts. For example, in English we
use the word chair to represent an object with four legs that we sit on. Other languages use a
different word to stand for the same object. Written language is also an example of symbolic
representation. The letters of the alphabet are symbols to represent the sounds of the spoken
language. Developing symbolic representation is essential to speaking and reading.
Consider how Karen Spitzer, in the previous example, uses the arts to build symbolic
representation in her kindergartners. The children represented the flowers in their initial
drawings, in verbal descriptions, and in writing, and they read about them in books. Using
different media, such as paint and sculpture tools, they again represented the roses. Then
they observed real roses closely and discussed their pictures, reflecting on each other’s
representations. Finally, they were able to add more realistic detail, repre-
senting their more accurate concepts of a rose. The processes that Karen used
with her class promoted their creativity, artistic ability, and symbolic repre-
sentation skills. The activities were part of a science unit that also integrated
language and literacy skills.
Supporting Creativity Individuals are creative when they take existing
objects or ideas and combine them in different ways for new purposes. Creative
individuals use their ever-growing body of knowledge to generate new and
useful solutions to everyday challenges (Isenberg & Jalongo, 2013). Therefore,
creativity applies not only to the arts but to all aspects of children’s experience.
To support children’s involvement in the creative arts, effective teachers
need to understand their role. Teachers can err in doing either too little or too
much (Isenberg & Jalongo, 2013). Some teachers are too passive, providing
no help with art techniques. They merely provide materials and stand back.
The commonly heard phrase “It’s not the product, it’s the process” relates to
this view of creativity. The assumption is that whatever children produce is
unimportant compared to their creative use of materials.
Classroom Connection
Watch this video to see how the
visual arts promote symbolic
representation, creativity, appre-
ciation for the beauty of nature,
observation skills, and content
learning in an integrated curricu-
lum study about birds.
symbolic representation The
process of mentally using one
thing to stand for something
else.
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Chapter 12 Teaching Children to Communicate: Language, Literacy, and the Arts 411
By contrast, some teachers are
too controlling, overemphasizing the
finished product. These teachers may
assume that parents want children to
color within predrawn lines or pro-
duce art that conforms to adult-made
models. Envision a classroom wall
decorated with a series of rabbits that
look like they came off an assembly
line. The rabbit ears and other parts
were obviously cut out by the teacher.
Cultural differences also exist
in how adults view and support chil-
dren’s creativity. For example, one
study found that Chinese American
parents and teachers believe that chil-
dren need formal art instruction first
and then creativity will follow, while
European Americans tend to assume
that children’s creativity will emerge naturally (Huntsinger, Jose, Krieg, & Luo, 2011). In
this study, Chinese American children’s drawing skills from age 5 to 9 were more mature
and creative than those of the European American children who had received less instruction.
The best approach is for teachers and children to value both the process and the prod-
uct. Teachers need to understand that the process of producing art is more satisfying and
educationally valuable if children have been taught some techniques (Thompson, 2013).
Children will enjoy the art more and become less frustrated. At the same time, they will
feel prouder about the products they themselves produce.
Teachers can also encourage creativity and learning through the arts by introducing
children to excellent examples of art. As the teachers from the Thurgood Marshall School
did at the beginning of the chapter, they can involve children in noticing, thinking about,
and discussing the work of other artists. Then, to promote discussion, effective teachers
use open-ended questions, which invite children to observe, critique, evaluate, and de-
velop their own aesthetic preferences.
Engage Every Child All areas of the arts can involve and engage diverse groups of
children. It is always important to adapt materials and experiences to ensure that children
with disabilities can fully engage in the creative arts.
Art, music, and movement are areas where dual language learners can be included
without needing to rely on their English language skills. All children can enjoy learning
a song in either English or another language. In addition, when singing, there is a clear-
er distinction between each word than in speaking. With her 3-year-olds, Derry sings,
“Head, shoulders, knees, and toes . . . and eyes, and ears, and a mouth and nose,” touching
each body part as she sings. Such a rhyme or song helps dual language learners by con-
necting physical movements with words.
Every cultural group has its tradition of artistic expression. Consider origami in Asian
cultures or African masks. Teachers can involve families by inviting them to share creative
art from their own culture and families. Exploring children’s cultural diversity should not
be limited to examining such artifacts, but including them is important.
Even at an early age, some children will say, “I can’t draw.” They’ve already learned
that the broader culture values particular ways of representing the world. Digital media
is a great way to motivate reluctant artists as well as those who happily embrace their
creative selves. Engaging art production apps abound, such as MoMA Art Lab from New
York’s Museum of Modern Art.
In the following discussion, we describe and give examples of effective teaching
strategies in each area—visual arts, music, movement, dance, and drama.
Working with diverse media
helps build children’s symbolic
representation ability. What
abilities do you think children
gain by working on a group art
project?
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Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach412
Visual Arts
The visual arts are creative processes and products that involve drawing, painting, sculpt-
ing with clay, or making models of objects using a variety of materials. Art experiences
allow children to convey their ideas, feelings, and knowledge in visual forms. Individually
and in groups, children use materials such as crayons, markers, paint, playdough, clay,
wire, found objects, glue, tape, and paper, along with tools such as scissors, brushes, roll-
ing pins, and cookie cutters. Developing an appreciation for and an aesthetic awareness
of art is another important element. Including art forms, materials, and techniques from
children’s home cultures can increase their motivation and interest in art.
Developmental Continuum: Artistic Development The arts are part of
the curriculum and, therefore, are influenced by children’s development just like literacy
or mathematics. To plan and implement a challenging and achievable arts curriculum,
teachers need to understand the typical course of children’s artistic development. As with
other developmental areas, children pass through several stages as they progress in draw-
ing and painting. However, children’s progress is not as tightly linked to age as assumed
in the past; instead it is strongly influenced by their experiences with various media and
adult scaffolding (Thompson, 2013). Depicted in Figure 12.2, the progression of drawing
is similar to early writing development.
When young children begin to draw, they first make random scribbles, lines, zigzags,
and circles that may cover the whole paper (see Figure 12.2a). As they gain experience,
children begin to produce shapes such as crosses, squares, and rectangles. Then they com-
bine shapes, making sun-like objects using circles and lines. Soon children make figures
that look like humans beginning as stick figures that gradually get more features, animals,
houses, and trees (see Figures 12.2b & 12.2c).
With experience and adult scaffolding, children’s artwork becomes more and more
representational over time. They talk about the process they used and what the product
represents (Epstein, 2007). Increasingly, they plan what to create and decide which mate-
rials and techniques they will need and their work becomes more sophisticated, as we see
in a first grader’s action-packed firefighter scene in Figure 12.2d.
Understanding the typical sequence of children’s artistic development helps teach-
ers know what kinds of materials and experiences will be safe, interesting, achievable,
and challenging for each age group; that is, what art is developmentally appropriate. For
example, with a group of toddlers, it is unrealistic to expect representational drawing,
but teachers can expect preschoolers to increasingly present more recognizable objects
in their work, especially if the teachers provide scaffolding, as Karen Spitzer did in the
earlier example of drawing flowers.
Artistic skills are related to physical development. When finger painting or sculpt-
ing with wire, playdough, or clay, children use their senses, explore the properties of the
materials, build fine-motor skills, and practice eye-hand coordination. Children build the
same muscles and skills they need for writing. Fine-motor skills are a strong predictor
of later achievement because they enable children to have more diverse and challenging
experiences that promote their cognitive development (Grissmer, Grimm, Aiyer, Murrah,
& Steele, 2010).
Scaffold Artistic Development and Learning Many people think that cre-
ativity is inborn. Actually, children’s ability to be creative depends in large part on their
skills in producing art. Children who lack the skills to model with clay, for instance, may
continue to roll clay into balls or make “snakes,” but they won’t advance to sculpting
objects. Soon they may lose interest in working with clay altogether.
When teachers provide adequate materials, time, instruction in specific techniques,
and assistance when needed, children’s skills continue to develop (Thompson, 2013). For
example, after observing the art center in her kindergarten, Lara Mann sees that Duane
has a tendency to use too much water, sopping the paper that he inevitably wads up and
visual arts Creative processes
and products that involve
drawing, painting, sculpting
with clay, or making models
of objects using a variety of
materials.
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Chapter 12 Teaching Children to Communicate: Language, Literacy, and the Arts 413
tosses away. With a little instruction in how to use watercolors effectively, Duane pro-
duces a painting he wants to take home.
Specific art skills that can be taught can be as simple as tapping the paint on the side
of the can to get a more controlled stroke, as complex as using potter’s clay to make elabo-
rate and durable sculptures. Effective teachers encourage children by making positive,
specific comments rather than by giving compliments. Instead of saying, “What a beauti-
ful picture,” they say, “I see you’ve made a pattern—two red stripes, two blue stripes, two
red stripes, two blue stripes.” The following example illustrates how important teacher
scaffolding can be to maintaining children’s enjoyment of art:
FIGURE 12.2 Progression of Child’s Drawing These figures illustrate the typical progression of
children’s drawing from scribbles to stick figures, to more detailed and recognizable representations.
(a) Family drawing scribble
(b) Stick figure family
(c) 5-year-old’s drawing “Mommy and me”
(d) Second grader’s drawing
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
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Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach414
Three-year-old Emily, budding artist, loves to paint. She often spends long periods of
time at the easel, layering colors of thick paint until her paper is wet through. After
weeks of this activity, she tells her teacher, Lelia, that she doesn’t want to paint any-
more. When Lelia asks why, Emily says, “It always comes out brown.” At this point,
Emily’s teacher has a choice. She can smile and ignore Emily’s problem, or she can
see the situation as a teachable moment.
Lelia begins by asking: Emily, let’s think about why your pictures turn brown. What
color do you put on first?
Emily: I like red best. And I like blue and yellow, too.
Lelia: Those are all pretty colors. Let’s mix them together and see what color
we get.
As Lelia and Emily mix the colors, Emily’s eyes get very wide.
Emily: It makes brown! Let’s try it again.
After they mix the color brown over and over, Lelia asks, “What could you do next
time you paint a picture so it won’t come out brown?” With such minimal assis-
tance, Lelia supports Emily to find the solution of separating colors on her paper
instead of continually painting over the same spot and renews Emily’s enthusiasm
for painting.
To effectively support children’s artistic development and creativity, teachers need
to organize the environment to provide sufficient space and materials for messy activity,
cleanup, and storage of children’s work and work-in-progress. Also critically important
is for teachers to treat children’s work with respect. To do so, teachers display children’s
work with their permission. They can also mat or frame selected works for each child to
display and keep. Teachers encourage children to take art home to share with families.
In preschool and in kindergarten and the primary grades, children can evaluate their own
artwork and decide which products they judge worthy of keeping. Digital cameras and
scanning extend the life of children’s creations.
Promote Visual Literacy All of the experiences described previously contribute
to the development of children’s visual literacy. Visual literacy is the “ability to create
visual messages and to ‘read’ messages contained in visual communications; to perceive,
understand, interpret, and evaluate the visual environment” (Johnson, 2008, p. 74). To
build children’s visual literacy experiences, teachers engage them in talking about art,
extending their thinking about art, and reflecting on art (Johnson, 2008). These processes
are similar to the connections that exist among speaking, reading, and writing.
visual literacy Ability to cre-
ate visual messages and to
interpret messages contained
in visual communications.
Intentional teachers use the
visual arts to promote creativ-
ity, symbolic representation,
visual literacy, and much more.
Creative arts should be an inte-
gral part of the early childhood
curriculum. Teachers engage children in talking
about their art by commenting on colors,
textures, techniques, and patterns. They
also lead children through thinking and
problem solving by asking open-ended
questions such as “What materials did
you use to make this flower sculpture?”
and “How can you make a door in your
house structure? What will you need?
What could you do first?”
As in the case study that opened this
chapter, teachers can help children ob-
serve, compare, and respond to the prop-
erties of artistic works. With a teacher’s
guidance, children can discuss the artist’s
use of color, shape, line, pattern, texture,
and more. Typical comments might in-
clude “Look at the big blocks of color in ©
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Chapter 12 Teaching Children to Communicate: Language, Literacy, and the Arts 415
the Mondrian painting.” “Look very closely. Can you see how the people in this picture
by Seurat are painted with tiny dots of color?” “See how the Romare Bearden picture is a
collage like we make.” To bring art closer to children’s firsthand experience, local artists
can share and discuss a work-in-progress or display their work in the classroom.
Music, Movement, and Dance
On the first day of school for her preschool class, Yasmine gathers the children on the
rug and begins to sing a simple song with corresponding hand gestures: “Open, shut
them. Open, shut them. Give a little clap. Open, shut them. Open, shut them. Put them
in your lap. Creep them, creep them. Creep them, creep them, right up to your chin.
Open wide your little mouth . . . but do not let them in!” The children are enchanted
and their attention is fully engaged. They beg for her to do it again. Many of them
begin following her movements and mimicking the words immediately. Right from
the start, the children learn that music will be a fun and active part of every day in
Yasmine’s room.
Developmentally appropriate music and movement experiences involve creating,
performing (singing, making and moving to music), listening and responding, and con-
necting music and movement to interests, ideas, and knowledge (National Coalition for
Core Arts Standards, 2014). Music and movement should be a primary focus of the cur-
riculum and should also be used to accomplish other learning goals. Every day, teachers
can provide opportunities for children to sing favorite songs, learn new ones, and make
up their own. Children should also use simple rhythm instruments to create music or to
accompany live or recorded music.
Music in the Lives of Young Children Children’s experiences and connec-
tions with music begin at birth, when they are comforted by lullabies or the soft humming
of their mothers’ voices. Some families make music an integral part of their lives. By the
time they reach the toddler years, many children have favorite songs and musical pieces.
They listen attentively, sing along with a familiar chorus, move to the music, and begin
making their own music by shaking a tambourine or banging on a pot or drum. As lan-
guage skills develop, toddlers begin making up their own songs. If they have had many
opportunities to listen to and talk about music, they can identify the sounds made by spe-
cific instruments such as a trumpet, drum, or violin.
Music experiences play an important role in children’s lives. Music and dance influ-
ence children’s identities, connect them to their cultural group and the larger society, help
them experience and express emotions and ideas, and support their learning across the
curriculum. Moreover, music and dance can be lots of fun.
Every cultural group and family has a musical tradition. As communities connect
within a broader culture, these musical traditions are shared and influence each other.
Rock and roll began as a blending of several musical forms, including the blues and
gospel. This is what makes music a part of children’s identities and why it is important
to incorporate the music of children’s cultures and home languages into the curriculum.
If children don’t know the songs, they can sing along with a recorded version of a song,
such as “Abiyoyo,” until everyone learns the words. An iPod can be loaded with literally
hundreds of selections. Teachers can also introduce real or homemade versions of instru-
ments that are typical of children’s cultures.
Memory and sequencing are required to coordinate music and movement, and both
require children to follow directions. The skills and knowledge that children gain from par-
ticipating in music and dance include these (Head Start, 2003; Isenberg & Jalongo, 2013):
• Listening, as when children try to identify the words in a lyric or sounds made by
different instruments
• Responding by clapping to the beat or marching around the room
• Creating music, by exploring the sounds made by different instruments and making
up a new song or a verse for a familiar song
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Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach416
• Understanding, such as whether a piece of music has a slow or fast beat
• Playing music, such as when they use bells or rhythm sticks to accompany
a song
• Moving and dancing with or without music—swinging, rotating, twirling,
twisting, or shaking their bodies.
Music and Movement in the Classroom Exposing children to
all kinds of music provides many different opportunities for learning. First-
grade teacher Malique is an amateur guitarist and music lover. Even though
he doesn’t sing very well, he never lets that stop him from singing with the
children. He knows that children don’t mind if the song is off-key as long as
they can sing along, too. Malique introduces a different kind of music each
week and provides follow-up activities. To launch this music appreciation curriculum,
Malique invites sixth-grade band members to bring their instruments and demonstrate the
sounds. The children love seeing the instruments up close and learning how to care for
them. Then he plays a recording of portions of Peter and the Wolf and asks children to
listen to how the instruments sound like animals.
Whatever music Malique uses in his classroom, he involves children in thinking and
talking about their experiences. He asks questions such as “What do you like or dislike
about it?” “How is it similar to and different from other music you have heard?” “What
instruments do you hear in different pieces of music?” In this way, children can become
critical thinkers about music as well as music appreciators.
Drama
Pretend play and dramatization involve creative production and demonstration. We have
already discussed the benefits of socio-dramatic play for language and early literacy
skills. Dramatization, however, is more closely tied to a specific story or script. Children
in primary grades are more likely to engage in dramatization than younger children, al-
though preschoolers do act out favorite stories. Children can also dramatize traditional
stories from their own cultures.
Teachers can structure a drama session to promote literacy skills in story sequence,
character development, and plot. Many dramatizations, both child initiated and teacher
guided, involve retelling familiar stories. After reading Three Billy Goats Gruff to her
class of 4-year-olds, Marissa Reese helps them act it out. First, she encourages their recall
and story sequencing skills by asking them to tell what happened: “How did the story
start?” “What happened next?” She helps them identify emotions or problems that surface
in the dialogue: “How did the little billy goat feel?” As the children practice acting out the
different roles, they get an opportunity to play with dialogue, changing their tone of voice
and expression to fit the character of each goat or the troll.
Scaffolding dramatization requires providing different kinds and the right amount of
support for different children (Davidson, 1996). Providing props of varying realism can
meet the needs of inexperienced as well as capable players. Some will need realistic props
to get into character, such as a variety of dress-up clothes or the actual props used by
characters in a story. For example, after reading The Little Old Lady Who Was Not Afraid
of Anything (Williams, 1988), a kindergarten teacher gives children props to act out the
story—shoes, pants, shirts, and a hat—and create a scarecrow at the end. Other children
can take on a creative role with more open-ended objects such as cardboard tubes, unit
blocks, or pieces of cloth. Videotaping the production and sharing it on a class website or
on YouTube encourages children to do their best work.
Seeing the Arts with New Eyes
Pablo Picasso once said that every child is an artist (cited in Arts Education Partnership,
1998). But given the current emphasis on the basics of reading, writing, and mathematics
in early schooling, time and resources for arts education are diminishing. Many children
Classroom Connection
Watch this video to see the many
ways music and movement benefit
children and how children can
learn language, literacy, and other
content from active participation.
https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=-sYxMKCFmAU
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http://https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-sYxMKCFmAU
http://https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-sYxMKCFmAU
Chapter 12 Teaching Children to Communicate: Language, Literacy, and the Arts 417
today have less opportunity to experience the arts. However, all forms of art offer new
ways in which children can build language and literacy skills, learn about their own and
other cultures, and develop cognitive and social skills (Brown et al., 2010). Each of the
creative arts can enhance development and learning in other areas. For example, children
might count musical beats, draw or construct a model of the earth, analyze the message in
a painting, or write dialogue for a drama.
A large body of research on the effects of early arts experiences finds a positive
relationship with improved academic performance (Ruppert, 2006). Research in the arts
also demonstrates that when creativity is developed at an early age, its results transfer to
many intellectual tasks (Isenberg & Jalongo, 2013; Thompson, 2013). Given the power of
the creative arts to promote children’s learning and enrich their lives, teachers can use all
forms of art in their teaching to keep students engaged and excited about learning.
Today, state standards and program goals for early childhood education always in-
clude language and literacy. Reading proficiency has become the overarching purpose of
primary grades. Teachers who know and love young children, however, never lose sight of
the long-term goal: learning to communicate creatively in all forms of the arts.
✓ Check Your Understanding 12.6: Communicating through the Arts
. . . Thurgood Marshall School
At the beginning of this chapter, we visited a primary school where a school-wide art project was occur-
ring. The curriculum at Thurgood Marshall, as at every other school in the United States, is full to the
brim. Teachers need to be creative to cover the breadth of the curriculum while helping children gain
depth in important subject areas. The art study was an excellent example of how teachers can integrate
curriculum in meaningful ways. Teachers didn’t miss an opportunity to infuse language and literacy
throughout the day in all areas of study.
Having examined how children acquire language and become literate, we can now see how the art
project promoted these skills. Children learned new vocabulary words and used language in conversa-
tion and analysis. They also used digital media and read books on topics of interest, thus promoting
their motivation to read. They produced their own art and learned to appreciate and evaluate the work of
other artists. These experiences developed symbolic representation ability and visual literacy. Firsthand
experience with art sharpened children’s observations and critical-thinking skills. All of these experiences
motivated the children to become more competent and confident readers, writers, speakers, and artists.
Revisiting the Case Study
• Children gradually learn language over many years
from verbal interaction with adults and other children.
Language development follows a relatively predictable
sequence, but there is a wide range of individual varia-
tion that is well within the range of normal.
• Research-based vocabulary-building strategies
include one-to-one and extended conversations,
listening, decontextualized speech, intentional
teaching of new and rare words, interactive book
reading, and play.
Chapter Summary12
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Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach418
• The developmental sequence of second language
acquisition is similar but not identical to first language
learning. To help children acquire English while also
maintaining their home language, teachers must work
effectively with parents and use proven classroom
strategies, including play.
• Literacy is the result of many cumulative, interrelated
experiences beginning at birth. Research demonstrates
that there is a specific set of early literacy skills and
knowledge that predict later success in learning to read
and write: phonological awareness, alphabet knowl-
edge, print awareness, and vocabulary. Other important
skills that contribute to later reading ability include
early writing, listening comprehension, motivation to
read, and background knowledge.
• Conventional reading is the ability to gain meaning
from unfamiliar text. The most effective reading in-
struction helps children master the alphabetic principle
and acquire meaning from text in what is called a
balanced approach. Components of an evidence-based
reading program include phonemic awareness, pho-
nics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension. Motiva-
tion is key to reading achievement.
• Common Core English Language Arts Standards
emphasize students’ developing higher-order thinking
skills by reading complex texts with academic vocabu-
lary, analyzing evidence, and gaining content knowl-
edge from information books.
• Children learn to communicate through the creative
arts: visual arts, music, movement, dance, drama,
and media arts. The arts promote the development
of symbolic representation, creativity, and visual
literacy. Children’s enjoyment and accomplishment
in the creative arts depends on teachers providing
adequate materials, time, and instruction in specific
artistic skills.
Key Terms
■■ academic discourse
■■ alliteration
■■ alphabetic principle
■■ babble
■■ background knowledge
■■ balanced approach
■■ code switch
■■ completion prompt
■■ comprehension
■■ concepts of print
■■ conventional reading
■■ cooing
■■ decode
■■ decontextualized speech
■■ dialogic reading
■■ digital literacy
■■ distancing questions
■■ dual language learning
■■ early literacy
■■ encode
■■ expressive language
■■ extended discourse
■■ fluency
■■ invented spelling
■■ listening
■■ narrative
■■ open-ended questions
■■ parentese
■■ phonemes
■■ phonemic awareness
■■ phonics
■■ phonological awareness
■■ play-by-play language
■■ predictable books
■■ predictors
■■ print awareness
■■ rare words
■■ recall questions
■■ receptive language
■■ rhyme
■■ script language
■■ sequential language
learning
■■ simultaneous acquisition
■■ symbolic representation
■■ syntax
■■ telegraphic speech
■■ visual arts
■■ visual literacy
■■ vocabulary
■■ Wh- questions
■■ word identification
Demonstrate Your Learning
Click here to assess how well you’ve learned the content in this chapter.
✓
Isenberg, J. P., & Jalongo, M. R. (2013). Creative think-
ing and arts-based learning: Preschool through fourth
grade, 6th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Neuman, S. B., & Wright, T. S. (2013). All about words:
Increasing vocabulary in the Common Core classroom,
PreK–2. New York: Teachers College Press.
Schickedanz, J. A., & Collins, M. F., (2013). So much
more than the ABCs: The early phases of reading and
writing. Washington, DC: National Association for the
Education of Young Children.
Shanahan, T., Callison, K., Carriere, C., Duke, N. K.,
Pearson, P. D., Schatschneider, C., & Torgeson, J. (2010).
Improving reading comprehension in kindergarten
through 3rd grade: A practice guide. Available online at
U.S. Department of Education’s What Works Clearing-
house.
Readings and Websites
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Chapter 12 Teaching Children to Communicate: Language, Literacy, and the Arts 419
FPG Child Development Institute CONNECT
Module 6—Dialogic Reading Practices
This website provides a step-by-step teacher’s guide and
series of 11 how-to videos demonstrating dialogic read-
ing, one of the most effective language and literacy teach-
ing strategies.
International Literacy Association (ILA)
Previously the International Reading Association, this
organization’s website offers a wealth of resources for
teaching language and literacy from pre-K through third
grade.
National Core Arts Standards
On this website you will find the most recent, compre-
hensive set of national learning standards for dance,
music, theatre, visual arts, and media arts.
The Hanen Centre—Helping You Help Children
Communicate
The Hanen Centre offers practical resources for early
educators and parents to support young children’s
language, social, and early literacy development as well
as information for working with children with autism or
language delays.
Tap, Click, Read
Visit this new website for the most up-to-date information
and resources to appropriately and effectively use digital
tools to build children’s literacy.
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13
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
13.1 Explain why learning mathematics and science is important in the early
years.
13.2 Describe the continuum of cognitive development and how it relates to
learning mathematics and science.
13.3 Apply effective teaching strategies and curricula that help children learn
mathematics.
13.4 Apply effective teaching strategies and curricula that help children learn
science.
13.5 Describe what children need to know about technology and how it can be
used to teach effectively.
Teaching Children to
Investigate and Solve
Problems: Mathematics,
Science, and Technology
Learning Outcomes
© KidStock/Blend Images/Getty Images
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421
Darrell Burns and Sofia Moreno co-teach in a state-funded prekindergarten program that is operated in a local child care center. The school district has just introduced a new preschool curriculum to
align with the K–3 math curriculum. At first, Darrell and Sofia are skeptical about their children’s ability to learn the
content, and they feel somewhat anxious about tackling mathematics education themselves. “Math was always
my worst subject,” Darrell admits. “I majored in early childhood education rather than elementary because I didn’t
want to teach math.” Sofia nods. “I know how you feel. I kind of memorized stuff for the test and never really
understood it.”
After several weeks, however, the teachers’ attitudes change. The curriculum plan helps them understand the
number and geometry concepts they are teaching as well as the important sequences of mathematics learning.
Much to their surprise, the children are capable of learning sophisticated math concepts and truly enjoy the
activities in which they participate.
Darrell and Sofia find that opportunities for learning math abound in their classroom. During center time, Sofia
works with a small group of children on basic counting principles, using 1-inch cubes. Four-year-old Tori points at
the blocks as she says, “One, two, three, five, seven, eight.” “No, no,” says her friend Parker, “You skipped four! I’ll
show you.” Parker proceeds to say all the numbers in the correct order, but touches some blocks twice. Instead of
counting six blocks, he comes up with eight. Sofia notes that Tori has yet to master the number word list, so she’ll
engage Tori in verbal counting more often. As for Parker, Sofia simply says, “Slow down a little, and touch each block
as you say the word.” After two more tries, Parker successfully counts six blocks.
Darrell oversees four children playing a board game with a number on each square. Two girls are working on a
digital tablet, moving shapes to complete puzzles. Several children are building with unit blocks on the floor. Darrell
observes them and adds math words to their play: “Dante, you’ve made a rectangle space
with these cylinder blocks. Can someone else figure out how to make a rectangle?”
As the children become more interested in math, they start counting everything in
sight and looking for shapes in the classroom and on the playground.
They figure out ways to create new shapes, such as putting six triangle
blocks together to form a hexagon. The children especially like taking
digital photos of three-dimensional shapes such as spheres
and cones, which they use to make a book on shapes. Sofia
and Darrell help them make connections between what they
are learning about math and their physical
science study of the characteristics of light. The
children look forward every day to measuring and
comparing their shadows on the playground. ■
Case Study
T
he teachers in this classroom, like many early childhood teachers, were initially in-
timidated by the thought of teaching mathematics. But with knowledge and a well-
designed curriculum plan, they realized what capable learners young children can be.
This chapter addresses three separate but interrelated aspects of the curriculum:
mathematics, science, and technology. First, we present the continuum of cognitive
development that underlies these curriculum areas and applies across all aspects of
learning. Then we discuss effective early childhood mathematics curriculum and teaching
strategies that lay the foundation for later school mathematics. Next, we describe the
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Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach422
science curriculum and how teachers can engage children in the scientific process.
Throughout the chapter, we describe ways to use technology in teaching and learning
math and science. A key goal is to raise awareness of the importance of math and science
for all children. We particularly focus on the need to narrow the persistent achievement
gap in mathematics between children from low-income families and their more affluent
peers.
The Importance of Mathematics
and Science
In recent years, mathematics and science education have generated considerable interest
for several reasons. The first is widespread concern about the nation’s ability to produce
a workforce qualified to compete in the global economy. Second is the issue of equal
educational and economic opportunity for all citizens.
With so many competing goals in early childhood programs, why is mathematics
important? Preschool math matters because it is highly related to later math achievement
and because effective curriculum and teaching can narrow the knowledge gap early on
(Duncan et al., 2007; Sammons et al., 2008). Research demonstrates that young children
are capable of learning important mathematics and science concepts, but they are usually
not given the opportunity to do so (National Research Council [NRC], 2009).
The Need for an Educated Workforce
In today’s global economy, a large number of jobs require mastery of what is called
STEM—science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (American Association
for the Advancement of Science, 2009). However, in international comparisons of
mathematics and science achievement, children in other nations regularly outperform
American children (Fleischman, Hopstock, Pelczar, & Shelley, 2010). Moreover, these
differences in mathematics knowledge are apparent as early as
age 4 or 5 (Starkey & Klein, 2008; Starkey et al., 1999).
Although achievement in science and technology is impor-
tant, understanding mathematics is strongly connected to both
of these areas. As a result, more emphasis is being placed on
children developing a firm foundation in mathematics during the
early years of school. In 2009, the NRC issued a major report on
early childhood mathematics that outlined recommendations for
improving mathematics teaching and learning for all children
ages 3 to 6.
The Mathematics Achievement Gap
Significant gaps exist not just between our country and others,
but within our country. As in reading, a mathematics achieve-
ment gap of as much as three years exists between children
growing up in more affluent communities and those living in
poverty (NRC, 2009).
Mathematics Predicts School Success Although
reading has received much more attention, research now
demonstrates that math skills at kindergarten entry are the
strongest predictor of later school achievement and executive
function (Duncan et al., 2007). In an analysis of six large-scale
longitudinal studies in the United States, Great Britain, and
Canada, researchers found that early math skills predicted not
only later math ability but also success in reading (Duncan et al.,
Mathematics knowledge in
preschool is a strong predictor
of later success in learning
both math and reading.
Although an achievement gap
exists as early as preschool,
research shows that good
teaching and math experiences
can narrow the gap early on.
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Chapter 13 Teaching Children to Investigate and Solve Problems 423
2007). By contrast, early literacy skills were related only to later reading. Apparently, the
cognitive abilities employed in mastering mathematics apply broadly to other curriculum
content areas.
Children who struggle with math are much less likely to graduate from high school
and attend college (Szekely, 2014). Mathematics is a cumulative topic of study. Later
understanding not only builds on earlier concepts but depends on them. Many adults
who disliked math in school did not have a firm foundation on which to build. As a
result, in later grades, more complex math didn’t make sense and they began to feel
less competent. Early education can narrow the gap. Research in the United States and
other countries demonstrates that using a math-focused curriculum can significantly
improve math achievement for all children (Clements & Sarama, 2007a, 2008; Griffin,
2004; Preschool Curriculum Evaluation Research Consortium [PCERC], 2008; Starkey,
Klein, & Wakeley, 2004).
International Research Can Inform U.S. Instruction One international
study compared mathematics learning among preschoolers of high and low socioeco-
nomic status (SES) in China and the United States (Starkey, 2007). Two findings were
noteworthy. First, Chinese 3-year-olds started out knowing more about math than their
American counterparts regardless of their SES status. In fact, the low-SES Chinese group
knew more math than the high-SES Americans. Nevertheless, a knowledge gap between
socioeconomic groups existed in both countries at age 3. But by the end of preschool, the
gap between the two groups had narrowed considerably for the Chinese youngsters but
had actually widened for the Americans. What accounts for these differences? There are
two feasible explanations:
1. Teaching mathematics in preschool and promoting mathematics at home is a higher
priority in countries like China and Japan than in the United States (Starkey &
Klein, 2008). The studies demonstrate that when young children, even those grow-
ing up in poverty, are taught more focused math, they learn it and carry it into later
schooling.
2. A fundamental cultural difference seems to exist in the value these countries place
on mathematics and their beliefs about what it takes to succeed. In the United
States, we tend to assume that mathematics achievement results from having talent
or innate ability; by contrast, in Eastern countries, the assumption is that students
can achieve in mathematics if they work hard enough (NRC, 2001).
In the previous sections, we presented the case for teaching and learning mathematics
in the early years. To truly understand the learning process, it is important to be aware of
the cognitive foundations that underlie mathematics and science learning.
✓ Check Your Understanding 13.1: The Importance of Mathematics and Science
The Cognitive Foundations
of Early Learning
The word cognition generally means “to know.” In education, cognitive development refers to
mental processes such as attention, remembering, language, and problem solving. These pro-
cesses are essential for all learning to take place. However, in discussing one domain such as
cognition, it is important to remember that children’s development cannot be separated neatly
into compartments. Cognitive, social, and emotional development are highly connected.
In this section, we delve into the domain of cognitive development. We begin by
describing the continuum of cognitive development and then discuss several mental pro-
cesses that are the foundations of all early learning, especially children’s understanding
of mathematics and science. These processes include executive function, concrete and
abstract thinking, and language (Diamond & Lee, 2011; Ginsburg, Lee, & Boyd, 2008).
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Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach424
The Continuum of Cognitive Development
Children’s cognitive abilities such as their attention, memory, thinking, reasoning,
and problem solving develop over time as their experience increases and becomes
more complex and their brains mature. For a description of these processes in children
from birth through age 8, read the Developmental Continuum: Cognitive Development
feature.
Executive Function
Perhaps the most significant cognitive achievement of childhood and adolescence is the
development of executive function. Executive function has been called the brain’s “air
traffic control system” (Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University, 2011).
Imagine the coordination it takes to ensure that hundreds of airplanes fly to the right
places at the right times and don’t collide with one another during takeoff and landing.
Similar to the job of the air traffic controller, executive function coordinates essential
abilities that make all other learning possible (Diamond, 2012). These include at least
three key abilities: working memory, cognitive self-control, and cognitive flexibility
(Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University, 2011).
These executive functions are vital for all learning. Memory is essential for new
learning to take place and for previous learning to be retrieved when it is needed.
Working memory is the ability to hold information in our heads for a short period
of time, such as a phone number or where we laid down a sock. Working memory is
necessary for children to follow multistep directions such as “go to the writing center,
choose paper and markers, and draw a picture of yourself.” Inhibitory control (also
called cognitive self-control) is the ability to think before we act, which is very dif-
ficult for young children to do. In school, many tasks require mental self-control, such
as waiting to be called on. Self-control requires focusing attention on what is necessary,
such as the reading lesson, and ignoring irrelevant information, such as the f ly on the
wall. Cognitive (mental) flexibility involves finding new solutions or revising plans in
response to changing circumstances.
Consider how children practice these executive functions when they engage in an
activity such as socio-dramatic play. If a group of preschoolers play airport, they have to
remember their role (pilot, passenger, or flight attendant), inhibit their actions (not jump
out of the seat while the plane is flying), and think flexibly (adapt to the twists and turns
of the plot, such as the plane being delayed).
Just as the air traffic control system integrates many complex parts working simulta-
neously, executive functions are interrelated. These abilities, which develop over time, are
particularly important for reasoning and problem solving in mathematics and experiment-
ing in science (Klahr, Zimmerman, & Jirout, 2011).
Children’s Thinking
Three-year-old Levi was walking with his mother when he asked why she wasn’t talk-
ing to him (N. Karp, 2011, personal communication). His mom, Gail, replied, “I’m
thinking about the work I have to do.” Levi got all excited and replied, “I’m think-
ing, too! I’m thinking about numbers. I love numbers. I love the way they look, I like
the shapes, I like the names, and I love to count. I just like to think about numbers!”
Like Levi, most young children have a natural interest in mathematical and scientific
ideas, spontaneously count, and love big numbers (Ginsburg et al., 2008; Greenes,
Ginsburg, & Balfanz, 2004).
In the past, educators assumed that young children had little capacity to learn math-
ematics or think scientifically; therefore, teachers often considered it developmentally
inappropriate to teach math (Ginsburg et al., 2008). Researchers today believe children
are more competent than previously thought and capable of learning sophisticated math
ideas (Gelman & Gallistel, 1978; NRC, 2009).
executive function The
processes that control cognitive
functioning such as thinking
before acting, cognitive
flexibility, and memory.
working memory The ability
to retain information for a short
period of time, which enables
transfer to long-term memory.
inhibitory control or cognitive
self-control The ability to
think before we act and to
focus attention on what is
necessary.
cognitive (mental)
flexibility The ability to find
new solutions or revise plans
in response to changing
circumstances.
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Chapter 13 Teaching Children to Investigate and Solve Problems 425
Developmental Continuum
Cognitive Development
Approximate Age Widely Held Expectations
Birth to about 9 months • Learn through their senses (especially taste, touch)
• Gain increasing control over their bodies
• Increasingly able to remember people, objects, and favorite toys
• Focus attention for short time
• Gradually learn about cause and effect (3-month-old turns to noise; 6-month-
old bangs toy to make noise)
• Intentionally act on objects (kicks to move the mobile)
• Enjoy solving simple problems, such as taking objects in and out of containers,
and discovering consequences of actions
• Develop object permanence (remembers that out-of-sight objects are still there)
About 9 to 18 months • Increasing memory for games, toys, and people from previous days
• Enjoy doing things over and over such as carrying and dumping
• Use trial and error to solve problems
• Observe and imitate others’ actions
• Begin to understand symbols (M for McDonald’s)
• Play with objects
About 18 to 36 months • Begin to solve problems mentally (think before acting)
• Develop memory and problem solving
• Understand basic cause and effect
• Begin to sort by categories (blue or red), compare size and shape
• Complete simple puzzles accurately
• Follow two-step directions
• Pretend with objects
3- to 6-year-olds • Experiment with and begin to understand cause and effect
• Increasingly able to plan ahead, predict, and carry out an activity
• Engage in socio-dramatic play with other children
• Can generate more than one solution to simple problems
• Can reason, but logic may be flawed (“The food goes into your legs and makes
them grow.”)
• Increasingly able to focus attention, persist at tasks, self-regulate behavior and
emotions
• Able to compare and contrast, quantify (find out how many), put objects and
events in order or sequence, understand spatial relationships
• Has basic sense of present, past, and future
6- to 9-year-olds • Can symbolically represent thoughts and ideas in many ways (drawing, writing,
speaking, modeling)
• Memory capacity increases considerably
• Can take multiple perspectives (teachers, book authors)
• Aware of patterns and part-whole relationships
• Can make accurate predictions
• Thinking and problem solving become more flexible
• Can categorize and think conceptually
• Play more complex games with rules, understand fairness
• Solve concrete problems easier than abstract problems
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Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach426
Both Competent and Incompetent Chil-
dren’s minds are not simple, however. Compared to
adults, children are both competent and incompetent;
they are both concrete and abstract thinkers (Ginsburg
et al., 2008). On the one hand, from an early age, they
spontaneously demonstrate math interest and ability well
before entering school. At the same time, children display
certain kinds of mathematical incompetence, as when
they struggle with conservation problems ( Piaget, 1952).
Conservation is the understanding that the quantity of ob-
jects stays the same regardless of changes in appearance.
For example, Noah and Martina each have four graham
crackers. Martina lines her crackers up with spaces in
between, looks over at Noah and declares, “I gots more
than you.” Typically, children of this age cannot reverse
the operation in their minds to realize that no more crackers were added. In certain situations,
however, children can perform conservation tasks, depending on how an adult asks the ques-
tion or alerts children to events they might not have focused on.
Both Concrete and Abstract Even 3-year-olds can look at a small set of objects
(four or fewer) and know how many there are without counting, a skill called subitizing,
a necessary precursor to later math competence (Clements & Sarama, 2007a). They can
see that a set of three toy bears is smaller than a set of five.
In other ways, however, young children’s thinking is abstract. Consider 4-year-old
Francine counting her stuffed animals. She touches each one as she says, “One, two, three,
four, five.” Her teacher asks, “How many animals do you have?” Francine answers “Five,”
which seems like a very simple thing to do. However, this little girl had to know and say the
counting words in the right order; connect each word to one and only one bear; and know
that the last word said in the sequence not only stood for the last bear but also represented
the total number of bears. That is, she had to remember that she had counted five bears in
order to answer that she had five altogether—she had to hold two thoughts in her head at
once. And she had to think about a very abstract concept—what five is. Five is still five
whether it refers to five bears, five chairs, five children, or five fingers. She also sees, reads,
and has to interpret an abstract symbol—the numeral 5—in different places. The numeral 5
is posted near the climbing loft because only five children are allowed at a time.
Conceptions and Misconceptions Children are actively thinking all the time
as they try to make sense of their world. Some of these conceptions are accurate, such as
Francine’s computation of the five bears, while others are not. For example, a common
“mistake” young children make is to assume that a “skinny,” elongated triangle cannot be
a triangle; they think that true triangles can only be equilateral triangles—ones with three
equal sides (Clements & Sarama, 2007a). Children also form their own hypotheses about
events, some of which seem like magical thinking. They may assume that the sun goes to
bed because they do, not the other way around. Even primary-grade children think that a
coat provides its own warmth rather than heat coming from inside their bodies.
Most misconceptions are actually partial hypotheses, or early theories, about how
the world works. For example, 5- to 7-year-olds can readily state that the earth is round
because they have been taught this fact. However, when asked to draw a picture of the earth
and where the people live, their representations reveal their understanding (Hannust &
Kikas, 2007). They may actually think the earth is a flattened sphere with the people liv-
ing on top or that the earth is hollow and the people live inside. These partial hypotheses
are gradually replaced by more accurate ones because, as children get older, their thinking
becomes more abstract, and experience challenges their earlier ideas.
Some misconceptions can be prevented by broadening children’s experiences. For
example, unless children are helped to understand the common properties that make a
subitizing The ability to look
at a small set of objects (four
or fewer) and know how many
there are without counting.
Young children are more
capable of learning
sophisticated math concepts
than previously thought.
Preschoolers are interested
in and enjoy learning about
mathematics.
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Chapter 13 Teaching Children to Investigate and Solve Problems 427
shape a triangle, they will persist in thinking that “skinny” versions are not really tri-
angles. It is normal for preschool children to make “errors” as they learn counting and
other math and science concepts. Therefore, teachers should be cautious about correcting
“errors”; they should encourage children’s enthusiasm instead of making them hesitant to
voice their own ideas (NRC, 2009).
Language and Cognition
Language plays a key role in cognitive development and, therefore, in learning
mathematics and science. By age 2, children begin learning the language of counting.
The first 10 or so number words are essentially meaningless—children memorize these
words by rote (NRC, 2009). Even though this skill is learned before it has true mean-
ing, knowing the number sequence is not the same thing as being drilled on it. Children
memorize the sequence by playfully repeating it over and over, the same way they learn
the alphabet sequence by singing the alphabet song long before the letters are fully
meaningful. Knowing the alphabet sequence, however, is useful only for alphabetizing,
a skill that preschoolers do not yet need; by contrast, learning the number sequence is
absolutely essential.
The Language of Mathematics Beyond the first 10 numbers, language reflects
the underlying structure of the number system. For example, in English, after the child
learns “twenty,” all she has to do is repeat “twenty” and add on the numbers one to nine up
to “twenty-nine.” Thus, saying the number words goes beyond simple memory to reflect
the organization of the base ten place value system. The base ten system is a highly
efficient way of using just 10 symbols—0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9—to write any counting
number, no matter how large (NRC, 2009). To do so, we use place value in which the
meaning of a numeral depends on where it is placed within the number—that is, the
numeral 1 can stand for 1 or 1 trillion.
Children also learn other kinds of mathematical language, such as the names of shapes
and words for quantity (more, less), position (under, inside), and relationship (bigger,
smaller, first) (Ginsburg et al., 2008). These words are so commonly used that we don’t
even think of them as mathematical or scientific terms. Most important, language is nec-
essary to express and explain mathematical thinking. Consider this example:
Mr. Blaine’s kindergarten class needs to divide into four groups. He explains that
there will be four chaperones to accompany children to different sections of the zoo,
and he asks for suggestions:
Naomi suggests: Let’s just pick the group we want.
Darius notes: But what if we all pick the same one? It will be too crowded and we
won’t learn different things to tell the other kids about.
Flair: There are twenty kids. How can we divide up? We could line up in four lines.
Mr. Blaine asks: How would that help?
Flair: We need four groups and four lines are four groups.
Doug jumps in: That would work. But it would be easier if we just drew four lines
on the chart paper and wrote our names where we want to go.
Darius is still skeptical: But what if we all put our name in the same box?
After each suggestion, Mr. Blaine asks each child to explain why her or his idea
would work. The explanations reveal and extend their ideas about how to compose
equal-size groups.
The Language of Science Science, too, has its own vocabulary and exposes
children to a vast array of words—both nouns and verbs—that they might not otherwise
encounter. Children are eager to and capable of learning “big” words, such as hypothesis,
prediction, experiment, observe, reflect, and decide. They also learn the vocabulary at-
tached to scientific information—words like incline, magnifier, or telescope.
base ten place value system
Highly efficient system of
using just 10 numerals to
write any counting number no
matter how large, in which the
meaning of a numeral depends
on where it is placed within the
number.
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Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach428
Science information books are rich sources of language
along with hands-on experiences. Language is such an
important part of children’s cognitive development, as well
as science and mathematics learning, that teachers should
take every opportunity to introduce and reinforce this rich
vocabulary (Gelman & Brenneman, 2004).
Mathematical Language
and the Achievement Gap
Evidence suggests that the mathematics achievement gap exists
because low-income children do not have sufficient opportu-
nity to learn the language of mathematics (Ginsburg, 2006; Ginsburg & Pappas, 2004).
How do we know this? Observations of lower- and middle-income preschoolers find little
difference in the everyday mathematics they spontaneously demonstrate during free play
(Ginsburg, 2006). Both groups exhibit a good deal of mathematical competence on which
to build.
Informal, Everyday Mathematics One of the first words babies utter is more—
evidence of their intuitive understanding of quantity. As they grow, they pay consider-
able attention to who is bigger and when something is “All gone.” Well before school
entry, children of all socioeconomic groups demonstrate considerable informal math
knowledge.
Informal knowledge about math, including basic ideas about quantity (more and less),
size, shape, and pattern, is also called everyday mathematics (Ginsburg et al., 2008).
Research demonstrates that by age 5, everyday mathematical knowledge is a universal
aspect of cognitive development (NRC, 2009). Even babies and toddlers demonstrate
basic understandings about some math and science concepts. When they reach out to
make a toy move or repeat a sound, they begin to understand the idea of cause and effect
(Gelman & Brenneman, 2004). These intuitive ideas about mathematics and science are
prior knowledge on which teachers can build.
Children’s play is full of mathematical and scientific ideas. They order blocks by size,
create and extend interesting patterns, and conduct their own experiments, such as seeing
if a ball rolls faster down a steeper incline (Seefeldt, Galper, & Stevenson-Garcia, 2012;
Seo & Ginsburg, 2004). The main difference is that children living in poverty are generally
provided less support and opportunity to learn the language that connects their informal,
basic math knowledge to later, more abstract school mathematics. To do so, teachers
must help children mathematize their everyday experiences, a critically important process
described next.
Learning to Mathematize Experience To mathematize means to understand
and think about everyday problems and experiences in explicitly mathematical terms
(NRC, 2009). When children mathematize, they focus on the mathematics aspect of a
situation, they learn to represent and think about its quantitative or spatial aspects, and
they create a mathematical model of the situation to solve problems (NRC, 2009).
Mathematical models can be created with objects (such as beads or paper), actions
(such as counting), or through solving real-life problems mathematically. For example,
children building a house create a model of mathematics learning when they figure out
how many more blocks they need to make the house twice as tall.
To link the concrete world to the abstract world of math, teachers need to help chil-
dren learn to mathematize, to connect the informal experiences they have to mathematical
ideas and symbols (Ginsburg et al., 2008). Consider the following situation. Children are
often asked to share toys. Teachers tend to think of sharing as a social skill, but it can also
be considered mathematically—as addition, subtraction, and division. When 4½-year-old
Corky wants more toy cars than Eugene has, the situation is actually a math problem. If
everyday mathematics
Informal, intuitive knowledge
about math, including basic
ideas about quantity (more and
less), size, shape, and pattern.
mathematize To understand
and think about everyday
problems and experiences in
explicitly mathematical terms.
Young children’s play is rich
in “everyday mathematics.”
This informal knowledge
provides a foundation for later
mathematics learning when
intentional teachers introduce
the language of math—words
that describe quantity and
relationships.
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Chapter 13 Teaching Children to Investigate and Solve Problems 429
he takes two cars from Eugene, he is adding, while Eugene experiences subtraction (take
away). If Corky gets two more cars from the shelf, Eugene’s pile stays the same. Corky
then has to figure out whether either solution gives him more than Eugene has. Unless he
knows how many they both started with, he can’t be sure whether either of his solutions
worked. His teacher could step in and simply prevent a squabble by dividing the cars
herself or telling Corky he has to share. Or she could engage them in a conversation about
how to create two equal sets of cars or one set that is two cars larger.
✓ Check Your Understanding 13.2: The Cognitive Foundations of Early Learning
Effective Mathematics Curriculum
and Teaching
Teaching mathematics involves several key elements. First, teachers must know the math
concepts and skills or operations themselves. This should go without saying, but many
early childhood teachers like Darrell and Sofia, whom we met at the beginning of this
chapter, do not fully understand the mathematics concepts they are expected to teach
(Ginsburg et al., 2008). In fact, college-level math courses are often not helpful or relevant
to early childhood mathematics. For this reason, the 2009 NRC report includes a chapter,
“Foundational Mathematics Content,” that explains the fundamentals of beginning math-
ematics for teachers.
The other elements of teaching mathematics are interrelated. Teachers need to know
(1) the math content and processes that children need to learn and when they are most effec-
tively taught, and (2) how to plan and implement effective curriculum and teaching strategies.
Mathematics Curriculum Content
A broad consensus exists about the early childhood mathematics curriculum based on
standards developed by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) (2000).
In 2009, NCTM published Curriculum Focal Points, which identifies the math content to
focus on at each grade level to ensure that children gain deep understanding of the key
concepts and skills needed for later learning. The K–12 Common Core Mathematics stan-
dards now serve this function in many states and further raise the bar on expectations for
children (Common Core State Standards [CCSS] Initiative, 2011b).
The Common Core calls for three key changes in how mathematics should be taught
(CCSS Initiative, 2015b). First, there should be more focus on deep understanding of
fewer topics. In the past, the math curriculum has been described as a “mile wide and
an inch deep,” with students exposed to many different skills but failing to understand
and apply them. Another emphasis is on enhancing curriculum coherence by linking top-
ics across grade levels. Finally, a key change is that the standards are more rigorous,
requiring equal emphasis on understanding, skills, and real-world problem-solving. For
example, compare these two activities: (1) children compete a worksheet with addition
problems such as 6 + 3 and 4 + 5, or (2) teachers present an equation such as 6 + ? = 9 and
ask the children to make up word problems that can be represented this way.
These standards identify the big ideas of mathematics—the overarching concepts and
skills of the early childhood curriculum. From age 3 to grade 3, the content goals focus on
number and operations and geometry, spatial relations, and measurement.
Mathematics Learning Trajectories The NRC (2009) report on early
childhood mathematics specifies the learning trajectories for children age 2 to first grade
(which they called teaching–learning paths). These describe the goals or significant steps,
with each new step building on the earlier step. Learning trajectories (Clements &
Sarama, 2013) are also called developmental or learning continua, and they are a key part
of curriculum planning.
learning trajectory Sequence
of teaching and learning
knowledge or skills in a content
area. Also called developmental
or learning continua.
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Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach430
Learning trajectories have two sources:
1. The content of the discipline—that is, the
mathematics skills and knowledge that pro-
vide the foundation for later learning
2. What is achievable and understandable for
children at a certain age.
Learning trajectories are linked to age/grade levels
and are valuable because they can guide curriculum
planning and help teachers use formative assess-
ments to scaffold children’s learning along the path
(Clements & Sarama, 2013). For an example, read
the feature Learning Trajectory: Mathematics, which
is based on the NRC report and the Common Core
Standards for K–3 mathematics.
One important recommendation in planning math curriculum is that equal attention
should not be given to all topics (CCSS Initiative, 2011b; NRC, 2009). There is always
limited time in the school day, and decisions need to be made about priorities. In pre-
school, more focused time should be devoted to number competence (NRC, 2009). The
K–2 curriculum should emphasize concepts, skills, and problem solving related to addi-
tion and subtraction (CCSS Initiative, 2011b). This does not mean that number is taught
in isolation, nor does it mean that geometry and measurement are unimportant. In fact,
learning in these areas can promote learning number concepts. Nevertheless, the goal is
that children achieve the foundational number and operations goals necessary for their
continued progress in later grades.
Number and Operations Understanding number, even the seemingly simple act
of counting—called enumeration—involves several key concepts (Gelman & Gallistel,
1978). Children need to know that number words should be said in the same order every
time—the stable order principle. They need to know one-to-one correspondence—that
one and only one number word should be attached to each object. They also need to learn
cardinality, the concept that the last number said stands for the total number in the set.
Another key idea, called abstraction, is that anything can be counted, whether bears,
toes, or people. Finally, counting involves the order irrelevance principle, the idea that
counting can begin with any object in the set as long as each is counted only once.
The term operations refers to working with and solving problems about relation-
ships, such as more than or less than, and addition and subtraction. Teaching operations
should involve real objects and word problems. For example, in meeting with her kinder-
gartners, Ms. Guiffre raises a real-world math problem:
Ms. Guiffre: There are four people absent today, and we usually have twenty-two
people in our class. We need to send our lunch count to the cafeteria staff. How
can we figure out the number of lunches we need?
The children offer several suggestions and then try out some of them:
Melissa: We can count out twenty-two little blocks and take away four,
and then count out how many we have left.
Tyrone: I know. Let’s count our coat hooks. But not the ones for the
kids who aren’t here.
Learning trajectories help teachers scaffold children’s progress
(Clements & Sarama, 2013; NRC, 2009). For example, teachers use strat-
egies to help children learn to count accurately and efficiently, such as
slowly touching each object as each number name is said. Teachers should
also encourage children to use their fingers to count and explore part/whole
relationships (a concept that underlies addition and subtraction). The teacher
might say, “Brianna is showing us how old her brother is by holding up five
[fingers] and two. What’s another way to show seven with your fingers?”
enumeration The act of
counting.
stable order principle The
concept that number words
need to be said in the same
order every time.
one-to-one correspondence
Attaching one and only one
number word to each object
being counted.
cardinality The concept that
the last number said stands for
the total number in the set.
abstraction The concept that
anything can be counted.
order irrelevance principle
The concept that counting can
begin with any object in the
set as long as each is counted
only once.
operations Working with
and solving problems about
relationships such as more than
or less than.
Mathematics is abstract. Even
the seemingly simple act of fin-
ger counting involves understand-
ing and applying several different
mathematical principles.
Classroom Connection
In this classic and very funny
Sesame Street video, Ernie and the
Muppets demonstrate the basic
principles of how the number sys-
tem works and its importance for
understanding and communication.
https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=hgZwSRpfouQ
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http://https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hgZwSRpfouQ
http://https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hgZwSRpfouQ
Chapter 13 Teaching Children to Investigate and Solve Problems 431
Learning Trajectory: Mathematics
Approximate Age Group Widely Held Expectations
2-year-olds • Use subitizing to recognize 1, 2, or 3 objects
• Rote count, may skip some numbers (“1, 2, 3, 5”)
• Identify basic shapes
• Count 1 to 3 objects
3-year olds • Know number names and count 1 to 10 in sequence
• Count objects with one-to-one correspondence
• Know relationships such as more than, less than, equal
• Do simple put-together/take-apart problems (2 apples and 2 more is 4)
4-year-olds • Understand cardinality—the last number said represents the total number of objects
• Write numbers 1 to 10 (not always legibly)
• Count objects accurately to 10 and beyond (about 30)
• Solve simple number word problems
• Count backwards
• Use mental subitizing of up to 5 objects to solve problems up to 10 (automatically know that
adding 2 crackers to 4 is 6)
• Recognize and describe attributes of 2- and 3-dimensional shapes
5-year-olds • Compare numbers
• Understand addition as putting together and adding to, and subtraction as taking apart and
taking from
• Work with numbers 11–19 to gain foundations for place value
• Describe and compare measurable attributes (length, weight)
• Classify objects and count the number of objects in categories
• Analyze, compare, create, and compose shapes
6-year-olds • Count to 100 from any number
• Represent and solve problems involving addition and subtraction
• Extend the counting sequence (count on from any number)
• Begin to understand base ten number system and place value concept (pattern of ones, tens,
hundreds)
• Tell and write time
• Reason with shapes and attributes
7-year-olds • Consistently conserve number (i.e., knows quantity remains the same despite rearrangement of
objects)
• Skip count forward and backward, with meaning
• Represent and solve problems involving addition and subtraction (i.e., measuring length)
• Understand and use place value to add and subtract
• Work with equal groups of objects to gain foundations for multiplication
• Work with time and money
8-year-olds • Represent and solve problems involving multiplication and division
• Understand the relationship between multiplication and division
• Use place value understanding to perform multi-digit arithmetic
• Multiply and divide within 100
• Develop understanding of fractions as numbers
Sources: Based on Common Core Standards for Mathematics, by Common Core State Standards Initiative, 2011, Washington, DC: Council for Chief
State School Officers and National Governor’s Association; Mathematics Learning in Early Childhood: Paths toward Excellence and Equity, by National
Research Council, 2009, Washington, DC: National Academies Press; Learning and Teaching Early Math, by D. Clements and J. Sarama, 2009,
New York: Routledge.
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Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach432
Counting on your fingers is an important part of learning about number. Teachers
may not realize, however, that there are cultural differences in how children count on their
fingers. To broaden your view of finger counting, read the Culture Lens: Finger Counting
in Cultural Context feature.
Geometry, Spatial Relations, and Measurement In addition to number
and operations, a second area of focus for the early childhood math curriculum is
geometry, spatial relations, and measurement (NRC, 2009).
Geometry Children are naturally motivated to engage with geometry, the study of
shapes and space, including flat, two-dimensional space and three-dimensional space
(Clements & Sarama, 2007b). Geometry involves size, position, direction, and movement,
and describes and organizes the physical world in which we live. Children can learn about
angles, shapes, and solids by observing and manipulating objects in the physical world
and in the virtual one via technology (Clements & Sarama, 2007b).
Research finds that most curricula severely underestimate children’s ability to
learn geometry (Clements & Sarama, 2013). Teachers continue to focus only on nam-
ing basic shapes (circle, triangle, square) long after children have mastered these con-
cepts. Geometry is far more complex and involves the ability to put together and take
apart shapes (composing and decomposing), as well as talk about the properties of shapes
(number of angles, sides, orientation).
Spatial Relations Learning about spatial relations gives children an awareness of them-
selves in relation to the people and objects around them. Spatial sense and familiarity with
shape, structure, and location help children understand both their spatial world and also other
spatial relations Spatial sense
and familiarity with shape,
structure, and location.
Culture Lens
Finger Counting in Cultural Context
Finger counting plays an important role in young
children’s early mathematics learning. Some people
even speculate that the base ten number system evolved
because humans have 10 fingers. But like every other
aspect of development and learning, finger counting has
a cultural element, as we see in the following example.
Located in a downtown office building in a large city,
West Street Early Learning Center is an employer-
sponsored child care center that serves a diverse group
of children and families from all over the world. Today
is the first day of class for the 3-year-olds. Ella, a new
teacher, is just getting to know the children. To draw out
one of the shy little boys, she stoops down in front of
him and asks, “How old are you, Kenny?” “Free,” he
replies, and counts off his middle three fingers. Turning
to Mizuki, whose family is Japanese, Ella asks the same
question. Mizuki doesn’t say anything and appears to
wave her fingers. Ella is confused. Certainly, she thinks,
Mizuki knows how old she is.
Just like most 3-year-olds, Mizuki does know her age.
However, her way of communicating this knowledge to
Ella reflects her cultural background. Most countries
around the world actually use one of three ways of rais-
ing fingers to show numbers. In early childhood programs
that serve children from different parts of world, teachers
are likely to see these different methods.
The most common way—used frequently in Latin
American countries—is to raise the thumb first and then
the fingers across to the smallest one. In the United
States, the most common method is to raise the index
finger first, then the other fingers in order (holding down
unused fingers with the thumb), and then lastly the
thumb—as Kenny did. Another way, also used in some
Latin American countries, is to begin with the little finger
and move across to the thumb.
Other methods are less frequently used, such as Mizuki’s,
where fingers are raised and then lowered. Mizuki wasn’t
just waving her fingers, she was raising and lowering three
fingers to show her age. In India, children may count by
touching the lines of the fingers with the thumb.
Given that many programs in the United States serve
children from throughout the world, teachers may
encounter some of these different finger-counting
methods. Fingers are a very important tool for young
children to solve numerical problems, not just to show
their age. Therefore, teachers should recognize that there
are different ways of counting on fingers and not try to
change what’s working for a child.
Source: Based on Mathematics Learning in Early Childhood:
Paths toward Excellence and Equity, by National Research
Council Committee on Early Childhood Mathematics, 2009,
Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
geometry The study of shapes
and space, including flat,
two-dimensional space and
three-dimensional space.
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Chapter 13 Teaching Children to Investigate and Solve Problems 433
mathematics topics (NRC, 2009). For instance, as Carmel examines a three- dimensional
pyramid, her teacher encourages her to explore number concepts as well. For example, the
teacher asks: “How many sides does a pyramid have? Why is it hard to figure out?”
Measurement Measurement is the process of determining size, length, area, or volume
using a standard unit (inch, gallon). Children look for and analyze relationships in the
real world using measurement. Measurement is a learning goal in itself, but it also plays
a useful role in building children’s understanding of number and spatial relations. When
children measure and compare the length, height, and weight of objects, they use units
such as inches, feet, or pounds. When measuring, children focus on how big, little, long,
or short things are and how to figure that out.
Children will sometimes explore measurement by using parts of their body or toys in
the classroom—what are called nonstandard units. For example, Damien and Issata use
their own feet to measure the length of the boat they’ve built and discover that they get
two different answers. Because children naturally use and can learn from nonstandard
measurement, many state math standards call for children to use nonstandard and standard
units of measurement. Such a standard has sometimes been misinterpreted to mean that
teachers should withhold standard measurement tools such as rulers. But this is not the
case. Children enjoy and can learn about standard units using rulers and scales, and doing
so can prevent the development of misconceptions about measurement (NRC, 2009).
For example, Mina puts out rulers for her kindergartners to explore during center
time. At first, they play with the rulers, pretending that they are objects such as magic
wands or pirate swords. But when the children become interested in earthworms on the
playground, Mina brings out the rulers and the children begin to pay attention to the num-
bers on the rulers and what they mean. They get excited about measuring and comparing
the length of the worms, and begin to use the rulers for other purposes as well.
Measuring Time: A Word of Caution Many teachers spend time every morning “ doing”
the calendar because they think it is a good way to teach math. In fact, more than 90% of
kindergarten teachers teach the calendar every day (NRC, 2009). Although the calendar
can be used to plan and anticipate future events, it has limited value as a math teaching
tool (Beneke, Ostrosky, & Katz, 2008; NRC, 2009).
The calendar’s organization—7-day weeks—bears no resemblance to the base ten
number system that children need to master (NRC, 2009). Most of the time, children
simply recite the numbers in order while someone points to blocks on the calendar. This
task is repeated long after the children have mastered the number list and long before they
can fully understand the concept of time (Beneke et al., 2008). In addition, pointing to the
spaces on the calendar is not as effective for teaching number as counting real objects.
The amount of time spent on the calendar each day could be better spent helping children
make progress on the mathematics learning paths. More valuable experiences that help
children begin to develop understanding of time concepts include the following:
• Children compare one activity with another in terms of which takes more time:
“Who can stand on one foot longer?”
• Teachers point out the time schedule and the
passing of time, with ideas like after lunch or
before story time, or using more abstract notions
like yesterday, today, and tomorrow, although they
don’t expect children to fully comprehend.
• Teachers use a calendar in much the same way
people use one in their homes—to note, plan
for, anticipate, and remember significant events
such as birthdays, trips, and visitors. They place
calendars in the house or office center, where it is
used in the real world. They introduce names of
days of the week and months of the year, but don’t
drill children on these ideas.
measurement The process of
determining size, length, area,
or volume using a standard
unit.
A relatively simple, enjoyable
activity such as measuring a
table or comparing strips of
paper helps children learn
spatial relationships and basic
geometry concepts.
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Mathematics Process Skills
Math experts consistently identify five general cognitive process goals that cut across
content areas and that should be interwoven throughout the teaching and learning of
mathematics for all age groups (NCTM, 2006; NRC, 2009). These processes are problem
solving, reasoning, communicating, making connections, and designing and analyzing
representations. Any mathematics learning experience might involve all of these processes.
These processes are also relevant for other areas of the curriculum, especially science.
Perhaps most important, these learning processes build children’s curiosity, creativity,
and willingness to take risks, all of which may be the most long-lasting and important
goals of mathematics education.
Problem Solving and Reasoning Mathematics is about thinking. It is not
simply manipulating objects, but constructing mathematical meaning from the experi-
ence (CCSS Initiative, 2011b). To become mathematical thinkers, children need to solve
problems and reason about number and operations, geometry, spatial relations, and mea-
surement. They need to understand that there are different ways to solve a problem and
that more than one answer is often possible. Even in situations where one correct answer
exists (“We need fifteen chairs for fifteen children”), there are usually a number of ways
to arrive at that solution (“We can give each person his or her own chair” or “We can count
fifteen chairs”).
Reasoning is thinking logically to come to a conclusion or find a result. As children
tackle problems, teachers should encourage them to talk about—mathematize—their
thinking. This brings their reasoning to a conscious level, where other children or the
teacher can expand on it. Teachers need to create a learning environment in which chil-
dren feel free to take risks and search for solutions.
Communicating To promote children’s mathematical thinking, one of the most im-
portant things teachers can do is to talk with them about problems, relationships, and
mathematical connections. It is equally if not more important to listen to what they say.
When children discuss their thinking and describe what they are doing, their own thoughts
become clearer (NCTM, 2000).
In addition, when children and teachers describe and debate their reasoning, they use
the language of math. Then teachers can introduce and reinforce math vocabulary. Open-
ended questions such as “How do these blocks compare to each other?” and “How do you
know that a square is a rectangle?” increase the amount of math talk. Gradually children
internalize these questions (ask them of themselves) and are more likely to understand the
world from a mathematical perspective.
Making Connections In mathematical terms, making connections refers to un-
derstanding links between different areas of math as well as connecting math concepts to
real-world problems. For example, measurement can be connected to number because it
involves counting units of measurement (i.e., inches), or it could be used to figure out if
a shoe fits.
Designing and Analyzing Representations Exploring ways of expressing
mathematical ideas with words, diagrams, pictures, and/or symbols, called representing,
is an essential part of mathematizing. Imagine a group of kindergartners singing the song
“Five Little Monkeys Jumping on the Bed.” The teacher first uses her fingers to represent
the monkeys as the children sing “One fell off and bumped his head.” Soon the children
follow her lead with their own fingers. From these concrete representations, the children
begin to picture the monkeys in their heads—they form a mental image. Other ways they
can represent the monkeys include scribbling circles or drawing pictures of them. Their
representations gradually become more abstract. They may make marks on the page to
represent the monkeys as the number goes from 11111 to 1111 down to 1. Eventually,
children will represent these subtraction problems in symbols: 5 − 1 = 4.
reasoning Thinking logically
to come to a conclusion or find
a result.
connections Refers to
understanding links between
different areas of math and
connecting math concepts to
real-world problems.
representing Expressing
mathematical ideas with words,
diagrams, pictures, and/or
symbols.
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Chapter 13 Teaching Children to Investigate and Solve Problems 435
There are many ways to involve children in designing and analyzing
representations of math concepts and problems as well as talking about
them. Figure 13.1 graphically depicts a first grader’s collection and analysis
of data about her classmates’ breakfast choices. Note how her analysis
of results represents her understanding of quantity as well as her creative
invented spelling—cerel for cereal and choies for choices.
In addition to these general processes, some specific mathematical
processes are used across content areas, such as identifying patterns, solving
problems that involve putting together/taking apart, and unitizing, which we
discuss next.
Identifying Patterns In recent years, math standards have included
learning about patterns. The ability to identify patterns, however, is a process
skill that cuts across all math content areas (NRC, 2009). For instance,
geometry and spatial relations involve composing and analyzing patterns.
The number list is a pattern in which each new number is one more than the
last; counting can be done in patterns (by twos, fives, or tens). Classifying
objects by some attribute such as size or shape also involves seeing patterns.
Following are strategies for building children’s awareness of patterns (Head
Start, 2003):
• Help children find patterns (ab, ab or abc, abc) in designs and pic-
tures, as well as in movement and in recurring events such as the daily
schedule.
• Sing songs with patterns—“If You’re Happy and You Know It”; march
or move to a rhythm; and clap patterns.
• Play detective and spy patterns in the classroom, on the playground, or in children’s
clothes.
• Engage children in creating and noticing patterns as they string beads, place shapes
or blocks into arrays, and arrange other materials. Over time children can repro-
duce and create more complex patterns.
Putting Together and Taking Apart Mathematics at all levels involves putting
groups together and taking them apart—the processes of composing and decomposing
(NRC, 2009). These processes are the basic components of addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division. Measurements are composed of larger units (feet) that can
be decomposed to smaller units (inches).
Understanding these concepts begins with early experiences. From age 2 through
primary grades, children create collections of objects. Toddlers love stacking toys and
filling and dumping containers. Preschoolers will repeatedly compose and decompose
puzzles, challenging themselves to do it faster each time. Children can sing a song like
“B-I-N-G-O” in which the word starts out composed (with all the letters), and then is
decomposed as each letter of the word is no longer articulated. Primary-grade children
learn about fractions by dividing a pizza.
Unitizing Finding or creating a mathematical unit, unitizing, is important in learning
number, geometry, and spatial relations (Sophian, 2013). When children count, they have
to use or create a unit of what they are going to count. For example, they can count people,
or couples, or people’s hands. When they measure length, they use a unit, whether it is their
feet, their body, or a yardstick. When they count by 2s, 5s, or 10s, the units are 2, 5, and 10.
Mathematics is based on understanding and applying the concept of a unit. For
example, to understand the base ten place value system, children must be able to recognize
that 10 ones can form a single unit of 10. For this reason, the concept of unit should be
a core idea in the early childhood math curriculum (Sophian, 2013). Of course, children
learn this abstract idea through many meaningful, concrete experiences such as making
patterns or counting.
composing/decomposing
Mathematical processes of
putting together and taking
apart (for example, addition
and subtraction).
unitizing Finding or creating a
mathematical unit.
FIGURE 13.1 First Grader’s
Mathematical Representation
and Analysis This first-grader
is learning how to represent
and compare quantity by
creating a graph, and then
interpreting what the graph
means.
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In the previous sections, we described the important
mathematics content and processes that children are learn-
ing in progressively more complex and sophisticated form
from infancy through the primary grades. Next we describe
mathematics curriculum and teaching strategies.
Effective Mathematics
Curriculum
Responding to children’s natural interest in math and
problem solving and taking advantage of the teachable
moments during children’s play and routines are valuable
ways to promote math learning, but they are not enough
(Schoenfeld & Stipek, 2011). An effective curriculum is more than a collection of activi-
ties; it must be coherent, focused on important mathematics, and well articulated across
the grades (CCSS Initiative, 2015b).
Very little time is devoted to mathematics in early childhood classrooms despite the fact
that the amount of focused time on math instruction strongly predicts children’s outcomes
(Farran, Lipsey, & Wilson, 2011). Most programs do not include experiences in which
mathematics is the primary goal. Instead, they address math as part of an integrated cur-
riculum in which mathematics is a secondary goal; as a result, math teaching occurs only
occasionally and rarely in depth (PCERC, 2008). In one study, researchers observed only 58
seconds of math teaching during an entire preschool day (Farran, Lipsey, Watson, & Hurley,
2007). In general, studies have found that integrated math instruction is less effective than
learning activities in which mathematics is the primary goal (NRC, 2009; PCERC, 2008).
A focused mathematics curriculum not only improves children’s math skills but also
increases their interest in math (Arnold, Fischer, Doctoroff, & Dobbs, 2002). Teachers,
too, report that they increase their knowledge and enjoyment in implementing math ac-
tivities. Studies on the effects of mathematics curricula indicate that more intentional
teaching of math leads to better math outcomes for children, especially dual language
learners and children from low-income families (Schoenfeld & Stipek, 2011).
An effective curriculum involves children actively in “doing mathematics.” With a
coherent curriculum, such as Building Blocks—Foundations for Mathematical Thinking
(Clements & Sarama, 2007b), children encounter math experiences in small and large
groups, and in everyday experiences with blocks, art, puzzles, dramatic play, and music.
They learn math by using specially designed software that makes the most of digital me-
dia’s capacities for supporting learning. Building Blocks has been found to significantly
improve not only children’s math outcomes but also their oral language and general rea-
soning (Sarama, Lange, Clements, & Wolfe, 2012).
Technology is an essential component. For example, young children are limited in their
ability to mentally manipulate shapes—to imagine the shapes turned or flipped. Once chil-
dren accumulate experiences in sliding, rotating, and flipping objects—whether with physi-
cal objects or a computer tool—they will be able to develop skills of mental imagery and
understand the possibilities for manipulating shapes. Digital environments, in which children
need to think abstractly and give concrete and precise commands, can be particularly help-
ful in getting a feel for such transformations and for other aspects of mathematical thinking.
Other focused mathematics curricula include Number Worlds (Griffin, 2004), Big
Math for Little Kids (Greenes et al., 2004), and Numbers Plus © Preschool Mathematics
Curriculum (HighScope, 2007).
Effective Mathematics Teaching
In this section, we present research-based ways of intentionally teaching mathematics.
They include specific teacher behaviors that relate to positive outcomes, math talk, and
grouping. We then discuss the role of play when teaching math.
As you can see, even very
young children experiment with
basic mathematics and science
concepts—such as sorting and
classifying.
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Chapter 13 Teaching Children to Investigate and Solve Problems 437
Teacher Behaviors Research demonstrates the effectiveness of specific teaching
behaviors that are related to positive learning outcomes for children (Clements & Sarama,
2008). Clements and Sarama (2007b) developed the Classroom Observation of Early
Mathematics—Environment and Teaching (COEMET), a useful observation instrument
to evaluate the quality of mathematics instruction. Some specific teacher behaviors on the
COEMET are listed next that relate to children’s improved math knowledge (Clements &
Sarama, 2007b, 2008; Sarama & Clements, 2007):
1. How much time the teacher is actively engaged in math activities
2. Whether the teacher builds on and elaborates children’s mathematical ideas and
strategies
3. How much the teacher facilitates children’s responding to math questions and
situations
The COEMET describes both high-quality and poor-quality teaching, some examples of
which appear in Figure 13.2. Other teacher behaviors that strongly relate to children’s
math learning include (Clements & Sarama, 2007b, 2008; Sarama & Clements, 2007):
• Teachers’ curiosity about and enthusiasm for mathematics
• Teachers’ ability to set high but realistic expectations
• Teachers’ observations of children, note taking to record their observations, and use
of learning trajectories to individualize instruction
Math Talk Tamara’s kindergarten is well stocked with board games that the chil-
dren enjoy playing. But Tamara observes that some children rarely use them. One day,
she invites four of the reluctant players to join her. Tamara introduces the activity: “For
this game, we need to roll the dice. Look carefully at this cube. What do you observe
about the dots?” As the children examine the dice and count the dots on each side,
Tamara extends the math talk: “What’s the largest number you can get when you roll
one die?” After turning the dice around, the children agree on “six.” As the conversa-
tion continues, Tamara introduces math talk such as “What do you observe about the
number of dots on each side of the cube? How are they different? Do you see a pat-
tern? The dice is shaped like a cube. What do the dots tell you about cubes?” After the
children have mastered the game using one die, Tamara brings out a second one and
further extends the math learning, “You rolled a four and a five, so how many spaces
can you move?”
This scene from Tamara’s classroom demonstrates how even a simple board game
provides a great opportunity for math talk. Given the critical role of language in learning
math, it is not surprising that one of the most effective teaching strategies is what is
simply called math talk. Teachers should also point out that in these situations children
are “doing” math.
The amount of math-related talk children experience is positively related to their
mathematical knowledge (Klibanoff, Levine, Huttenlocher, Vasilyeva, & Hedges, 2006).
However, there is an enormous amount of variation in the amount of math talk that chil-
dren experience. One study found that in a 1-hour observation of 26 preschool classrooms,
teachers’ math talk ranged from 1 to 104 math-related words (Klibanoff et al., 2006).
An even greater difference occurs in parent-child interactions. A longitudinal study
that recorded math talk between parents and their children, between the ages of 14 and
30 months, found that over 7½ hours of observation, some parents spoke as few as
4 math words with their children while others produced 287 (Levine, Suriyakham, Roe,
Huttenlocher, & Gunderson, 2010). The researchers interpreted this finding to mean that
over the first 2½ years of life, some children heard 600 times as many number words as
other children.
Given the importance of math talk to children’s mathematical understanding, the
question arises, what if the children don’t speak the same language as their teachers?
Teaching math to dual language learners requires adapting curriculum and individualizing
instruction.
math talk Using the language
and vocabulary of mathematics.
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Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach438
Grouping for Instruction Alice’s preschool children love it when she brings out
the plastic attribute blocks, which vary by color, shape, size, and thickness. She introduces
the activity by saying, “There are so many ways these blocks are the same, but they are
also different. Yesterday, we sorted them into groups by two attributes: color and shape.
EXAMPLE 1: The teacher showed curiosity about and enthusiasm for math ideas and connec-
tions to other ideas or real-world situations.
• commented on or discussed mathematical ideas in reading a story
• showed interest in the mathematics that emerged in children’s play, construction, or discussions
Situation
The children are building with blocks. The teacher says, “What are you making?”
Children respond that it’s a skyscraper.
Low-Quality Instruction High-Quality Instruction
• The teacher says, “Nice. Be careful
it doesn’t fall on you.”
• The teacher says, “It looks the same on this side
[gesturing] as it does on this side [gesturing]. It’s
symmetrical! Are you going to keep building a sym-
metric building?”
• The teacher asks, “I wonder how tall it is?”
• The teacher says, “I see you put the long blocks at
the bottom and the smaller ones on top. Could you
tell me how that helped you make your building?”
“What might happen if you put the long ones on
the top?”
• The teacher asks, “If you put these curved ones
here, can you build more on top of them or not?
What would happen if you did?”
EXAMPLE 2: The teacher facilitated children’s responding.
• elicited many solution methods for one problem
• encouraged elaboration of children’s responses
• waited for and listened attentively to individual children
• responded to errors as learning opportunities
Situation
The teacher asks one child to figure out how many 1 more than 3 is.
Low-Quality Instruction High-Quality Instruction
• When a child has difficulty, the
teacher says, “Someone else can
answer.”
• When another child gives the cor-
rect answer, the teacher moves to
the next task.
• When a child has difficulty, the teacher says, “Can
you show me 3 to get started?”
• The child says, “Four.” The teacher asks, “Can you
teach us how you did that?”
• The teacher asks, “Did anybody do it a different
way?”
FIGURE 13.2 Examples of High- and Low-Quality Mathematics Teaching This figure compares
and contrasts examples of high-quality effective math teaching strategies with ineffective practices.
Source: From Manual for Classroom Observation of Early Mathematics—Environment & Teaching (COEMET)
version 3. J. Sarama, Author: D. H. Clements, © 2007 Reprinted with permission.
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Chapter 13 Teaching Children to Investigate and Solve Problems 439
Today, let’s see if we can sort them another way. Does
anybody have an idea?”
Alfredo says, “Some are big and some are little.”
“That’s boring,” counters Bernadette.
“Okay, you want a challenge,” Alice responds.
“We’ll play a game. I’ll give clues and you try to
find the shape. Alfredo, can you find the big, fat,
blue pentagon?”
Small-group activities for four to six children are espe-
cially useful for teaching mathematics, and the skills
children acquire during small-group instruction can
transfer to knowledge and abilities that have not been
taught (Clements & Sarama, 2007).
Although whole-group time can also be used to teach mathematics, to be effective, it
should be only one component of instruction, along with small groups, individual activity,
and technology (Clements & Sarama, 2007b, 2008). The most effective whole-group
interactions include a combination of teacher-led brief discussions, problem solving
with a partner (another child or an adult), and physical activities such as marching while
counting or doing a shape hunt (Clements & Sarama, 2007b, 2008).
The Role of Play in Teaching
and Learning Mathematics
Opportunities for mathematics learning abound in different types of play: block building,
socio-dramatic play, exploration and practice during play, playing games, using table toys
(manipulatives, puzzles, etc.), and book reading.
Block Building As we have seen, block play provides valuable opportunities for
children to explore and engage in mathematical activity on their own (Pollman, 2010).
Children enjoy building with blocks and they naturally engage in mathematical play with
them (Seo & Ginsburg, 2004).
However, block building during free play alone doesn’t automatically
result in math learning. When teachers discuss mathematical ideas with
children during block play, their learning is enhanced (Tepylo, Moss, &
Stephenson, 2015). Teachers can introduce new words such as unit or equal,
and raise problems, such as “How can you make your bridge high enough for
the biggest boat to go under?” When teachers provide this kind of support, it
enhances children’s learning at the time, but is also valuable because children
incorporate these new ideas when they play on their own. Block building
contributes to children’s knowledge of geometry and spatial relations,
especially three-dimensional shapes.
Socio-Dramatic Play Sociodramatic play contributes to the development
of self-regulation and executive function in children (Bodrova & Leong, 2007).
Because these two basic cognitive abilities are essential for mathematics
understanding, socio-dramatic play is an important opportunity to promote
math and science learning.
Socio-dramatic play provides a context for children to use their
developing math skills. For example, while playing restaurant, children
write and read the prices on a menu, count their “money,” and use
one-to-one correspondence as they set the table. Pretend play also provides
many opportunities for children to practice their developing math skills, as
we describe next.
Effective teachers use
various ways of grouping
for instruction, including
individual activity, whole group,
small groups, and technology.
Classroom Connection
The children in this video are
looking at a book that shows an
octopus, and the pictures they
draw reflect what they’ve learned.
As you watch, consider the variety
of teaching strategies the teacher
uses to help the girls learn not
just about an octopus but also
number and geometry concepts.
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Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach440
Exploration and Practice during
Play Many mathematics competencies such
as counting require a lot of practice as well as
demonstration, modeling, or scaffolding from
adults (Fuson, 1988). Children need practice
to master these skills, but such practice should
be meaningful and motivating for children—
and play is an excellent context for it.
During play, children will often initiate
their own practice. For example, 2-year-olds
will repeat a drumbeat until adults get tired.
Three- and 4-year-old children will repeat-
edly string a set of beads in a pattern until
they have mastered the skill to their personal
satisfaction. While swinging, several girls
take turns pushing each other and count the
pushes as they go along. When they get to 20,
they switch places. Seven-year-old Garrett repeatedly asks his mom to try to stump him
with two-digit addition and subtraction problems as she puts him to bed each night.
Games Board games in which children count spaces along a number list (numbered
squares) are an effective way to develop children’s numerical knowledge. The power of
such games is demonstrated in an experiment conducted in a Head Start program (Siegler &
Ramani, 2008). Children who played a board game similar to Chutes and Ladders (that used
a linear rather than a circular pattern) became more skilled at counting, comparing, naming,
and estimating numbers. This study showed how something as basic as playing a board game
with numbered squares can significantly improve the number knowledge of children from
low-income families, many of whom don’t have the opportunity to play such games at home.
Games such as cards and dominoes are also fun as long as they don’t become too competitive.
Further research on number board games finds that the most effective strategy is to
engage children in “counting on” rather than counting from 1 every time. For example,
if a child’s marker is on the square marked 18 and she rolls a 3, instead of counting l, 2,
3, she counts 19, 20, 21 (Laski & Siegler, 2014). Children need prompting by adults to
successfully play the game but it can greatly expand their knowledge of the number system.
Table Toys One of the most effective ways for children to learn math is to use
concrete materials such as puzzles, matching games, and manipulatives. Manipulatives
are small-sized blocks, cubes, pattern blocks, beads, pegs, and the like that are designed
for children’s play and learning.
Puzzles and manipulatives can enhance math knowledge, especially geometric and
spatial thinking, in preschool as well as elementary-age children (Clements & Sarama,
2007a, 2007b). Up to about age 5½, children need concrete objects to learn counting and to
solve larger number problems using addition and subtraction (Levine, Jordan,
& Huttenlocher, 1992). Manipulatives make abstract tasks meaningful.
However, simply providing manipulatives and concrete materials does
not ensure learning. Rather, teachers need to scaffold children’s use of
manipulatives if they get stuck using the materials in the same way over and
over. Six-year-old Martha loves to play with Unifix cubes, and for several
days she creates one row of 10 cubes. Her teacher says, “Martha, you seem
to like counting to ten. What if we make two rows of ten? How many cubes
do you think we’ll need altogether?”
Book Reading Books have great potential for teaching mathematics and
are often used to integrate math into other areas of the curriculum, especially
literacy (B. Casey, 2004; M. B. Casey, Erkut, Ceder, & Young, 2008;
manipulatives Small-sized
blocks, cubes, pattern blocks,
beads, pegs, and the like that
are designed for children’s play
and learning.
Small group experiences like
playing board or card games
are very effective for teaching
mathematics. What other kinds
of games might be fun ways of
learning mathematics?
Classroom Connection
As you watch this video of
preschool children playing shoe
store, reflect on the mathematics
content that they are learning.
Observe how the teacher uses
effective strategies and math talk
in the context of play.
http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=DekMNAFpsqs
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Chapter 13 Teaching Children to Investigate and Solve Problems 441
Schickedanz, 2008). Math concepts can be found in an enormous number of storybooks.
In some stories, such as The Three Bears, math concepts are readily apparent. In other
stories, the math is more implicit, such as in Rosie’s Walk (Hutchins, 1968), which uses
spatial vocabulary to describe a fox following a hen on her winding way (Schickedanz,
2008). In such books, math learning is secondary to another goal, usually language and
literacy. Numerous children’s books are also published each year for the explicit purpose
of teaching math and science.
The use of books is especially powerful, however, when the primary goal is teaching
math. The work of Beth Casey and her colleagues (2008) provides strong evidence that
presenting math content (such as spatial and number skills) as part of a meaningful story
is more effective than teaching the content alone. They developed Storytelling Sagas, a
series of specially written math storybooks for children in preschool through grade 2 that
have proven to be very effective—especially with girls—in teaching math.
In previous sections, we described the importance of building a firm foundation in
mathematics understanding for all young children. Next we turn to the topic of science,
which is often integrated with mathematics curriculum in the early years.
✓ Check Your Understanding 13.3: Effective Mathematics Curriculum and Teaching
Effective Science Curriculum
and Teaching
Young children tend to be curious and inquisitive. They constantly ask questions such
as “What’s that?” “Why?” “How come?” They also are inclined to actively explore and
observe their environment. They want to know “What would happen if . . . ?” To find an-
swers, they readily dig in the mud, dump and splash water, or move their bodies in every
way imaginable. At the same time, they try to make sense of these experiences, so they
develop and test their own theories about how the world works. As a result, children are
often called “natural scientists” (Worth & Grollman, 2003).
In the following sections, we describe the early childhood science curriculum—the
content and processes that children from infancy through third grade can and should be
learning. Then, we describe effective teaching strategies to promote children’s scientific
knowledge and understanding. We begin with the role of science and technology in an
integrated curriculum.
Science and Technology in the Early
Childhood Curriculum
The purpose of science is to study and understand the physical and natural world,
especially by observing and experimenting. Science plays two important roles in the early
childhood curriculum. The primary role is to lay a foundation of conceptual understanding
and knowledge that will deepen and broaden as children move through school. Second,
science exploration is an excellent way of integrating learning across the curriculum, as
the following example illustrates:
Rose Grindel’s first graders are studying life science and exploring concepts such as
living and nonliving things and growth and change. As part of their study, they visit
a nearby apple orchard. Before their visit, Rose brings in types of apples for tasting
(Macintosh, Granny Smith) and the children graph their preferences. A lively debate
ensues about why apples look and taste different. Theo comes to the wise conclusion
that apples must be kind of like people: They are the same in most ways, but they
look different.
Rose continues, “I guess we need to find out the kind of apples that grow at
the orchard. Are there other things you want to find out? Do you think apples are
science Study of the physical
and natural world, especially by
observing and experimenting.
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alive?” This last question draws laughs, but then some other queries. Grason says,
“Well, trees are alive and apples grow on trees. So they could be alive, too.” Grason’s
comment sparks a debate about what the word living means. This topic will be further
explored throughout the month as children explore the characteristics of living and
nonliving things.
At the orchard, children write down the farmer’s answers to their questions and
take photos to document their visit. Hunter wants his picture taken next to a tree as
a way to measure it. Later in the year, the class will return and compare their photos
of the fruit-bearing trees to the flowering trees in spring. Their documentation will
pique memories. Hunter thinks his photo will show how much the tree grows.
At the farm, each child picks 10 apples (counting by ones), and back at school
they group the apples by tens. The children come up with several ways to figure
out that the total number they picked is 210! They also organize the apples by size,
and choose the smallest to cook and the larger ones to eat. Because they picked
so many apples, Ebony suggests that they donate some to the food bank. When
the children cut the apples, they work with halves and quarters. They also bake
apples and make applesauce, all the while predicting and observing the changes
that take place.
In the previous example, life science is the main curriculum focus. Children learn science
facts and concepts while doing science—asking questions, predicting, observing, and
drawing conclusions. But other curriculum areas are well integrated. Children represent
their learning in many ways—drawing pictures, taking photos, and writing about the apple
orchard. Mathematics learning includes number and operations (counting, adding, us-
ing the base ten system, and dividing); classifying; creating and analyzing data (graph-
ing); and measurement. Language and literacy are also involved, with children reading
information books and learning new vocabulary (Gelman, Brenneman, MacDonald, &
Román, 2010).
Science Content
A coalition of scientists and science educators agree on the goals of the K–12 science
curriculum, which are articulated in the Next Generation Science Standards (Achieve,
Inc., 2013). The content of early childhood science is directly related to young children’s
natural interest and curiosity about how the world works, living things, their bodies, the
earth, insects and animals, and other topics they find fascinating (Seefeldt, Galper, &
Jones, 2012).
As in mathematics, both content and process are not only essential, but also integrally
connected. Children can’t do a science experiment that isn’t connected to science knowl-
edge and concepts, nor can they make sense of discrete facts and concepts presented apart
from meaningful context. In short, children can’t learn science from a book alone; they
have to do science.
Scientific Knowledge Goals As important as it is to foster children’s interest
and active engagement in doing science, equally important is to expand their content
knowledge. The curriculum includes physical, life, and earth and space science. Follow-
ing are definitions of these science topics and some related goals (Achieve, Inc., 2013).
Physical Science In the area of physical science, children learn basic ideas about the
properties of liquids and solid materials and objects (size and shape). They learn how
things move and change position. They show increasing understanding of cause-and-
effect relationships—for instance, how force affects the distance a ball rolls. They also
explore characteristics of sound and light—how shadows are produced and change, or
how sound results from vibrations.
From infancy, children gain knowledge of the physical world by acting on objects to
see what happens; babies love to throw their bottle out of a high chair over and over to see
physical science Basic ideas
about the properties of liquids
and solid materials, how things
move and change position, and
cause-and-effect relationships.
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Chapter 13 Teaching Children to Investigate and Solve Problems 443
what happens. At times they act to get a desired effect—rolling, pushing, and dropping
objects. To extend learning, teachers can ask children what will happen if they squeeze
an object or challenge them to blow on a spool to make it move. Often children explore
and manipulate effects without knowing how they achieved the results; when teachers ask
children how or why they think something happened, an everyday experience is turned
into a scientific event (Seefeldt, Galper, & Jones, 2012).
Life Science Life science is the study of the characteristics, life cycles, and
environments of organisms. Children identify features of plants and animals, their
habitats, and needs (food and water). They learn about living and nonliving things,
and how living things grow and change. They also learn parts of the human body, how
they function, what people need to stay healthy, and how human beings are alike and
different.
Earth and Space Science This topic involves studying properties of earth materials,
changes on the earth, and patterns of movement and changes of the sun and moon. Once
thought to be a topic beyond their understanding, many young children today are fasci-
nated and knowledgeable about space as demonstrated by the kindergartner’s drawing in
Figure 13.3. The learning goals of earth and space science include:
• Recognizing repeating patterns in nature (day and night; seasons)
• Observing weather changes
• Understanding the effect of people on the environment
• Learning about geographic features of the earth (mountains, oceans) and the move-
ment of objects in the sky
Key Scientific Concepts Across the three content areas of science are several
key concepts or big ideas that create a strong foundation for later science learning. These
concepts include understanding change and cause-and-effect relationships. Another con-
cept that is revisited through school is the idea of a system—that a whole is composed of
related parts that affect each other. For example, the human body is a system; there are
weather systems and, of course, there is the vast solar system.
These complex concepts are vital to the work of all scientists. Preschoolers can
grasp such concepts at a basic level when teachers draw attention to them in planned and
spontaneous learning experiences. For example, when Jonah asks why insects and birds
fly but fish that also have wings don’t fly, his teacher poses the question to the class.
A lively discussion ensues about the differences between wings and fins and how some
birds, like ducks, both swim and fly.
Children’s conceptual understanding deepens when they have a variety of expe-
riences related to the same concept (French & Woodring, 2013). For example, chil-
dren deepen their understanding of the concept of life cycles by planting and tending a
garden, observing a class pet, and studying how humans
grow.
Change can be continually observed in the natural
world. Some changes occur too rapidly to be observed
without special tools such as microscopes, whereas oth-
ers occur too slowly for children to fully comprehend,
such as the changing seasons. On the other hand, some
changes can be readily observed and investigated by any
age child. Teachers can encourage children to look for
all sorts of changes:
• What happens to the plant when it is left in the dark?
• What happens to your shadow at different times of
the day? Is your shadow there every day?
• What changes can be reversed? Can water be turned
into ice and back into water?
life science The study of the
characteristics, life cycles, and
environments of organisms.
earth and space science
Studying properties of earth
materials, changes on the
earth, patterns of movement,
and changes of the sun and
moon.
FIGURE 13.3 Kindergar-
ten Child’s Representation
of the Solar System This
kindergartner’s drawing of the
solar system reveals both his
scientific understanding and
his representation skills.
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Effective Science Teaching
The fact that most young children are naturally curious and inclined to
explore and investigate does not mean that they “naturally” or automatically
learn science concepts and processes. To understand concepts and acquire
skills, children need intentional teachers who plan and implement a coherent
science curriculum. Science learning is too important to be left to chance.
Intentional teachers promote science learning by carefully organizing the
environment, providing focused learning experiences and information, and
integrating science into children’s play and everyday routines, but most of
all, engaging children in the scientific process.
Organize the Environment Science requires a planned environ-
ment, materials, and tools, such as cups, containers, trays, and jars to help
children observe, collect, organize, and display evidence. Children need
tools for investigation, including a variety of magnifying glasses, binocu-
lars, mirrors, f lashlights, magnets, levers, pulleys, and scales. Information
books and access to the Internet are also essential resources for studying
science.
Recording and representing evidence and conclusions requires tools as
simple as notebooks, writing implements, and chart and graph paper, and as
technologically sophisticated as digital and video cameras, tablets, computers,
and whiteboards. For example, an EyeclopsTM is a computerized magnifier
that can project onto a wall or screen. Children can aim it at all kinds of objects—their
skin, the inside of a seed, or a butterfly in a jar.
Provide Focused Experiences An effective science curriculum should ref lect
a coherent progression of science skills and content (French & Woodring, 2013). Learning
goals and topics should build on one another so that children develop progressively more
complex understandings. Content should align with state or national science standards.
Teachers can plan in-depth projects or topics of study related to science knowledge
that build on and expand children’s interests. Sufficient time should be devoted to topics
for children to go into some depth. For instance, in a class study of animals, small groups
of children or individuals might study one animal and report their findings to the others
in the group.
Curriculum should focus on knowledge that is familiar and meaningful to children,
such as concepts of temperature based on their experiences with weather. Although chil-
dren are more capable of abstract learning than previously thought, it is usually easier
to begin with more concrete, accessible experiences such as scientific phenomena that
can be directly seen, touched, tasted, or heard (French &
Woodring, 2013). In addition, teachers shouldn’t impose
scientifically accurate explanations for phenomena be-
fore children are able to grasp their meaning (Worth &
Grollman, 2003).
Engage Children in the Scientific Process
An overarching aspect of the curriculum is the process
of doing science, or scientific inquiry. Scientific inquiry
involves children in several processes such as questioning, pre-
dicting, observing, investigating, experimenting, recording,
and documenting (National Center on Quality Teaching and
Learning, 2013). In Table 13.1, we list these processes and
illustrate them with a physical science example— children
studying shadows to learn the properties and characteristics
of light.
Classroom Connection
The teacher in this video
interacts with the children as
they observe a tadpole. Note the
scientific concepts the children
are learning and the strategies
the teacher uses to engage chil-
dren in the scientific process.
Also observe the documentation
on the wall of the classroom
project.
scientific inquiry Involving
children in observing,
predicting, and investigating.
Children learn by doing
science. They need to use
the methods of scientists—
questioning, predicting,
investigating, experimenting,
and drawing conclusions.
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Chapter 13 Teaching Children to Investigate and Solve Problems 445
TAblE 13.1 Scientific Inquiry Processes in Children
Children engaging in a shadow study, as described here, use the same inquiry processes as professional
scientists.
Process of Scientific Inquiry Example: Properties of Light
Noticing, wondering, exploring, and asking
questions out of curiosity or to further existing
knowledge
On a bright, sunny day outdoors, preschoolers notice and play with their shadows,
exploring how to make the shadows longer or shorter and wondering whether they can
“get away” from them. The teacher asks, “Where do you think a shadow comes from?”
Formulating preliminary predictions, explana-
tions, or hypotheses to answer questions
Children offer their theories about shadows: People make shadows; shadows follow
you; shadows are skinny; only the sun makes shadows. Some think shadows go
away at night and some disagree.
Gathering evidence by actively observing,
investigating, and/or experimenting
The children observe and gather evidence about shadows: They trace their shadows
at different times of the day outdoors; they play with a shadow theater indoors (a
sheet in front of a large window), guessing the objects creating the shadows.
Recording, reporting, explaining, discussing,
and reflecting on evidence
The children refine their ideas about shadows: Other sources of light make shad-
ows, not just the sun; people need light to make shadows; shadows change shape.
Refining questions, refocusing observations,
and engaging in more focused explorations
The teacher sets up an overhead projector for children to focus on what more can
be learned about shadows. The teacher sends home a letter to families encourag-
ing them to help children observe shadows at night.
Sharing and discussing ideas, listening to
other perspectives, and asking new questions
Children share their observations from home, such as street lights can make
shadows, and they ask new questions: “Can the moon make shadows?” The study
continues with new questions and interests.
Source: Based on Worms, Shadows, and Whirlpools: Science in the Early Childhood Classroom, by K. Worth and S. Grollman, 2003, Portsmouth,
NH: Heinemann.
Intentionally Teach Science Providing a scientifically engaging learning
environment and opportunities to explore are essential, but children do not learn science
from manipulating materials alone. Research shows that when teachers explicitly
introduce children to science concepts, vocabulary, and processes during brief circle time
lessons, children spend more time and are more engaged in science, and their scientific
knowledge increases (Hong & Diamond, 2012; Nayfeld, Brenneman, & Gelman, 2009).
Children need intentional teachers to connect their experiences to scientific concepts and
vocabulary, as described in the feature titled Becoming an Intentional Teacher: Science
in Block Building.
Table 13.2 lists key strategies that teachers can use to promote children’s enthusiasm
and understanding of science knowledge, concepts, and methods. These
strategies are also effective for teaching mathematics.
Adapt for Individual and Cultural Diversity Science is
engaging, interesting, and fun for many children. But every child is different.
Teachers need to pay particular attention to adapting learning experiences
for dual language learners and children with special needs. They also need to
be mindful of providing girls with equal opportunities to learn science and
mathematics.
Children with Special Needs Providing access to science experiences
for children with disabilities is an especially important task for teachers.
To widen your view of effective science teaching, read the Including All
Children: Science Exploration feature on page 448.
Dual Language Learners Science presents an opportunity as well as a
challenge for children who are learning English. Because science involves
real things and events, it can help children learn vocabulary words, espe-
cially names of objects, living things, and tools. On the other hand, specific
scientific terms such as inquiry or evidence can be especially difficult for
Classroom Connection
This video shows an effective
science curriculum in action.
What science content are these
children learning? In what ways
are they “doing” science? What
effective strategies are the
teachers using?
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Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach446
Becoming an Intentional Teacher
Integrating Physical Science in Block Building
Here’s What Happened The block area was running
smoothly, but I wanted to take my preschoolers’ block
building experiences to a new level and extend their aware-
ness of physical science in construction. My goal was to get
them thinking about some basic principles of physics: how
solid objects move and change position, and how slope af-
fects the distance a ball rolls. I took the following actions:
1) Added various materials for the children to create
ramps including open molding and plastic tubing plus
spheres of various sizes (marbles, plastic and rubber
balls) and small cars.
2) Put away the blocks that stick together, such as Legos
and Duplos.
3) Began observing in the block area and talking with
children about construction.
Here’s What I Was Thinking Physics principles are at
the heart of block construction, but I felt that in my class-
room we weren’t using the full potential of blocks for explor-
ing these ideas. Here is the thinking behind my actions:
1) I added photos to the block area of various types of
ramps, such as an off-ramp and overpass of a highway
and a skateboard park. The children and I talked about
the images in the block area in order to increase their
awareness of different types of ramps and encourage
them to branch out in their construction. Such pic-
tures were handy, too, for children to refer to as they
grappled with creating and experimenting with various
kinds and angles of ramps.
2) Because I wanted the children to hypothesize, observe,
and think about the effect of the slope of the ramps
on the motion of objects, I
added various types of material
to construct ramps as well as
different size and weight of
objects that roll.
3) I also wanted the children to get into exploring balance
and stability, so I decided to remove for the time being
all of the blocks that stick together.
4) I observed in the block area to get a feel for the kinds of
things the children were doing there. I noted that they
were very interested in creating ramps and shooting
objects down the slope as fast they could go but that
this behavior became repetitive. If I asked questions
related to the slope of the ramps and the motion of
the objects (“What could you do to make the marbles
roll slower?”), they became intrigued and focused
more attention on the activity. I wanted to extend their
thinking without interfering with their play.
I also found that using large- or small-group time worked
well for introducing new materials or a new challenge. I found
that the children incorporated such elements in their block
play and discussed them—with me and with one another—
yet the construction and play were under their control.
Reflection What do you think about this teacher’s
approach to integrating science content in play? Why did
she intervene? In what other ways could she intentionally
teach physical science concepts?
Source: Based on Ramps and Pathways: A Constructivist Approach
to Physics with Young Children, by R. DeVries and C. Sales, 2011,
Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young
Children.
dual language learners (Albert Shanker Institute, 2009). These children will need lots of
cues, gestures, and repetition to learn these words in meaningful context. Read the feature
What Works: Teaching STEM to Dual Language Learners to learn more on page 449.
Gender Differences During a visit to the nature center, first-grade teacher Trula Mann
is startled when the naturalist brings out a snake for the children’s inspection. She hates
snakes and cringes at the thought of touching it. She sees that the boys eagerly gather
around the snake while most of the girls look frightened and withdraw. Trula swallows
her anxiety and reaches out to touch the snake. She is surprised to find that it is not at all
slimy. The naturalist asks, “How can a snake find food or defend itself since it doesn’t
have arms or legs?” At the end of the discussion, the children conclude that they would
bite, too, if they were a snake who was threatened.
In overcoming her trepidation, Trula served as a valuable model for the children, es-
pecially some of the girls. Such modeling behavior is important for girls in both science
and mathematics. One study found that first- and second-grade girls whose female teach-
ers had math anxiety were likely to be anxious about math themselves (Beiland, Gunder-
son, Ramirez, & Levine, 2010). By the end of the school year, the girls came to believe
that boys are good at math and girls are good at reading. Most important, the young girls’
anxiety negatively affected their math achievement.
M13_BRED6702_03_SE_C13.indd 446 10/7/15 3:22 PM
Chapter 13 Teaching Children to Investigate and Solve Problems 447
TAblE 13.2 Effective Science Teaching Strategies
The strategies listed and described here are not only effective in teaching scientific knowledge, concepts, and
methods but also motivate children’s interest in and enthusiasm for science.
Science Teaching Strategy Explanation
Model and welcome curiosity, openness, and
flexibility to questioning without needing to
know all the answers. Teachers are sometimes
intimidated by science because they don’t have
enough knowledge themselves.
While teachers don’t need vast knowledge before tackling a topic, they do
need to prepare and learn as much as possible. When they don’t know an
answer to a child’s question, the best response is, “I don’t know. What do you
imagine?” or “I’m curious about . . .”
Be open to and appreciate creativity and beauty in
science. Sometimes science is erroneously thought
to be only about cold, hard facts.
Examine NASA-produced photos of sunrise on Mars or the rings around
Saturn. Watch a butterfly emerge from its cocoon. Such experiences can
inspire children to produce their own creative representations of the natural
and physical world.
Encourage children to reflect on their experiences
and share their ideas with others. Direct experience
with materials is important to their science
learning, but it is not enough.
Engage children in thinking about, representing, and discussing their
experiences and observations. Discussion among teachers and children,
informally and in planned groups, gives children the chance to hear others’
thinking and perspectives and to develop skills communicating about science.
Teach children observation skills. Encourage children to go beyond just looking. Have children describe, draw,
discuss, redraw, and describe again to refine observation skills and build
vocabulary. Ask, “What did we learn about . . . ?”
Provide a variety of ways for children to document
and represent their work.
Give children journals, writing tools, and digital cameras to record their obser-
vations, gather data, and communicate their findings to others.
Listen to children and ask about what they are see-
ing and doing.
When children talk about what they see, hear, and think, they do more notic-
ing, wondering, and reflecting. They make connections, think about causes,
and learn new, often rare words.
Build on and extend children’s interests in the
natural world and living things.
Use information books, field trips, technology, and visitors, to open up the
classroom.
Engage children in formulating their own
questions (What do you want to know?), designing
experiments (How can we find out?), and making
predictions (What do you think will happen if . . . ?).
Children attend more closely to what they see, hear, smell, and feel when
they have put forth their own prediction or question or have considered how
to go about investigating something. They are more likely to think about what
their observations mean.
Don’t bombard children with talk as they explore
and investigate. Instead, watch closely and use a
well-timed question or comment.
Prompt children to:
• Make a prediction (What will it look like if . . . ?).
• Think aloud (What are you doing now? What next?).
• Reflect on their actions (What did you do before that happened?
How do you know? How did you figure that out?).
Integrate science in play and routines Science is everywhere. Children learn science when they play in the water
table, ride down a slope on a tricycle, or observe ants on a sidewalk. Rich
science opportunities occur in blocks, sand, clay, cooking, art, music,
movement, stories, and outdoors.
Sources: Based on Benchmarks for Science Literacy, American Association for the Advancement of Science, 2009, Washington, DC: Author,
retrieved September 15, 2009, from http://www.project2061.org/publications/bsl/default.htm; Using the Scientific Method by National Center
on Quality Teaching and Learning, 2013, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office of Head Start.
Such gender differences are apparent as early as preschool. For example, one study
found that boys demonstrated more curiosity, spontaneity, and extensive knowledge about
nature and vertebrate and invertebrate (worms, snakes) animals than did girls ( Desouza &
Czerniak, 2002). On the other hand, girls, although more fearful, were also more concerned
about the welfare of animals. Boys and girls also differed in their play preferences, with
boys more active and more likely than girls to bring into their play the science concepts
that were introduced at group time the day before.
Because the science and engineering professions have been traditionally dominated
by white males, particular efforts need to be made to address stereotypes and open the
M13_BRED6702_03_SE_C13.indd 447 10/7/15 3:22 PM
http://www.project2061.org/publications/bsl/default.htm
Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach448
Including All Children
Science Exploration
Most children are naturally interested in science
topics and motivated to engage in investigations using
all of their senses. However, children with sensory
disabilities may lose out on such learning unless
teachers make appropriate accommodations.
Sheila Kohn loves science, and so do the children in
her first-grade class. Currently, the curriculum topic is
earth science. The children have formulated questions
and are exploring a wooded area near the school. They
want to know what lives under the ground and how it
survives. They have brought little shovels, collection
containers, and magnifying glasses for observation.
Their questions include these: How does the earth
smell? How does it feel? What lives in a small amount
of earth? How do they breathe? What do they eat?
What happens if it rains?
Most of the children are very excited and eagerly ap-
proach the investigation. Delores, however, has a vi-
sion impairment. The trek outside intimidates her, and
all the talk of observing and using the magnifying glass
makes her feel left out. Sheila discusses the situation
with Delores and they agree on a plan. Together they
will visit the outdoors in a small group, and Delores will
use her other senses to investigate the earth. Delores
will be in charge of the questions that she is most
able to address: What does the earth feel like and how
does it smell? Delores is an especially astute listener
as well, so she will also report on what she hears out-
side. Because the other children focus on what they
see, they usually miss a great deal of information that
can be obtained through their other senses.
Ira has a different special need—sensory integration
disorder—which requires an altogether different accom-
modation. Children who have sensory integration disor-
ders have difficulty processing and connecting sensory
information. Each of the five senses obtains information
from the environment in different ways. In the course
of typical development, the senses work together to sort
out and make sense of the input. Children with sensory
integration disorders, however, may be overly sensitive to
one or more of the senses—touch or sound, for example.
Or they may fixate on one sense such as sight or smell.
In Ira’s case, the busyness of the classroom overwhelms
him at times. He is especially disturbed by confusing
experiences like science study that seem to come at
him from all directions. To ensure Ira’s successful par-
ticipation, Sheila includes him in the small group with
Delores on the walk. Unlike Delores, however, who is
encouraged to use as many senses as possible, Sheila
helps Ira limit his sensory input. She gives him ear-
plugs to lessen the noise and sunglasses to minimize
the light. Under such conditions, Ira is an astute ob-
server and spends a long time carefully watching a
worm wiggling through his pile of earth.
As we see from Delores’s and Ira’s situations, successful
inclusion of all children requires knowledge of each
child’s needs and strengths and individually planned
accommodations and modifications.
fields early on to girls and to children from diverse linguistic and cultural groups. Given
that gender, racial, and cultural differences in STEM begin early and persist, it is never
too early to introduce powerful role models such as female, African American, and Latino
astronauts, inventors, or architects via real-life examples, books, toys, and materials.
✓ Check Your Understanding 13.4: Effective Science Curriculum and Teaching
Teaching about
and with Technology
Whereas science is the study of the natural world, the goal of technology is to change
or modify the natural world to meet human needs (NRC, 2012). Technology, in its many
forms, is a tool for all kinds of learning throughout life. It can be as simple as a handheld
magnifying glass or as complex as the Hubble space telescope exploring the origins of the
universe. Both of these tools make it possible for people to see things beyond the capabil-
ity of the human eye.
Technology in itself is neither good nor bad; the same tool—such as a computer—
can be used productively or destructively. Today, a major curriculum goal is to improve
technology Tools used to
change or modify the natural
world to meet human needs.
M13_BRED6702_03_SE_C13.indd 448 10/7/15 3:22 PM
Chapter 13 Teaching Children to Investigate and Solve Problems 449
What Works
Teaching STEM to Dual Language Learners
Considerable attention is paid to research on how dual language
learners acquire English and learn to read. At times, there is an as-
sumption that because mathematics is about numbers and quan-
tity, language is less of a barrier. However, mathematics itself is
a language, and as we have seen, math talk is what makes its ab-
stract concepts comprehensible for children. Other areas of STEM
have their own vocabulary and involve academic language that
children do not encounter in everyday interactions. In short, STEM
learning presents unique challenges for dual language learners.
Many of the same strategies for teaching dual language
learners in general are effective in teaching STEM. For example,
gestures such as a circling motion are useful in helping young
children understand basic concepts such as the whole amount or
putting together and taking apart. Children readily count or form
shapes with their fingers. Teachers can set up an obstacle course
for children to use their whole bodies to learn position words such
as above, below, between, and through. A strategy for older chil-
dren is to create a math, science, or technology dictionary of rel-
evant terms. Such a resource engages children in using different
ways of representing a concept—in this case, words that can be
referred to later.
Another effective strategy is having children talk to one another
in pairs or small groups. When children are learning a new lan-
guage, it is important not to put them on the spot. They shouldn’t
be expected to respond in front of the whole class. In a small group,
it is easier to practice concepts and “errors” are more likely to be
viewed as part of the learning process. This is especially important
with a topic like math that may have only one correct answer.
Introducing a math or science concept to the whole class can
be done effectively using an interactive whiteboard. Then chil-
dren can be prompted to respond to questions chorally as a whole
group. Not every child will answer correctly, and no one child’s
response will be singled out.
Another proven strategy when introducing a math or science
concept is to explicitly teach it by modeling, supplying the spe-
cific name, and having children repeat the word. Also helpful is
introducing and using a consistent sentence such as the one first
STEM skills and understanding, with T standing for technology. In other words, children
need to think critically about how technology is used to solve problems as well as learn
how to use technological tools in intentional and creative ways.
A Developmentally and Technologically
Appropriate Classroom
A preschool teacher creates a class website that is updated regularly. The children create
a slide show about their class pet using Kid Pix software to share with families. For an
integrated science study on the properties of water, kindergartners produce information
books on the computer using digital photos of their water experiments.
graders used to interpret their graphs
in Figure 13.1.
Problem solving is playing a larger role
in today’s curriculum due to the Common Core
standards, but word problems complicate the challenge of math
instruction for dual language learners. Teachers should avoid
tricky word problems that create confusion, such as: “Jonas has 2
cars and 3 trucks; how many vehicles does he have?” Such a ques-
tion poses a language test rather than a math problem. A related
challenge presented by word problems is the culturally implicit
knowledge they often require. Solving a problem usually requires
that a child understand the situation in which it occurs, whether
it’s purchasing groceries or driving a car at a certain speed.
Manipulatives are hailed as an excellent tool to teach STEM,
and yet many children cannot relate to these toys. Few such toys
reflect the racial, cultural, and gender diversity of our classrooms.
For example, Lego® has introduced some plastic figures portray-
ing people of color as doctors, scientists, architects, and other
STEM occupations. However, most STEM toys still promote ste-
reotypes of only white males in these roles.
What works most effectively are the practices that are de-
velopmentally appropriate for all children—hands-on, meaning-
ful experiences coupled with teacher scaffolding, as opposed
to worksheets that test what children should have already
learned. Dual language learners need to actively “do” science,
technology, and engineering tasks—as teachers and other chil-
dren supply the words. And most important of all, teachers need
to have high expectations that all children can learn challenging
STEM content.
Sources: Based on “6 Tips When Discussing Math with the English Language
Learner,” by B. Austin, 2014, Chicago, Erikson Early Math Collabora-
tive, retrieved March 17, 2015, from http://earlymath.erikson.edu/6-tips-
discussing-math-english-language-learner; “It’s Time for More Racial
Diversity in STEM Toys” by M. Weinstock, 2015, Scientific American,
Voices: Exploring and Celebrating Diversity in Science, retrieved March
8, 2015, from http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/voices/2015/02/23/
its-time-for-more-racial-diversity-in-stem-toys/?WT.mc_id=SA_sharetool_
Twitter.
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http://earlymath.erikson.edu/6-tips-discussing-math-english-language-learner
http://earlymath.erikson.edu/6-tips-discussing-math-english-language-learner
http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/voices/2015/02/23/its-time-for-more-racial-diversity-in-stem-toys/?WT.mc_id=SA_sharetool_Twitter
http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/voices/2015/02/23/its-time-for-more-racial-diversity-in-stem-toys/?WT.mc_id=SA_sharetool_Twitter
http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/voices/2015/02/23/its-time-for-more-racial-diversity-in-stem-toys/?WT.mc_id=SA_sharetool_Twitter
Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach450
First graders work together using an interactive
whiteboard, a large digital touchscreen with a
computer, and the Internet. They explore pictures
and information about birds in different parts of the
world. They e-mail their questions to a first-grade
class in Australia.
These are some examples of how creative
teachers use technology to expand children’s worlds
beyond the classroom. In some cases, a relatively
inexpensive form of media such as a digital camera
is used, whereas an interactive whiteboard constitutes
a much larger investment. Given the costs, educators
must make informed decisions and be taught to use
the tools effectively. For example, teacher may use
digital tablets with individual children or pairs to dif-
ferentiate reading instruction. A handheld device allows teachers to match apps, games, or
other instructional tools to a child’s learning level and needs. An interactive whiteboard,
on the other hand, is most effective for larger groups or even whole-class instruction in
which children actively participate (Linder, 2012). Teachers can introduce a new concept
via the whiteboard and then children can solve problems in small groups or individually.
Use Interactive Media Effectively Hundreds of children’s media products flood
the marketplace every year, for both home and school use. Given limited budgets and the vital
importance of choosing developmentally and culturally appropriate tools, early educators
need help making decisions. Warren Buckleitner, an authority on interactive media for
children, provides an online service for this purpose: Children’s Technology Review (http://
www. childrenstech.com), which is the world’s largest online collection of educational reviews
of children’s interactive media. In addition, the NAEYC Technology and Young Children In-
terest Forum provides an interactive support group for teachers through its website.
Decisions about technology should be based on how well the particular tool serves the
purposes of the classroom and the teaching and learning goals for children. “Technology
does not drive purposeful learning; teachers’ intentional instructional planning does”
(NAEYC Technology and Young Children Interest Forum, 2008, p. 50).
Technology has many uses, from complex problem solving to practice on individual
skills, managed at the children’s level of thinking (Donohue, 2015). Working with
appropriate software builds collaboration, creativity, and language. In fact, preschoolers
actually talk almost twice as much at the computer than during any other activity, including
blocks and art (Clements & Sarama, 2003).
Digital media allow children to break free of the physical world and manipulate
objects and space in ways that are otherwise impossible, using virtual manipulatives
(Linder, 2012). For example, when children put together a wooden puzzle, there are strict
limits on how pieces can be placed. Similarly, trying to correct or change marks formed
on paper can be difficult and frustrating. By contrast, with Kid Pix drawing software and
many other programs like it, a child can take actions that are impossible in the real world—
change the shape of a design or instantly change colors—and easily alter their creations.
In this way, digital media helps children become explicitly aware of and intentional about
what they are doing (Clements & Sarama, 2007a).
Choosing appropriate apps is an important responsibility for teachers. The best apps
have some of the same benefits as traditional play (Gray, 2015), as described in the feature
Promoting Play: Digital Play and Traditional Play.
Ensure Access for All Children Technology raises the issue of equity because
some children have considerable access to technology at home while others do not. In
addition, when digital media devices are available, boys tend to choose them more often
than girls and to work on them longer.
Children today need to learn
with and about technology.
How can teachers use
interactive digital media to
promote mathematics and
science in learning?
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Chapter 13 Teaching Children to Investigate and Solve Problems 451
Digital Play and Traditional Play
Young children learn through play in all kinds of
ways. Every type of play—building blocks, playing
games, manipulating table toys, pretending with
other children, physically engaging their whole
bodies outdoors—has its own intrinsic rewards as
well as benefits. Children also play with digital
tablets and smart phones virtually every day. Early
childhood educators often ask themselves, “Is this
a good or bad thing?”
Like the answer to most questions about
developmentally appropriate practice, “It depends.”
An important consideration is how much time
children spend engaged with digital devices, but
the more important criterion is the quality of the
experience. If the game or app is not high quality,
then it deserves no time. On the other hand, if
children’s minds are truly engaged, their own
initiative and curiosity may be the best guide.
In making decisions about using technology,
teachers may be wise to consider what the experi-
ence has in common with traditional play. One
reason children love to play is because they are
in control. When playing, children will often stay
engaged for long periods of time, until they have
mastered a task to their own satisfaction, repeating
an activity such as putting together a puzzle or play-
ing a matching game. These facts about play have
important implications for choosing appropriate soft-
ware for digital tools. Many apps emphasize extrinsic
rewards like bells, gold stars, or flashing lights; but
apps that engage children’s intrinsic motivation to
create, invent, think, and solve problems are more
likely to promote imaginative play and its benefits.
Traditional play also provides a vital context for chil-
dren to develop social skills as they interact with
other children. One frequent criticism of digital tools
is that they interfere with this opportunity. However,
some popular apps are designed to promote social
interaction in several ways. For example, Toca Boca
provides a large selection of apps that promote play
and creativity on a range of topics such as nature,
construction, and transportation, and in settings
such as hair salon or pet doctor. Toca Tea Party
enables a child to create an imaginary tea table
and serve a meal to a favorite stuffed animal or toy
figure. Research shows that children often share a
tablet, taking turns touching the screen, and talking.
With Toca Tea Party or the other Toca apps, a child
can also pretend with another child or an adult.
Some shared apps enable children to interact with
one another via the Internet. Or they can interact
with the animated characters on the screen, an ap-
plication that will be enhanced as speech recogni-
tion technology improves.
None of these examples of digital play should replace
traditional play. But digital media have the advantage
of being portable and almost endless in the variety of
social situations they can present. Engaging children
who don’t nap with playful, creative media is a far
better alternative than requiring them to be quiet so
their peers can sleep. Having touch tablets avail-
able as one option during choice time can promote
imaginative play in children whose prior experience
with pretend play is limited. The app can model how
to play with real objects, props, and other children.
In the end, teachers determine whether digital play is
a good or bad for children.
Source: Based on “Digital Play and Traditional Play Have More in
Common Than You May Think” by J. Gray, 2015, Sparking Kids’
Imagination with Digital Toys, retrieved from http://tocaboca.com/
magazine/sparking-imagination/.
Promoting Play
For interactive media to be effective, teachers need to encourage experimentation with
open-ended problems. They also need to use a wide range of teaching strategies to encour-
age, question, prompt, model, demonstrate, and give children choices without taking over or
limiting children’s opportunities to explore. Developmentally appropriate interactive media
allows children to be in control, to function independently, and to create and invent their
own activities; it also needs to be flexible and allow for more than one correct response
(NAEYC and Fred Rogers Center for Early Learning and Children’s Media, 2012).
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Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach452
In this chapter, we explored the importance of providing developmentally appropri-
ate, effective curriculum and intentional teaching in the related areas of mathematics,
science, and technology. We described how teachers can help children become effective
problem solvers and investigators. With this knowledge in mind, we return to Darrell and
Sofia’s classroom.
✓ Check Your Understanding 13.5: Teaching about and with Technology
. . . Mr. Burns and Ms. Moreno’s Classroom
At the beginning of this chapter, we met Darrell and Sofia who, like many Americans, feel math anxi-
ety. Using a well-planned, focused curriculum, they found that young children are not only capable
of learning significant mathematics but also enjoy and are interested in learning it. They incorporated
mathematics learning goals and introduced mathematics language into children’s play. The teachers
worked with children in small groups using math manipulatives and games. They also individualized
their teaching to help each child make progress along the learning trajectories that lay the essential
foundation for later math understanding.
These teachers also integrated part of the curriculum around a science topic that was motivating for
children and created a meaningful way for them to apply math concepts in context—a shadow study
that included measurement. They used technology—digital cameras, computers—as a tool to build on
and expand children’s interest and extend their experiences beyond the classroom. ■
Revisiting the Case Study
Chapter Summary13
• A math achievement gap among lower-SES and
higher-SES groups of children is present at the time
of kindergarten entry and tends to widen as children
progress through school. This knowledge gap exists to
some extent because children living in poverty do not
have sufficient opportunity to learn the language of
mathematics that connects their informal, basic math
knowledge to later, more abstract school mathematics.
• Children’s cognitive development and abilities, such as
their thinking, reasoning, and problem solving, develop
over time as their experience increases and becomes
more complex, and their brains mature. Executive
function, which includes working memory, cognitive
flexibility, and mental self-control, is strongly related to
how children learn mathematics and science.
• Young children are capable of learning sophisticated
mathematics, and they are interested in learning it.
Teachers can contribute to narrowing the achievement
gap and improving the math learning of all chil-
dren by helping children mathematize their play and
everyday experiences as well as by planning specific,
math-focused curriculum.
• Broad consensus exists among mathematics experts that
from age 3 to grade 3, content goals should focus on
these topics: number and operations and geometry, spatial
relations, and measurement. Mathematics process goals
include problem solving, reasoning, communicating,
connecting, and designing and analyzing representations.
• Early childhood science curriculum includes
knowledge and concepts of life science, physical
science, earth and space science, and the process of
scientific inquiry—questioning, predicting, observing,
investigating, and documenting.
• Intentional teachers promote science learning by
organizing the environment, providing focused
experiences, intentional teaching, and integrating
science in play and routines.
• Interactive digital media are effective tools for teaching
young children curriculum content and for expanding
their thinking and communication skills.
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Chapter 13 Teaching Children to Investigate and Solve Problems 453
Key Terms
■ abstraction
■ base ten place value
system
■ cardinality
■ cognitive (mental)
flexibility
■ composing/decomposing
■ connections
■ earth and space science
■ enumeration
■ everyday mathematics
■ executive function
■ geometry
■ inhibitory control
(cognitive self-control)
■ learning trajectory
■ life science
■ manipulatives
■ math talk
■ mathematize
■ measurement
■ one-to-one
correspondence
■ operations
■ order irrelevance
principle
■ physical science
■ reasoning
■ representing
■ science
■ scientific inquiry
■ spatial relations
■ stable order principle
■ subitizing
■ technology
■ unitizing
■ working memory
Demonstrate Your Learning
Click here to assess how well you’ve learned the content in this chapter.
✓
Copple, C. (Ed.). (2012). Growing minds: Building
strong cognitive foundations in early childhood.
Washington, DC: National Association for the Education
of Young Children.
Early Childhood Math Collaborative, Erikson Institute.
(2014). Big ideas of early mathematics: What teachers
of young children need to know. Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Pearson.
Shillady, A. (Ed.). (2013). Spotlight on young children:
Exploring science. Washington, DC: National Association
for the Education of Young Children.
TEC (Technology in Early Childhood) Center
This website is the work of a cutting-edge technology
center at Erikson Institute in Chicago.
Here you’ll find all the latest research and applications
for using digital media with children in developmentally
appropriate ways.
Erikson Early Math Collaborative
The Erikson Early Math Collaborative website provides
a wealth of practical resources for pre-K to third-grade
teachers to help children learn foundational mathematics
through effective, developmentally appropriate
approaches to teaching and learning.
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Search this site to find NCTM Curriculum Focal Points,
PreK to Grade 3 and other resources for teaching early
childhood mathematics.
National Science Teachers Association
On this website, you will find an interactive version
of the Next Generation Science Standards and many
resources for planning science curriculum to help
children in kindergarten through 3rd grade meet the
standards.
Readings and Websites
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Teaching Children to Live
in a Democratic Society:
Social-Emotional Learning
and Social Studies
Learning Outcomes
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
14.1 Define social-emotional development and discuss the social and emotional
foundations of early learning.
14.2 Describe ways in which teachers use the continuum of social and emotional
development to foster children’s learning.
14.3 Explain the role of play in children’s social and emotional development and
learning.
14.4 Identify effective curriculum and teaching strategies to promote children’s
social and emotional competence.
14.5 Formulate the content of the social studies curriculum in early childhood
and elaborate on effective and developmentally appropriate strategies for
teaching social studies.
14
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455
It is Waylon’s birthday and he gets to be the “Big Cheese” in his kindergarten class at Jefferson Elementary School. He bounds in the door with his “About Me, My Family, and My Community” poster, featuring a collage of photos including
his grandparents’ wedding, his first birthday, his first haircut, and his pet dog. His mom will visit at circle time
to share the story of how they picked his name and what it means. Waylon gets to deliver the attendance sheet
to the office and select a friend to accompany him. Later, Waylon’s teacher, Ms. Hans, asks the class to vote for
which of Waylon’s two favorite books to read. A few more votes are cast for Leonardo the Terrible Monster, and
the children know that the majority rules. The children excitedly gather on the rug looking for spots with their
names, sometimes stumbling over each other. Ms. Hans says in a soothing voice, “Close your eyes. Now pretend
to smell a flower.” Each child takes a deep breath and holds it. Then she says very calmly, “Now pretend to slowly
blow out some candles.” Ms. Hans begins reading, and the children visibly relax while listening to the story about
friendship.
Down the hall, Mr. Bell is working with a small group of third graders on their maps of the Gulf Coast, which
has recently been hit by a damaging hurricane followed by a massive oil spill. Four children are working on a
report about severe weather and its effects on geography, the economy, and people’s lives. One group is working
on a report about oil: what it is used for, how much we use in America, and how much we get from foreign
sources. The group is huddled around a tablet, searching the Internet for some of these answers. Another
group is brainstorming ways to support the children whose homes or schools have
been destroyed. They decide on a stuffed toy drive for the younger children, a “letter
buddy” system, and a school supply collection. The group excitedly tells Mr. Bell about
the buddy project. Eight-year-old Tasha explains, “Well, you see, third
graders—like us—will work with kindergarten and first graders to help
write e-mails and letters to our neighbors and businesses around here to
get them to donate.”
Mr. Bell tells the children that he likes the idea and that they
need to figure out how much it will cost and what materials
they will need. Mr. Bell’s class has been working
on this project for several weeks. He incorporates
reading, writing, and mathematics into the social
studies unit. ■
I
n this chapter, we discuss how social-emotional learning and the social studies
curriculum prepare children for life in a democracy and in a global society. Social-
emotional learning (also called social competence) is children’s ability to recognize
and regulate their emotions, establish and maintain positive relationships, make respon-
sible decisions, and solve social problems constructively (Epstein, 2009). Social studies,
the integrated study of history, geography, economics, political science, and other related
subjects, contribute to the development of competent citizens (National Council for the
Social Studies [NCSS], 2010). During early childhood, social studies and social- emotional
learning are inextricably connected. Learning to live in a democratic society—the
overarching goal of social studies—is predicated on social-emotional competence.
In this chapter, we focus on how the social studies prepare children to be engaged
citizens—change agents in their schools, communities, and eventually the world. As we
saw in Mr. Bell’s class, he extends his class’s learning beyond the local community and
helps children learn economics and geography while working to make the world a better
social-emotional learning
Children’s ability to recognize
and regulate their emotions,
establish and maintain positive
relationships, make responsi-
ble decisions, and solve social
problems constructively. Also
called social competence.
social studies The integrated
study of the history, geography,
economics, political science,
and other related aspects of
societies of the past, present,
and future.
Case Study
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Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach456
place. In Ms. Hans’ kindergarten, she lays the foundation for engaged citizenry by focus-
ing on social-emotional learning and beginning democracy through voting.
We begin with a discussion of how social-emotional development lays the foun-
dation for all learning. Next, we present an overview of the continuum of social and
emotional development from birth through age 8 and ways teachers can foster children’s
social- emotional learning. Then we discuss social studies content and effective teaching
strategies and curriculum approaches.
Social-Emotional Foundations
of Early Learning
Research demonstrates the critical importance of social-emotional learning for success
in school and life (Landy, 2009; Thompson & Goodman, 2009). Development in the so-
cial and emotional domains is inextricably linked; consequently, they are often referred
to as one concept, social-emotional development. When children establish warm and
responsive relationships with adults—the foundation of social development—they are
more likely to develop important emotional skills such as identifying feelings and learn-
ing to regulate their emotions and express them appropriately. In turn, these emotional
skills pave the way for the development of interpersonal problem solving, an essential
social skill. The following example illustrates the interaction of social and emotional
development.
Louise was overjoyed the day her daughter Kate was born. Louise’s friends tease her
that she never puts Kate down for a moment. Indeed, Louise often holds and gazes
at her baby. She imitates her expressions and, at first, picks her up whenever she
cries. As a newborn baby, Kate is beginning to trust Louise to meet her needs. Kate
generalizes this trust to other adults in her life. In the context of these relationships,
Kate is also learning key emotion words that eventually will help her to regulate
her emotions and, in turn, to solve interpersonal problems. Ever since Kate was a
tiny baby, her parents have labeled her various states with feeling words, “You are
sad. . . . Katie is frustrated. . . . Katie loves her mommy. . . . Katie is happy to see
her grandma. . . .” When Kate begins to talk, her sentences are often peppered with
feeling words that help her parents, teachers, and peers understand what she needs
and how to help.
This snapshot of Kate’s daily life reveals how early interactions contribute to the de-
velopment of essential social-emotional foundations of learning. These include the ability
to express feelings, establish positive relationships, and the overarching construct called
self-regulation.
Emotional Development
Emotional development begins at birth, and continues through the lifespan. Over time,
children’s emotional development is shown in their ability to identify their own and
others’ emotions, to express emotions in a healthy way, and to regulate their feelings
(Epstein, 2009). Emotional literacy refers to recognizing emotions in self and others,
having words to express feelings, and knowing how emotional expression affects others.
Emotional literacy helps children express their emotions appropriately, in personal situ-
ations, such as when they become frustrated or discouraged, and in social contexts, such
as when their feelings are hurt.
Teachers must understand that emotions play a significant role in early learning.
For example, some children are especially sensitive to criticism. Working on a dropout
prevention project for African American and Latino boys in pre-K through third grade,
Ritchie (2011) found that if teachers ignored or embarrassed them in any way, the boys
were likely to disengage mentally or physically from the task at hand and not re-engage
emotional development
Acquisition of important
emotional skills such as iden-
tifying feelings and learning to
regulate emotions and express
them appropriately.
emotional literacy Children’s
ability to identify their own
and others’ emotions, having
words to express emotions in
a healthy way, and to self-
regulate their feelings.
engaged citizens Children
as change agents in schools,
communities, and eventually in
the world.
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Chapter 14 Social-Emotional Learning and Social Studies 457
for up to an hour. Over the course of a school year,
consider how much learning time these children
will lose.
Self-Regulation
When kindergarten teachers are asked to define school
readiness, they rarely mention letters and numbers. In-
stead they inevitably say that children entering school
need to be able to “follow directions, pay attention, de-
lay gratification, and get along with others.” These abil-
ities are aspects of what developmental psychologists
now call self-regulation ( Diamond, 2012).
Experienced teachers understand that self-
regulation is the underlying ability that makes learn-
ing possible in all areas from reading to science. When children are self- regulated, they
control their impulses and pay attention when the teacher gives directions. They are more
likely to think before they speak or act, and not behave impulsively (Diamond, 2012).
Of course, these abilities do not emerge automatically even in the most self-regulated
of children. They develop over time and with experience and support from parents and
teachers.
When children use self-regulation, they manage their thoughts and emotions in
order to control their behavior and impulses and use constructive problem-solving to
achieve their goals (Murray, Rosanbalm, Christopoulos, & Hamoudi, 2014). In fact, a
study of 1,000 children born in the same city in the same year found that children with
less self-control (i.e., less persistent, more impulsive, and poorer attention regulation)
had worse health, earned less, and committed more crimes as adults 30 years later than
did those with more self-control as young children, regardless of IQ, gender, social class,
and family circumstances (Moffitt et al., 2011). Self-regulation in preschool predicts
children’s academic success in the early grades, in both literacy and math, over and above
their intelligence or family backgrounds (Blair & Razza, 2007; McClelland, Acock, &
Morrison, 2006).
Studies such as these provide important guidance for educators. Problems in self-
regulation are strongly related to learning difficulties. Many efforts are underway to close
the achievement gap in schools, but most of them focus on directly teaching academic
skills without attention to the underlying issue of self-regulation. Academic skills are
important but should not be taught in ways that undermine children’s self-regulation and
social-emotional development.
Individual differences in self-regulation are apparent almost at birth (Calkins &
Williford, 2009). Some babies quickly fall into regular patterns of sleep and wakeful-
ness and almost entertain themselves; others struggle mightily to adjust as their parents
become more frustrated and feel more inadequate. Over time, these differences can be
worsened by poor parenting, environmental conditions such as community violence, or
negative school experiences and peer relationships. But on a positive note, these problems
can also be lessened by providing experiences in preschool and early grades that promote
the development of self-regulation.
Social Development
Social development refers to the process by which children learn to form and sustain
positive relationships with adults and other children. Like other domains, social learning
occurs along a developmental continuum, which we describe later in this chapter. Skills
become more complex as children are placed in more demanding social situations such
as early childhood programs, schools, after-school programs, and special interest clubs
and classes.
self-regulation The act
of managing thoughts and
emotions in order to control
behavior and impulses, use
constructive problem-solving,
and achieve goals.
social development Young
children’s ability to form and
sustain positive relationships
with adults and other children.
Self-regulation in preschool has
been found to predict children’s
academic success in the early
grades, in both literacy and math,
over and above their intelligence
or family background.
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Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach458
As children grow, their ability to establish friendships
with peers becomes more important and influences how
they view themselves and the world (Gallagher, 2013;
Gallagher & Sylvester, 2009). Within the context of these
relationships, children learn and practice cooperation, the
ability to form and sustain friendships, and the ability to
solve problems in positive ways. Cooperation with peers
requires that children understand other people’s rights and
perspectives, empathize, and balance their own needs and
desires with those of others. For example, when Mimmo,
Bart, and Chelsea want to play restaurant, they can’t all
be the waiters; they have to figure out who will do what.
Similarly, when Sasha tries to join the group, further coop-
eration is required to see how she will fit in.
Stress in Children’s Lives
Young children today experience considerable stress in their lives, which can negatively
impact their social-emotional development and success in school. About 10% of kinder-
garten children demonstrate some symptoms of emotional behavior problems, and among
low-income children the number approaches 20% (Thompson, 2010). Head Start teachers
report that increasing numbers of children show signs of depression, aggression, and other
emotional difficulties. Brain research reveals that stress causes many of these problems
(Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University, 2007, 2010).
Some childhood stress is actually positive and necessary. Exposure to the typical
moderate stresses of childhood such as starting school or visiting the dentist is a nor-
mal and essential part of healthy development and helps children learn coping skills
(Thompson, 2010). At times, children are exposed to unique but relatively tolerable
stressors such as an illness in the family or an injury to themselves. Although difficult,
these situations can be weathered if they are short-lived and children have the support
of loving relationships with parents and teachers.
However, increasing numbers of children experience what is now called toxic
stress—extreme, prolonged, unrelenting stress without the protection of caring adults
(Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University, 2010). Toxic stress can result
from single events of trauma such as abuse, neglect, natural disaster, or injury. It can also
result from ongoing patterns of trauma and stress such as parental mental illness, danger-
ous neighborhoods, or domestic violence (Zero to Six Collaborative Group, 2010). Child-
hood trauma is not so rare. Research has shown that two-thirds of all adults experienced
at least one traumatic event during their childhood (Felitti et al., 1998). Early trauma has
potential to cause the most harm, as young children often do not have the cognitive and
emotional skills to process and express how the trauma has affected them.
In circumstances in which the traumatic stress is ongoing, it can become toxic.
Trauma or toxic stress cause a child to feel unsafe and includes physiological respons-
es of racing heart, fast breathing, and the release of stress hormones, such as cortisol,
into the body (http://nctsn.org). This constant activation of the stress system can impair
brain development, leading to lifelong problems in behavior, health, and learning (Zero
to Six Collaborative Group, 2010). Infants and toddlers who experience trauma may be
developmentally delayed, display frequent tantrums, and become easily frustrated. They
may have difficulty attaching to caregivers. School-age children who experience trauma
may have difficulty with school skills and peer relationships, sleep problems, and trouble
focusing and organizing their learning—and appear to have ADD/ADHD (American
Academy of Pediatrics, n.d.).
When teachers learn that children in their care have experienced trauma, they need
to draw on all the tools in their strategy toolbox as well as consult with early interven-
tion and mental health professionals. The National Child Traumatic Stress Network
(NCTSN Core Curriculum on Childhood Trauma Task Force, 2012) has resources for
toxic stress Extreme,
prolonged, unrelenting stress
without the protection of caring
adults.
One of the greatest joys of
childhood is making friends.
Having friends contributes to
social-emotional development
and later success in school
and life.
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http://nctsn.org
Chapter 14 Social-Emotional Learning and Social Studies 459
teachers and schools to help understand and support children and families who experi-
ence traumatic stress. Given the prevalence of stress in the lives of children and the power
of early experiences to mitigate it, positive relationships between teachers and children
become more important than ever. Next we turn to a description of the continuum of
typical social-emotional development and how teachers can support children’s social and
emotional competence.
✓ Check Your Understanding 14.1: Social-Emotional Foundations of Early Learning
Continuum of Social and
Emotional Development
In this section, we describe some of the typical social and emotional accomplishments
that occur for children from birth through age 8. These descriptions are followed by
examples of how teachers can support children’s progress. Social-emotional learning is
to a large extent the product of development—relatively predictable, age-related changes
in children. At the same time, social and emotional skills are learned and, therefore, can
be taught.
Infants and Toddlers
The major social-emotional task for babies is the development of a warm and respon-
sive relationship with primary caregivers (Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000). Between birth and
12 months, an indicator of emotional development is the ability to quiet when comforted.
Babies also begin to show preferences for primary caregivers and work to maintain inter-
actions with caregivers. For example, babies imitate caregivers’ gestures and sounds and
also initiate interaction by patting the caregiver or through eye gaze and smiles.
Toward the first birthday, babies show a preference for familiar people. This time
period may also be marked by separation anxiety, in which a child cries when the care-
giver is not in sight or clings to a caregiver in the presence of strangers; such anxiety
diminishes over time. In the second year, toddlers continue to demonstrate a strong
attachment to caregivers and initiate interactions with familiar adults.
Emotional Development in Infants and Toddlers During their first year,
infants experience a range of emotions, starting with expressions of comfort and discomfort,
and emerging into a wide variety of emotions including fear, joy, and frustration. In the sec-
ond and third year of life, toddlers begin to name their own and other’s emotions, and they
demonstrate empathy by noticing how adults or peers feel and trying to comfort them. For
example, Lonnie brings a stuffed animal to Fran-
cie, who is sad because her mommy just left. His
teacher quickly reinforces Lonnie’s behavior:
“What a caring friend you are, Lonnie.”
These first years are also marked by tre-
mendous growth in self-awareness and aware-
ness of others. Infants will observe themselves
in mirrors and notice other’s physical char-
acteristics and when a member of the group
is missing. For example, a toddler may pat a
child’s head to feel her curly hair. They explore
their own body, observing their hands or reach-
ing for their toes; they may explore the face
and body parts of others.
Toddlers begin to identify gender and other
basic similarities and differences, although they
separation anxiety Feeling
a baby experiences when
the caregiver is not in sight;
the baby may cry or cling to
a caregiver in the presence
of strangers; usually occurs
around 8 months of age.
Separation anxiety is a natural
part of social-emotional
development at about 8 to 10
months of age, but it can make
parents anxious as well. What
can teachers do to help ease
this experience for babies and
families?
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Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach460
may think that changing clothes changes their gender. They also begin to test
limits and strive for independence. They notice when others are looking at
them, and they often exaggerate movements or act silly when they are being
watched.
Social Development in Infants and Toddlers During the first
year, babies show interest in other children, particularly siblings, by watch-
ing them and tracking their behavior. They smile spontaneously and show
enjoyment in interactions with peers, as expressed in gestures, facial expres-
sions, and vocalizations. They may reach out to touch other children or grab
their toys. Infants begin to take turns with teachers during play, as in peek-a-
boo, laying a foundation for turn taking with other children, which develops
during the second and third years of life.
Toddlers and 2-year-olds often engage in parallel play, playing next
to each other but not interacting. They observe and imitate another child’s
behavior or activity and, by age 3, they initiate social interactions with peers.
They may approach another child and ask to play, but will also be quick to
assert ownership of toys by saying “Mine.” Between 2 and 3 years of age,
children start to show preferences for familiar playmates.
The Developmental Continuum feature describes social-emotional development in
infants and toddlers and ways that teachers can help promote these competencies.
Preschool and Kindergarten
During preschool and kindergarten, children develop the ability to regulate their emotions
more competently, allowing them to become increasingly adept at building relationships.
Preschoolers begin to try to please adults and use adults for assistance in solving prob-
lems, for getting their needs met, and for emotional support.
Emotional Development in 3- through 5-Year-Olds During these years,
most children become increasingly capable of regulating their own emotions. Most pre-
schoolers can wait for a turn and sometimes, though not always, show patience during
group activities, a skill that improves in kindergarten. With guidance from teachers, most
preschoolers can calm themselves after feeling strong emotions, going to a quiet corner
or requesting a favorite book to be read when upset. At this age, children can associate
emotions with words and facial expressions and use pretend play to understand and
respond to emotions, such as when pretending to be a fierce animal to express negative
emotions.
Preschool and kindergarten children also demonstrate growth in self-concept and
self-esteem. They describe themselves as a person with a mind, body, and feelings, and
they often exert their will and have strong preferences for certain foods, toys, or activities.
They also tend to overestimate their own competence, and experiment with their own
abilities, try new activities, and test limits such as “skipping bars” on the monkey bars at
the playground.
All of the social-emotional skills described here require teachers to provide more or
less assistance, depending on individual children’s needs and abilities.
Social Development in 3- through 5-Year-Olds Enhanced emotional
development and increased self-understanding allow children to develop stronger peer re-
lationships. In fact the preschool and kindergarten years are marked by tremendous growth
in interactions with peers. Children initiate interactions with other children and will make
and maintain a friendship with at least one other child. These relationships contribute to
cognitive and language development and to overall well-being (Buysse, Goldman, West, &
Hollingsworth, 2007). With occasional assistance from teachers, children can share toys
and materials during play and use simple strategies to solve social problems appropriately,
as discussed later in this chapter.
Classroom Connection
As you watch this video illus-
trating the social and emotional
development of infants and
toddlers, reflect on the compe-
tence they demonstrate. How is
their behavior different from what
you might expect from children of
this young age?
parallel play Children play
next to each other, but not with
each other; they may speak,
but don’t really converse.
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Chapter 14 Social-Emotional Learning and Social Studies 461
Preschoolers can give reasons for a position, such as “I don’t want to play right now
because I am tired.” By the end of preschool, children can understand the effects of their
actions on others, as in “I took the marker away from her and now she is crying.” This
accomplishment is essential to interpersonal problem-solving. Read the Developmental
Continuum feature for a description of social-emotional learning in 3- through 5-year-old
children and effective teaching strategies to promote it.
Developmental Continuum
Social-Emotional Development in
Infants and Toddlers
Widely Held Expectations How Teachers Can Help
Bonds and forms attachment with parents and other
special people in life
Encourage and support parent-child relationships
(such as enabling mothers’ breast-feeding),
Enjoys when familiar adult cuddles and talks with them. Hold, cuddle, hug, smile, and laugh with the child.
Exhibits separation anxiety by crying when familiar
caregiver leaves.
Provide environment with consistent, small number of
trustworthy adults.
Establishes an attachment with a consistent adult
other than the primary caregiver.
Respond to child’s emotional and physical needs,
verbal and nonverbal communications.
Explores the environment, but checks in with
caregiver.
Encourage exploration, and reassure child that you are
still present. Reassure child when you leave the setting,
“I’ll be back,” and when you return, “See, I’m back.”
Smiles spontaneously at other children and shows
interest in other children by watching them and
tracking their behavior.
Provide opportunities for children to play and interact
with other children; carefully supervise so that children
don’t hurt each other.
Seeks adult assistance with challenges. Respond positively to child’s questions and calls for
assistance.
Plays side by side with other children at times. Provide enough toys of the same kind so children can
play side by side but don’t have to share.
With adult support, waits for turns during play
(usually 2-year-olds).
Play turn-taking games like pat-a-cake with babies.
Help children learning turn-taking skills: “It’s Curtis’s
turn to sit on my lap. You’re next, Cassie.”
May frustrate easily when unable to achieve a desired
goal (e.g., building tower of blocks).
Observe child for emerging frustration, and offer sup-
port when needed (but not too soon).
Toddlers follow social routines with reminders (e.g.,
put your coat in your cubby).
Encourage independence and reinforce learning of so-
cial routines (“Thank you for putting your coat away!”).
Sources: Based on North Carolina Foundations for Early Learning and Development,
by North Carolina Foundations Task Force, 2013, Raleigh, NC: Author; Washington
State Early Learning and Development Benchmarks, by State of Washington, 2012,
retrieved February 22, 2015, from http://www.del.wa.gov/publications/development/docs/
guidelines .
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Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach462
Widely Held Expectations How Teachers Can Help
Demonstrates affection and comfort with significant
adults.
Warmly welcome and return appropriate affection.
Begins to self-regulate attention, feelings, and
behavior, and sometimes needs adult support.
Model calmness and patience. Teach children words to
use to express emotions, and help them practice these
skills in real-life situations.
Seeks adult support for emotional, physical and social
support, including solving problems and approval.
Support and validate child’s feelings and efforts
at cooperation, and reinforce the child’s positive
problem-solving skills.
Enjoys learning and enthusiastically plays with other
children.
Provide opportunities for child to engage in a variety
of play activities with other children (e.g., dramatic
play, art projects, free play outside, and dance and
movement).
Makes and maintains a friendship with one or more
children.
Provide opportunities for children to choose activities
that interest them, the time to pursue these activities,
and the freedom to interact with preferred playmates
who share similar interests.
Give ample time for children to be silly and enjoy each
other’s company.
Read stories about friendship and discuss the behav-
iors that made the character in the story a good friend.
Demonstrates understanding of social rules in interac-
tions with children; shares materials and toys during
play, increasingly cooperative.
Acknowledge cooperation when child plays with other
children and provide opportunities for children to share
materials.
Demonstrates awareness that their behavior can affect
others’ feelings.
Provide opportunities for dramatic play so that child
can practice taking another’s role or perspective
(“Pretend you’re Gera and can’t have a turn. How do
you feel?”).
Describes reasons for feelings, and uses strategies for
managing strong emotions.
Name and discuss feelings throughout the day (e.g.,
“You’re disappointed because . . . ”).
Uses social skills such as sharing, taking turns, and
resolving conflicts in interactions with other children.
When there is a conflict between two children,
demonstrate empathy for both children.
Demonstrates awareness of group membership (“I’m
a boy”) and acknowledges own abilities (“I’m good at
soccer”).
Provide opportunities for children to describe and
see positive images of their own cultural and physical
characteristics.
Sources: Based on North Carolina Foundations for Early Learning and Development, by
North Carolina Foundations Task Force, 2013; Washington State Early Learning and
Development Benchmarks, State of Washington, 2012, retrieved February 22, 2015,
from http://www.del.wa.gov/publications/development/docs/guidelines .
Developmental Continuum
Social-Emotional Learning in
3- through 5-Year-Olds
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Chapter 14 Social-Emotional Learning and Social Studies 463
Primary Grades
During the primary grades, peer relationships become increasingly im-
portant. Most primary-grade children show loyalty to friends. They sustain
friendships by cooperating, helping, sharing, and suggesting new ideas for
play. At this age, most children prefer friends of the same gender.
Interpersonal problem solving becomes more complex during the primary
grades. Children attempt to settle disputes or solve problems with another
child through negotiation, addressing their own rights as well as the other
child’s needs, sometimes needing assistance from teachers. Children in pri-
mary grades can participate in cooperative groups and take different roles
at times—sometimes leader, sometimes follower. Primary-grade children
become excessively concerned about fairness and can recognize stereotypes
and culturally or linguistically unfair or biased behavior.
In terms of self-esteem, a major development during the primary years is that chil-
dren gain the ability to realistically judge and compare their own academic, physical, and
social abilities to those of other children. Unlike preschoolers, who overestimate their
competence, primary-grade children may judge themselves too harshly; for example,
“I’m not smart like Natalie” or “I can’t play baseball.” Read the Developmental Contin-
uum feature for a description of social-emotional development and learning during the
primary grades and effective ways teachers can support this learning.
Teachers need to understand the continua of social-emotional development to have
realistic expectations for children’s behavior and to provide effective amounts and
kinds of assistance. For example, willful behavior on the part of 2-year-olds is typical,
as is strong insistence on fairness among third and fourth graders. Knowledge of the
social-emotional continua can also help teachers to assess where individual children
are on the trajectory and to decide how to intervene when they are not making expect-
ed progress. Although we offer these descriptions of “typical” social and emotional
learning, teachers need to remember that there is no such thing as a typical child, as we
discuss next.
Diversity and Social-Emotional Development
Individual and cultural differences play significant roles in how children express their
emotions and how they behave in groups. Individual differences are present even at birth,
and children’s experiences at home, in child care, and at school make a big difference
in how and when they develop these abilities. Because children’s social and emotional
development are linked to the contexts, cultures, and relationships in which they grow
and learn, adults play a critical role in shaping children’s positive social and emotional
development.
Cultural Diversity The values and practices of each child’s family and community
shape the feelings, knowledge, and expectations that influence social and emotional de-
velopment (Hanson & SooHoo, 2007). For example, in China, where children are encour-
aged to “fit in” socially, shy behavior is seen as desirable, whereas in the United States,
where “standing out” is acceptable, shyness is often associated with negative qualities
such as anxiety or social isolation. Similarly, Waylon’s enthusiasm for being the “Big
Cheese” might not be shared by a child from another cultural group.
Children need to develop respect for people with ideas and experiences that are both
similar to and different from their own. Lulu’s best friend in preschool is Bethel. When
Lulu invites Bethel to her birthday party and Bethel doesn’t come, Lulu’s feelings are hurt.
Angela, the girls’ teacher, notices that Lulu doesn’t want to play with Bethel anymore.
Angela explains to Lulu that Bethel’s family does not celebrate birthdays or holidays. Her
not attending Lulu’s party doesn’t mean that Bethel doesn’t like Lulu. Angela draws a par-
allel to Lulu’s family being vegetarian. When this is explained to Lulu, she understands
and readily seeks out Bethel as a playmate again.
Classroom Connection
Listen to the primary grade chil-
dren in this video as they cleverly
describe the essential attributes
of friendship in an imaginary
scenario of creating a recipe for
friendship soup.
http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=H7w7yXkJTu0
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Developmental Continuum
Social-Emotional Learning in the
Primary Grades
Widely Held Expectations How Teachers Can Help
Describes their emotions and the situations
that cause them and demonstrates construc-
tive ways to deal with emotions.
Have children discuss situations that trigger strong emotions
and role-play strategies to cope with them.
Identifies own likes and dislikes. Describes
things they do well and not well.
Help children to make accurate, realistic assessments of their
own competence (“It’s true that this math lesson is hard, but I
can see how hard you’re working and how much you’ve learned
since last week.”).
Understands expectations and responsibility
to promote a safe and productive environ-
ment. Demonstrates understanding of when
to bring issues to adult attention.
Help children feel comfortable in coming to you with ques-
tions and assistance, but also encourage them to try to solve
problems independently.
Model cross-cultural communication and provide strategies for
child to address bias.
Actively address bullying or children’s attempts to exclude others.
Shows loyalty to friends; prefers same-sex
peers.
Provide opportunities for children to play and work with friends
in self-selected groups. At times, organize mixed-gender or other
diverse groups to ensure that children do not limit their interac-
tions or consistently exclude others.
Follows suggestions given by a friend about
how to proceed in their play.
Provide opportunities for children to be part of group activities
(e.g., games, cultural events).
Works with other children to overcome
challenges.
Discuss and demonstrate how different things can be achieved
when children work together (dramatizing a story or building a
model).
Children can read (or be read to) and write stories about actual
people who have overcome challenges, such as Jackie Robinson.
Model and promote respect for diversity in all its forms.
Uses multiple strategies to resolve social
conflicts.
Guide children through conflict resolution.
Support children’s attempts to solve social problems.
Feels empathy for other people and describes
how own actions make others feel and behave.
Recognizes that others may have different
perspectives or feelings than own.
Recognize words and actions that hurt others.
Read or help children read chapter books, such as Charlotte’s Web,
that depict emotionally challenging events or social situations.
Demonstrate and provide opportunities for children to take
another’s perspective before making decisions (e.g., “What would
Ella think if you gave her your book?”).
Participates cooperatively in large- and
small-group activities, play, and games.
Provide opportunities for small-group projects (creating a map,
planning and carrying out an experiment).
Encourage participation in group games, allowing children to
make or modify rules.
Communicates about others’ feelings. Provide opportunities for children to share and discuss feelings.
Discuss why a character reacts as he or she did in a story,
taking cultural differences into consideration.
Source: Based on Assessing and Guiding Young Children’s Development and Learning,
Enhanced e-text, 6th edition, by O. McAfee, D. J. Leong, and E. Bodrova, 2015, Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
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Chapter 14 Social-Emotional Learning and Social Studies 465
Healthy social-emotional development is in-
fluenced by the match between children’s feelings
and expressive behaviors and the expectations of
the social situation in which they find themselves.
Teachers need to provide a respectful atmosphere
in which cultural, religious, racial, linguistic, age,
gender, and ability differences are valued.
Children with Disabilities Children who
have disabilities, developmental delays, or who
are at risk for developmental delays may require
special attention and support to promote their
social-emotional development. Many children with
disabilities face particular challenges in developing successful peer relationships. Children
with even mild delays tend to participate less in sustained play, spend more time alone
when other children are playing, express more sadness when playing with other children,
get angry more, and use less effective conflict resolution strategies (Strain & Joseph, 2006).
Successful inclusion requires that children with disabilities actively participate and
that their needs are met. Among those important needs is the need for positive social rela-
tionships with other children. Indeed, early friendships are the most powerful single pre-
dictor of long-term adjustment for children with disabilities (Strain & Schwartz, 2001).
To consider social-emotional development through the wider lens of special education,
read the Including All Children: Fostering Friendships in the Inclusive Classroom feature.
Successful inclusion requires
that children with disabili-
ties fully participate in the
classroom community. Making
friends is especially important
to their healthy development.
Children from ages 3 to 5, especially those with dis-
abilities, may not naturally acquire the skills to function
socially with their peers, which can be a barrier to de-
veloping friendships. They need teachers to help them.
Young children’s social relationships involve three main
concepts, which occur along a continuum in inclusive
settings: friendships, social acceptance, and social
rejection. More passive than friendship, social accep-
tance occurs when a child is treated as a member of
the group; other children play, smile, and sit beside the
child throughout the day. By contrast, social rejection
occurs when peers do not choose to play with a child or
outwardly refuse the child’s requests to join in their play.
Not only are friendships a critical component and pre-
dictor of positive mental health, but children develop
and learn important social and communication skills
in the context of social relationships. Therefore, it is
critically important that teachers use proven strategies
to promote friendships among children with disabilities
and their typically developing classmates. Following
are effective strategies teachers can use to facilitate
social relationships in inclusive settings:
• Teachers and peers model specific behaviors for
children with disabilities.
• Pair two children to complete classroom jobs or
during transitions (walk outside together, do errands).
• Compose small groups in order to provide peer
models for children with disabilities.
• Read books and have class discussions about
friendship, coping with difficult feelings, express-
ing anger and disappointment, problem solving,
and conflict resolution.
• Use puppets to model problem solving and friend-
ship skills during whole-group discussions.
• Set up a “buddy” center during choice time
where children use toys and games that require
two children to play.
• Arrange “buddy” days where teachers pair children
with disabilities and typically developing peers.
• Use materials that require social interaction
(for example, a wagon or board game).
• Prompt children to play together (for example,
suggest reversing roles—“You have been the
patient, how about being the doctor now.”).
• Support children to rehearse and practice in
advance (for example, before choice time ask
children what they are going to do, who they are
going to play with).
Source: Based on “Social Skills Interventions for Young
Children with Disabilities,” by S. Vaughn et al., 2003,
Remedial and Special Education, 24(1), 2–15.
Including All Children
Fostering Friendships in the Inclusive Classroom
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✓ Check Your Understanding 14.2: Continuum of Social and Emotional Development
The Role of Play in
Social-Emotional Learning
The importance of play is very apparent in the previous descriptions of the continuum
of social-emotional learning. Because peer relationships are such a critical component
of social-emotional development, play is an especially important context for children to
acquire and practice self-regulation and social skills.
Emotional Development and Play
Play has long been linked with emotional development and helps children in several ways
(Hyson, 2004). Play provides a context for children to address their fears, develop coping
skills and resilience, and feel in control of their environment.
Play and Fears During the preschool years and as children’s cognitive development
progresses, they acquire a well-developed imagination. Along with this new flexibility
in thinking comes an increase in their fears. Three-, 4-, and 5-year-olds may be afraid of
animals, the dark, monsters, or whatever they can conjure up. Given the dangers in today’s
world—strangers, violence, and abuse—their fears may be real as well as imaginary.
Consider this example:
Four-year-old Taylor is afraid of dogs, especially the big boxer that just moved in
next door. He cries every time he leaves home and doesn’t want to go to school any-
more. After talking to Taylor’s mother, Ms. Jerome purchases a set of plastic dogs
for the classroom and sets up a pretend dog training school. Taylor gradually begins
to play with the plastic dogs and Ms. Jerome overhears him saying to the boxer,
“Bad dog. Don’t jump. Stay in your yard. No barking.” After a few days, Taylor
takes over the dog training school, and tells the stuffed dogs that they better be
good or he will tell their mommies. Taylor’s mother also talks to the neighbor about
controlling the dog, but his play experiences at school help Taylor work through
his fear.
In play, children like Taylor can pretend to be mighty and strong and conquer their fears.
They fantasize that they are the giant animal or the monster, thus giving themselves power
over the feared creature.
Building Coping Skills and Resilience As we described earlier, young chil-
dren experience all kinds of stresses in their everyday lives: going to child care when they
want to stay home, moving to a new house, going to the doctor, and so forth. At times,
extraordinary stressors occur—serious illness or injury in the family, homelessness, ob-
serving or being a victim of violence. Play helps children develop the ability to cope with
life’s traumas and acquire resilience (Honig, 2010).
Play can serve as a cathartic activity for children to express the negative emotions
that life events precipitate. When children are angry, they can take out their feelings by
pounding playdough or hammering nails. When they are tense, they can pretend to be
a rag doll or curl up like a kitten. Three-year-old Grace has a new baby brother, Miles.
Her mother assures her teacher that Grace just loves the baby and isn’t jealous at all. But
during playtime, her teacher observes Grace shaking a baby doll and saying in a harsh
voice, “Get in your bed and stop crying.” Obviously, Grace knows she can’t treat baby
Miles this way. By playing out her resentment and jealousy at school, however, she can
cope more effectively with this major change in her life.
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Chapter 14 Social-Emotional Learning and Social Studies 467
Gaining Control through Play In general, young children’s
lives are not in their control. Grown-ups and older children make them
do things that they don’t want to do: eat what is served, pick up their toys,
get dressed, go outside, take a nap. Sometimes they resist even when they
want to do something simply because it wasn’t their idea.
Children love to play (and it is so emotionally supportive) because
it is child initiated and controlled (Johnson, Christie, & Wardle, 2005;
Wiltz & Klein, 2001). They decide when to start and stop, what to do,
and whom to do it with. If teachers intrude on children’s play—try to
take over or direct the play to their own ends—children will usually
stop playing. It’s no longer fun. Child-initiated play affords children
power in a safe environment and also helps them learn to make choices
and live with the consequences of their choices. If Chloe chooses to
build with blocks, she may not have time to do puzzles or paint at the
easel.
Social Development and Play
Children’s play has been a topic of study for centuries. Early in the 20th
century, researchers began to systematically observe and record how young
children’s social interactions during play changed over time. Now-classic
studies conducted by Parten (1933) identified four developmental levels
of social play and approximate ages when each type of play dominates, as presented in
Table 14.1. Parten also identified unoccupied and onlooker behavior as two situations in
which children do not engage in play.
Social development begins in
play. As you can see, these
toddlers are parallel playing,
a first step in learning to play
with other children.
Based on systematic observation of children over time, this chart identifies and describes four developmental
levels of social play.
Type of Social Play Approximate Age Example
Solitary play—children play alone, usually
with toys or objects.
2 to 2-1/2 years old (according to Parten)
All ages (as understood today)
Two-year-old Jeannette pounds her plastic
hammer on her workbench or tucks her
baby doll into bed.
Five-year-old Imelda pretends to be a
doctor, dresses up in a lab coat with a
stethoscope, and starts treating the dolls
and stuffed animals.
Parallel play—children play next to but
not with each other. They may speak but
don’t really converse.
2-1/2 to 3-1/2 years old Three-year-olds Nina and Dora sit next
to each other with their dolls. Nina says,
“My baby is sick.” Dora says, “I’m going
to grandma’s house.”
Associative play—children play and share
with each other, usually one other child.
3-1/2 to 4-1/2 years old Four-year-olds Chris and Cory are each
building a tower with blocks. Cory
says, “You need a pointy one on top.
Here’s one.”
Cooperative play—children assume
different roles and share a purpose for
the play.
4-1/2 years and older Four preschoolers build a bus with the
hollow blocks. Sasha says, “I’m the driver,
but I need a ticket taker. You take the
tickets, Rinaldo.” Toya states, “Me and
Isaac will be passengers. Take us to the
circus. Then I get to drive.”
Source: Based on “Social Participation among Preschool Children,” by M. Parten, 1933, Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 27, 243–269.
TAblE 14.1 Levels of Social Play
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Although most play researchers still agree that children engage in these different
types of social play, they do not agree about the order or the ages at which children
progress in their play (Johnson et al., 2005). For example, parallel play, where children
play side by side but do not interact, is now considered the least mature form of play,
rather than solitary play. Older children continue to engage in solitary play and, at
times, switch back and forth between cooperative and solitary play. Solitary play can
involve toys/objects or make-believe. For example, Toya enjoys the cooperative sce-
nario of taking the trip, but afterward she sits by herself and pretends to drive the bus.
Even after children develop more socially complex play abilities, they will use all types
of play at times. Imelda may share her stethoscope with Lora, who also
wants a turn—associative play—without cooperating in the shared goal of
running a hospital.
In fact, solitary play may be evidence of a personality trait; some people
are just more social than others. But if children never play with others, they
miss the valuable learning opportunities that play affords. Additionally, if
children do not move beyond solitary play, this may signal a difficulty in
children’s social development (Johnson et al., 2005). Children with disabil-
ities, such as autism, can also benefit from teachers’ support in developing
play skills (Wong, 2013). Teachers need to be aware of children’s play pat-
terns and intervene if necessary; for example, if children watch others play
and appear to want to join in but don’t know how or are rejected by their
peers, teachers need to model the words to say or suggest other strategies
to use.
✓ Check Your Understanding 14.3: The Role of Play in Social-
Emotional Learning
Effective Social-Emotional
Curriculum and Teaching
Teachers and children interact constantly in early childhood programs, so social- emotional
development is naturally and almost invisibly interwoven into the day. Because of this,
some people don’t think it necessary to include social and emotional development in
a planned curriculum. However, the increase in challenging behaviors and emotional
difficulties among very young children has led to the need for a more intentional approach
to social-emotional curriculum.
Social and Emotional
Curriculum Goals
As discussed earlier, the main goal of a social-emotional
curriculum is to promote children’s social competence and
self-regulation. Widely-used comprehensive curriculum
models such as HighScope (Epstein & Hohmann, 2012)
and Tools of the Mind (Bodrova & Leong, 2007) integrate
these goals throughout. In recent years, more focused ev-
idence-based curricula have been developed that include
whole- and small-group teacher-guided lessons designed to
be incorporated in a larger curriculum framework. Among
these curricula are The Incredible Years (Webster-Stratton,
1999); I Can Problem Solve (Shure, n.d.), and Preschool
PATHS (Domitrovich, Greenberg, Cortes, & Kusche,
solitary play Children play
alone, usually with toys or
objects.
associative play Children play
and share with each other,
usually one other child.
cooperative play Children
assume different roles and
share a purpose for the play.
Classroom Connection
The children in this video are
working together to build a house.
As you watch, consider the ways
in which play can enhance young
children’s social-emotional skills.
What could an effective teacher
do to help the boys who don’t
actively participate?
Intentional teachers help
children learn many alterna-
tive strategies to solve social
problems among themselves.
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Chapter 14 Social-Emotional Learning and Social Studies 469
2005). Research finds that these curricula are effective in improving children’s knowledge
and understanding about emotions, their social problem-solving skills, and their social
behavior (Morris et al., 2014).
Social Problem Solving Children’s problem-solving skills are a key feature in
the development of social competence (Webster-Stratton, 1999). The power of problem
solving lies in three areas. First, these skills travel well with children; they can be used in
any social situation to resolve any number of social dilemmas. Second, these skills pre-
vent challenging behavior. Finally, problem-solving skills allow children to quickly repair
breaches in their relationships with peers, such as typical squabbles over toys, taking
turns, or competition among friends.
Problem solving is a highly effective deterrent to aggression and antisocial behavior.
Consequently, every validated curriculum designed to teach social competence includes
instruction in these skills (Joseph & Strain, 2004). Teachers can help children learn the
following problem-solving steps that are common to most evidence-based curricula (see
the Readings and Websites section at the end of this chapter):
1. What is my problem?
2. What are some solutions?
3. What would happen next?
4. Give the solution a try!
Step 1: What is my problem? As a first step in problem solving, children should be
taught to pay attention to their feelings. When they are experiencing a negative emotion
such as anger or frustration, that is their cue that they have a problem.
After children recognize they have a problem, they need to describe it. This is
why teaching young children an emotional vocabulary is essential for effective problem
solving (Joseph & Strain, 2003a; Webster-Stratton, 1999). Adults and/or puppets can
model the process of describing a problem for children. Initially, children will need
guidance to reframe the situation from the other person’s problem to their own. For
example, instead of “They won’t let me play,” the problem becomes “I want to play
with them.” This reframing, although subtle, helps children generate more appropriate
solutions.
Step 2: What are some solutions? Young children need help generating several
alternative solutions to interpersonal problems. Children who engage in aggression and
antisocial behavior have fewer solutions than their typically developing peers (Joseph,
2002). These children may in fact have a positive solution in their repertoire, but tend to
have only one, such as saying “please.” Their other solution is aggression, which in the
short run is often more effective and efficient at getting their needs met.
Children who have more solutions to choose from usually solve the problem
before resorting to aggression. For these reasons, teachers need to teach children alter-
native solutions to common problems and have children generate their own solutions.
Because no one solution is always effective, the key is to teach children to generate as
many different solutions as possible, as illustrated in the following example:
Preschool teacher Ms. Trina brings hypothetical as well as real problems to the group
and challenges the class to come up with multiple solutions to the problem. Yesterday,
Ms. Trina asked the class what they would do if they were feeling lonely and wanted
to join a group of children playing on the Big Toy structure.
Tobias: You could ask them.
Ms. Trina: Yes, you could ask them. That is a solution. What else could you try?
Savannah: If they said no, you could find another friend to play.
Ms. Trina: Yes, that is another solution. So far we have two solutions. Let’s try to
think of five more.
Step 3: What would happen next? After children generate many alternative solutions
to problems, they can begin to evaluate consequences. Teachers ask, “What would happen
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Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach470
next?” Three questions can guide a child’s decision to determine if the consequences
would be good or bad (Webster-Stratton, 1999):
• Will this solution keep our bodies, feelings, and things safe?
• Is the solution fair?
• How will everyone feel?
Once again, teachers can use role-play to help children learn these strategies. Feeling
satisfied with the number of diverse solutions the children generated, Miss Trina helps
them evaluate the consequences of solutions, using a puppet to introduce
the three criteria for evaluating solutions. For example, the puppet demon-
strates their solution of taking turns, and then asks the children, “Is it
safe?” Aaron and Javier shout, “Yes!” The puppet congratulates them on
good thinking and then demonstrates another solution, grabbing toys. The
puppet asks, “Is it safe?” When the children respond, “No,” the puppet
asks, “Why not?”
Step 4: Give the solution a try! At this step, children are taught to act
on the best solution that they generated and what to do if a solution does not
work. When a prosocial solution does not work, children can draw on the oth-
er solutions they generated in Step 2 that might have positive consequences.
When teachers focus on building problem-solving skills, children are likely
to begin supporting and encouraging each other’s efforts.
Solve Problems in the Moment Many unanticipated social-emo-
tional problems occur throughout each day. Teachers need to assist children
with problem solving on a moment-to-moment basis. At times, it’s enough for teachers to
anticipate a problem and be nearby to prompt a child through the problem-solving steps.
For example, 6-year-old Oralie got off the bus this morning with a scowl on her face. Her
teacher keeps an eye on her, and when Oralie squabbles with Clancy over the computer,
her teacher is there to encourage them to think of and try various solutions.
Children need support from teachers to remember the problem-solving steps and to
stay in the situation. Those who are not skilled problem solvers may be prone to flee.
Others may lose control of their temper and have an emotional meltdown. Teachers need
to be equipped with strategies to support children through these difficult moments. Recent
research suggests that mindfulness-based practices are one such strategy that can be used
in classrooms. Mindfulness refers to noticing one’s sensations, thoughts, and feelings in
the present moment, without judgment. When children are taught to notice their breathing
and bodily sensations and emotions—in the present moment—they may develop bet-
ter self-regulation (Zelazo & Lyons, 2012). They may even develop better cognitive and
social skills (Flook, Goldberg, Pinger, & Davidson, 2015). Another research-based strat-
egy that helps children respond to stressful situations, the Turtle Technique, is described
in the What Works feature.
Relationships with Peers Mr. Wilson’s kindergarten class meeting begins with a
question: “Do you know how to make a new friend?” Hands shoot up immediately and
children chant, “I do, I do.” Almost whispering, Mr. Wilson says, “We don’t need hands yet.
Now stop and think for a second.” The children know this routine by now. After a few sec-
onds, Mr. Wilson calls on children in turn and most of them say some variation of “play with
them.” So Mr. Wilson asks, “How would you invite a friend to play?” and he writes down
their ideas to post on the wall: What can we play? Want to go to the park? Do you like Clay
Boy? Want to play frog? and on and on as their ideas become more creative and detailed.
Mr. Wilson’s planned lesson is to help the children practice self-regulation and friend-
ship skills in advance. By asking the children to think before they answer, he encourages
impulse control. By posting their ideas, he provides a scaffold to revisit when children
need to work on friendship skills later.
mindfulness Noticing one’s
sensations, thoughts, and feel-
ings in the present moment,
without judgment.
Classroom Connection
In this video, you observe a
well-established, research-based
social-emotional curriculum, The
Incredible Years, in action. What
do you think are the benefits of
using a focused curriculum such
as this in addition to promoting
skills through play and other daily
interactions?
https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=Y3LwBiXWmIQ
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http://https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y3LwBiXWmIQ
http://https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y3LwBiXWmIQ
Chapter 14 Social-Emotional Learning and Social Studies 471
Social-Emotional Competence in the Whole Group On the wall in
Ms. Colello’s inclusive preschool classroom is the list of rules depicted in Figure 14.1.
It is easy to see that these rules were generated by the children and that Ms. Colello
respected their exact words. By establishing the rules together, children gain a sense of
ownership and are more likely to remember and abide by them. Thinking and articulating
them in advance promotes self-regulation and commitment to caring about each other and
their school.
A major goal of the Far Hills Elementary School is to create a school-wide com-
munity of learners. The principal and teachers have high expectations for academic
achievement but they also know that learning is founded on social-emotional devel-
opment. They have created a school culture of caring and compassion. At every grade
level, children are expected to practice three acts of kindness every day—whether hold-
ing the door for someone, saying you’re sorry for interrupting, or just smiling at a new
student. The primary-grade children keep a running list of acts of kindness and are
striving to reach 100.
The foundation of active citizenship is the ability to establish positive relationships
with other people and solve social problems. In the Promoting Play feature, learn how
a teacher used play with board games to support the social-emotional learning for her
What Works
The Turtle Technique
Four-year-old Maxim has been in preschool for only a few weeks.
It is his first group experience and, as an only child, he has not
been around other children very often and has never had to share
his toys. Maxim tends to play alone and will spend 20 minutes or
more with playdough, which is his favorite activity. One day, Nate
sits down beside Maxim and reaches for some playdough and plas-
tic molds. Maxim immediately pulls the toys out of Nate’s hands
and pushes him away. When Nate resists, Maxim loses control
entirely; he falls on the floor and wails that he wants to go home.
He is inconsolable until snack time distracts him from his anger.
When Maxim’s mother comes to pick him up at the end of the
day, the teacher, Ms. Gallo, tells her about the incident and his
mother worries that Maxim is too immature for preschool. Ms. Gallo,
who has taught preschool for many years, reassures her that pre-
school is where Maxim needs to be to learn to regulate his emotions
and express them more constructively. She explains that in the
future she will use a research-based strategy, the Turtle Technique.
When a teacher notices a child getting agitated and upset she
can cue the child to “calm down” by remembering the Turtle Tech-
nique. The Turtle Technique was originally developed to teach adults
anger management skills, and then was successfully adapted and
integrated into social skills curricula for school-age and preschool
children. The basic steps of the Turtle Technique are as follows:
1. Recognize that you feel angry.
2. Think “STOP.”
3. Go into your “shell” and take three deep breaths and think
calming, coping thoughts: “It was an accident. I can calm
down and think of good solutions. I am a good problem solver.”
4. Come out of your “shell” when
calm and think of some solutions
to the problem.
Teaching the Turtle Technique to young children can occur
during large- and small-group times. A turtle puppet is helpful
and keeps children engaged during the lesson. The teacher can
begin by introducing the turtle to the class. After the children get
a chance to say hello and perhaps give a gentle pat, the teacher
shares the turtle’s special trick for calming down. The turtle
explains a time when he got upset (selecting an incident familiar
to the children is best). He demonstrates how he thinks to himself
“STOP,” then goes in his shell and takes three deep breaths. Then
he thinks to himself, “I can be calm and think of some solutions
to solve my problem.” When he is calm, he comes out of his shell
and is ready to solve the problem peacefully with the teacher near-
by for support.
Rather than singling out Maxim for instruction, the next day,
Ms. Gallo uses the turtle puppet to teach the technique to all of
the children. During center time, she reminds children to practice
the technique when they feel frustrated or angry. It takes several
weeks for Maxim to successfully use the technique to calm him-
self. But in the meantime, Nate is more successful in playing near
him, and soon they are best friends.
Source: Based on “The Turtle Technique: An Extended Case Study of
Self-Control in the Classroom,” by A. Robin, M. Schneider, & M. Dolnick,
1976, Psychology in the Schools, 13, 449–453.
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Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach472
energetic second graders. We now turn to the related area of the curriculum in which
children see these skills in action in themselves and other people—social studies.
✓ Check Your Understanding 14.4: Effective Social-Emotional Curriculum and
Teaching
FIGURE 14.1 Classroom Rules Generated by Preschoolers
When children themselves generate the classroom rules, as these preschoolers did, they are more likely to
feel a sense of ownership and abide by them.
1) There are no bad guys in our school.
2) Always tell the truth.
3) Keep the toys and books safe.
4) Destroying your friends‛ is not ok.
5) Try to be helpful.
6) Listen to all the teachers and always do
what they tell you to do.
7) Mistakes are ok.
Effective Social Studies
Curriculum and Teaching
Positive social-emotional development is integrally connected to other areas of devel-
opment, such as language, and to learning curriculum content, particularly in social
studies. In Chapter 10, we described a model for curriculum planning that draws on
content knowledge from the disciplines as well as knowledge of child development.
Social studies content comes from the subject matter disciplines of history, geography,
political science, and economics. These provide the key concepts—the “big ideas”—
and processes that children need to learn. Understanding typical patterns and sequences
of child development determines which of these concepts to include in the curriculum
for different ages. In addition, knowing children’s predictable interests and capabilities
makes it possible to teach relatively complex concepts in ways that are meaningful and
accessible for children.
For example, one big idea in social studies is that institutions such as the family,
community, and government play key roles in individuals’ lives. At the college level, these
concepts are part of courses in sociology and political science. By contrast, in preschool,
teachers tap into children’s natural interest in their families as a theme for organizing cur-
riculum and teaching how people depend on and help each other. This same topic can be
explored in greater complexity as children get older. First graders might study how their
community supports families by investigating if the park is accessible for persons with
disabilities and, if not, contacting town council members to call for change.
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Chapter 14 Social-Emotional Learning and Social Studies 473
What Is Social Studies?
Social studies is not a single topic or field of study. According to the National Council for
the Social Studies (NCSS), social studies is the “integrated study of the social sciences
and humanities to promote civic competence. . . . The primary purpose of social studies
is to help young people make informed and reasoned decisions for the public good as
citizens of a culturally diverse, democratic society in an interdependent world” (NCSS,
2010, p. 1).
Social studies includes the political, economic, cultural, and environmental aspects
of societies of the past, present, and future. Children learn about their community and the
world as well as developing skills in problem solving, decision making, collaboration,
collecting and analyzing information, and making informed judgments. Above all, the so-
cial studies help children become responsible, participating citizens, whether in their play
group, the school, the community, or the world. As we see, there is considerable overlap
between the goals inherent in teaching social-emotional learning and in social studies.
Learning to Get Along Using Board Games
Elena loves her class of 25 urban, diverse second
graders. They are curious and energetic, and really
enjoy problem solving. They become particularly
engaged within math problems, board games, and
passionate discussions. Recently, several of the
children had disagreements on the school bus that
ended in fights, and brought their disagreements
into the classroom. Their disagreements focused on
fairness—who was first in line and who “budged”—
and power—who was the strongest and should be
the “leader.” Their disagreements became louder
and more passionate, and Elena realizes that she
needs to intervene. While she knows social studies is
the perfect context for some structured social-emo-
tional learning, she also knows that she would not
be successful just telling this group of children rules
about how others should be treated. She decides to
combine this group’s love of board games and dis-
cussion to create a playful social learning game.
Elena takes an old board game and repurposes it,
creating a game to support discussions and prob-
lem solving around social challenges. Children can
choose a “challenge” card that introduces a social
problem, such as, “Another kid gets in front of you in
the bus line. You tell him he should go to the back,
and not budge, but he ignores you, and stays in
front of you. What might you do?” Children think of
solutions, and then pitch them to the cardholder. The
cardholder considers the answers and may choose
from among them, or choose some alternative an-
swers provided on “solution” cards. For an answer to
be considered, it has to (1) be nonviolent, (2) respect
all parties, and (3) be one that all can “live with.”
Elena introduces and explains the game during
social studies, and puts it out for center time. She
makes sure that it is available while children play.
She ensures that everyone has a chance to play the
first week and holds a class discussion to name
the game, adjust the rules, and add to the social
problems. She is a bit surprised to see how excited
the children are about the game, and how enthusi-
astically they add new cards to the social challeng-
es. Every Friday, they discuss the “Do Right” game,
and often add new skills to the solution cards. For
example, one Friday session leads to discussion of
“I statements,” phrases used to help express how
situations make people feel. During the next week,
she hears children using I statements in their game
play (“When you _____, I feel _____.”). Over the
remainder of the school year, the children enjoy
playing the game, and share many heated discus-
sions over “right” ways to act toward others, and to
protect themselves. And their “play” practices begin
to show up in real-life social situations. The bus
driver reports fewer conflicts, and playground dis-
agreements are more often solved without help from
adults. Elena reflects happily on one more example
of how play is an excellent context for learning.
Promoting Play
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Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach474
Social Studies Content Goals
Although social studies includes a vast amount of
content, a relatively small share of curriculum time is
allotted to it, especially in primary grades (McGuire,
2007). So what can and should children learn about
social studies in the early years? The NCSS (2010)
suggests thematic strands that serve as the basis
for social studies standards in many states. Each
theme includes concepts that are most easily under-
stood as well as relevant and engaging for young
learners. Table 14.2 lists nine social studies themes
and key concepts for young learners.
In the sections that follow, we brief ly describe
many of the themes and ways teachers can help
children learn key social studies concepts.
Foster Children’s Sense of Identity A major goal of the social studies for
young children is to help them develop a positive identity. Children need to understand
that they are unique, but that they also have some commonalities with other children.
General principles for helping young children develop a sense of identity include:
• Have children share information about their interests and families.
• Provide opportunities for children to make appropriate and varied decisions.
• Delight in children’s accomplishments and explorations.
• Ensure that children can see themselves in books, pictures, and play materials.
• Help children distinguish people and relationships.
Value Diversity An overarching goal of social studies is to create an engaged cit-
izenry in which democratic values are an essential element of early education. James
Banks (2008), director of the Center for Multicultural Education at the University of
Washington, coined the term equity pedagogy, the idea that teaching about differences
needs to include teaching about oppression, equity, and the rights of diverse people, as
this example illustrates:
Gail and Jim co-teach in a preschool classroom and decide to read some classic fairy
tales. Fully aware that fairy tales often convey racism, sexism, and ageism, the two
decide to incorporate the goal of teaching about equity. After reading versions of
Sleeping Beauty and Cinderella, Jim asks the children why they think the princesses
always have blonde hair and light skin. The children decide that this was because the
author chose to draw only white people. The class collectively decides to “rewrite”
and illustrate the fairy tales, featuring characters of color. The children also reenact
the stories with princesses saving princes. In this example, Jim and Gail are teaching
children to value diversity and also to think critically about books, movies, television,
and other media.
Learning about diversity often focuses on differences; however, children need to under-
stand that people are similar as well as different. The Milestones Project, described in the
Culture Lens feature, is designed to accomplish this important goal.
Understand Families and Communities Helping young children develop a
sense of self and a positive identity begins with learning about the important people in their
environment. A wide variety of activities help children think about who is in their family—
immediate and extended—and community. These themes date back to the widening
horizons approach to social studies curriculum developed by Lucy Sprague Mitchell and
incorporated in the Bank Street approach (Mitchell & David, 1992). This approach to
curriculum planning is designed to begin where “children are” and then expand outward.
equity pedagogy The idea
that teaching about differenc-
es needs to include teaching
about oppression and equity.
widening horizons
approach Approach to social
studies curriculum planning
designed to begin “where
children are” and then expand
outward.
Social-emotional learning and
social studies during early
childhood lay the foundation
for children to become engaged
citizens in their community and
the world.
identity Characteristics that
individuals recognize as con-
stituting their sense of self and
belonging to a group.
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M14_BRED6702_03_SE_C14.indd 474 10/7/15 5:17 PM
Chapter 14 Social-Emotional Learning and Social Studies 475
Although the basic concept of widening horizons is still relevant, social studies should
not be limited to immediate, firsthand experiences. Children’s horizons are and can be
much wider today. Consider how the widening horizons approach is used in the following
example:
Lily Nguyen teaches in an inclusive preschool classroom. For a study about fami-
lies, she plans a project that families can work on together. Lily sends home colorful
construction paper, child-sized scissors, glue sticks, crayons, stickers, and directions
to trace one hand from each person in the family, decorate it, and then glue it to the
large piece of construction paper. When the hand pages come back, Lily is delighted.
The families are very creative and many note that they had great fun. After laminating
the pages and compiling them into a book, Lily shares the completed project with the
children, stopping after each page to count and discuss the members of each family.
The children then help graph the number of family members each child has.
Social studies in early childhood integrates several traditional subject matter disciplines and translates them
into developmentally appropriate, key concepts for children to learn.
Theme and Traditional Discipline(s) Big Ideas from the Discipline Key Concepts for Young Learners
Individual Development and Identity
(Psychology)
Personal identity is shaped by one’s
culture, by groups, and by institutional
influences.
Developing a positive self-concept and
feelings of self-efficacy; making and
keeping friends.
Individuals, Groups, and Institutions
(Sociology, Political Science)
Institutions such as families, schools,
government agencies, and the courts play
a role in people’s lives.
Different kinds of families, making group
decisions, living in a democracy.
Culture (Anthropology) Aspects of human cultures—art,
language, history, and geography—exhibit
both similarities and differences.
Concepts such as alike and different,
appreciation and respect for diversity in
all of its forms.
Time, Continuity, and Change (History) Children come to understand themselves
in terms of the passage of time and
develop the skills of the historian.
Routines that teach time sequencing;
projects that teach how things change
over time.
People, Places, and Environment
(Geography, Archeology, Ecology)
Children learn to locate themselves in
space, become familiar with landforms
in their environment, and develop an
understanding of the human-environment
interaction.
Mapping for young children, beginning
with picture maps of their classroom and
extending to their community; caring for
and protecting the environment.
Production, Distribution, and Consump-
tion (Economics)
Projects address questions such as
“What is to be produced?” and “How is
production to be organized?”
Understanding that everyone has wants
and needs and how these can be fulfilled.
Science, Technology, and Society (Mathe-
matics, Science, and Technology)
The modern world is greatly affected
by technology and the sciences that
support it.
Becoming familiar with, evaluating, and
using various technologies.
Global Connections (Political Science,
Ecology, Economics)
We have connections and tensions with
the rest of the world.
Being stewards of the environment;
human rights; economic competition.
Civic Ideals and Practices (Political
Science, Civics)
Children need an understanding of civic
ideals and the practices of citizenship.
Involving children in developing the rules
and holding class meetings to resolve
conflicts.
Power, Authority, and Governance
(Political Science, History, Civics)
People work together to bring about
change in democratic societies.
Helping children understand the basic
ideas of fairness, rights, and responsibili-
ties in various contexts.
Source: Based on National Curriculum Standards for Social Studies: A Framework for Teaching, Learning, and Assessment, by National Council for
the Social Studies, 2010, Silver Spring, MD: Author.
TAblE 14.2 Social Studies Themes and Concepts
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Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach476
In this project, Lily has many opportunities to talk about and demonstrate respect for
diverse families. The children come from a variety of family structures, such as single
parents, gay and lesbian families, extended families, and foster families. An additional
subject emerges as Lily’s class discusses families. Some children talk about relatives
who are no longer living. This topic leads into another social studies theme and related
concepts—history and how people change over time.
Learn about the Past and the Concept of Time Social studies can equip
young children with knowledge and understanding of the past and how things, people,
and places change over time. Preschoolers begin learning concepts of time by experienc-
ing a predictable schedule. As children get older, they are increasingly able to mark the
passage of time and how things change over days, weeks, months, and seasons.
Children can also learn to use the methods used by historians, such as identifying
problems and questions, collecting information and artifacts, and observing and reaching
conclusions about the past. Elementary-age children learn about the past by engaging in
When teachers think about culture, the focus is almost
always on differences. However, human beings from di-
verse cultural backgrounds are not only different, they
also share many similarities. The Milestones Project is
designed to focus more attention on the ways people
across cultures are alike.
Deeply concerned over divisive world events such as
ethnic cleansing, religious hatred, and racism, Richard
and Michele Stickel launched the Milestones Project in
1998. They believe that if more people could see how
all humans are alike, people would be more accepting,
understanding, and respectful of each other. To achieve
this goal, the Stickels travel the world, photographing
children of various nationalities, races, religions, and
cultures. They document the same milestones in devel-
opment at about the same points in time. Milestones in-
clude such significant achievements and events as first
step, first tooth, first day of school, and best friend. Pho-
tos depict faces, hats, tongues, and other shared aspects
of the human experience. Subjects also write or dictate
stories about these life experiences. The Milestones web-
site makes the photos and stories available for anyone
in the world to see. They have also published books, in-
cluding an interactive workbook in English and Spanish
coauthored with the Great Kids Head Start program in
Denver, Colorado.
Inspired by the Milestones Project, first-grade teacher
Kay Isaacs decided to do a similar project in her class-
room. Her school is located near a large city in a neigh-
borhood that is sometimes called a mini-United Nations.
A local store contributed digital cameras to the school
and the project was launched.
Kay began by having the children visit the Milestones
website in pairs. She asked them to record their respons-
es to what they saw. The children’s notes included state-
ments like “Kids everywhere like to have friends.” “Boys
always like boys best.” “Most kids lose a tooth when they
are in first grade.” “Everybody smiles the same.”
The children became so excited looking at the photos
and reading other children’s stories that they wanted
to produce their own Milestones Project. Kay organized
them into small groups to decide which milestones each
group wanted to study. Some groups simply picked the
same ones they saw on the web. Others were more cre-
ative. One group picked older people (their grandparents
or great-grandparents), choosing to document what they
look like when their grandchildren visit or when they get
a present. Each group identified people—either their
own families or neighbors—representing various races,
ethnicities, religions, and cultures. Then they used digi-
tal cameras to capture faces and tape-recorded stories or
reactions from the participants.
As a culminating event, Kay’s class prepared a Power-
Point presentation and section of the school website
featuring quotes from the participants and beautiful
color photos, which they shared with their families at a
parent meeting. The other first-grade classrooms in the
school also viewed the show and decided to do their own
Milestones Projects.
The Milestones Project is one example of how early child-
hood teachers can support children’s identity and build
respect for cultural diversity at the same time. For a com-
plete description of the project and to view the wonderful
photographs, visit http://www.milestonesproject.com.
Learning about Cross-Cultural Similarities through the
Milestones Project
Culture Lens
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http://www.milestonesproject.com
Chapter 14 Social-Emotional Learning and Social Studies 477
“living history” projects in which they interview older members of their family or com-
munity. The Becoming an Intentional Teacher feature illustrates how one teacher engaged
children in a living history project to integrate social studies and other curriculum areas.
Learn about Where We Live: Geography and Mapping Geography is
an important part of our daily lives and of the early childhood curriculum. Children learn
geographic concepts through active experiences and engaging in geographic thinking. For
example, preschoolers and kindergartners can take a walk around the school or neighbor-
hood, collect objects or take pictures along the way, and then create a map of their sur-
roundings. Primary-grade children’s geography understanding can go well beyond their
immediate experience as in the following example, illustrated in Figure 14.2.
Becoming an Intentional Teacher
Integrating Social Studies Content to Meet Standards
Here’s What Happened I teach second grade in a ru-
ral public school. Seven-year-old Amy’s great-grandmother,
whom she calls Gigi, recently came to live with the family.
Prior to this move, Gigi lived in the same farmhouse where
she grew up. Amy tells me that Gigi isn’t happy. Amy tries
to cheer Gigi up by asking her to tell stories, which some-
times works.
With Amy’s agreement, I invite Gigi to visit our class to talk
about what life was like in our community when she was a
little girl. At first Gigi is hesitant, but with much encour-
agement, Gigi agrees to come. To prepare for her visit, the
children generate a list of questions to ask her: “What was
your school like?” “How did you get there?” “How did you
talk to people far away?” “How did you get food?” The list
goes on and on. Carl suggests that it would be neat if we
could videotape Gigi’s interview, and she grants permission.
On the day of Gigi’s visit, Amy proudly introduces her
great-grandmother, who says that she is 89 years old. The
children do the math to figure out what year she was born
and how much older she is than they are. The interview
lasts 30 minutes. The children can hardly imagine what
it must have been like not to have e-mail or cell phones,
much less not to have phones at all! They also can’t be-
lieve that Gigi’s father was a blacksmith and that, in earlier
days, people used horses to travel. A few people had cars,
but they were very expensive and there weren’t many paved
roads. Gigi has brought some black-and-white photos that
show her family and farm and the buildings in the small
town back then.
Gigi’s visit generates a great deal of interest among the
children. She returns for several more interviews, and the
children produce a documentary video as the culmination
of their living history project. The children seek out other
elders in the community to learn about their lives when they
were young, their jobs, and how the area looked at the time.
Here’s What I Was Thinking Our school curriculum
reflects the state learning standards. For second grade, the
history, geography, and economics
standards require children to learn
key concepts and processes for study-
ing the discipline. One such history
concept—continuity and change—is related to the standard
“Children understand that basic human needs remain the
same but how they are met changes with technology.”
I find it difficult to teach abstract concepts such as this.
And there isn’t time in the day to address all of these stan-
dards, especially because in second grade we need to focus
so much on reading and math. In my experience, however,
children learn best when their interests are piqued and they
actively inquire about a meaningful problem or question.
I saw an opportunity for integrating many key social stud-
ies concepts into the living history project. After the chil-
dren generated their list of questions and decided how they
would get answers, I went through the state standards and
noted which ones related to this study. I also planned for
children to use the actual processes and tools of historians.
For example, they interviewed subjects, recorded data, ex-
amined old photos and documents, read books about the
period, and came to conclusions based on the evidence.
Thus, children practiced their reading and writing skills
during the living history project as well.
A serendipitous outcome of the project was that Gigi
became an honorary member of our second-grade class.
Children frequently consult her when they have questions
about past and even current events. And since Amy taught
her to use e-mail and Skype, communication with her
became even easier.
Reflection People often think that history is develop-
mentally inappropriate for young children because they
cannot experience it concretely and they will not develop
an accurate sense of time until they are 11 or 12 years old.
But all children and their families share stories about the
past. What are some other project ideas for teaching history
to preschool and primary grades?
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Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach478
Second-grade teacher Ms. Polan introduces a unit on maps
and globes designed to meet the state geography standards.
First, each child prepares their own K-W-L chart identify-
ing their current knowledge and questions. Then with the
whole group, the teacher uses the smartboard and the web-
site, Brainpop Jr., to help children learn how to read a map,
view videos of various land forms, and play related games.
Other activities include using Google Earth to tour the
world’s continents and oceans. The children create a map of
the United States, identify rivers and mountains, and locate
their own state and its geographic characteristics. During the
2-week study, they explore interactive maps such as the Rand
McNally website and also learn mapping terminology such
as birds-eye view and legend by examining a school map.
The Geography for Life national standards (Heffron, 2012) identify big ideas to be
used in geographic inquiry. One basic concept is location, where in the world some-
thing is and why things are located in certain places. A related concept is how the char-
acteristics of any given place tell a lot about where people live, why they settle there,
and how they use natural resources. By asking questions with this geography concept in
mind, teachers can help children develop an understanding of places and their distinctive
characteristics (Seefeldt, Castle, & Falconer, 2013). A related idea is movement, which
focuses on how people, things, ideas, products, and information move from one place to
another. The most common movement children see and think about is people traveling
every day to school or work. Some children will have traveled much farther afield or have
family members around the globe.
Children can also learn about relationships within places. This concept, which has
been getting more attention because of issues such as climate change, explores how hu-
mans impact the environment as well as how the environment influences human behavior
(Seefeldt et al., 2013). Another big idea is geographic regions—how they are united by
similar physical conditions and common cultural traits. Related questions include how
human actions modify the physical environment, how physical systems affect human sys-
tems, and the changes that occur in the meaning, use, distribution, and importance of
resources.
The national geography standards, Geography for Life (Heffron, 2012) are designed
for older children; however, they identify skills that children begin developing during
their preschool and primary years. These are listed in Table 14.3 with suggestions for how
teachers can help children learn these skills.
Learn about Wants and Needs: Early Economics Economic concepts
are basic to children’s lives. Teachers sometimes avoid the topic of economics, however,
because it raises sensitive issues around social class (Derman-Sparks & Edwards, 2010).
However, the recent economic downtown in the world has raised this topic in everyone’s
consciousness. At one end of the economic spectrum, increasing numbers of children are
falling into poverty and their basic needs are not being met. At the other end, many chil-
dren get everything they ask for and more.
Teachers need to be sensitive to families’ economic situations. They can help children
take pride in how their family cares for them regardless of their work or home situation
(Derman-Sparks & Edwards, 2010). Constantly drawing attention to children’s posses-
sions such as new clothes or toys can be painful for some children. More appropriate ideas
to introduce early economics include helping children learn not to waste resources or to
think critically about television advertisements.
All young children have wants and needs that act as powerful motivation to begin un-
derstanding economic systems. This topic can be an opportunity to raise awareness about
commercialism in society. Table 14.4 presents six key early economics concepts young
children can learn, along with examples of teaching strategies.
FIGURE 14.2 Second-
Grade Geography Study
As part of a geography study on
mapping, second graders iden-
tified what they already know,
the questions they want to
answer, and what they learned
at the conclusion of the study.
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Chapter 14 Social-Emotional Learning and Social Studies 479
Learn to Live in a Democracy: Making Choices and Voting John
Dewey strongly believed that an essential purpose of education is to empower an en-
gaged citizenry. In a democracy, people have the power to make a variety of meaningful
choices pertaining to their daily lives—to become agents of change. In early childhood
programs, children are not just preparing to become members of a democratic society;
they actually are citizens of a democracy (Dewey, 1916). Therefore, teachers need to
engage them in group decision-making and discussion of differing opinions during class
Geography can be a topic of great interest to children if teachers use strategies such as those described here.
Geographic Skill Teaching Strategies
Asking geographic questions Acknowledge and encourage geographic questions. Join children in their sense of
wonder about the natural world and how it formed (e.g., “Where does rain come from?”
“How do mountains grow?”).
Model asking geographic questions (“Which way do you come to school?”).
Acquiring geographic information Provide children with resources such as maps, globes, map puzzles, relief maps, and
books depicting other lands and people.
Organizing geographic information Provide children with materials and inspiration to draw maps, construct graphs, and tell
and write stories about places they have been or want to go.
Analyzing geographic information Show children how to locate themselves on maps and globes.
Locate the places of origin of children’s families, especially immigrant families.
Answering geographic questions Have children present their maps, stories, buildings, drawings, and findings of other
places to their peers. Teachers and peers can ask questions about the child’s work.
Source: Based on Geography for Life: National Geography Standards, 2nd edition, edited by S. Heffron, 2012, Washington, DC: National Council for
Geographic Education.
TAblE 14.3 Geography Education Standards
Economics may seem too advanced a topic for young children, but developmentally appropriate strategies such
as these can make it highly accessible and engaging.
Economics Concept Teaching Strategies
Scarcity means that there is always a conflict
between never-ending wants and limited
resources.
Comment on the scarcity of materials when children engage in conflict over them.
Explain that there are limited numbers of toys, and more children want them than
there are toys to go around.
Because resources are limited, people must
choose some things and give up others.
Building on the example above, this is a time to talk about other solutions to prob-
lems involving scarce materials. Ideas include sharing, getting another toy to play
with, or waiting for a turn.
People produce and consume. When they pro-
duce, they make goods. When they consume,
they use goods and services.
Ask family members to share their work with the class, and (if possible) to share
active experiences with the children (cooking, making art, writing).
Create a “market day” where children produce and sell things. The class can vote
on how the profits will be spent.
Money and trade or barter are used to obtain
goods and services.
Create a store in the classroom. Include merchandise, a cash register, play money
and food stamps, pads for receipts, and props for workers and consumers.
People work in a variety of jobs. Take field trips to local businesses and organizations or invite parents to visit the
class and discuss what they do.
Helping others who do not have their basic
needs met is socially desirable.
Host a class clothing drive. Children can make signs about the drive, collect and
organize clothing, and count and graph the types and sizes of clothing collected.
Source: Based on Active Experiences for Active Children: Social Studies, 2nd edition, by C. Seefeldt and A. Galper, 2006, Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Pearson.
TAblE 14.4 Teaching Early Economics
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Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach480
meetings and help them understand the concepts of voting and majority. As children get
older, their understanding of history and current events expands and they engage more
with American democratic experiences.
In previous sections, we presented some of the social studies curriculum themes rec-
ommended by the National Council for the Social Studies, the key concepts for children
to learn, and examples of teaching strategies. Next we discuss effective approaches for
planning and implementing social studies curriculum.
Effective Strategies for Teaching Social Studies
One of the biggest challenges in teaching social studies is deciding what content and
topics are developmentally appropriate for young children; that is, which learning goals
are achievable for children and when? These decisions are particularly difficult in social
studies because subjects such as history and geography involve highly abstract ideas. For
example, comprehending history requires understanding chronological time—an ability
that is not fully developed until age 11 or later (Seefeldt et al., 2013). Similarly, geogra-
phy requires an understanding of complex concepts such as location and direction, and
that maps and globes are abstract representations of reality (Seefeldt et al., 2013).
Using the NCSS themes to plan early childhood social studies curriculum is a good
way to make such abstract concepts more understandable for young children and, there-
fore, more developmentally appropriate. It is also important to use teaching strategies that
build on what children already know, help them make sense of new experiences, and con-
nect facts to larger concepts and ideas. Three commonly used, developmentally appropri-
ate approaches to social studies curriculum meet those criteria: (1) engaging children in
play and active learning, (2) using a project approach to integrate social studies, and (3)
using technology to expand children’s firsthand experiences and worldview.
Play and Active Learning Experiences “Children are born into social stud-
ies. From birth, they begin exploring their world” (Mindes, 2006, p. 4). In good schools
for young children, social studies take place naturally (Seefeldt et al., 2013). Such schools
allow children to experience the curriculum firsthand through child-guided exploration
and play within a carefully planned environment. Children learn social studies when they
interact to solve problems such as how to produce a guidebook for school visitors.
Teachers can extend this learning by inviting guest speakers for children to meet and
interview. However, teachers should prepare guests in advance; people who have not had
experience with young children may have inappropriate expectations for their behavior,
such as expecting them to remain quiet for a lecture. A more successful approach is for
guests to bring hands-on materials such as antique tools from the history museum for the
children to see, touch, and talk about.
Field work is another active way to extend social studies learning, whether in the
form of an exploration of the school building, a visit to the florist, or a trip to the plan-
etarium. However, like all early childhood experiences, field trips must be planned and
structured carefully to be safe and support active student learning (Seefeldt et al., 2013).
It is important to have a clear purpose for a field trip that identifies specific learning goals.
In addition to following school procedures and policies related to field trips, teachers
should visit the field trip site in advance, noting parking facilities and safe walking paths,
and how children with disabilities might be accommodated. It is also important to prepare
the adults at the field trip site with information about the children in your group and their
learning goals for the trip.
Children should also be prepared for the field trip experience. In addition to preparing
the children regarding safety and expected behavior, it is helpful to provide background
content for the experience. This does not mean that field trips should necessarily come at
the end of learning units, and in fact, it is often useful to have a field trip at the beginning
of a unit to ground the children’s learning in real experiences. Either way, children should
learn about the field trip schedule and activities and have an opportunity to see photos or
videos and ask questions. Teachers should plan for children to document their experiences
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Chapter 14 Social-Emotional Learning and Social Studies 481
in some way. They can use a tablet, recorder, camera or other technology to record photos
and videos and interviews. Older children can take notes.
Children should be helped to document their experiences when they return to school.
They can discuss and record their memories in writing, drawing, painting, or through
other forms of creative expression. They can work their experiences into their play with
appropriate props; for example, they might create a pretend flower shop after a visit to
the florist. They also can extend learning by reading books and through technology such
as looking on the NASA website following a planetarium trip.
Field trips have the potential to expand children’s horizons in many ways. However,
trips can also be missed opportunities for learning if the experience is just a whirlwind
of unfocused activity. When asked what they remember from a trip to the nature center,
children might say “Tasha got sick” or “I jumped in the puddle of water.” While these
reports are undoubtedly factual, they should not be all the children bring back from the
experience.
An Integrated Approach to Teaching Social Studies There is a limited
amount of time in the school day and year to address all of the content that comprises the
social studies. Fortunately, the various strands of social studies lend themselves to project
work and integrated curriculum, as the following example illustrates:
One winter day, Gabriella Johnson notices that someone put several unkempt duffle
bags and a sleeping bag on the back porch of the child care center. Gabriella sees a
note that reads: “I am homeless right now. Please do not remove my things. If I need
to move them, let me know.”
At circle time, Gabriella reads the note to the children and describes the posses-
sions. The children have many questions. Lani asks why the person is homeless. Leo
asks if it is a man or a woman. Jeremiah wants to know where the person is right now.
Helen wonders if he is going to sleep there. A rich discussion ensues, and Gabriella
explains that she doesn’t have the answers to the questions.
The children take a vote and decide the things can stay. Alexa wants to write
the person a note. Gabriella helps the children write notes explaining that the stuff
can stay and asking some of their questions. The next day, the notes are gone, but
the person leaves one for the children that says “Thanks.” The children are disap-
pointed that the person didn’t answer their questions and think of reasons why, but
also are glad the belongings are still there. Leo worries that the person might not
have enough to eat, so he asks if they could put the leftovers from lunch on the back
porch.
The discussions, note writing, and caretaking continue for several weeks, until
the person removes the bags. The children make up stories about where he went.
Jackson wonders aloud if the person moved into the shelter he and his mom stayed
in at the beginning of the year. Gabriella decides to invite one of the soup kitchen
volunteers to visit and talk about her work. This inspires the children, and Gabriella
arranges for a service learning opportunity for them to organize a food drive. Tanya
suggests that the food drive include pet food, too. The children make signs, set goals,
write letters, and graph the amount and types of food they collect.
Gabriella takes an opportunity to build a powerful social studies project from this event.
Throughout the project, the children learn concepts of culture, wants and needs, power
and privilege, fairness, similarities and differences, and the importance and value of
service learning—all while building language, literacy, and math skills.
Technology and Social Studies Children can also use global positioning sys-
tem (GPS) devices during field trips to learn about newer technologies related to geogra-
phy. To learn more about the world at large, children can explore other cultures and places
with Internet searches and electronic pen pals. Many schools, for example, Skype with or
send e-mails and photos of their drawings to children in other schools, particularly ones
in the hometowns or countries of children in the class.
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Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach482
Children can also produce and disseminate projects on the web. For example, young
elementary-age children might put together a web page about the topics they are studying.
Children could also prioritize a “wish list” that includes items to be used in the class; this
allows the class to explore economics learning.
Travel costs and supervision concerns often limit opportunities to take field trips.
However, virtual field trips allow children to use the Internet to go anywhere in the
world. In this way, children can explore another community, state, or even country. They
also can interview experts online via e-mail or participate in live chats with other children
or workers in various jobs. The possibilities of using technology to teach social studies are
limited only by the technology available to children.
✓ Check Your Understanding 14.5: Effective Social Studies Curriculum and Teaching
virtual field trip Trip taken via
the Internet in which children
can go anywhere in the world.
. . . Jefferson Elementary School
At the beginning of this chapter, we visited the kindergarten and third-grade classrooms at Jefferson
Elementary School. Having discussed social-emotional development and learning as well as social
studies curriculum and teaching, we can now revisit the school and see more clearly what and how
children are learning about social studies.
It is evident from Waylon’s experiences in kindergarten that his teacher focuses on both social-emotional
development and social studies in her curriculum. Each child has an opportunity to develop a strong sense
of identity, while all the children learn about each other, their family history, and the community in which
they live. Ms. Hans, his teacher, operates her classroom as a mini-democracy in which children make
choices, accept responsibility, and learn how voting functions to make group decisions.
The in-depth study of the Gulf Coast in Mr. Bell’s third grade is an example of integrated social
studies curriculum. Current events in the news motivate the children to learn more and get actively
involved as citizens in helping others. They express empathy and concern for other people. They also
learn about global connections between products developed and used in different places. The topic is
rich with opportunities to learn geography, economics, and the environment while also developing skills
in reading, writing, and researching. ■
Revisiting the Case Study
• Social-emotional learning (also called social compe-
tence) is children’s ability to recognize and regulate
emotions, establish and maintain positive relationships,
make responsible decisions, and solve social problems
constructively.
• Teachers need to understand the developmental contin-
uum of significant social-emotional accomplishments
across the period from birth to third grade to have
appropriate and realistic expectations for children’s
behavior, and to know how and when to effectively
promote social-emotional learning.
• Play is a vital context for children to develop positive
peer relationships and practice social skills. Play is
equally important for emotional development, pro-
viding a context for children to address their fears,
develop coping skills and resilience, and feel in control
of their environment.
Chapter Summary14
M14_BRED6702_03_SE_C14.indd 482 10/7/15 5:17 PM
Chapter 14 Social-Emotional Learning and Social Studies 483
Key Terms
■■ associative play
■■ cooperative play
■■ emotional development
■■ emotional literacy
■■ engaged citizens
■■ equity pedagogy
■■ identity
■■ mindfulness
■■ parallel play
■■ self-regulation
■■ separation anxiety
■■ social development
■■ social-emotional
learning
■■ social studies
■■ solitary play
■■ toxic stress
■■ virtual field trip
■■ widening horizons
approach
✓ Demonstrate Your Learning
Click here to assess how well you’ve learned the content in this chapter.
Bohart, H., Charner, K., & Koralek, D. (Eds.). (2015).
Spotlight on exploring play. Washington, DC: National
Association for the Education of Young Children.
Kersey, K., & Masterson, M. (2012). 101 Principles for
positive guidance with young children: Creating respon-
sive teachers. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Mindes, G. (2013). Social studies for young children:
Preschool and primary curriculum anchor (2nd ed.).
Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Education.
Center for Social Emotional Foundations of Early
Learning
This website, sponsored by Vanderbilt University, offers
numerous resources for supporting children’s social and
emotional learning, including emotional literacy and
self-regulation activities.
Center for Early Childhood Mental Health
Consultation
Developed for Head Start programs, go to this website to
find resources for supporting children’s social and emo-
tional development, and addressing challenging behavior.
National Childhood Traumatic Stress Network
This website offers resources for teachers, designed to
support children and families who have experienced
traumatic events and toxic stress.
Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional
Learning
This website offers resources to support primary-grade
children’s social and emotional learning, and documents
the benefits of social-emotional competence for academic
achievement.
National Council for the Social Studies
This website offers social studies resources for teachers,
including textbooks, lesson plans, and assessment and
curriculum ideas.
Readings and Websites
• Effective social-emotional curricula include specific
strategies for teaching social problem-solving skills,
friendship skills, and self-regulation.
• Social studies—the integrated study of history, geog-
raphy, economics, political science, and other related
subjects—contribute to the development of competent
citizens. During early childhood, social studies topics
and social-emotional learning are inextricably con-
nected. Learning to live in a democratic society—the
overarching goal of social studies—is predicated on
social-emotional learning.
• Developmentally appropriate, effective approaches to
teaching the social studies in early childhood programs
include engaging children in play and active learning
experiences, using an integrated approach to link social
studies learning and other curriculum areas, and using
technology to expand children’s worldviews.
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15
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
15.1 Identify the benefits of physical fitness and health and explain its impor-
tance for children’s development and learning.
15.2 Outline the sequences of gross motor, fine motor, and perceptual motor
development in young children.
15.3 Examine the role of indoor and outdoor play in children’s physical develop-
ment, fitness, and health.
15.4 Describe the teacher’s role in meeting health and safety standards in early
childhood programs.
15.5 Synthesize teaching strategies and effective curricula that promote physical
development, fitness, and health.
Teaching Children to Be
Healthy and Fit: Physical
Development and Health
Learning Outcomes
© Suzanne Clouzeau/Pearson Education
M15_BRED6702_03_SE_C15.indd 484 10/7/15 5:15 PM
485
A
s in any high-quality early childhood program, movement is an essential part of
living and learning in Ms. Perez’s classroom. From tiny babies to active second
graders, young children take on and embrace the world with their whole bodies.
Healthy children of all ages love physical activity and play, but more than fun is involved.
With the help of parents and teachers, children master critically important physical skills
and also establish habits related to fitness and health that can last a lifetime.
In this chapter, we address the critical health and fitness issues facing our nation’s
children today. We discuss the continuum of children’s motor development from birth
through age 8, and how intentional teachers promote optimal development through play
Case Study
Ms. Perez’s class of 3- to 5-year-olds joyfully bounds out the door for their favorite part of the day—outdoor play. A well-planned environment greets the children on the playground. In addition to
choosing from the permanent options of a climbing structure and tricycle path, today they can paint on a long
piece of paper attached to the fence, water the class garden, or play with the ball collection in the large grassy
area.
In less than a minute, all of the children except Allison choose an activity and are busy playing. She is standing
by the balls, but hasn’t picked one up. Ms. Perez asks, “Allison, do you want to play catch?”
Allison replies, “No, I want to kick the ball but I can’t do it.”
Ms. Perez smiles and says, “I can help you learn.” The teacher sets the balls up in a straight line, positions
Allison in front of one ball, stands next to her, and demonstrates how to kick the ball. Allison tries and the ball rolls
slowly away to the side without much motion. Ms. Perez says, “You kicked it! Let’s see what happens to the next
kick. I bet it goes farther.” Allison is excited about this possibility. Ms. Perez demonstrates again, commenting on
the position of her foot in relation to the ball. Allison kicks the ball again—a longer way this time. Ms. Perez steps
back and says, “That was a big kick.”
Allison continues to kick the balls until they are all over the playground. Drew arrives and says, “I want a turn.”
Ms. Perez suggests that Drew ask Allison if he can play. He does, and Allison says, “Yes, but I go first.” Drew
agrees and together Allison and Drew collect the balls, line them up, and kick each one. They run off to collect the
balls to repeat the game and play together until it is time to go inside.
After 45 minutes outside, Ms. Perez calls the children inside. They wind down by doing quieter activities. JaNaye
and her two friends continue working on the collages they began this morning, using
objects such as buttons, foam cutouts, scraps of ribbon, and lace. Mitchell and Carletta
write notes to friends. Another teacher, Ms. Aliote, assists four children as they string beads
and use small pegboards to create patterns. Seth and Asia use a computer
program to draw pictures, changing colors and line width by clicking the
mouse; Amos, whose fine-motor development is less well-developed, works
on a touchscreen tablet. As lunch arrives, Regina and Alexei
help set the table, and the children take turns at the sink next
to a child-sized poster reminding them how to properly wash
their hands. Their meal is served family style, with
children maneuvering serving spoons and passing
dishes to each other. Brooks exclaims, “Look,
Ms. Perez, I poured my milk and no spills.” ■
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Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach486
and focused teaching of physical skills. We also discuss curriculum and teaching practices
that promote children’s fitness, health, and nutrition, and those that prevent illness and
injury.
The Importance of Physical
Fitness and Health
Physical fitness refers to children’s overall physical condition: growth, strength, stamina,
and flexibility. Children’s physical fitness depends on a number of factors, including
heredity, access to good nutrition and health care, and participation in fitness-enhancing
activities. Most physically active children grow up to be physically active adults. On the
other hand, only 2% of adults who were inactive as children become active in adulthood
(National Association for Sports and Physical Education [NASPE], 2004).
Benefits of Physical Fitness
When they feel strong and fit, children are more confident; they are likely to gain self-es-
teem, enjoy playing and learning with others, and eagerly take on new challenges (Sand-
ers, 2002). Healthy physical development is closely and consistently linked to children’s
subsequent academic success (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2010).
In addition, ample evidence (CDC, 2014c) confirms that regular physical activity helps
children by:
• Building and maintaining healthy bones, muscles, and joints
• Controlling weight
• Building lean muscle and reducing fat
• Preventing or delaying high blood pressure and cholesterol and type 2 diabetes
• Reducing feelings of depression, stress, and anxiety
• Improving physical fitness
• Increasing capacity for learning
Health-related fitness is the aspect of health that can be improved by exercise and ac-
tivity. It consists of the following four components (Goodway, Ozmun, & Gallahue, 2013):
1. The cardiorespiratory, or aerobic, system includes the heart, lungs, and blood.
When working well, this system provides the stamina needed to actively partici-
pate for a long period of time.
2. Muscular strength and endurance allow for effective use of muscles. Strength
allows children to use force to perform a task such as kicking a ball or hammer-
ing a nail. Endurance is the ability to keep moving without stopping because of
fatigue.
3. Flexibility is the ability to bend and stretch easily, which helps prevent muscle and
tendon injuries.
4. Body composition refers to weight and body fat. Excess fat puts stress on liga-
ments, tendons, bones, and tissues that support the body’s weight.
All of these components are important parts of children’s fitness and health. Each should be
considered in planning effective early childhood programs. In recent years, however, chil-
dren’s health-related fitness has become an urgent concern as the rate of childhood obesity
in America has increased significantly (Ogden, Carroll, Kit, & Flegal, 2014).
Childhood Obesity Crisis
Since children’s physical development is so variable, their weight status is defined as
their body-mass index (BMI) in relation to what is typical for their age and sex. Children
are considered overweight when their BMI is above the 85th percentile for their age and
sex, and obese when their BMI is above the 95th percentile (CDC, 2012b). The CDC
physical fitness Children’s
overall physical condition:
growth, strength, stamina, and
flexibility.
health-related fitness Any
aspect of health that can be
improved by physical exercise
and activity.
cardiorespiratory (aerobic)
system Body system made up
of the heart, lungs, and blood;
provides the stamina needed
to be active for a long period
of time.
muscular strength and
endurance The ability to
keep moving without stopping
because of fatigue.
flexibility The ability to bend
and stretch easily.
body composition Weight and
body fat.
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Chapter 15 Physical Development and Health 487
reported dramatic increases in childhood obesity
during the past 30 years. While obesity rates among
preschoolers have declined recently (Ogden et al.,
2014), 23% of 2- to 5-year-olds are overweight or
obese. These rates are higher for preschoolers who
live in low-income families, and among African
American, Latino, Native American, and Alaskan
Native children (CDC, 2012b). Over a third of
6- to 11-year-olds are overweight or obese. These
problems often continue into adulthood: 70% of
severely overweight children become obese adults
(CDC, 2014b).
The causes of obesity are complex and involve
genetics, lifestyle, and poor nutrition. But the con-
sequences are profound. Overweight children are
at greater risk of cardiovascular disease, diabetes,
and other serious illnesses, miss four times as much
school as normal-weight children, and can suffer
from other health consequences such as depres-
sion and anxiety disorders (CDC, 2012b). Obese
children are also more likely to be socially isolated
from their peers and have low self-esteem, which
negatively affects their academic performance
(CDC, 2010). A higher percentage of children from
low-income families have poor nutrition and are
also more likely to be overweight or obese (CDC,
2012b), which becomes another risk factor asso-
ciated with poverty. Children whose parents are
obese are at greatest risk (Whitaker, Wright, Pepe, & Seidel, 1997). So while it is difficult
to predict if overweight/obese children will grow to be obese adults, it makes sense to
make physical health a central aspect of the early childhood curriculum for all children.
Implications for Early Childhood Programs
Early childhood programs have a responsibility to counter the obesity crisis and improve
physical fitness in all children by complying with the following recommendations for
children’s physical activity (CDC, 2015; SHAPE America, 2014):
• Children should engage in 60 minutes or more of moderate to vigorous physical
activity every day. When children engage in moderate aerobic activity, their heart
beats faster and they breathe faster than normal; during vigorous exercise, heart and
respiration rates are much faster.
• Preschoolers need between 60 minutes and several hours of daily, unstructured free
play every day. Unstructured free play is chosen and initiated by children, such as
that which occurs on a playground.
• Physical activity for preschoolers should include at least 60 minutes of structured
physical activity (in short, 15-minute segments), which is adult-guided play de-
signed for a purpose such as increasing endurance or flexibility, such as when a
teacher leads a game of Simon Says). Toddlers need 30 minutes of this type of play.
• Children should not sit for more than 60 minutes in any activity. Television viewing
should be limited to less than 2 hours per day.
• Children’s diets need to be improved with decreased intake of fast food and in-
creased intake of fruits, vegetables, and whole grains.
These recommendations have direct implications for early childhood programs and
schools, especially considering a program’s hours of operation. For example, in a full-day
Physical development is largely
controlled by biological growth,
but children do not acquire
physical skills automati-
cally. Intentional teachers help
children gain more control over
their bodies and teach them
motor skills.
unstructured free play Play
that is chosen and initiated by
children, such as that which
occurs on a playground.
structured physical activity
Adult-guided play that is
designed for a purpose such
as increasing endurance or
flexibility.
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Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach488
child care center where children might spend 8 to 10 hours a day, it is essential to provide
significant amounts of time for structured and unstructured physical activity. The chil-
dren may have limited time for active play once they leave the center. If children spend
3 or 4 hours in a program, teachers should plan at least 30, and preferably 45 minutes,
of gross-motor play, in one or two time periods. Family child care may provide greater
flexibility.
We know from research, however, that preschool children are not engaging in suffi-
cient amounts of physical activity. For example, one study (Brown et al., 2009) of 24 pre-
schools found that children spent less than 4% of the day engaged in moderate to vigorous
physical activity, mostly outdoors. Indoor activity was essentially sedentary, except for
rarely occurring teacher-initiated music and movement experiences. Given the benefits of
physical activity for young children, as well as the risks of poor levels of fitness, teach-
ers need to ensure that promoting physical development and health are core curriculum
goals and not simply add-ons. Movement is fun, and most children love it, but the many
benefits of physical activity for children’s health and well-being are a serious justification
for including it in the early childhood curriculum.
How Physical Development Occurs
Physical development during early childhood may seem a little magical; it begins at the
moment of conception and continues throughout the life span. Yet physical development
is anything but effortless. Individual children’s physical growth and development vary
considerably, depending on heredity, environmental factors, nutrition, gender, and access
to health care. Over time, the interplay brings on dramatic, noticeable changes in children.
Changes in physical development are rapid, with later abilities, skills, and knowledge
building on already acquired skills. Although children’s development follows a relatively
predictable sequence, variation exists—most notably in the pace of development. For ex-
ample, although most children jump first with both feet and then learn to balance on one
foot, Kinisha begins to balance at age 3; Jarrod acquires this skill at age 4.
Children’s ways of perfecting physical skills are also different. Brent tries hopping,
but falls when he loses his balance. Amalie hops while holding hands with a friend or
while holding onto a railing. Li watches others hop, learning from their successes and
failures before trying the skill. Another aspect of individuality is the sporadic and uneven
nature of development. Physical growth in children sometimes occurs in spurts; at other
times development is steady and incremental.
Types of Physical Development There are three types of physical development:
1. Gross-motor development refers to physical skills related to moving the whole
body or major parts of the body. For babies, one of these skills is gaining control
of the head, neck, and torso to enable sitting and, later, standing. In preschoolers,
gross-motor skills are walking, running, and jumping.
2. Fine-motor development involves changes in skills related to the small muscles
found in individual body parts, especially those in the hands and feet. As children
increasingly direct the movements of their fingers, hands, and wrists, they learn to
perform more complex fine-motor tasks such as tying shoes and drawing or writing.
3. Perceptual-motor development involves children using their senses to take in
information about objects in the environment and then using this information to
coordinate their movements. Information collected by the senses helps determine
how the muscles of the body respond.
Characteristics of Physical Development Although individual differences
exist, three general principles of muscle development apply:
1. In general, the direction of muscle development is from top of the head to the tips
of the toes. Babies learn to lift their heads before they can raise their torsos and use
their arms before they can stand with, and then without, support.
fine-motor development
Physical skills related to the
small muscles found in indi-
vidual body parts, especially
those in the hands and feet.
gross-motor development
Physical skills related to mov-
ing the whole body or major
parts of the body.
perceptual-motor development
Occurs when children use their
senses to take in information
about objects in the environ-
ment and use this information
to coordinate their movements.
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Chapter 15 Physical Development and Health 489
2. The sequence of muscle development begins with those closest to the center of the
body and progresses to those in the extremities—the hands and feet. Most children
learn to crawl before they can pick up objects using the thumb and forefinger,
called the pincer grasp. Thus, children refine their gross-motor movements, such
as those used to walk or throw a ball, before they can control the fine-motor skills
used to zip a jacket or turn the pages of a book.
3. The process of physical development is a result of experience—the opportunities
children have to explore, practice, refine, and increasingly coordinate those motor
movements that drive physical development.
As children learn to roll over, sit, stand, walk, and run, the impact of exploration
and practice is clear in gross-motor skill acquisition. In addition, adult guidance and,
sometimes, direct teaching stimulate physical development, as when children learn
to swim, balance on a beam, or throw a basketball through the hoop. The direction,
sequence, and process of physical development are not the same for all children, es-
pecially for those with disabilities. However, relatively predictable, though not rigid,
sequences exist in each of these areas of motor development, as we see in the next
section.
✓ Check Your Understanding 15.1: The Importance of Physical Fitness and Health
The Continuum of Physical
Development
During the first 3 years of life, the pace of physical development is staggering: children
go from newborn helplessness to competence in controlling their own bodies in space
and coordinating their arm, hand, and finger movements. The pace slows down somewhat
during the preschool years as children gain greater control over these skills. During the
primary years, children develop increasing coordination of their arms and legs as well as
better control and refinement of skills.
Phases of Motor Development
The four broad phases of motor development from infancy to age 8 (Gallahue, Ozmun, &
Goodway, 2012) are presented in Table 15.1. Although the sequence of motor skill
acquisition is similar in typically developing children, the age range varies consid-
erably. For example, children learn to skip between 5 and 7 years of age (Gallahue
et al., 2012). As children get older, individual differences increase because children
have such widely varying opportunities
to participate in physical activities—
for instance, while one child constantly
watches television, another child may ski
and swim regularly.
These phases and related skills consti-
tute the goals of the physical education cur-
riculum. From ages 2 to 7, the goal is for
children to develop and refine the following
fundamental movement skills (Goodway,
Ozmun, & Gallahue, 2013):
• Locomotor movements, through
which the body proceeds in a hori-
zontal or vertical direction from one
place to another, such as walking,
running, leaping, or jumping.
pincer grasp Grasp used to
pick up objects with the thumb
and forefinger.
locomotor movements Move-
ments that allow the body to
proceed in a horizontal or verti-
cal direction from one place
to another, such as walking,
running, leaping, or jumping.
When children’s motor skills
develop optimally, they are
more likely to enjoy and engage
in physical activity. Fun out-
door play and physical activity
can build children’s health and
fitness and fight today’s child-
hood obesity crisis.
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stability movements
Movements in which the body
remains in place but moves
around its horizontal or vertical
axis; examples include balanc-
ing, dodging, starting, and
stopping.
gross-motor manipulative
movements Large muscle
movements involving giving or
receiving force from objects
such as throwing, catching, or
kicking.
Motor skill development follows a predictable sequence, as described in this table, but a wide range of variation
exists in the ages when individual children acquire these skills.
Typical Age Movement Phase Movement Characteristics
Infants—birth to age 1 Reflexive movement phase Babies gradually replace inborn reflexive movements such
as sucking with more voluntary movements.
Toddlers–to age 2 Rudimentary movement phase As infants become toddlers, they gain more control over
their bodies as characterized by grasping, sitting, standing,
and walking.
From ages 2 to 7 Fundamental movement phase During this phase, children master most of the locomotor
skills of walking, running, jumping, hopping, galloping, and
skipping.
Begins about age 7 and
continues to adolescence
Specialized movement phase Children combine fundamental movements with other skills
to develop coordinated, specialized skills such as running
and kicking a soccer ball.
Source: Based on “Motor Development in Young Children,” by J. D. Goodway, J. C. Ozmun, and D. L. Gallahue, 2013, in Handbook of research
on the education of young children, 3rd edition, edited by O. N. Saracho and B. Spodek, pp. 80–101, New York: Routledge.
Table 15.1 Phases of Motor Development
• Gross-motor manipulative movements, through which the body gives or receives
force from objects such as throwing, catching, or kicking.
• Stability movements, in which the body remains in place but moves around its
horizontal or vertical axis, such as balancing, dodging, starting, and stopping.
In the sections that follow, we present the typical expectations for gross-, fine-, and
perceptual-motor development and explain how teachers can foster development in each
area.
Gross-Motor Development
Even though physical development is strongly influenced by biological growth, teachers need
to be intentional in promoting children’s physical development. The Developmental Con-
tinuum feature describes gross-motor skill acquisition for children from birth through age 8.
Gross-Motor Development from Birth to Age 3 Remarkable physical
change happens to babies during the first year or so of life. During infancy, babies learn
to control and lift their heads and turn from side to side. Next, they roll from back to side,
then front to side, and then completely over. This ability to change position is followed
fairly rapidly by scooting, sitting, crawling, pulling to a stand, and walking with support.
Between 14 months and the second birthday, toddlers typically perfect walking with-
out support and learn to squat down and stand back up, carry large objects, and sweep
things off of tables and shelves. Twos are quite good at dumping out containers of toys
and materials, propelling riding toys with their feet, walking tentatively up stairs one foot
at a time, and carrying large objects from one place to another.
As toddlers continue to explore the world and begin to mimic the gross-motor be-
haviors of older children and adults, their actions become more purposeful. Two-year-old
Chad is helped out of his car seat by his mother and stands by the car as she hands him
his diaper bag. He puts it on his shoulder, bending his body sideways and raising his arm
high in the air to keep it on his shoulder. This awkward position barely keeps the bag
from dragging on the ground as he takes his mother’s hand and walks toward his child
care center. When his mother offers to carry it, he says emphatically, “No, my bag!” and
toddles off.
Fostering gross-motor development during this stage is often about getting out of
the way! During this period, most children have a built-in drive to master and move on.
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Chapter 15 Physical Development and Health 491
Developmental Continuum
Gross-Motor Skills from Birth
through Age 8
approximate age Widely Held expectations
Infants
(Birth to 12 months)
• Gradually gain control over reflexes
• Excitedly wave arms and legs
• Lift head when on tummy
• Sit with support
• Roll over
• Sit without support
• Move around by crawling, scooting, or creeping.
• Stand with help
• Cruise by holding furniture
• By 1st birthday, stand without support and may start to walk
Toddlers
(About 12 to 36 months)
• Walk on their own
• Like to pull and carry toys while walking
• Run awkwardly
• Climb stairs one at a time by about 18 months
• Eager to explore world
• Delight in jumping, marching, walking backward, propelling a riding toy
with their feet
• Love to run but can’t control stopping and turning
• Throw a ball a short way
• By age 3, run and jump with control
• Pedal a tricycle
Preschoolers and
Kindergartners (Age 3 to 6)
• Gradually increase control and refinement of fundamental motor skills
• Walk up and down stairs alternating feet without support
• Balance on one foot for several seconds, walk on a balance beam
• Master fundamental motor skills including walking, running, hopping,
galloping
• Increasingly able to coordinate hands and arms to roll, throw, catch (traps
object against body), and kick a ball
Primary Grades
(Ages 6 to 9)
• By age 7, skip easily
• Coordinate fundamental motor skills into skills needed to play organized
games and sports
• Jump and catch a ball, kick a ball while running
• Jump rope
• Perform motor skills in adult-like manner
Sources: Based on Assessing and Guiding Young Children’s Development and Learning,
by O. McAfee and D. J. Leong, 2011, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson; Basics of
Developmentally Appropriate Practice: An Introduction for Teachers of Infants and
Toddlers, by C. Copple and S. Bredekamp, with J. Gonzalez-Mena, 2011, Washington,
DC: NAEYC.
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Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach492
Creating safe and well-supervised opportunities to continue gross-motor practice is the
primary task for teachers of babies and toddlers.
It is also important to remember that cultural groups differ in their views of appro-
priate child-rearing practices; therefore, infants’ and toddlers’ gross-motor experiences
will vary among diverse cultures. For examples of diverse cultural practices that impact
gross-motor development, read the Culture Lens: Cultural Influences on Gross Motor
Movement and Development feature.
Gross-Motor Development in Preschoolers and Kindergartners
Gross-motor play continues to be important during the preschool and kindergarten years.
Children during this period need physical activity throughout the day to maintain their
focus and on-task behavior during the more structured parts of the school day. By age 3,
children learn to climb stairs, walking up and down, as well as how to alternate feet as
they climb. Preschoolers get better at running, pedaling a tricycle, and jumping up and
down on both feet. Endurance increases, although younger children still fatigue easily.
Culture Lens
Children’s physical development is strongly influenced
by biology, and yet cultural experience plays a key role.
Consider two very different approaches to infant caregiv-
ing and their effects on babies’ motor development.
The Pikler Institute is a residential nursery (previously
called an orphanage) located in Budapest, Hungary, that
was founded after World War II to serve children left with-
out families. Dr. Emmi Pikler created a program for chil-
dren from birth through age 3 that focuses on freedom
of movement, which means that babies are never put in
positions that they cannot get into on their own. For ex-
ample, they aren’t placed in restrictive devices such as
infant seats, high chairs, jumpers, or walkers. They lie on
their backs, awake or asleep, until they are able to roll over
by themselves and move into different positions. The rule
is “No adult interference with children’s movement.”
Allowing infants to move freely results in remarkable
competence, balance, coordination, and calculated risk-
taking. Visitors to the Pikler Institute are impressed with
the ease and confidence with which very young children
move their bodies. The children know how to handle
their bodies, have impressive equilibrium, and their body
awareness is far above average. In addition, there is a
very low accident rate at the Institute.
Another example of Dr. Pikler’s philosophy in action is
how babies were put down to sleep. Sixty years ago, no
one was talking about “Back to Sleep,” placing babies
on their backs to prevent sudden infant death syndrome
(SIDS). However, Pikler was doing it—back to sleep and
back to play as well, without one SIDS incident ever.
American advocates for “tummy time” fear that too much
time on their backs will compromise infant development
and misshape heads. Neither of these problems is evi-
dent at the Pikler Institute, even though babies are never
on their tummies until they can turn over by themselves.
Freedom of movement promotes gross-motor develop-
ment as well as a strong sense of competence within
babies who find out that they can move and learn on
their own without the assistance of an adult.
Contrast the Pikler approach to the child-rearing practice
of the Au people of Papua, New Guinea. Anthropologist
David Tracer has documented that during the first
12 months of life, Au babies are carried by their mothers
or siblings 86% of the time. When they are put down,
they are usually placed in a sitting position, not on their
stomachs. Instead of crawling, Au babies go through a
“scooting” phase—pushing themselves along with their
hands and scooting on their backsides. Au parents dis-
courage crawling to reduce the risk of their babies con-
tracting disease. Their babies do not crawl; they learn to
walk, although a few months later than children in the
United States and Europe.
These examples and countless others demonstrate how
cultural practices influence children’s development—
even their physical development—which is so depen-
dent on biology and maturation. Consider how these
approaches compare to the expectations for babies’ free-
dom of movement in your own cultural group.
Sources: “The Pikler Institute: A Unique Approach to Caring for
Children,” by J. Gonzalez-Mena, E. Chahin, and L. Briley, 2005,
Exchange, 166, 49–51, retrieved from http://www.pikler.org;
Will Baby Crawl?, by National Science Foundation Discoveries,
2005, retrieved September 18, 2009, from http://www.nsf.gov/
discoveries/disc_summ.jsp?cntn_id=103153&org=NSF.
Cultural Influences on Gross-Motor Movement
and Development
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Chapter 15 Physical Development and Health 493
Coordination and balance improve as kindergartners learn to jump rope, hop on one
foot, and skip. An increasing awareness of their own skills and abilities leads to better
understanding of unsafe behaviors; however, children can still lose control and become
overexcited or unable to manage during large-group activities.
The ability of the brain to conceive, organize, and carry out a series of unfamiliar
actions is called motor planning and takes center stage as children work to gain control
over their growing bodies. For example, 2½-year-old Lena tries to catch a ball by extend-
ing her arms. She knows what should happen, yet ends up with the ball bouncing off. By
contrast, 4-year-old Derek moves his body so he can enclose the ball in his arms. Finally,
kindergartner Julianne moves her body around so she can catch the ball between her
hands with no assistance from her forearms.
The primary goal of the curriculum for preschoolers and kindergartners
is to help them make progress on fundamental motor skills. In acquiring
physical skills, competence leads to confidence and further persistence, so
success matters. Therefore, it is important for teachers to intentionally teach
fundamental motor skills, just as Ms. Perez did with Allison at the beginning
of this chapter. Intentional teachers provide encouragement, coaching, and
modification of the toys and materials to increase the chances of successful
skill learning. They offer cues about how to perform specific skills, such as
suggesting that children widen their stance to increase stability while bend-
ing forward. They also challenge children to extend, hold, or repeat skills as
they practice, or they may add a challenge such as “Recite a poem while bal-
ancing on one foot.” Table 15.2 describes effective strategies and examples
of how teachers can promote gross-motor development in children from birth
to kindergarten.
Inclusion of children with disabilities requires that they participate as
fully as possible in all activities. Embedding interventions in the regular
classroom day is an excellent way to meet the needs of all children during one activity.
For example, Caden, a 2-year-old with severe disabilities, cannot roll over on his own. His
physical therapist works with him on the floor, gently rolling his body from side to side.
To the other children in the class, this looks like great fun, and soon five other children are
rolling on the floor and laughing along with Caden.
Gross-Motor Development in the Primary Grades During the primary
grades, children practice and perfect a wide range of gross-motor skills, often connected
to their interests. They have high energy levels and rarely show physical fatigue. Interest
in group games increases as children are able to coordinate more than one gross-motor
activity at a time, such as hitting a pitched ball. They can coordinate the movements
required for dancing, skating, bike riding, swimming, and playing games such as soc-
cer, basketball, and volleyball. As they practice using motor, balancing, and manipulative
skills, they become increasingly competent and coordinated, often perfecting the skills
needed to participate successfully in a wide range of games and sports. Table 15.3 lists
strategies and examples of how teachers can promote gross motor development in the
primary grades.
Because the primary-grade day is so full, one of the best strategies is to integrate
physical education with other subject areas. For example, one elementary school has peri-
odic field days during which children move from station to station using different muscles
and skills such as rope climbing or bike riding that are fun but challenging. To link to the
broader curriculum, the children take photos and write about the experience. As is evident
in Figure 15.1, one second grader had a great time.
Importance of Recess Because motor skill development is closely tied to op-
portunity, recess is not a luxury for children in the primary grades (American Academy
of Pediatrics, 2013). As the pressure to improve scores on standardized tests has in-
creased, as many as 40% of elementary schools have severely limited or eliminated recess
motor planning The ability of
the brain to conceive, organize,
and carry out a series of unfa-
miliar actions.
Classroom Connection
The two children in this video
have been friends for a long time.
As you watch them play together,
note the ways in which their
motor development is typical for
children of this age.
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Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach494
Intentional teachers use effective strategies such as these to support children’s gross-motor development,
which is not an automatic process.
Teaching Strategy Examples
Respond to babies and take delight in their
motor skills.
Smile and laugh as babies kick their legs over and over.
Provide constant supervision and a safe environment (e.g., no objects that might be
swallowed).
Give babies opportunities to control their
own bodies without restraint or external
support.
Avoid the use of infant seats, swings, playpens, and other equipment that restricts
movements or limits explorations and repetition.
Give babies places and spaces to explore in
a safe environment.
Provide floor time (“tummy time” for non-crawlers) with a clean carpet or blanket on
the floor.
For toddlers, provide sufficient space and
low indoor climbing equipment for them to
practice new skills.
Pay particular attention to children’s safety as they explore and take risks.
Include periods of time for uninterrupted
gross-motor play.
Organize the classroom to provide sufficient indoor space so that children can move
without getting in each other’s way.
Provide active outdoor play. Provide space and time for children to freely engage in unstructured play and physi-
cal activity such as running, climbing, digging, and tricycle riding.
Plan structured opportunities to build and
practice gross-motor skills indoors.
Act out the movements to songs, rhymes, chants, and finger plays.
Provide gross-motor opportunities that use a
range of different skills and combine skills
in novel and interesting ways.
Set up an obstacle course or play a game such as having children move to music
and freeze their bodies in place when the music stops.
Use a variety of developmentally appropriate
toys and materials.
Supply balance beams, ladders, large wooden and plastic blocks, jump ropes, balls,
floor puzzles, push carts, tumbling mats, scooter boards, and so forth.
Provide structured play experiences that
help children build and practice fundamen-
tal motor skills.
Engage children in activities such as rolling balls, bowling, tossing bean bags into
baskets, climbing stairs, or tumbling on mats. Have children play games using hula
hoops, streamers, parachutes, or beach balls. Have them participate in music activi-
ties such as marching to the beat of a musical selection.
Use motor movements during routines and
transitions.
Have children waddle like a duck or jump like a frog to get from the classroom to
the cafeteria.
Integrate movement with other curriculum
topics such as literacy or music.
Select action-oriented books to read to children and then add movements to the
stories (e.g., Dinosaur Roar!).
Consciously choose, adapt, and use materi-
als to ensure maximum participation by all
children, including children with disabilities.
Provide equal encouragement to boys and girls.If children have difficulty with mate-
rials, adapt them by adding handles, buttons, or knobs; prevent slipping with Velcro
or mats. Simplify the task by limiting the range of difficulty; by adding sensory cues
such as color, sound, textures, or scents; or by encouraging cooperation among chil-
dren who can do the gross-motor activities and those who cannot.
Sources: Based on Innovations: The Comprehensive Preschool Curriculum, by K. Albrecht and L. G. Miller, 2004, Beltsville, MD: Gryphon
House; “Developmentally Appropriate Practice in the Kindergarten Year—Ages 5–6: An Overview,” by H. B. Tomlinson, 2009a, 187–216, and
“Developmentally Appropriate Practice in the Preschool Years–Ages 3–5: An Overview,” by H. B. Tomlinson and M. Hyson, 2009, 111–148,
both in Developmentally Appropriate Practice in Early Childhood Programs Serving Children from Birth through Age 8, revised edition,
edited by C. Copple and S. Bredekamp, Washington, DC: NAEYC.
Table 15.2 Effective Strategies: Gross-Motor Skills from Birth through Age 5
( Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, 2010). This trend is troubling and potentially dam-
aging to children’s academic achievement—opposite of the desired effect (Goodway,
Ozmun, Derringer, & Lee, 2013).
A large body of research demonstrates the educational, social, and physical benefits
of recess (American Academy of Pediatrics, 2013). Playful breaks maximize children’s
ability to perform higher-level cognitive tasks and improve social competence, adjustment
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Chapter 15 Physical Development and Health 495
The structure of elementary schools may make it difficult to support children’s gross-motor development so
teachers must use multiple strategies such as those illustrated here.
Teaching Strategy Examples
Arrange the classroom to allow for movement
activities.
Arrange desks or tables to provide room for calisthenics and movement accompa-
nied by music.
Plan breaks throughout the day for physical
exercise and stress relief.
Have children stand, stretch, do motor mirroring (pairs of children mirror each
other’s movements), or move from place to place.
Integrate motor skill learning and practice
into other areas of the curriculum.
Have children act out rhymes and stories, dance, repeat rhythms, express emotions
with the entire body, play charades, and pantomime stories.
Offer opportunities for children to create,
modify, and play group games and child-
initiated team sports.
Encourage children to choose and participate in noncompetitive games such as
hopscotch, jump rope, parachute games, hula hooping, and playing tag and games
such as Red Light/Green Light.
Plan activities in which everyone has a chance
to participate as opposed to organized sports
where only the best players make the team
and get to play.
Because of primary-grade children’s growing inclination to compare themselves
with others, avoid pushing competitive activities. Instead, help children compete
with their own prior performances rather than those of other children (“Last time
you hit the target only once. Today you hit it three times”).
Collaborate with physical education, music,
and fine arts specialists to make sure that
children have opportunities for motor-skill
learning every day.
At the elementary level, teachers are not likely to be in control of physical educa-
tion activities, but they can work with other professionals to ensure that children
have many rich opportunities to learn and practice motor skills throughout the
school day.
Source: Based on “Developmentally Appropriate Practice in the Primary Grades—Ages 6–8: An Overview,” by H. B. Tomlinson, 2009b,
pp. 257–288, in Developmentally Appropriate Practice in Early Childhood Programs Serving Children from Birth through Age 8,
revised edition, edited by C. Copple and S. Bredekamp, Washington, DC: NAEYC.
Table 15.3 Effective Strategies: Gross-Motor Skills in the Primary Grades
FIGURE 15.1 Second Grader’s Field Day Story This second grader’s documentation of her field day
experience illustrates how gross-motor experiences can be incorporated into the school day and link to
other areas of the curriculum such as literacy.
to school, and physical health. In a study of almost 11,000 third graders, children who
had at least 15 minutes of daily recess behaved more positively than those who didn’t
(Barros, Silver, & Stein, 2009). And children of color from low-income families in urban
areas were less likely to have recess—the very children who may need it most. Ironically,
eliminating recess is the strategy schools often use to try to close the achievement gap for
this same group of children (Goodway, Ozmun, Derringer, & Lee, 2013).
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Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach496
Some think that recess interferes with children’s attention spans, but the opposite is
true; research finds that in kindergarten and primary grades, children are more inattentive
before than after recess (American Academy of Pediatrics, 2013). Recess increases the
amount of time children stay on task and reduces fidgeting (Jarrett et al., 1998). Further-
more, since children in the primary grades have more advanced gross-motor skills and
can play games with rules, many enjoy learning how to play sports with their classmates.
Read the Promoting Play feature to learn how one teaching team introduced sports to
their second grade class.
Fine-Motor Development
The term fine-motor manipulative movement refers to control, precision, and accuracy
of small muscle movement, such as those inherent in picking up objects with the thumb
and forefinger, tying shoes, cutting with scissors, or using a keyboard. Fine-motor skills
allow children to explore how things work, get dressed, use writing tools, put puzzles
together, prepare snacks and meals, and engage in many more activities that require
Teaching Sports Skills in Primary Grades
While observing children on the playground in fall,
second-grade teachers Alex and Mel noticed that
children were beginning to put teams together
and play “sports.” They watched as children put
together a soccer game, which rapidly devolved
into arguments about rules and all abandoning the
game. Alex and Mel recognized that primary-school
children enjoy games with rules, and that the gross-
motor play during recess would help their learning
and development. But they also realized that the
children needed support with playing more complex
games. At class meeting the next Monday, they
surveyed children about their interest in sports,
asking which ones children liked most and would
like to learn to play. The children voted for soccer,
and agreed they would like to learn to play baseball
(whiffle ball) in spring.
Using visuals and clips of soccer from YouTube,
Alex and Mel introduced soccer during large-group
time—especially for children who were not familiar
with the game from family and friends. They were
sure to explain that these professional soccer play-
ers were so skilled because of years of practice.
Focusing on the skills used in soccer, Mel and Alex
developed a series of games around kicking balls,
kicking while running, and aiming at a target. They
provided many balls and used cones to mark places
on the playground to run around and kick through.
For the last 10–15 minutes of every 45-minute
lunch recess, they helped the children play a short
game of soccer. They organized the children’s teams
daily, making sure to mix up the team member-
ship. Mel and Alex emphasized teamwork with the
children—assists in scoring were celebrated as
much as the scoring.
The children’s skills grew, and Mel and Alex began
to teach the children more of the rules, and higher-
level skills, such as passing the ball. In addition
to their growing gross-motor skills, the teachers
noticed that children began to develop more confi-
dence in their interactions. They negotiated in their
other areas of play, and got along better with chil-
dren in general. Over the course of the fall, Mel and
Alex were less needed during the soccer games, and
were available to support disputes and made certain
that all children had equal opportunities to play.
Not all children played soccer every day—some chil-
dren preferred sports more than others. But children
who did play benefited in important ways. They
looked forward to the spring, when they would teach
whiffle ball, which would help children with differ-
ent skills and rules.
Promoting Play
fine-motor manipulative
movements Control, precision,
and accuracy of small muscle
movement.
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Chapter 15 Physical Development and Health 497
hand, finger, and wrist movements.
Strength, control, and coordination
of hand, finger, and wrist movements
are part of fine-motor development.
Strength is needed to cut with scis-
sors; control allows for buttoning and
zipping; coordination is used to put
together puzzles and thread beads on
laces.
Fine-motor skills are connected
to healthy brain development. When
the small muscles of the body move,
brain circuitry is stimulated and
strengthened, and the coordination
between neurons and between the
parts of the brain improves (Levitt,
2008). As children repeat fine-motor
skills, such as stringing beads, work-
ing with clay, and putting pegs in
pegboards, they not only refine these skills but also improve brain connections. In fact, a
study of thousands of children from birth to kindergarten found that fine-motor skills in
preschool are a strong predictor of later achievement (Grissmer, Grimm, Aiyer, Murrah, &
Steele, 2010).
Fine-motor development progresses slowly as individual children experience differ-
ent degrees of difficulty in performing fine-motor tasks. Children often encounter failure
and become frustrated as they try to master these difficult skills; consequently, they need
adequate time and adult support to keep them interested enough to practice. Read the
Developmental Continuum feature for a description of fine-motor skill acquisition in chil-
dren from birth through the primary grades.
Fine-Motor Development from Birth to Age 3 Babies spend the first year
of life working on grasping objects and tracking movements with their eyes and heads.
They perfect picking up objects with their whole hand, pointing, putting objects into con-
tainers, and drinking from a cup.
Toddlers begin to use a spoon to eat, turn pages, stack blocks, scribble with crayons
or markers, hold drinking cups, and remove clothing. By age 2, they are able to remove
shoes and some clothing, hold a cup or glass in one hand, unbutton large buttons, turn
doorknobs, stack small blocks, fit large pegs in pegboards, pour and fill containers at a
sensory table, unzip large zippers, and begin to show a preference for one hand. Toward
the end of toddlerhood, children tackle toileting, which involves many motor skills such
as pulling underwear down and up and controlling the small muscles that hold and release
bodily functions. Table 15.4 provides examples of ways teachers can promote fine-motor
skills in very young children.
Fine-Motor Development in Preschoolers and Kindergartners By
age 3, children usually exhibit a preference for one hand (although they don’t know left
from right) and can complete puzzles, string beads, put pegs in pegboards, easily turn the
pages of a book, grasp a pencil or marker (though not always with an adult-like grip),
and draw and write with crayons and markers. Four- and five-year-olds complete board
and floor puzzles; draw recognizable images; copy shapes, letters, and numbers; cut with
scissors; button their clothes; and pour from a pitcher into a glass.
Many preschoolers and most kindergartners print letters recognizably, disassemble
and reassemble manipulative constructions, use scissors to accomplish desired tasks, hit
nails with a hammer head, and use a keyboard and mouse with age-appropriate computer
programs. By age 5, children’s drawings are more detailed and they may be able to tie
Children need a lot of practice
to master fine-motor skills and
eye-hand coordination.
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Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach498
their own shoes. When children’s fine-motor skills are well developed and practiced, their
creativity can take off. Five-year-old Sandi loves creating things using items from her
family’s recycling box and a non-hot glue gun. Figure 15.2 is Sandi’s robot mommy with
a baby in her tummy. By contrast, her twin sister Ella has little interest in doing the same
kind of projects.
approximate age Widely Held expectations
Birth to about 9 months Small muscles respond reflexively in newborns (automatically
grasp object)
Reach for and grab objects with hands, hold rattle
Gradually gain control in grasping and explore objects (often
mouths them)
About 9 to 18 months May use pincer grasp (thumb and forefinger) to pick up objects
Gain control in exploring and manipulating objects
Use both hands, may show preference for one hand
May undress self, untie shoes, begin to feed self
Scribbles with crayons
About 18 to 36 months Can hold utensils and feed self (with spills)
Dress self with loose clothing, except for buttons and shoelaces
Does three- to five-piece puzzle
Scribble, paint, and draw making recognizable lines and shapes
3- and 4-year-olds Gain more control over fine muscles
Build complex patterns and structures using interlocking pieces such
as Lego blocks, pegboards, puzzles, beads
Increasingly able to take care of own needs including hand washing,
toileting, feeding, and dressing (may unbutton and unzip)
Can use scissors, glue, collage materials
5- and 6-year-olds Increasingly skilled in drawing and writing
Hold pencil with fingertips
Demonstrate handedness
Eye-hand coordination increases
Dress independently, tie shoes
Use a fork and knife
7- and 8-year-olds Independently use fine-motor skills to accomplish tasks and goals
Control handwriting, begin cursive writing
Use keyboard easily
Use tools such as saw, hammer, and nails successfully
Sources: Based on Basics of Developmentally Appropriate Practice: An Introduction
for Teachers of Infants & Toddlers, edited by C. Copple and S. Bredekamp, with Janet
Gonzalez-Mena, 2011, Washington, DC: NAEYC; Basics of Developmentally Appropriate
Practice: An Introduction for Teachers of Children 3 to 6, edited by C. Copple and
S. Bredekamp, 2006, Washington, DC: NAEYC.
Developmental Continuum
Fine-Motor Skills from Birth
through Age 8
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Chapter 15 Physical Development and Health 499
Providing developmentally appropriate materials and lots of supervised play, as exemplified here, are excellent
ways to promote fine-motor development in infants and toddlers.
Teaching Strategy Examples
Give babies and toddlers many opportunities
to explore objects, people, and things using
the muscles necessary for reaching, grasping,
pulling, picking up, chewing, holding, and
letting go.
Play interactive games like peek-a-boo; look at picture books, particularly books
with textures, sounds, and actions to imitate; display images that are interesting
from a baby’s or toddler’s perspective, taking into account that very young infants
are usually looking up from their backs at the world.
Provide developmentally appropriate toys
such as action/reaction toys that help children
connect cause and effect as well as stimulate
fine-motor skills.
Provide appropriate toys that make noise and respond to the child’s manipulation
in interesting ways such as rattles, teethers, toys to stack and sort, pull toys, soft
blocks, and toys that pop up or roll away. Children who aren’t mobile like play
mats with objects to kick or reach for; toddlers can do puzzles with a few separate
pieces, stack blocks, and roll wheeled toys.
Provide developmentally appropriate
equipment.
Provide eating utensils for children in graduated sizes and complexity to provide
incremental motor practice using the small muscles of the fingers and the hand,
e.g., spoons, then forks; bowls, then plates.
Provide age-appropriate materials. Ensure that
most fine-motor toys and materials are easy to
clean and sanitize and large enough that they
do not present a choking hazard.
Babies put almost everything into their mouths—as they use the sense of touch,
taste, and smell to gather information about the object with which they are playing.
Toddlers like to tear paper, pull things off of shelves, dump toys out of containers,
and play with miniatures such as interconnecting blocks. Banging and clapping are
great fun, as is playing with sand, water, and playdough.
Provide art materials such as large crayons,
watercolor markers, and a variety of sizes and
types of paper.
Let children explore materials. Be realistic about the amount of mess.
Sources: Based on Innovations: The Comprehensive Infant Curriculum, by K. Albrecht and L. G. Miller, 2000a, Beltsville, MD: Gryphon House;
Innovations: The Comprehensive Toddler Curriculum, by K. Albrecht & L. G. Miller, 2000b, Beltsville, MD: Gryphon House; Innovations: Infant
and Toddler Development, by K. Albrecht & L. G. Miller, 2001, Beltsville, MD: Gryphon House.
Table 15.4 Effective Strategies: Fine-Motor Skills in Infants and Toddlers
FIGURE 15.2a & 15.2b Five-Year-Old’s Robot Mommy with Baby in the Tummy Using “found”
materials, tape, and glue, this 5-year-old constructed a robot mommy that opens up to see the baby
inside, demonstrating both her fine-motor skills and her creativity.
(a) (b)
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Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach500
Gender differences in motor skills are evident in this period. In general, girls tend
to be more advanced than boys in fine-motor skills and in gross-motor skills that require
precision, whereas boys tend to do better with skills that require force and power (Berk,
2008). Table 15.5 presents ways to help preschoolers and kindergartners master fine-
motor skills.
When fine-motor experiences lead to frustration and fatigue or when children prefer
gross-motor activities, they need encouragement and support and sometimes instruction
in skills or models of what to try next. Teachers need to carefully observe children to be
sure they are ready to tackle the next challenge. Here again, intentional teaching is impor-
tant, as described in the feature Becoming an Intentional Teacher.
Fine-Motor Development in the Primary Grades Fine-motor development
in primary-grade children is all about refinement. Writing, drawing, and keyboard skills
are more precise. By second grade, wrist, hand, and finger muscles are more coordinated,
writing becomes more uniform, and drawing skills include detail and display early at-
tempts at perspective. Primary-age children master the ability to coordinate movements:
they can cut with scissors while turning the paper to make arches, angles, borders, and
other cutouts. They enjoy working on projects or crafts over time and, rather than finish
an activity in one session, they will return repeatedly to it if it interests them.
In general, during this time, girls are ahead of boys in fine-motor development
(Haywood & Gretchell, 2005). However, gender differences are at least partially
the result of differences in practice opportunities, with boys and girls developing at
a similar pace given similar opportunities (Craig & Baucum, 2002). This research
highlights the importance of providing equal opportunities to all children to develop
physical skills.
Children in the primary grades like to use real things such as hammers and nails and
scrap lumber rather than toys. They need instruction about how to use the tools but will
often resist the offer of support until they have tried their own ideas. Teachers can draw
on their interests, arranging for them to create friendship bracelets or birdhouses. Six- to
eight-year-olds will work for extended periods of time on projects, particularly if they
result in “real” products.
During preschool and kindergarten, children’s fine-motor skills become more refined if teachers provide devel-
opmentally appropriate materials and experiences such as these.
Teaching Strategy Examples
Provide a range of materials and activities for chil-
dren.
Use materials and activities in which children with different levels of fine-
motor skills can participate with success, such as puzzles with different
numbers of pieces and more or less complexity.
Provide appropriate toys and materials. Supply objects to sort, count, and put into patterns; pegboards and beads
to string; clothing and other items that zip and button for dress-up play; a
variety of drawing and writing tools and paper; scissors, paint, and clay.
Offer opportunities to practice functional skills. Allow children to pour milk, hammer nails, and use other tools. These ac-
tivities may require accommodation or modification for all children to use
them successfully or when materials cause frustration or fatigue.
Provide open-ended activities that allow children to
practice fine-motor skills. Choose activities that fit
their current level of competence as well as those that
are more challenging yet within reach.
Arrange for open-ended experiences such as drawing and painting, working
with playdough or clay, building with blocks, and constructing with Duplos
and Legos and other interconnecting blocks.
Sources: Based on Innovations: The Comprehensive Preschool Curriculum, by K. Albrecht and L. G. Miller, 2004, Beltsville, MD: Gryphon House;
Basics of Developmentally Appropriate Practice: An Introduction for Teachers of Children 3 to 6, edited by C. Copple and S. Bredekamp, 2006,
Washington, DC: NAEYC.
Table 15.5 Effective Strategies: Fine-Motor Skills in Preschool and Kindergarten
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Chapter 15 Physical Development and Health 501
Perceptual-Motor Development from Birth through Age 8 Perceptual-
motor development plays an important role in learning fundamental movement skills.
Perceptual-motor skills include auditory, visual, and tactile-kinesthetic skills as well as
body awareness. Children develop these skills while using their senses to collect, moni-
tor, interpret, and respond to information from the environment. As their ability to collect
and use information improves, motor skills grow and develop, as we see in the following
example.
Fourteen-month-old Tara sits on her teacher’s lap with her finger in the air. Her
teacher, Miss Laura, begins the finger play she knows Tara is asking her to say. She
points to Tara’s facial features gently as she repeats the rhyme: “Eye winker (touches
one eyelid), tom tinker (then the other eyelid), nose smeller (touches the tip of her
nose), mouth eater (points to her mouth), chin chopper (touches her chin), gully,
gully, gully (gently tickles her neck).” Tara is already showing her teacher how she
perceives input from her senses (the words she hears, the touch she feels) and com-
bines them with her memory of previous times when the teacher played this game
to anticipate what will happen next. Tara closes her eyes before they are touched,
sticks her nose in the air as Laura says “nose smeller,” and lowers her chin and laughs
heartily in anticipation of the gentle tickle on her neck.
Perceptual-motor development is maturational—as attention to and perception of
sensory information improves, subsequent motor coordination improves. This growth is
largely dependent on the development of the brain and central nervous system, although
the timing of such maturity varies. Perceptions of where the body is (spatial awareness),
speeding up or slowing down a movement (temporal awareness), anticipating which way
to go (directional awareness), and listening to verbal input or distinguishing between dif-
ferent sounds (auditory awareness) are all part of perceptual-motor development.
Perceptual-Motor Development in Babies and Toddlers Babies and tod-
dlers learn through movement. As they move their arms, legs, and bodies, they encounter
the world by touching it and being touched by it. They explore using all of the senses,
Becoming an Intentional Teacher
Teaching Fine-Motor Skills
Here’s What Happened In my kindergarten class
I have three boys whose lack of fine-motor skills is hold-
ing them back in writing. They’re all very physical and love
to run, jump, and climb. They aren’t attracted to puzzles,
working with playdough, or stringing beads, although they
do build with blocks at times. I brought in some mini-Legos
and small cars, and they began building garages and race
tracks for the cars. I’ve given them writing tools and various
kinds of paper and encouraged them to make signs for their
race track. Also, I have begun pairing the three boys with
other kids at the computer and on the iPad using software I
think will get their interest.
Here’s What I Was Thinking Boys are sometimes be-
hind girls in their fine-motor development, and this seems
especially likely when they don’t spend much time in ac-
tivities that involve the small hand muscles. Some of my
fellow teachers told me that I should just make the boys
practice writing more. But I observed that they fatigued
while trying to write and became
easily frustrated. Instead, I thought
about what these three boys are in-
terested in. A lot of it is large-motor
play, but they sometimes build with blocks, and outside
they ride their trikes and pretend they’re race car drivers.
These interests hadn’t gotten them involved with much
fine-motor activity when they worked with the usual mate-
rials. But I thought if I brought in small-scale materials for
them to build and pretend with, there might be a change.
And the computer will allow the boys to do some writing
without the difficulty of forming the letters slowing them
down so much. And at the same time they’ll be working
with the mouse and keyboard, which are good tasks for
promoting fine-motor skills.
Reflection What other ways could this teacher promote
the boys’ fine motor skills and writing ability?
spatial awareness Perceptions
of where the body is.
temporal awareness Speeding
up or slowing down a movement.
directional awareness Antici-
pating which way to go.
auditory awareness Listening
to verbal input or distinguishing
between different sounds.
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Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach502
particularly touch and taste. Babies begin processing sensory
information and trying to make sense of it, anticipating, for ex-
ample, that pushing a button on a toy will produce a sound.
They manipulate tools, such as spoons or a cup, and demon-
strate a basic understanding of quantities of more or less.
Toddlers continue the exploration, now from an upright van-
tage point. They increasingly manipulate objects with a purpose,
such as stacking blocks or lining up cars. They gather sensory
data from watching others and imitate other children and adults.
Perceptual-Motor Development in Preschoolers
and Kindergartners During the preschool and kinder-
garten years, the senses of sight, smell, touch, taste, and hear-
ing are all well developed. Young children delight in exploring
the world and preschool teachers often use the senses as an
engaging curriculum topic, as we see in a page from 4½-year-
old Evie’s My Five Senses book (see Figure 15.3).
However, in spite of their physical capacities for excel-
lent sensation and perception, this age group’s processing
of the incoming information is not complete; children have
yet to develop some of the cognitive strategies and lan-
guage needed to make sense of all the information coming
in through their senses. Children’s ability to perceive pat-
terns and discriminate various forms improves during the
preschool years. Visually, preschool children are farsighted;
they have trouble switching focus between close and distant targets and are still de-
veloping binocular vision (the ability of the eyes to work together), which necessi-
tates larger print. Their depth perception is still developing and they tend to run into
things and each other (Pica, 2006).
Preschoolers and kindergartners may make letter reversals (confusing the letters
q and p or d and b), but this is not a perceptual problem. It is a natural confusion
based on experience with objects in the physical world that have the same function
regardless of their directional orientation—a chair is still a chair whether it is facing
left or right.
Hearing is also well developed; this age group loves listening to music, stories, and
conversations. They recognize rhyming words and play with the sounds of language. They
perceive when two words sound the same or begin with the same sound (Schickedanz &
Collins, 2013). If children do not participate or respond during these activities, it may be a
sign of hearing problems due to chronic middle ear infections or other causes that should
be evaluated by a physician.
Perceptual-Motor Development in the Primary Grades Children in the
primary grades have learned to use all of the senses to influence their motor movements.
As their ability to simultaneously take in sensory input and make modifications to their
motor movements improves, so does motor coordination, balance, and timing. Increas-
ingly, children are able to integrate previously acquired skills into more complex actions,
particularly if they have had considerable practice.
Environments filled with interesting things to touch, smell, see, listen to, and ma-
nipulate provide sensory input for children to perceive and interpret. From birth to
age 8, similar types of experiences promote perceptual-motor development, as listed in
Table 15.6.
As children gain perceptual-motor skills and their body awareness increases, teach-
ers can increase the level of difficulty and challenge of the tasks to help them refine these
skills further. In the next section, we turn to the all-important contribution of play to chil-
dren’s physical fitness and health.
FIGURE 15.3 Page from
Evie’s My Five Senses Book
This page from Evie’s My Five
Senses book is an example of
how a preschool teacher can
use an interesting curriculum
topic to promote children’s
perceptual-motor development.
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Chapter 15 Physical Development and Health 503
✓ Check Your Understanding 15.2: The Continuum of Physical Development
The Role of Play in Physical
Development
From our previous discussion of types of motor skill learning, we have seen that play is an
essential context in which children acquire and practice physical abilities. Different types
of play have different benefits and are developmentally appropriate for children at differ-
ent age levels (Milteer, Ginsburg, & Council on Communications and Media Committee
on Psychosocial Aspects of Child and Family Health, 2012). Here, we focus on the criti-
cal roles of outdoor play and, particularly, rough-and-tumble or “big body” play, the
Intentional teachers use effective strategies such as these to promote perceptual-motor development in children
from birth to age 8.
Teaching Strategy Examples
Provide a variety of interesting sounds and
rhythms to hear.
Use songs, rhymes, finger plays, and chants to provide interesting sounds and
rhythms. Finger plays (such as “The Itsy, Bitsy Spider”), which require the coor-
dination of the spoken word with hand or body movements, are good perceptual
motor experiences for children ages 5 and under. Primary-age children often add
hand and body movements to familiar songs, rhymes, and chants. Build auditory
awareness by adding novel input such as the sounds of orchestra instruments or
nature.
Stimulate visual acuity for all ages by pro-
viding interesting pictures and displays at
children’s eye level in the environment.
Provide visual stimulation for young children. Babies spend long periods of time
gazing at things that interest them; toddlers and twos will explore photographs and
pictures. Have preschoolers, kindergartners, and primary-grade children examine
pictures from a variety of sources, including the Internet and magazines, and use
digital and video cameras to enhance visual awareness.
Offer a variety of textures and objects to feel,
see, smell, and manipulate to provide sensory
input for children to perceive and interpret.
Provide experiences that require children to use the senses independently, such as
having them identify hidden objects by touch or various odors by smell. Also have
them use the senses together to figure things out: they might smell the results of a
cooking project and see food change form as it is cooked.
Help children explore space to build aware-
ness of their body to learn about the parts of
their bodies, to become aware of how much
space their bodies take up, and to learn how
to control their body as they move from one
place to another.
Support perceptual-motor skills by giving children freedom to explore under tables
and chairs and inside of cozy spaces. Balance the familiar perspective of not be-
ing as tall as adults with the unfamiliar perspective of being taller by encouraging
children to visit the loft or use the climber.
Give children a variety of points of view within
and beyond the classroom.
Provide multiple levels with raised platforms or use foam structures or pits. Peek-
a-boo hideouts and windows into the next classroom are sources of visual and
auditory stimuli, as are low windows that provide a view of the world beyond the
classroom.
Provide experiences that promote visual,
body, and directional awareness.
Use obstacle courses to build understanding of directions in space such as under,
over, around, and through. Ask children to imitate body movements: move like
an animal, insect, or amphibian. Have children use their body to make letters or
numbers.
Sources: Based on Innovations: The Comprehensive Preschool Curriculum, by K. Albrecht and L. G. Miller, 2004, Beltsville, MD: Gryphon
House; “Developmentally Appropriate Practice in the Kindergarten Year—Ages 5–6: An Overview,” by H. B. Tomlinson, pp. 187–216, and
“Developmentally Appropriate Practice in the Preschool Years—Ages 3–5: An Overview,” by H. B. Tomlinson and M. Hyson, pp. 111–148,
both in Developmentally Appropriate Practice in Early Childhood Programs Serving Children from Birth Through Age 8, revised edition,
edited by C. Copple and S. Bredekamp, 2009, Washington, DC: NAEYC.
Table 15.6 Effective Strategies: Perceptual-Motor Development from Birth to Age 8
rough-and-tumble play or
big body play The boisterous,
large-motor, physical activity
children seem to crave.
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“boisterous, large motor, physical activity children seem to crave” (Carlson, 2011, 2015).
The outdoors is one of the most stimulating, engaging contexts for children’s develop-
ment and learning and for this type of play. However, current changes in children’s lives
threaten their exposure to nature, as described next.
Childhood Experiences with the
Natural Environment
Richard Louv, in his book Last Child in the Woods (2005), chronicles changes in chil-
dren’s exposure, contact, and experience with the natural world and concludes that some-
thing important has been lost as children’s time in natural environments has diminished.
This concern is shared by many early childhood educators (Honig, 2015; Rivkin, 2014;
Shillady, 2011). As the late Jim Greenman, author of Caring Spaces, Learning Places
(2005a), states: “Children are losing habitat—the real world of people and nature and
machines and an opportunity to explore that world (directly, not just electronically) and
be a part of it” (Greenman, 2005b, p. 2).
Address Nature Deficit Louv (2005) proposes that children, families, and commu-
nities are experiencing “nature-deficit disorder.” The hypothetical disorder describes the
human costs of alienation from nature that include “diminished use of the senses, attention
difficulties, and higher rates of physical and emotional illnesses” (Louv, 2005, p. 34). These
concerns led to an examination of how outdoor environments are designed
and constructed and to a movement toward more natural outdoor playgrounds
(Rivkin, 2014).
A growing trend among playground planners rejects the idea of play-
grounds full of commercially purchased plastic, metal, or wood structures sur-
rounded by safety zones filled with wood chips. Instead, these planners favor
environments that make creative use of natural features and objects while still
meeting the health and safety standards required for children’s outdoor play-
grounds (see American Academy of Pediatrics, American Public Health As-
sociation, & National Resource Center for Health and Safety in Child Care
and Early Education, 2011). They believe that playgrounds should have areas
with trees, grass, shrubs, planters, pots, and paths to show children what the world is made
of—the real stuff, not a plastic or simulated version (Rivkin, 2014).
Benefits of Natural Environments Contact with nature has restorative pow-
ers for children. Nature buffers the impact of life stresses and lowers the incidence of
behavior disorders, anxiety, and depression; children who play outside are sick less often
and have a higher measure of self-worth (Rivkin, 2014). Exposure to nature has a calm-
ing effect that helps children focus attention. For example, children who play in natural
environments show fewer symptoms of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
than do children who play mostly with manufactured playground equipment (Torquati,
Gabriel, Jones-Branch, & Miller, 2011). Even a walk in the park can reduce symptoms of
ADHD and improve concentration (Faber Taylor & Kuo, 2009).
The quality of children’s experience is different when they play in natural envi-
ronments; it is more diverse, imaginative, and creative. Such play fosters language
and collaborative skills and stimulates social interaction between children (American
Academy of Pediatrics, 2013). Children who play regularly in natural environments
show more advanced motor fitness, including coordination, balance, and agility, and
are better able to concentrate after contact with nature (Goodway, Ozmun, Derringer, &
Lee, 2013).
Natural environments also build an understanding of science concepts and engage
them in scientific inquiry (Meier & Sisk-Hilton, 2013). For those children experienc-
ing developmental, psychological, or relational disorders, research suggests that their
symptoms are relieved after contact with nature (Kuo, 2010; Taylor, Kuo, & Sullivan,
nature-deficit disorder Hypo-
thetical disorder related to lack
of exposure and experience out-
doors and in the natural world.
Classroom Connection
Watch this video to see how one
community created a high-quality
outdoor play environment using
all natural materials.
https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=DhZNX3y60ds
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Chapter 15 Physical Development and Health 505
2001) and that bullying behavior is reduced by frequent play in natural environments
(Malone & Tranter, 2003).
Outdoor Play Environments
Good outdoor environments have similar characteristics (Rivkin, 2014). Space is typi-
cally divided into defined areas for different kinds of activities. Areas are dedicated to
motor activities such as:
• Climbing, sliding, and crawling
• Riding wheeled toys and transporting things
• Building and construction
• Gross-motor activities such as running, jumping, throwing, kicking, bouncing, and
balancing
• A messy play area for sand and water play
• Places to pretend and for creative expression
• A gardening or digging area
• A place for swings and other dynamic equipment
• An area for art activities
• Places to watch, get away from it all, or slow down
On playgrounds, climbing structures for children need to be sturdy and well an-
chored. But children also need equipment and materials that they can arrange in a variety
of ways—providing experience with controlling the environment. Children like to rear-
range crates, planks, boxes, blocks, and toys. They like tents, fabric scraps, and beach
umbrellas to create places to climb into, under, or around.
Spacious settings equipped with age-appropriate toys, materials, and apparatus are
also important for primary-grade children. Outdoor settings with hills, obstacle courses,
softball diamonds, mazes, basketball hoops, tunnels, four-square and hopscotch grids,
and volleyball nets are likely to interest children. Walking and running tracks, tether-
ball poles, and plenty of movable parts such as planks, large blocks, and tree trunks and
branches help children sustain gross-motor play. Additional materials, such as balls of
all types (large and small playground balls, softballs, basketballs, soccer balls, sensory
balls), parachutes, jump ropes, hoops, cones, and beanbags add variety and give children
opportunities to practice a variety of physical skills.
Schools should have outdoor equipment such as balance beams that are low to
the ground to encourage children to practice skills at their own level. Such equipment
limits spills to tumbles instead of serious falls. Digging in the sand or soil is another
great outdoor motor activity for children. Water added to dry sand and soil or placed
in a water table adds interest as children explore these components of the natural
world.
Creating outdoor play environments and sup-
porting participation in natural environments for
children with disabilities can be complicated. De-
pending on their particular developmental chal-
lenges, children with disabilities often have motor
delays and may have difficulty with balance and
visual-motor tasks. Furthermore, they may need
extra support in following directions and under-
standing and following safety guidelines. Teachers
should plan carefully for accommodating the out-
door play needs of all children, and programs must
ensure inclusive outdoor play spaces. Universal
design—creating materials and environments that
are accessible to all—is one way programs can ac-
commodate all children. For example, many pro-
grams use play surfaces such as wood chips or tire
Children today are more likely
to spend time watching televi-
sion or playing video games
than experiencing nature first-
hand, leading to “nature-deficit
disorder.” Natural play environ-
ments address this problem
and also provide laboratories
for science investigation.
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pieces. However, these surfaces are very difficult for children who move with a walker or
wheelchair to navigate. Teachers must observe how children with and without disabili-
ties access their current outdoor play space, and introduce materials and structures that
allow children to participate more fully, including interacting with peers while playing.
When children are given ample time to play outdoors, they can practice and perfect many
physical skills; they feel powerful and successful. For this reason, most children love the out-
doors—it is a “can do” place. Yet the fast-paced activity of the outdoors can also be overstimu-
lating and overwhelming for some. Children need quiet places to cool off, calm down, or rest;
they also need water available to quench their thirst. A blanket in the shade can provide a place
for children to spend some time with the teacher, refueling and recharging before heading back
out to explore the world again. Time outdoors provides a change of pace, freedom from being
close to other children, and a constant source of interesting stimuli.
Many people worry that technology interferes with children’s outdoor experiences.
However, teachers can integrate technology goals and activities outdoors (Blagojevic &
Thomes, 2014). While exploring the natural environment, children can use tablets to pho-
tograph and document nature-based art, and can research their discoveries online. They
can document aspects of nature they find exciting or beautiful, and integrate these into
their writing projects back in the classroom.
The Value of Rough-and-Tumble Play
With childhood obesity hitting epidemic proportions, and academic pressure and tech-
nology leading to more sedentary lifestyles, early childhood educators call for greater
awareness of the importance of “big body” play, where children literally use their whole
bodies to run, jump, roll, climb, fall, tumble, somersault, and generally engage in vigor-
ous, playful activity (Carlson, 2011). When such activity involves contact with another
child, such as chasing, wrestling, tickling, rolling on top of each other, or play-fighting, it
is usually called rough-and-tumble play.
Perhaps because there is so much emphasis today on protecting children, rough-and-
tumble play has gotten a bad name. Some people interpret it as aggression or misbehavior
and actually forbid it. However, there are important differences between fighting and other
intentionally harmful acts and roughhousing—the goal of which is to have fun. I clearly
remember rolling on the ground with my best friend in the yard one day and my mother
calling from the front porch, “Are you playing or fighting?” “Playing!” we both hollered
back immediately. The distinction, which children are well aware of and is easily observ-
able, is that they are smiling, and they not only want to participate but they want to extend
the play (Carlson, 2011). By contrast, fighting is something that most children obviously
do not enjoy, would prefer to avoid, and want to stop.
As we’ve seen from discussing the research on active play, there are developmental ben-
efits to rough-and-tumble play. Children practice and learn to control their bodies in space.
They also learn self-regulation, social, and cognitive skills; to sustain the play, they have to take
another person’s point of view (a difficult cognitive skill) and read their friend’s nonverbal cues.
As long as Susie is smiling and giggling with her eyes shut, it’s fine to continue, but as soon as
she starts to frown, stare, and pull away, it’s time to stop (Carlson, 2011).
Individual and cultural differences also exist in rough-and-tumble play. On average,
boys are rougher and more physical in their play than girls are, and boys are more often
disciplined by teachers (Goodway, Ozmun, & Gallahue, 2013). But girls need active play,
too, and teachers could help by modeling actions such as hopping, jumping, skipping, and
twirling games like ring around the rosie. Individual children may hold back from rough-
and-tumble for many reasons, such as fear, shyness, or aversion to being touched. Cultural
groups also play with children differently—some more gently than others. Teachers need to
consider all of these factors in planning for and supporting rough-and-tumble play.
Given the benefits of rough-and-tumble play, however, teachers need to facilitate it in
several ways. The class can establish a few clear rules such as: keep hands below the neck,
no pinching, no hitting, and stop when the other person says, “Stop!” (Carlson, 2011).
Because big body play can easily turn into real fighting, supervision is critical (Carlson,
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Chapter 15 Physical Development and Health 507
2015). Teachers need to make sure the environment where children play is safe and stay
close by to supervise at all times, key elements of health and safety standards in early
childhood programs, which we discuss in the next section.
✓ Check Your Understanding 15.3: The Role of Play in Physical Development
Health and Safety Standards
Children’s success in school and life is integrally connected to their health. To protect
young children, early childhood programs must comply with legally mandated health
and safety regulations. In addition, teachers have a responsibility to keep children safe
and prevent disease. In the sections that follow, we discuss ways of supporting children’s
health and wellness, and teaching practices that prevent illness and injury.
The Teacher’s Role in Health and Safety
Adults must be vigilant to protect young children’s health and safety. The American
Academy of Pediatrics, American Public Health Association, and the National Resource
Center for Health and Safety in Child Care and Early Education (2011) has established
national model standards for programs. Keeping children safe requires adequate and at-
tentive supervision during all activities and experiences, and providing safe, appropriate
furniture, toys, and materials and systematic monitoring to keep them that way (Aronson,
2012).
By nature, children are messy beings. In the early childhood setting, this translates
into the need to keep everything clean and sanitized so as to prevent the spread of germs.
Adults who model keeping the environment clean teach children how to clean up after
themselves. Disease prevention starts with pre-enrollment requirements such as immuni-
zation and physical checkups, and continues with instilling habits that will lead children
to eat well, get adequate rest, and participate in plenty of vigorous exercise.
Emergency preparedness is another dimension of health and wellness. In schools,
sheltering-in-place strategies and evacuation procedures and drills need to be under-
stood by all and practiced until they become routine for adults as well as children
(Head Start, 2015b). Natural disasters such as hurricanes, tornadoes, or earthquakes
are prevalent in certain geographic areas and require specific disaster preparedness
plans. In addition to natural disasters, our world today is threatened by terrorism and
criminal behavior, and emergency preparedness must address these possibilities as
well (Greenman, 2001).
Prevent Illness Preventing the spread of germs is an essential disease-prevention
strategy for young children to learn. Most experts agree that the single most effective
practice that prevents the spread of germs is proper hand washing by adults
and children. Teachers can stop the spread of germs by washing their hands
and teaching children correct hand-washing practices. NAEYC accreditation
standards as well as state licensing standards require regular, systematic hand
washing at specific times for adults and children, such as before and after
eating, using the toilet, or diapering. Despite the critical importance of these
procedures, these standards are among the least frequently met in early child-
hood programs. Hand washing that actually prevents the transfer of germs is
a process with specific steps, as described in Figure 15.4.
Prevent Injury When children are involved in active play, the role of
the teacher is to provide constant attention and supervision. Teachers need to
observe zones of the outdoor area and pay close attention to what children are
doing so that they can intervene quickly, remind children of safety consider-
ations, and be close enough to step in and stop risky behavior when it occurs.
Classroom Connection
Observe this video to learn about
teaching children proper hand
washing and the role in prevent-
ing the spread of illness in group
programs.
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Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach508
Teachers also need to teach children about accident prevention, tricycle and bicycle
safety, walking in traffic, and preparedness for emergencies. The majority of injuries that
occur at school happen on the playground (CDC, 2012a). Nonfatal playground injuries
are most often caused by falls. Children under age 4 are more likely to suffer head and
face injuries, whereas children ages 5 to 14 are more likely to suffer injuries to the arms
and hands (Mack, Hudson, & Thompson, 1997).
Balance Risk and Challenge In striving to protect children’s safety and health,
however, early childhood educators need to understand the impact of the amount of risk and
challenge in the environment, what is called the risk vs. challenge continuum (Greenman,
2005a). The concept is that extremes of either risk or challenge—too much or too little—
are not in the best interest of children (Curtis, 2010; Gramling, 2010). Too little risk, and
children may withdraw or try harder to make something happen by using inappropriate or
dangerous behaviors. Too much risk will certainly result in accidents and injuries.
Concern for children’s safety is absolutely necessary, and environments should be
designed to minimize risks and eliminate hazards as much as possible. A hazard is a
serious danger that must be avoided; a risk is a possibility of harm that can be minimized
with planning and supervision (Carlson, 2011). An attempt to eliminate all risk can lead
to eliminating all challenge. Children not only need to be safe, they also need to be chal-
lenged if they are to advance their skills and learn how to keep themselves safe.
From infancy on, children try out challenging activities that might put them at
risk for injury, most of them as a part of normal exploration. Consider the concept of
FIGURE 15.4 Proper Hand-Washing Procedures The most effective way to prevent illness is for both
adults and children to always use these proper hand-washing procedures.
Source: Reprinted from Handwashing Procedure, by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, retrieved March
20, 2012, from http://www.cdc.gov/handwashing/.
• Always use warm, running water and a mild,
preferably liquid, soap. Antibacterial soaps may be
used, but are not required.
• Wet the hands and apply a small amount (dime to
quarter size) of liquid soap.
• Rub hands together vigorously until a soapy lather
appears and continue for at least 15 seconds. Be
sure to scrub between fingers, under fingernails,
and around the tops and palms of the hands.
• Rinse hands under warm running water. Leave the water running while drying
hands.
• Dry hands with a clean, disposable (or single use) towel, being careful to avoid
touching the faucet handles or towel holder with clean hands.
• Turn the faucet off using the towel as a barrier between your hands and the
faucet handle.
• Discard the used towel in a trash can, lined with a fluid-resistant (plastic) bag.
Trash cans with foot-pedal operated lids are preferable.
• Consider using hand lotion to prevent chapping of hands. If using lotions, use
liquids or tubes that can be squirted so that the hands do not have direct contact
with container spout to avoid contaminating the lotion inside the container.
• When assisting a child in handwashing, either hold the child (if an infant) or have
the child stand on a safety step at a height at which the child’s hands can hang
freely under the running water. Assist the child in performing all of the above
steps and then wash your own hands.
risk vs. challenge continuum
Concept that children not only
need to be safe but they also
need to be challenged if they are
to advance their skills and learn
how to keep themselves safe.
hazard A danger that must be
avoided.
risk A possibility of harm that
can be minimized with plan-
ning and supervision.
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Chapter 15 Physical Development and Health 509
risk vs. challenge in deciding whether children should be allowed to climb trees. One
teacher might consider the risk of injury is too high and, therefore, that tree limbs on
playgrounds should be trimmed to prevent tree climbing. However, from the perspective
of a veteran child care center director, tree climbing is a learnable skill that can be safely
taught to children and practiced with careful supervision (Curtis, 2010).
✓ Check Your Understanding 15.4: Health and Safety Standards
Effective Curriculum and Teaching
to Promote Physical Fitness and Health
The purpose of developmentally appropriate physical education is to help children learn
to move and learn through movement (Gallahue, 1995). In the sections that follow, we
first describe curriculum and teaching strategies to promote physical development. We
then address how to plan a health education curriculum.
Curriculum for Physical Development
You will recall from Chapter 10 that curriculum planning draws on both the content of
the disciplines and knowledge of child development. In planning curriculum for physi-
cal development, the disciplines of physical education, nutrition, and health provide the
learning goals for children. To make these goals meaningful and accessible to young
children, teachers need to translate them into topics of interest. The teachers then plan the
learning experiences keeping in mind what they know about the continuum of physical
development so they can set achievable goals for children’s gross-motor and fine-motor
skills. Then, based on their observation and assessment, teachers set goals for individual
children, as the following example illustrates:
The 4-year-olds in Betty Bartock and Jake Springer’s child care class eagerly antici-
pate the arrival of the circus in their town. Betty and Jake decide to make the circus
the big idea for planning curriculum to address their goals for children’s physical de-
velopment and health. The group has read books about the circus and learned circus
songs and games. When they discuss the topic with the children in a group meeting,
many ideas are generated. “I’ll be the tightrope walker,” says Durrell, who is proud
of his skill on the high balance beam. “We can have a parade. We can pretend we’re
different animals and walk like them,” suggests Deretha. “Let’s dress up like clowns.”
“I’m going to be the animal tamer. I’ll use the stuffed animals,” states Maggie.
The circus project becomes one of the highlights of the year. Betty and Jake use
it to motivate several of the reluctant children to try out new physical skills like bal-
ancing on one foot. They observe that Barton’s eye-hand coordination is exceptional
for his age. Although Barton is often disruptive in class, the circus tasks focus his
attention, and he becomes the “juggler”—perfecting his ability to toss a small ball
hand to hand.
After a few weeks of circus-inspired physical activity, Betty and Jake decide
to share the fun with families. The children write invitations to their circus, plan
costumes, and paint advertising signs. For the big day, they need refreshments. This
generates a lengthy discussion of what kinds of “circus” foods are healthy. The chil-
dren settle on unbuttered popcorn and Rice Krispies treats, which they prepare. Many
family members attend the circus, watching the parade and enjoying the children’s
performances of songs and skills. Then they visit the various “acts” arranged in sec-
tions of the room or stop to pay a penny for a treat at the food booth.
The circus project was a big hit with children, families, and teachers. But it also provid-
ed a framework for Betty and Jake to help children make progress in the areas of physi-
cal development, motor skill acquisition, and health. They were able to use children’s
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Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach510
interests to help them achieve goals such as building Barton’s fine-
motor skill or getting a less-skilled child to try out the balance
beam.
The context of a meaningful curriculum topic such as the circus
provides numerous opportunities for children to learn and practice
physical skills. Just growing up is not enough to ensure that all chil-
dren develop the fundamental motor skills they need. They require
more than an appropriate environment and supportive adults; chil-
dren also need instruction (Goodway, Ozmun, & Gallahue, 2013).
Effective teaching strategies to build physical skills include move-
ment exploration, explicit teaching, and teacher-supported practice
(Goodway, Ozmun, & Gallahue, 2013).
Movement Exploration Movement exploration gives chil-
dren a role in learning the skills being taught and allows for wider
experimentation as the learning unfolds (Pica, 2006). Tina Sabuco,
the founder of Arts Alive! in Houston, Texas, asks preschool and
kindergarten children during her movement classes to find a way
to connect with each other without touching. As children explore
this idea, they discover ways to encircle each other’s legs or arms,
straddle another person’s reclined body, crawl through spread legs,
or mirror another child’s hand or foot movements—all appropriate
though different solutions to the challenge. As children discover
their own motor solutions, they develop self-confidence and inde-
pendence, and their fear of failure lessens. In the current educational milieu of high-stakes
testing, where there is often only one right answer to any question, movement exploration
is invaluable for solidifying children’s view of themselves as able to make things happen
and to figure out solutions.
Explicit Teaching Some children benefit from a more direct approach. Teachers us-
ing a direct approach describe, model, and demonstrate the necessary components of the
physical skill being taught. A benefit of the direct approach is that it is immediately clear
if children can or cannot perform the skills.
An additional benefit of explicit teaching is that it is efficient. It takes less time to
show children how to do movements than to let them figure them out on their own. Chil-
dren also learn to do the skills correctly, which can prevent injuries. On the other hand, the
direct approach leaves little room for creativity and individuality. During early childhood,
the direct approach should be used infrequently and in an individualized way rather than
as a primary teaching strategy (Pica, 2014).
Teacher-Supported Practice Young children are usually highly motivated to
master new skills. But even when teachers use appropriate teaching strategies, children
still need plenty of practice to master physical skills. In one research-proven, child-
centered strategy called “mastery motivational climate,” teachers provide materials and
plan lesson components, but children initiate and participate according to their prefer-
ences (Goodway, Ozmun, Derringer, & Lee, 2013).
Without opportunities to practice and perfect what they are learning to do, chil-
dren may never achieve proficient levels of skill, particularly children living in poverty
who are often found to be significantly delayed in motor skills development (Goodway,
Robinson, & Crowe, 2010). When children are learning new skills, and even while they
are practicing, children need verbal prompts and reminders, feedback on performance,
and encouragement to keep trying (Goodway, Ozmun, Derringer, & Lee, 2013). Read the
What Works feature for examples of effective ways to teach physical skills to all children.
Teachers’ attitudes are extremely important. When adults are not enthusiastic about
motor play and do not engage with children, children are unlikely to be enthusiastic and
Playing is one of the greatest
joys of childhood and also es-
sential for children’s physical
fitness and health.
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Chapter 15 Physical Development and Health 511
persist. The first step to effective teaching is for teachers themselves to be physically ac-
tive and interested in meaningful physical activity.
Effective Health Curriculum and Teaching
Teaching children healthy and safe practices is the best way to support health and well-
ness. Nutrition education is also an essential part of the curriculum.
Learning Safety An important curriculum goal is educating children about accident
prevention, particularly on the playground. Accidents are actually preventable. Teachers
need to teach children safe ways to play and interact in indoor as well as outdoor environ-
ments to prevent injuries. Safety should be considered from the perspectives of adults as
well as children.
Learning how to use wheeled toys safely is an important curriculum goal. Universal
use of helmets by children ages 4 to 15 when riding tricycles or bicycles could prevent
deaths, head injuries, and scalp and face injuries (CDC, 2013). Children need to under-
stand how to operate wheeled toys without injuring themselves or others—in other words,
they need to learn the rules of the road.
Learning Wellness The curriculum goal of disease prevention is a natural exten-
sion of children’s interest in their own bodies (Hendricks & Smith, 1995). Children’s
What Works
Teaching Physical Skills
Children don’t automatically develop the skills of throwing, catch-
ing, kicking, skipping, climbing, balancing, and the like; they
require instruction and practice. To acquire foundational skills,
children need the guidance of involved adults within an environ-
ment that has developmentally appropriate equipment. They learn
both through free play and exploration and through adult-guided
instruction. Young children are most likely to learn physical skills
and develop enjoyment and confidence in physical activity when
teachers use these strategies:
• Design tasks for gradual and sequential learning. Keep in mind
that tasks should be more general than specific. You could say,
“Show me that you can throw the ball at the wall,” rather than
“See if you can hit the bull’s-eye.”
• Break down motor skills into small, “do-able” actions. The goal
is for everyone to participate, even if this means partial partici-
pation for some. For instance, if a child cannot grip a racket
to strike a balloon, encourage her to strike the balloon with
her hand.
• Provide cues that help children refine specific skills. Observe
their movements and make helpful, concrete suggestions. The
best cues provide children with little steps that help them learn
a skill more quickly and correctly and, at the same time, keep
them from forming bad habits. When children are learning to
catch, for example, some will benefit from the tip “Keep your
eye on the ball.”
• Embed skills in playful experi-
ences. Suggest that children who
are learning to hop can pretend to be rab-
bits. When they’re practicing long jumps, place mats in a row
to be the river they are trying to jump across. Give them fun
challenges, such as “Let’s see how many ways we can think of
to get across the room besides walking.”
• Individualize. Simplify or add complexity to fit the child’s skill
level. For example, if a child is having trouble throwing a ball
into the air and catching it, try giving him a larger rubber ball
and asking him to bounce and catch it.
• Show skills in action. Many children have difficulty learning
physical actions from verbal instruction alone; they may do bet-
ter when they can watch someone modeling the skill.
• Offer a variety of tasks, materials, and learning centers. Help
children practice specific skills and learn to use different types
and sizes of equipment by offering them variety. For example,
provide balls of all sizes, shapes, and weights in the form of
beanbags, yarn balls, sock balls, and rubber and plastic balls.
Then set up centers to allow children to practice throwing,
bouncing, and rolling the balls in different ways.
Source: Excerpted and adapted from “Physical Education in Kindergar-
ten,” by S. W. Sanders, 2006, pp. 135–137, in K Today: Teaching and
Learning in the Kindergarten Year, edited by D. F. Gullo, Washington, DC:
NAEYC. Reprinted with permission from the National Association for the
Education of Young Children (NAEYC). www.naeyc.org.
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Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach512
shared experiences of visiting the doctor and dentist and getting regular
immunizations are conceptual organizers for this topic. They can also
learn about germs and how germs are spread from one person to another.
Many children’s books treat the topic of visiting the physician and other
health and wellness topics. Examples include Corduroy Goes to the Doctor
(Freeman, 2001), Wash Your Hands! (Ross, 2000), and Germs Are Not for
Sharing (Verdick, 2006).
Nutrition Education Good nutrition in early childhood is related
to children’s readiness for school and academic success (Pascoe, Shaikh,
Forbis, & Etzel, 2007). Children who eat a nutritionally poor diet,
such as fast food, score lower on tests of reading and math achievement
(Tobin, 2013). Even skipping breakfast is associated with poorer cognitive
performance (Liu, Hwang, Dickerman, & Compher, 2013), and eating breakfast cereal
improves mood and alertness (Smith, 2010). However, attention and memory are
improved with breakfast cereal that is lower in sugar content (Ingwersen, Defeyter,
Kennedy, Wesnes, & Scholey, 2007).
The goals of nutrition education are teaching children about healthy eating, introduc-
ing children to different types of foods, and promoting exploration of and interest in a
well-balanced diet (Kalich, Bauer, & McPartlin, 2014). The U.S. Department of Agricul-
ture’s MyPlate symbol, depicted in Figure 15.5, is a good vehicle for helping children to
learn about the kinds and amounts of food to eat each day. The message of MyPlate is that
half of children’s daily diet should be fruits and vegetables. They also should eat more
whole grains and, after age 2, they should drink 1% or nonfat milk.
One effective strategy to help children make better nutritional choices is to teach
them about anytime foods and sometime foods. This idea is part of the Healthy Habits
for Life curriculum developed by Sesame Workshop, Nemours Health and
Prevention Services, and KidHealth.org (2007). One of children’s favorite
characters, Cookie Monster, makes it clear that cookies are a “sometime”
food, like potato chips or ice cream; whereas bananas or carrots can be eaten
anytime. Research shows that children’s eating habits can be powerfully in-
fluenced by role models. For example, in one study, when children watched
Elmo promote eating broccoli rather than chocolate, their interest in eating
broccoli increased 127% (Cohen & Kotler, 2005).
Nutrition education has the potential to affect children’s health behaviors
for a lifetime, particularly when the family is included in the education pro-
cess. Educating children begins by offering them a variety of foods as part
of a balanced diet. Nutrition education continues by interesting children in
where food comes from, how it is prepared, and the wide variety of food that
is available for inclusion in a balanced diet to help children grow up healthy.
Serving meals family style also controls portion size because children tend to
choose the amount they will eat and not more.
For babies and toddlers, teachers can start by offering food on demand and at regular
intervals. Then, as toddlers begin to eat table food, teachers give them repeated opportuni-
ties to try new foods. Color, texture, and temperature of food may be as important as taste
during initial offerings.
Preschool and kindergarten children often have a reputation as picky eaters. This sug-
gests a go-slow approach to introducing new food choices and refraining from too much
external pressure to try new things. Children need repeated opportunities to try new foods;
they may need to see a new food many times before they are willing to taste it. One strategy
is to set up a self-serve snack center, similar to the other learning centers in the classroom
(Bernath & Masi, 2006). Food is presented in small store-bought packages or prepropor-
tioned in cups with napkins, plates, and utensils for children to serve themselves.
While children should be exposed to new foods and encouraged to try them, they should
not be coerced to try foods, using “one bite” rules. When adults control children’s eating
FIGURE 15.5 Choose
MyPlate Helps Children
Learn Healthy Eating
Habits The U.S. Department
of Agriculture uses the image
MyPlate to teach children to
make healthy food choices.
Source: Reprinted from
MyPlate, U.S. Department of
Agriculture, no date, retrieved
April 5, 2015, from http://www
.choosemyplate.gov.
Classroom Connection
Watch this video and observe how
this teacher encourages healthy
eating and incorporates playful
experience and physical activity
into the nutrition lesson.
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Chapter 15 Physical Development and Health 513
practices in this way, children can develop un-
healthy relationships with food and mealtimes
(McBride & Dev, 2014). Some children are re-
luctant eaters due to their developmental disabil-
ities. It is particularly important in this situation
to work with children’s parents to support chil-
dren’s nutrition while also supporting healthy
eating behaviors. In the feature, Including All
Children, read how one teacher supported a
child with autism in his nutrition and eating.
Cooking with Children Cooking is
an excellent way to introduce and encourage
children to try new foods. Classroom cooking
offers many learning opportunities including
seeing foods change state as they cook (sci-
ence), measuring and mixing ingredients (mathematics), introducing new vocabulary and
reading recipes (language and literacy), and predicting outcomes (science) and prefer-
ences. Many resources such as children’s books and simple recipes are available to help
early childhood teachers cook with children in the classroom (Colker, 2005). Also, cook-
ing can be a way to reinforce understandings about food allergies and why some foods
such as peanuts may not be allowed in the classroom.
Routines That Promote Health and Wellness Young children need adult
support to remember and practice what they have learned about health and wellness.
Without including healthy practices in the daily, weekly, and monthly routines, children
aren’t likely to integrate them into their lives and apply them at home and in other spheres.
Children’s health is also affected by their growing independence in carrying out per-
sonal routines, their awareness of health and safety concerns, and their ability to follow
Young children can be picky
eaters. Cooking is one of the
most effective ways to get them
to try new, more healthy foods.
Snack time is busy in Mara’s preschool classroom. Af-
ter washing their hands, 14 children gather for snack
at two tables. They talk about the food, ask questions,
and pass dishes family style. One child, Henry, passes
the snack dishes, but does not take food. Mara puts
out an additional dish of crackers, and Henry, a child
with autism, takes some of these and passes to his
classmates. Henry eats only crackers at school. When
Henry first started in her class, he would not sit at the
snack table. He would take a cracker and run around
the room, and would scream and cry when encouraged
to take tastes of the snack food. Mara was concerned
that Henry was not able to join the class at snack time,
and that he might not be getting sufficient nutrition.
Working with Henry’s parents and a nutrition therapist,
Mara learned about Henry’s sensory sensitivity and his
difficulty joining in meals. She learned that Henry was
not just a “picky eater,” but that he was very afraid of
trying new foods and was anxious when around new
foods. She also learned that Henry drank a fortified
drink several times a day to meet his nutritional needs
while he was learning to eat a variety of foods.
Mara, Henry’s parents, and the nutrition therapist de-
veloped a set of goals around mealtimes, including
washing hands, sitting at the table for initially short
and increasing periods of time, and using a spoon to
serve a small amount of crackers that his parents pro-
vided. Mara asked if his parents would provide crack-
ers for all the children, so that Henry could experience
sharing the food with others. At first, Henry sat only a
few seconds at the table, but after a while he was able
to stay at the snack table for almost the entire time
with his classmates. Last week, Henry even tried a
piece of toast that was offered at snack time. Henry’s
parents were thrilled that he was making progress, and
Mara was very happy that she had found a way for
Henry to join the other children during this very spe-
cial time of the preschool day.
Including All Children
Nutrition and Children with Developmental Disabilities
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Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach514
rules and take steps to keep themselves safe and healthy. Teachers can use different strate-
gies with different children to teach health and wellness practices, such as hand washing
or sanitizing table tops before lunchtime, offering specific feedback (such as washing the
front, back, and in between the fingers), creating or adding a challenge such as washing
for as long as the child sings “Happy Birthday,” or modeling appropriate hand washing
for a child who skips steps.
We began this chapter with alarming statistics about the health and fitness of our
nation’s children and the disturbing childhood obesity crisis. Having explored the con-
tinuum of motor development and effective curriculum and teaching strategies for pro-
moting health and fitness, we return to Ms. Perez and Ms. Aliote’s classroom to see how
they implement these practices.
✓ Check Your Understanding 15.5: Effective Curriculum and Teaching to Promote
Physical Fitness and Health
. . . Ms. Perez and Ms. Aliote’s Classroom
At the beginning of this chapter, we visited the classroom of Ms. Perez and Ms. Aliote. These teachers
plan indoor and outdoor environments that foster children’s physical development and learning. They
encourage gross-motor and fine-motor skills with a wide variety of materials and experiences in the
classroom and on the playground.
Outdoors, children engage in unstructured play, such as tricycle riding, climbing, and running, as
well as structured physical activities—learning how to kick a ball at a higher level of proficiency and
playing kickball with a friend. These teachers use a variety of effective teaching strategies and adapt for
individual children’s needs. Ms. Perez intentionally taught Allison the skills she needed for kicking the
ball. At the same time, she helped Drew build his social-emotional and language skills as she encour-
aged him to ask Allison if he could play, and they began to play cooperatively.
The teachers incorporate health education in their day by offering healthy food choices and prompt-
ing children to wash their hands before eating. Children’s physical fitness and health are priorities in this
classroom. Their teachers integrate these topics in fun and meaningful ways throughout the day. The
end result is that these children are more likely to remain active and healthy throughout their lives. ■
Revisiting the Case Study
• Given the benefits of physical activity for young
children as well as the risks of poor levels of fitness,
teachers need to ensure that promoting physical
development and health are core curriculum goals
and not simply add-ons. Children’s physical fit-
ness and health have become urgent concerns as the
rate of childhood obesity in America has increased
significantly.
• Physical development—gross-motor, fine-motor, and
perceptual-motor development—follows a relatively
predictable sequence that is influenced by both matu-
ration and experience.
• Teachers foster children’s physical development by
providing age-appropriate materials and learning envi-
ronments, supporting play and movement exploration,
and explicitly teaching motor skills.
Chapter Summary15
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Chapter 15 Physical Development and Health 515
• Children need opportunities for unstructured and struc-
tured play, including rough-and-tumble play, throughout
the day to promote physical activity and develop skills.
Outdoor play is a particularly valuable context for pro-
moting physical activity. Some children today do not get
enough exposure to nature and its many benefits.
• Physical fitness and health and wellness habits are
formed early in life. Children benefit from teachers
who intentionally plan engaging curriculum to
promote physical development and fitness.
• Health education curriculum goals include teaching
children health and safety procedures such as emer-
gency preparedness, practices for preventing illness
and injury, and good nutrition.
Key Terms
■■ auditory awareness
■■ body composition
■■ cardiorespiratory
(aerobic) system
■■ directional awareness
■■ fine-motor development
■■ fine-motor manipulative
movements
■■ flexibility
■■ gross-motor development
■■ gross-motor manipula-
tive movements
■■ hazard
■■ health-related fitness
■■ locomotor movements
■■ motor planning
■■ muscular strength and
endurance
■■ nature-deficit disorder
■■ perceptual motor
development
■■ physical fitness
■■ pincer grasp
■■ risk
■■ risk vs. challenge
continuum
■■ rough-and-tumble play
or big body play
■■ spatial awareness
■■ stability movements
■■ structured physical
activity
■■ temporal awareness
■■ unstructured free play
Demonstrate Your Learning
Click here to assess how well you’ve learned the content in this chapter.
✓
Administration for Children and Families, U.S. Depart-
ment of Health and Human Services (2015). Caring for
our children basics: Health and safety foundations for
early care and education. Retrieved from http://www
.acf.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/ecd/caring_for_our_
children_basics .
Aronson, S. S. (2012). Healthy young children: A manual
for programs (5th ed.). Washington, DC: National
Association for the Education of Young Children.
Honig, A. S. (2015). Experiencing nature with young
children: Awakening delight, curiosity, and a sense of
stewardship. Washington, DC: NAEYC.
Rivkin, M. S. (2014). The great outdoors: Advocating for
natural spaces for young children (Rev. ed.). Washington,
DC: National Association for the Education of Young
Children.
Be Active Kids
On this website, you’ll find resources to help adults sup-
port children’s healthy play-based physical activity and
nutrition, in child care programs, school, and at home.
Playground Professionals
This website has many resources for planning outdoor
play environments for young children.
Nature Action Collaborative for Children (NACC)
Visit this website to find out about developmentally
appropriate educational resources designed to enhance
children’s connection with nature.
Natural Learning Initiative
This website highlights how the environment can act as a
third teacher, including “Preventing Obesity by Design,”
using landscape architecture, natural materials, and de-
velopmentally appropriate play settings to create natural
playgrounds.
Readings and Websites
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16
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
16.1 Describe what it is like to be a teacher of infants and toddlers, preschoolers,
kindergartners or primary-grade children; and analyze some factors to
consider in deciding which age group you want to teach.
16.2 Apply the NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct, describe the role of early
childhood professionals as advocates, and analyze the obligations
and commitments to children that early childhood professionals must
understand and embrace.
Putting It All Together
in Practice: Making a
Difference for Children
Learning Outcomes
© Kathryn Tunstal
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517
Students are gathering on the first day of class in a college course titled Foundations of Early Childhood Education. Each individual contemplates the next semester from his or her own experience. Consider
how their diverse paths have led them to this shared place. Aisha has always wanted to be a teacher. Her mother
and grandmother were teachers before her, and education is strongly valued in her family. When she was a little
girl, her favorite thing to do was to “play” school. She is excited that this class will begin her journey toward that
lifelong dream. Laron is a little surprised to find himself here. He never thought of education as a career goal. But
the last two summers, he worked as a lifeguard and discovered that giving swimming lessons to preschool-aged
children was the most fun he’d ever had in a job. He felt so good every time a 4-year-old gave him a giant smile
after overcoming that initial fear of the water. Now he’s considering early childhood education as a major. Julienne
is certain about why she is here. She has decided to get a dual major in early childhood education and early
intervention in order to be certified as an early childhood special educator. Her twin brother has cerebral palsy,
and she is committed to serving children with disabilities in inclusive settings.
Compared to Aisha, Laron, and Julienne, Rita is feeling nervous. She is a 32-year-old single mother of three who
is starting college now that her children are all in school. She can’t help feeling a little out of place with all these
younger people. But raising her own children and taking care of nieces and nephews made her want to become a
teacher herself. Oralie has a similar story. She volunteered in her children’s Head Start program, obtained a CDA
Credential, was employed as an assistant teacher, and now is pursuing her college
degree with support from her supervisors.
The other students in the class have their own stories—all different. Some will learn
that they have little interest or aptitude for becoming teachers. If so, it is
wise for them to pursue another field. Others will be amazed at all there is
to learn about young children. They assumed that teaching young children
would be simple compared to older children, but they will come
to understand the complexity as well as the challenge of this
work. Eventually a number of them will be better
parents for having taken this course of study. Most
important, many of them will become the effective
teachers that every child needs and deserves. ■
Case Study
E
very morning in communities across the country, young children arrive at child
care centers and family child care homes, preschools, Head Start programs, and
K–3 primary schools. Their teachers are there to greet them and to help them take
another step on the lifelong journey of development and learning. At the same time, the
teachers themselves are on a journey—to be and become the most caring, informed, and
effective early childhood professionals possible. In this chapter, we visit some of those
teachers to see what life is like for them in their chosen careers. Then we discuss some of
the broader aspects of an early childhood professional’s journey.
Throughout this book, we describe ways that effective teachers help build strong
foundations of development and learning for young children. This work has three inter-
connected dimensions. Effective teachers must:
• Know children—who they teach.
• Understand how to teach—the complex roles of the teacher, which include building
caring relationships with children, working with families, planning and implement-
ing curriculum, assessing children, and adapting teaching strategies.
• Know what to teach—the goals and content for children’s learning and development.
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Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach518
Experienced teachers know that these dimensions of their work cannot be separated.
They teach the whole child. And they do not work in isolation; they are connected to col-
leagues, families, and communities. One of the biggest challenges for teachers is putting
it all together.
Life as an Early Childhood
Educator
Among the major questions early childhood educators face is which age group they would
most like to work with and why. Many teachers change jobs, settings, and/or age levels
over the course of a career; however, most early childhood teachers gravitate toward one
age group and stay there.
The following sections describe things to consider as you weigh your career options.
After reading about a “day in the life” of teachers in diverse settings, you will see some
ways in which teachers engage in effective practices. In reality, there is no such thing as
a typical day in any program for children. There should be a predictable schedule and
routine, a prepared age-appropriate environment, and a planned curriculum. But children
themselves are unpredictable. They change from day to day, in wonderful and challeng-
ing ways, and they come up with great ideas that lead in new directions. In addition,
conditions impinge that are beyond a teacher’s control—for example, an emergency or a
serendipitous event. Teachers need to be prepared to handle any and all situations.
In many ways, it is the unpredictable nature of teaching young children that makes it
such fascinating work. A career in early childhood education is filled with never-ending
rewards and challenges. It is a field like no other, as we see from brief visits to classrooms
in the following sections.
Caring for and Educating Infants
and Young Toddlers
Some people do not consider those who work with babies and toddlers to be teachers.
Because much physical care is required for this age group, the term caregiver is often
used for this role. Nevertheless, babies are always learning in the context of loving care
(Copple, Bredekamp, Koralek, & Charner, 2013a). We choose to call all professional
caregivers teachers.
A Day in the Life of an Infant/Toddler Teacher Victoria Thomas and
Luisa Franco co-teach a group of eight babies and young toddlers. Their children stay
with them for about 2½ years to provide continuity of care and secure relationships for
the children and their families. Each morning as the children arrive, Victoria and Luisa
greet them warmly and casually chat with the family member who drops them off. They
learn vital information about the baby’s sleeping and eat-
ing patterns, as well as who is feeling fussy or especially
happy. Luisa positions the three nonmobile babies where
they can watch the action and hear her talking as she picks
up little Ella, who is clearly in need of a diaper change.
Throughout the day, the teachers will engage in feeding,
diapering, and hand-washing routines as the children eat
and rest on their own schedules.
After meeting Ella’s immediate needs, Luisa puts Sam
down for his midmorning nap and then positions Foster
and Lydia on the rug for some tummy time. She gets down
and plays with them at their eye level with a ball that
makes music as it rolls. The babies love swatting the ball
to produce the sounds.
High-quality early childhood
programs provide a joyous
experience for both children
and teachers.
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Chapter 16 Putting It All Together in Practice: Making a Difference for Children 519
Meanwhile, across the room, Victoria calmly plays on the rug with the mobile
toddlers, who are just beginning to talk. They are enchanted by a set of large, plastic,
colored blocks that they can pick up and place together, forming a big pattern on the
f loor. Victoria describes what they are doing as it happens: “Alan has a red peg. He put
it next to the green one.” Alan starts to fuss when Wanda pushes against him. “Wanda,
you are in Alan’s space. Can you move just a little?” asks Victoria in a soft voice. Alan
calms and Wanda smacks a kiss on his cheek. Victoria smiles, “You’re a good friend,
Wanda.”
As the play time comes to an end, Victoria says, “Let’s see who is big and strong and
can help me pick up the pegs.” As Victoria places the full bin onto the shelf, Gary holds
on, too. Victoria says, “It’s heavy. We have to lift it up high.” Gary responds, “Up,” and
Victoria says, “Yes, let’s put it up on the shelf. Now, let’s go outside. It’s
warm and we can play on the ride-on toys or go for a walk in the stroller.”
In this brief scene, we see effective practices in action. Victoria and Luisa
create a calm and warm climate for these young children, focusing on build-
ing a relationship with each child. They model kindness and social skills,
which even these very young children are starting to emulate. They weave
into play ways to support all areas of development and learning. The teachers
help the children develop physical skills (rolling the ball, placing the pegs)
and knowledge about the world while building language skills. They model
rich vocabulary such as spatial relation words like next to and up and explain
the phrase “You’re in his space.” And they are keen to create new experiences
to stimulate children’s senses and interests, such as being outside in nature,
the beginning of science learning.
Throughout the day, Victoria and Luisa keep careful records about each
baby—what they eat and drink, bowel movements, their moods, and any spe-
cial accomplishments—to share with parents at the end of the day. Observing
and recording is an effective way of assessing children and communicating
what families want and need to know. These exchanges help build close re-
lationships with the families, who then feel more secure about leaving their
precious infants in the care of others.
Considerations for Working with Infants and Toddlers Some people
would never consider working with babies and toddlers; others can think of nothing more
rewarding. Teachers of infants and toddlers usually work in child care centers, Early Head
Start programs, or family child care homes. Table 16.1 lists some considerations in decid-
ing whether to work with these very young children.
Teaching the Whole Child in the Preschool
Three- to five-year-olds are some of the most interesting people in the world. They
are miniature navigators, explorers, writers, artists, acrobats, linguists, and comedians
( although much of their humor can be silly or of the bathroom variety). At this age, their
potential seems boundless.
Teachers who are drawn to preschoolers have many choices of work site or
employer. They may choose Head Start, a child care center, family child care, or a
public or private preschool. The length of time the children spend in the program will
make some difference in what a teacher’s day is like. Although preschoolers are more
capable of taking care of their own needs, they continue to need vigilant supervision and
a lot of physical care and attention. They also need experiences that engage their minds
and actively involve them in the world around them (Copple, Bredekamp, Koralek, &
Charner, 2013b). Most of all, they need intentional teachers to help them achieve their
full potential ( Epstein, 2014).
A Day in the Life of a Preschool Teacher As a white van pulls up at Small
Steps Learning Center, Masami and his assistant teacher, Ana, greet the children—some
Classroom Connection
This video takes you inside a
high-quality infant and toddler
program. Observe the interac-
tions between the teachers and
children. How do the teachers
feel about their work? What do
you think are the most gratifying
aspects of working with this age
group?
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Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach520
in English and some in Spanish. The children head off to wash their hands and settle in
for breakfast. Ana helps them serve oatmeal and orange slices and pour their own milk,
while Masami sits and begins a conversation about the bus ride.
The sixteen 3- and 4-year-olds live in an economically disadvantaged community.
Some have been exposed to violence and a few have serious emotional problems. Masami
and Ana’s program places a strong emphasis on building social skills and emotional self-
regulation. They use a comprehensive curriculum that promotes language and thinking
If YOu arE THInKIng Of TEaCHIng InfanTS and TOddlErS, YOu MIgHT COnSIdEr THaT:
On the One Hand On the Other Hand
a great deal of physical care is required—diapering, feeding,
dressing, frequent hand washing, and constant supervision.
Caregiving routines provide time to connect and talk one-on-one
with babies and to build loving relationships.
Babies’ actions are repetitive and can be frustrating—they drop
the cup off the high chair again and again to see what happens.
Babies’ actions are obvious evidence of their development and
opportunities to share in their joy of discovery.
Babies and toddlers grow and develop so rapidly that just when
you think you know what to expect, they change.
from the earliest moments of life, young children demonstrate
that they are unique, so life with them is always challenging and
never boring.
Caring for babies requires close, constant communication with
families. relationships can be difficult due to competition,
differences of opinion, or diverse cultural values.
relationships with families can be close and rewarding, marked
by shared power and responsibility as teachers and parents learn
from each other and work toward common goals.
Babies and toddlers are so vulnerable and dependent on adults
to protect their health, safety, and emotional security that the
responsibility can feel overwhelming.
Protecting very young children from harm as they discover and
rediscover the world every day is immensely rewarding.
Babies and toddlers can’t tell you what they want and need.
They cry and fuss and can make adults feel helpless or
inadequate.
Babies and toddlers communicate their needs and wants
through cries, expressions, and gestures. nothing compares
with a baby’s or a toddler’s smile and belly laugh.
Table 16.1 Considerations for Infant/Toddler Teachers
Working with infants and toddlers can be difficult but also delightful as described in this table.
Intentional preschool teachers work with small groups of children at times during the day to assess their
current levels of ability and scaffold their learning.
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Chapter 16 Putting It All Together in Practice: Making a Difference for Children 521
through interesting projects that build science, math, and literacy skills. It also includes
lots of art and music. To achieve the curriculum goals and build secure, continuous rela-
tionships, Masami and Ana each work with a group of eight children at times during the
school day, which lasts from 8:30 A.M. to 3:30 P.M.. For instance, half the group will go
outside with Ana while the rest stay in with Masami, and then they switch.
After breakfast, Masami leads the children in singing and then reads a book about a
new baby. The group is involved in a long-term science project about how people grow
and change. Then they discuss the choices for center time. Learning centers include dra-
matic play (set up as a hospital with props and dress-up materials), creative art, math/
manipulatives, writing center, library area, and blocks. Masami talks with the children
about where they plan to play and what they’d like to do, which helps them regulate their
behavior and thinking. The children are becoming better listeners. As they describe their
plans, Ana helps them leave the group and transition to the next activity. Sharde calls out,
“I got room at my table for Keyona’s wheelchair.”
During center time, Masami works with a small group in the art center. They ex-
amine their own baby pictures, look in the mirror, and use different media including
digital cameras to represent how they look. The discussion centers on how big they can
make their drawings. They get excited at the idea of projecting their faces on the large
interactive whiteboard. Some children write recognizable letters on their pictures, while
others dictate their thoughts for Masami to write. In the dramatic play area, Assata
dresses as the doctor while Ben and Rhonda bring their new baby for a checkup. Ayah
goes to the writing center, makes marks on a piece of paper, and hands it to Assata,
“Here’s a letter.”
Mia, who has just turned 3, heads toward the restroom. Ana congratulates her on lis-
tening to her body and getting to the toilet in time. Mia beams in response. Ana helps her
get her pants buttoned (she pulls them up all by herself) and then they wash their hands.
In the library area, Arturo studies an information book about baby animals. Ana talks
with him about how some look like their mothers, and some do not. Their conversation
continues as Arturo, who was adopted from Costa Rica, explains that he doesn’t look like
his mom, either.
After cleanup, the children join Masami on the carpet and tell him about what they
did during activity time. Mia proudly says she went to the toilet (although that is not
exactly what she said!). Arturo says he read a book; others talk about how they observed
each other’s drawings of themselves—“Marco has brown eyes and he made them blue.”
On the playground, Arturo and Kiesha ride on the wheeled toys. Mia starts
climbing to the loft of the playhouse. Jorge calls to her to join him in the sand-
box. Masami asks Mia if she heard Jorge’s invitation. She nods. He coaches
her to tell Jorge she wants to climb, so he will know what her answer is.
After lunch, the children settle in for naps. Ana and Masami play soft
music, pat a few backs and soon the children sleep. After naptime, the chil-
dren find several activity areas, including a self-service snack area. Children
write their names or make a mark by their photo when they wash their hands
and serve themselves a snack.
At the end of the day, Masami and Ana meet to review the day and re-
cord their observations of the children’s progress. Masami plans to inform
Mia’s mother about her toileting success, and Arturo’s mother about his
ref lections on adoption. They also plan ways to build vocabulary through
children’s interests in babies and their growing bodies.
Considerations for Working with Preschoolers Ana and Masami’s day
is far busier than this general portrait can communicate. As we saw in the brief interac-
tions with Mia, they must know each child and how to support her or his progress. They
plan ahead but are constantly thinking on their feet as they interact with individuals and
groups. Table 16.2 lists some things to consider in contemplating becoming a preschool
teacher.
Classroom Connection
In this video, you will hear ex-
perienced teachers describe the
joys and rewards of teaching in a
high-quality preschool. note the
children’s and parent’s evalua-
tions of the preschools and also
children’s growing competence as
young learners.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v
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Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach522
Teaching the Whole Child in the Kindergarten
Kindergarten holds a special place in children’s lives. Even if a child has been in child
care for the previous 5 years, entering kindergarten marks the major transition to formal
school. Given this momentous event, kindergarten teachers are very important to chil-
dren. They help children negotiate a significant life change and build the foundation for
their future educational career.
A Day in the Life of a Kindergarten Teacher The morning bell rings as
Hope Millner greets her 21 kindergartners at the classroom door. Toting backpacks and
displaying mostly grins, these 5- and 6-year-olds feel very grown up as they navigate the
corridors and expectations of “real” school. After a brief settling-in period, the group
gathers on the rug for a morning meeting.
“Let’s review what happened yesterday, and think ahead to today’s plans,” Hope
suggests. The children wave their hands in the air for a turn to talk about the visit to
the aquarium. Although the sharks made the biggest impression, some children were
enthralled by the stingrays. “I hear from your descriptions that you were observing very
If YOu arE THInKIng Of TEaCHIng PrESCHOOl, YOu MIgHT COnSIdEr THaT:
On the One Hand On the Other Hand
Preschoolers become increasingly capable of taking care of their
own physical needs, but still need help with skills like toileting,
feeding, and dressing (zipping, tying). Messiness and spills are
normal.
routine caregiving and meals provide times to interact
one-on-one or in small groups and enjoy children as individuals.
They also provide learning opportunities.
Many preschoolers have difficulty regulating their emotions
and behavior and can be aggressive. Teachers can feel like they
spend all their time guiding behavior.
Effective teachers help children make great strides in social-
emotional learning and development. Behavior is less of a
problem when children have interesting things to do and learn.
Preschool children are active and curious and can be loud
and boisterous. Teaching them requires patience and can be
exhausting.
Preschoolers are competent, active learners both physically and
mentally. They try to make sense of the world and take on new
challenges. Preschool teachers are constantly learning with and
about them, and taking on new challenges, too.
Preschool children are all different in so many ways, making it
hard to teach a large group. Working with diverse cultural groups
and languages can be daunting. Successful inclusion of children
with special needs can be difficult.
Individual differences in children are what make preschoolers so
interesting and enjoyable. Cultural backgrounds and language
are fascinating aspects of everyone’s identity. Inclusion, with
appropriate support, benefits all children.
Preschool programs must meet standards for operation that can
seem onerous. Some preschools measure child outcomes and
stress teachers’ accountability for children’s learning.
Standards are designed to protect children and support their
healthy development. Meeting them also protects teachers.
Professional educators care about children achieving develop-
mentally appropriate goals and are willing to be accountable for
children’s progress and learning.
Preschools are usually staffed with a teacher and an assistant,
requiring skills for working with and perhaps supervising another
adult, as well as working with children.
Having two teachers provides better teacher-child ratios, creat-
ing more opportunity for individual attention and small-group
interaction. different teachers have different interests and
abilities to bring to the class. Collaborating, they can be more
creative and effective than alone.
Working with preschoolers requires frequent, almost daily
communication with families. Some families are demanding,
whereas others are uninvolved.
Partnering with families makes teachers more effective. Children
sense when their parents are respected and feel more comfort-
able and connected to teachers.
Preschoolers are usually enchanting and enthusiastic explorers, which makes preschool teaching
a fun and rewarding career.
Table 16.2 Considerations for Preschool Teachers
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Chapter 16 Putting It All Together in Practice: Making a Difference for Children 523
carefully,” Hope says. “I know that most of you used your clipboards, made some draw-
ings. During choice time this morning, I’d like you to refer to those and write in your
journals about what you saw and learned. We also have digital photos that we’ll put on
the computer and project on the wall to help you remember details. Now, I’m going to
read parts of an information book about sea life that you can look at later in the library
area.”
During the morning activity period, two children feed the fish in the classroom
aquarium and write a brief note: “Fsh et.” Hope assists the children in their journal writ-
ing, helping them with letters and words, but emphasizes communicating their ideas
rather than correct spelling. She also works with a small group who are still struggling
with recognizing letters. An inviting library area is stocked with a variety of diverse,
high-quality books at varying reading levels, including multiple copies of kindergarten-
level texts. Storybooks and information books ref lect the cultural and linguistic diver-
sity of the group. Some children listen to audio books and follow along in the printed
book.
Following the midmorning snack, children independently browse or read self- selected
familiar books, especially ones that Hope has previously read aloud, such as the fish book.
The field trip, books, and ongoing science study of sea life broaden the children’s back-
ground knowledge and vocabulary. To build reading comprehension, Hope guides discus-
sions about what is being read or listened to. She asks the children to predict
events, retell or act out stories, and notice when a text does not make sense.
The kindergartners also have physical education classes three times a
week. Working with Hope, the PE teacher plans related movement activities—
How would you move like you’re swimming? What if you were a fish and
there was no water? In the classroom, Hope has a creative art center where
some children make representations of their favorite fish and underwater
environments; others create simply from their imaginations. After lunch and
outdoor play, the children have another 60-minute choice period before dis-
missal. This is a favorite time for many because they especially like dramatic
play, block building, and board games. During this time, Hope works with
small groups on the mathematics curriculum goals. Today, a group spon-
taneously decides to replicate the aquarium with unit blocks. This leads to
lengthy debates about how to re-create the water because a flat piece of blue
paper wouldn’t really hold up the fish. At the end of the day, the group meets
to reflect on their day and look forward to tomorrow.
Considerations for Teaching Kindergarten Hope Millner has taught
kindergarten in a suburban school district for 15 years. In that time, she has seen chang-
es in the curriculum, especially recently with the Common Core standards on English
language arts and mathematics, and less administrative support for play. She has also
observed that a higher proportion of her students now
attend preschool and enter school with more basic
knowledge about how the written language system
works. At the same time, Hope knows that, develop-
mentally, 5- and 6-year-olds haven’t fundamentally
changed and that they benefit from both “learningful
play and playful learning” (Graue, 2006). Her task
is to make the curriculum meaningful and engaging
and to use play and other effective teaching strate-
gies to intentionally promote each child’s continuing
progress. Most of all Hope is committed to a building
positive, warm relationship with every child. One of
the children’s drawings reminds Hope of how impor-
tant her job is; she literally “looms large” in the lives
of her kindergartners (see Figure 16.1).
Classroom Connection
In this video, you’ll hear about a
day in the life of a kindergarten
teacher. Observe how she inter-
acts with the children, teaches
literacy and math, and describes
the rewards of teaching this age
group.
https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=asHCK1llghc
Most public school kindergar-
tens today set high expectations
for children’s reading progress.
How can kindergarten teachers
use developmentally appropri-
ate practices to help children
build early literacy skills?
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Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach524
One of the biggest challenges for kindergarten teach-
ers is to provide developmentally appropriate practice, while
also implementing an increasingly rigorous curriculum
(Copple, Bredekamp, Koralek, & Charner, 2014b). Teach-
ing kindergarten today involves balancing some potentially
conf licting needs and goals, as demonstrated in Table 16.3.
Teaching the Whole Child
in the Primary grades
A great deal of growth and change takes place from ages 6
through 8. Similarly, the curriculum and, therefore, teachers’
experiences will vary if they are teaching in the first, second,
or third grade (Copple, Bredekamp, Koralek, & Charner,
2014a). Here we visit a first-grade classroom, but the considerations for teaching in the
primary grades generally apply across the age span.
A Day in the Life of a First-Grade Teacher Lina Truesdale’s 22 first grad-
ers have very different backgrounds and abilities. Early in the school year, Lina spent time
getting to know the children and assessing their abilities. She found that five of them were
reading at the second-grade level or above, and four did not know all the letters and sounds.
FIGURE 16.1 Kindergarten
Child’s Image of Her Teacher
as is clear from this kindergar-
ten child’s drawing, teachers
play an enormously important
role in children’s lives.
If YOu arE THInKIng Of TEaCHIng KIndErgarTEn, YOu MIgHT COnSIdEr THaT:
On the One Hand On the Other Hand
Kindergarten is part of the formal school system, often
more structured and with more challenging learning
standards and curriculum expectations than in the past.
Teachers are still the most important influence on the quality and
appropriateness of children’s experiences in school. The school system
tends to offer higher salaries, better benefits, and more job security
than do child care or preschool programs.
Kindergartners vary widely in their prior learning
opportunities both at home or in preschool. Teachers face
the challenge of teaching a general curriculum to diverse
learners.
Effective teachers don’t expect all the children to achieve the same
thing, at the same time, in the same way. By individualizing teaching
and working with small groups, teachers experience the rewards of see-
ing children who are initially behind their peers make great strides.
Kindergartners don’t think and learn exactly like adults
and older children—there are limits to their understanding
of complex concepts.
Kindergartners are more competent learners and thinkers than many
people assume. They strive to make sense of the world, solve prob-
lems, and are fascinated by learning about topics that interest them.
Kindergarten classes are usually larger than those in
preschool and teachers do not always have the benefit
of an assistant, making it more difficult for teachers to
individualize their teaching.
Most schools have multiple kindergarten classrooms, and teachers
can collaborate with colleagues within grade level and across grades.
Specialists in music, art, physical education, and special education
may also be available to offer support.
Kindergartners can function independently in self-help
skills and need less adult support than preschoolers.
Kindergartners are still young children who rely on teachers for
emotional as well as physical support and usually want to please their
teachers.
The kindergarten curriculum tends to focus on literacy
and math, raising concerns that there is insufficient atten-
tion to social-emotional development.
good kindergarten teachers know that both children’s cognition and
social development are essential. Their teaching integrates academic
skills and concepts with positive social-emotional development and
warm, responsive relationships.
Kindergarten may be included in school district account-
ability requirements. Children are sometimes tested
inappropriately.
Effective teachers use ongoing assessment of children’s learning to adapt
curriculum and teaching. They don’t place undue emphasis on formal
tests but do hold themselves accountable to children and families.
With the increased academic demands of kindergarten, committed teachers must strive to engage in
developmentally appropriate, effective practices that meet the needs of the whole child.
Table 16.3 Considerations for Kindergarten Teachers
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Chapter 16 Putting It All Together in Practice: Making a Difference for Children 525
The district curriculum is designed for children
somewhere in the middle. But like every good
first-grade teacher, Lina knows that she teaches
children first and curriculum second.
The school district requires that there be a
90-minute language arts block each morning
in first grade. Lina knows that the children
are more likely to stay energetic and focused
if she varies the activities during this time,
and makes sure that the children are as ac-
tive as possible, both mentally and physically.
She begins the morning with whole-group
instruction and discussion of new concepts,
introducing and explaining new vocabulary
words in everyday language. Then the class
divides into smaller groups. Each day, Lina
works with small groups on guided reading,
during which she assesses their reading comprehension and ability to monitor themselves
for understanding. She coaches them to ask questions such as “Does that make sense?”
“What does that mean?” and “How you know?”
At the same time, others read independently or in pairs. Then, children continue with
individual work, such as writing in journals, while Lina observes and offers individual help as
needed. She ends the language arts period with a whole-group read-aloud, which the children
love. At this point in their reading journey, the books the children can decode on their own have
limited vocabulary and are not as interesting as the stories that Lina reads to them. Lina keeps
careful records of children’s reading progress. She takes great pride in their achievements
while also focusing on ways to adapt her teaching for those who are behind.
Some days the class has physical education before lunch, and other days they have
music. After lunch, they play outside for 20 minutes and then return for focused math
time. Again, Lina varies the teaching context. She may introduce a new math concept,
such as a put-together/take-apart problem, to the whole group. Then she gives them a
problem to discuss with their neighbors: “Sixteen plus what number equals 21?” The
children report their solutions and reasoning to the whole group. Seven-year-old Nan-
cy explains, “We got 5. We started with 16 and counted 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, and that’s
five numbers.” Lina says, “That’s one way to solve the problem. Is there another way?”
Lina observes children’s grasp of the problem. Then, she follows the whole-group
time with small-group work, during which she focuses on those who haven’t grasped
the new concept, or gives more difficult problems to those who need challenge. Science
or social studies projects follow that integrate literacy, language, and math-
ematics goals.
At the end of her day, Lina meets with the other first-grade teachers to
talk about effective ways of helping struggling readers and children who are
having trouble grasping basic math concepts. She also seeks their advice on
ways to assist Irina and Carlos, who are learning English. She plans to com-
municate with their families as well.
Considerations for Teaching in the Primary Grades Do you
remember your first-grade teacher? What experiences come to mind? Of all
your teachers between kindergarten and third grade, which ones do you re-
member best, and for what reasons?
The primary grades—first through third—are prime time for learning.
They set the stage for much that comes after. Primary-grade teachers have a sig-
nificant, measurable impact on children’s educational careers and, hence, their
lives. They have the opportunity to make lasting contributions to the world;
their work is both demanding and stimulating, as described in Table 16.4.
a major portion of the day in
primary grades is devoted to
reading and writing instruction.
What are some ways that inten-
tional teachers can integrate
other areas of the curriculum
such as science and social stud-
ies with reading and writing?
Classroom Connection
In this video, primary-grade
teachers talk about the rewards of
their work. as you watch, reflect
on your own goals for a career in
early education. What challenges
and rewards do you expect?
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Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach526
If YOu arE THInKIng Of TEaCHIng In THE PrIMarY gradES, YOu MIgHT COnSIdEr THaT:
On the One Hand On the Other Hand
Primary-grade children have longer attention spans
and are increasingly capable of independent work.
Primary-grade children are still in their early childhood. They become more
inattentive and exhausted from sitting and listening for long periods than
from movement. good teachers respect their need to be physically and
mentally active.
By third grade, children’s self-concepts, academic
ability, and social skills are well established and
become more difficult to change.
Teachers have the power to really make a difference to children’s self-
concept and academic and social success through positive relationships
and intentional teaching.
The primary-grade curriculum tends to be so focused
on reading that little time is left over for other sub-
ject areas.
Teaching a child to read, which for some children is a relatively easy task
but for others is a seemingly overwhelming hurdle, is one of the most
satisfying experiences of a teacher’s life.
The primary-school curriculum is usually dictated by
the district or state and can be overly prescriptive
with little room for flexibility on the part of teachers.
Teachers know that children cannot be scripted. They take their cues from
children and follow their lead more than they follow the prescribed lesson
plan.
Primary-grade children tend to develop focused inter-
ests such as collecting, sports, music, or art.
Children’s interests can be the vehicles for teaching them important skills
and content. They can read and write about sports or practice number
problems with a collection of their favorite objects.
Schoolwork gets harder during the primary grades,
requiring greater attention and sustained effort. This
discourages some learners.
Throughout the primary grades, if they have engaged and talented teachers,
most children are motivated to learn and, therefore, like school.
Standardized achievement testing in third grade (and
sometimes earlier) can place considerable stress on
children and teachers. Test scores may be used as
the sole measure of accountability.
Teachers can work across grade levels and with families to focus on helping
every child learn and succeed, resisting the pressure to narrow the curricu-
lum to what is tested. good teachers have high expectations for every child
and do not assign blame when children are behind or need extra help.
Table 16.4 Considerations for Primary Grade Teachers
during the primary grades, children need to acquire the fundamentals of literacy and mathematics, which
increases the emphasis on accountability but also the rewards of teaching.
In this section, we used broad strokes to paint images of life in classrooms for teachers
of children from birth through age 8. However, teachers lead important professional lives
beyond the classroom, as discussed in the next section.
✓ Check Your Understanding 16.1: Life as an Early Childhood Educator
Beginning Your Journey
as an Early Childhood Professional
Becoming a professional early childhood educator involves commitments in addition to
working with children and families. In its Standards for Early Childhood Professional
Preparation, NAEYC (Lutton, 2012) describes the following aspects of becoming a
professional:
• Identifying and involving oneself with the early childhood field
• Knowing about and upholding ethical standards and other professional guidelines
• Engaging in continuous, collaborative learning to inform practice
• Integrating knowledgeable, reflective, and critical perspectives on early education
• Engaging in informed advocacy for children and the profession.
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Chapter 16 Putting It All Together in Practice: Making a Difference for Children 527
Become a Professional
A profession is an occupation that requires extensive education and/or specialized
training, such as the legal or medical professions. Professionals draw on this specialized
body of knowledge and expertise to guide their decisions and behavior, but not prescribe
it (Feeney & Freeman, 2012). Professions also mandate requirements for entry and
standards for practice by their members. They tend to be exclusive in that only those
individuals who meet the requirements can call themselves members of the profession
(Goffin, 2013).
Although some positions in the early childhood field abide by this strict definition
of a professional, others do not. In general, teachers at the elementary level are consid-
ered professionals because they are required to have baccalaureate degrees and licenses
and to participate in continuing professional development to stay current in the field. By
contrast, there are no uniform educational requirements for teachers of children from
birth to age 5. Nevertheless, early childhood education is evolving and can boast several
key characteristics of a profession, such as a commitment to a greater good—the welfare
of children, a body of knowledge to guide practice, professional associations, and a code
of ethics (Feeney & Freeman, 2012; Lutton, 2012).
Become Involved in the Early Childhood Field One of the most valuable
steps in becoming a professional is joining an organization that offers resources and
services to its members, such as conferences and publications. These affiliations provide
a sense of identity, the opportunity to establish relationships with like-minded people,
and access to the most current research and information about the field. Professional
associations, such as the American Medical Association, restrict membership to qualified
individuals. Early childhood education, on the other hand, has several professional asso-
ciations, but membership in them is open to all.
The National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) is the larg-
est association of individuals who work with and for children from birth through age 8.
Other organizations also strengthen individuals’ ties to their chosen field and advocate on
behalf of children, including the National Black Child Development Institute, National
Council of La Raza, National Head Start Association, and the National Association for
Family Child Care. Most national associations such as these also have state and/or local
affiliate groups through which new and experienced teachers can find support from col-
leagues and mentors.
Most elementary school teachers belong to one of the two teacher unions: the National
Education Association or the American Federation of Teachers. Increasingly, child care pro-
fessionals are joining unions as well in order to band together for improved wages and work-
ing conditions. Many primary-grade teachers belong to a content specialty organization such
as the International Literacy Association or the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.
Uphold Professional Standards Because young children are at such a criti-
cal point in their development and learning, and because they are vulnerable and cannot
articulate their own rights and needs, early childhood professionals must know about and
uphold professional and ethical standards (Lutton, 2012).
Standards and guidelines vary depending on the type of program or school, but they
may include those for program accreditation (NAEYC, 2007) and for developmentally
appropriate practice (NAEYC, 2009). Other relevant professional standards may include:
• Child care licensing requirements
• National, state, or local standards for curriculum content and child outcomes.
• Requirements for reporting and preventing child abuse, which we discuss in detail
later in this chapter.
Uphold the NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct One of the hallmarks of a
profession is the existence of a code of ethics, which defines the core values of the field
profession an occupation that
requires extensive education
and/or specialized training.
code of ethics defines the
core values of a profession
and provides guidance for
what professionals should do
when they encounter difficult
or conflicting obligations or
responsibilities in their work.
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Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach528
and provides guidance for what professionals should do when they encounter difficult
or conflicting obligations or responsibilities in their work. The NAEYC Code of Ethical
Conduct (NAEYC, 2011a) guides early childhood educators in their relationships with
children, families, colleagues, and the broader society. Supplements to the code also exist
for program administrators, principals, teacher educators, and others involved in profes-
sional development.
Individual people have their own personal views about morality—what they think
is right and wrong and how they should behave. Ethics involves critical thinking about
morality and the ability to make choices about one’s own values. In contrast to individual
morality, professional ethics are “the kinds of actions that are right or wrong in the
workplace and are a public matter” (Feeney & Freeman, 2012, p. 6). They help individuals
resolve moral dilemmas they encounter in their work.
Understanding Ethical Responsibilities Ethical responsibilities refer to the obligations
that every teacher agrees to uphold with honesty, integrity, and respect. In fulfilling these
responsibilities, early childhood educators should adhere to principles articulated in
NAEYC’s Code of Ethical Conduct. For example, the first principle is the most important
and takes precedence over all others:
Above all, we shall not harm children. We shall not participate in practices that are
emotionally damaging, physically harmful, disrespectful, degrading, dangerous,
exploitative, or intimidating to children. (NAEYC, 2011a, p. 3)
Other examples of teachers’ ethical responsibilities include never sharing confidential
information about a child or family with a person who has no legitimate need for know-
ing, obeying relevant laws (especially those regarding child abuse), and respecting the
rights of children with disabilities. In difficult situations, teachers should consult the code
for guidance about their ethical responsibilities, as illustrated in the following situation:
Daniel is a child in Kiera Blaine’s kindergarten class. His parents are divorcing and
involved in a nasty custody battle. Kiera has had several conferences with Daniel’s
father because he is concerned about the effect of the divorce on his son. Daniel’s
mother hasn’t said anything to Kiera. After several months, Daniel’s father asks Kiera
to testify on his behalf in the custody case. Kiera feels bad for Daniel’s father and
wants to help him, but isn’t sure if she should.
Here is a case in which consulting the code can ease Kiera’s mind and help her do
the right thing. The code clearly states: “In cases where family members are in conflict
with one another, we shall work openly, sharing our observations of the child, to help all
parties involved make informed decisions. We shall refrain from becoming an advocate
for one party” (NAEYC, 2011a, p. 4).
Resolving Ethical Dilemmas Sometimes the right answer in a difficult situation is not
clear. An ethical dilemma involves deciding the right thing to do when two or more
values conflict, as in the following case:
Little Achievers is a well-respected child care center
in a relatively affluent community with a long wait-
ing list for admission. Beverly Stanos is excited to
get a job there as an infant/toddler teacher that pays
more than any other position she has had. Soon she
begins to feel bewildered and conflicted. The center
moves the babies and toddlers to a new group every 6
months; the director explains that they do this so that
the babies don’t get attached to the teachers.
Beverly is upset; this practice goes against every-
thing she has learned in her teacher education program
about the importance of early attachments for babies’
development. She checks the licensing standards and
morality Personal views about
what is right and wrong and
how to behave.
ethics Critical thinking about
morality and people’s ability
to make choices about their
own values.
professional ethics The kinds
of actions that are right or
wrong in the workplace and are
a public matter.
ethical responsibilities The
obligations that every teacher
agrees to uphold with honesty,
integrity, and respect.
ethical dilemma deciding the
right thing to do when two or
more values conflict.
Over the course of your teach-
ing career, you are likely to
encounter difficult situations
when you aren’t sure about
the right decision. In these
cases, naEYC’s Code of Ethical
Conduct will help you resolve
ethical dilemmas.
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finds nothing to prohibit the practice. Finally, she meets with the director to try to
get her to change the policy based on research about child development. The direc-
tor dismisses Beverly’s ideas because she says the policy is a good selling point with
parents who don’t want their babies to become attached to anyone but them. On the
one hand, Beverly thinks she should quit this job, but she knows that if she just quits
nothing will change. On the other hand, she feels an obligation to tell the parents that
the policy is wrong.
Although many early childhood professionals choose their jobs based on the philoso-
phy of the school or program, many find that at some point in their career, they may en-
counter an ethical dilemma, as Beverly does, in which values conflict. In Beverly’s case,
several principles in the code apply and she should weigh them as she attempts to resolve
the dilemma:
• The code states that early childhood professionals should be familiar with the
knowledge base of the profession and appreciate the vulnerability of children and
their dependence on adults, which Beverly clearly does in this case.
• The code also guides her to acknowledge families’ child-rearing values and their
right to make decisions for their children.
• The code directs early childhood educators “to do nothing that diminishes
the reputation of the program in which we work unless it is violating laws and
regulations designed to protect children or is violating the provisions of this Code”
(NAEYC, 2011a, p. 5).
Beverly’s dilemma causes her to feel stress and discomfort and forces her to consider:
• Who she is most obligated to in this situation
• What she should do to address her dilemma
• Examining the code for additional guidance
As an early childhood professional, you will most likely encounter ethical dilem-
mas of your own. Knowing the resources and tools to refer to is a first step in resolving
the conflict. It is also important to understand the philosophy of any place where you
are considering taking a position. If Beverly had known from the start what the pro-
gram’s practice was for moving children from one group to the next, she very well might
have continued her job search. Read the Promoting Play: Resolving an Ethical Dilemma
about Play feature and consider how you would use the Code of Ethical Conduct to ad-
dress this dilemma.
Engage in Continuous, Collaborative
Learning to Inform Practice Knowledge
about child development and learning and
about effective curriculum and teaching is al-
ways changing and expanding. Early childhood
educators have an obligation to keep up to date
with the latest research developments in the field
(Institute of Medicine [IOM] & National Research
Council [NRC], 2015). Professional education
doesn’t end with completion of a degree or initial
licensure. Rather, teachers commit themselves to
lifelong professional learning. Technology greatly
facilitates collaborative practice and continuous
learning.
Teachers can learn a great deal directly from
children and from other teachers. For this reason,
NAEYC (Lutton, 2012) calls for teachers to col-
laborate with colleagues on their own classroom-
based research, investigate ways to improve their
Professionals reflect on their
decisions and discuss, debate,
and analyze their practices with
their colleagues. Becoming a
professional teacher means
committing to becoming a
lifelong learner.
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Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach530
own practices, participate in conferences, and stay current by reading and discussing
publications and Internet sites. For example, a group of kindergarten teachers might fig-
ure out how to share a limited set of materials across classrooms to enhance the complex-
ity of children’s play. A team of preschool teachers might meet regularly to compare ob-
servations of children’s interests and thinking. The staff of a child care center might read
an article on biting and agree on ways to handle the problem with toddlers and families.
Integrate Knowledgeable, Reflective, and Critical Perspectives on
Early Education Even relatively routine decisions about which book to read, how
to help children settle a dispute, or how to organize a safe, educational field trip require
teachers to draw on professional knowledge and values. Developmentally appropriate
Resolving an Ethical Dilemma about Play
You teach 3- and 4-year-olds in a large, diverse child
care agency. Your personal teaching philosophy is
that children learn a great deal through play, espe-
cially socio-dramatic play. Your classroom environ-
ment includes a large housekeeping area. You regu-
larly provide specific props related to children’s in-
terests or the current topic of study to encourage and
extend their pretend play. Many of the families, how-
ever, are members of cultural groups that object to
the children taking on pretend roles that they do not
consider culturally appropriate. for example, some
of the latino parents are upset to see boys playing in
the housekeeping area. Some of the arabic families
do not want boys and girls playing together at all. You
personally are opposed to gender stereotyping and try
to counteract it in your classroom whenever possible.
You are faced with an ethical dilemma. To resolve
it, you consult the naEYC Code of Ethical Conduct,
which leads you to first consider the knowledge
base about child development and learning. You are
already convinced that socio-dramatic play is valu-
able. research informs you that preschool children
often show preference for playmates of their own
gender. at the same time, research indicates that
young children become aware of and often react
negatively to differences among people, which
requires straightforward anti-bias teaching and
learning experiences to counteract.
next, you consult the code of ethics, which
includes an important, applicable principle that
early childhood environments must support each
child’s culture, language, ethnicity, and family
structure. a similar principle requires that profes-
sionals respect the dignity and preferences of fami-
lies to ensure a culturally consistent environment
for children. and that families must be listened to
and involved in program decisions.
no simple resolution to the situation exists. How-
ever, applying both the code of ethics and what
you know about child development, here are some
appropriate actions:
• Meet with families to listen to their specific
concerns and desires for their children.
• Provide interesting socio-dramatic play themes
that do not involve housekeeping.
• Encourage but don’t force friendships between
children or across genders.
• foster positive relationships among all children
and teach anti-bias approaches to diversity.
• respect children’s choice of playmates but pro-
hibit expressions of bias toward other children for
any reason.
• Provide toys and play experiences that appeal to
both genders.
• Explain to families, through a translator if neces-
sary, how you are working to accommodate their
concerns, respect their cultural values and prefer-
ences, and also provide a developmentally appro-
priate program for their children.
Promoting Play
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Chapter 16 Putting It All Together in Practice: Making a Difference for Children 531
practice is a decision-making process that requires teachers to be knowledge-
able about the latest research findings in the field.
However, none of the professional guidelines or standards, including the
Code of Ethical Conduct, contains one simple, true answer to any of the
myriad questions teachers confront. In fact, early childhood professionals
who share the same core values do not agree on the answers to some of
the most central questions such as the name of the field, the proper bal-
ance of teacher-guided and child-guided experience, or what developmen-
tally appropriate really means (Bredekamp, 1997a; Goffin, 2013; NAEYC,
2009). Therefore, professionals need to be reflective and critical, analyzing
and evaluating the effectiveness of their own practices to improve their work
with young children. They also must be open to views that differ from their
own. To learn more about the value of critical, reflective practice, read the
feature Becoming an Intentional Teacher: Advocating for Effective Inclusion
of Children with Disabilities.
Become an Informed Advocate for Children and the Profession Early
childhood education is an imperfect field. The quality of services for children is uneven
and, in many cases, inadequate. High-quality programs are expensive, and many fami-
lies cannot afford them. Early childhood teachers, whose jobs require a high level of
professional knowledge and responsibility, are grossly undercompensated.
To make a real difference in children’s lives, early childhood professionals have the
additional obligation of becoming informed advocates for children and the profession
(Lutton, 2012). Advocacy is aiding a cause that you believe in. It can be as personal as
referring a family for counseling or as political as lobbying your representative for an
increase in Head Start funding.
The key word is informed. Effective advocates present valid information and draw on
their knowledge of research and real-world experience. Representatives are more likely
to vote for increased funding if they are convinced that such programs work. Successful
advocacy aiding a cause that
you believe in.
Becoming an Intentional Teacher
Advocating for Effective Inclusion of Children
with Disabilities
Here’s What Happened Two children with disabilities
and IEPs are in my first-grade class. april has Tourette’s
syndrome and Willis has autism. I learned about inclusion
in my college classes, but until now I haven’t encountered
children with disabilities as severe as theirs. In searching
the Internet for help, I found the joint position statement on
Early Childhood Inclusion by the division for Early Childhood
and naEYC, which says that the defining features of inclu-
sion are access, participation, and systemic supports. The
next time that I attended each child’s IEP team meeting, I
spoke up. I confessed that in each case, the child was pres-
ent in the classroom but not really participating. I asked
for resources to read and the opportunity to attend some
workshops to help me learn more effective strategies. My
biggest concern is that neither the children nor I are getting
the systemic supports we need to be successful. as a result,
I spoke with the principal and april’s and Willis’s parents.
We arranged meetings with the school district special edu-
cation coordinator to advocate for changes in how the chil-
dren are served, such as having therapists work with them
in the regular classroom rather than
pulling them out.
Here’s What I Was Thinking after reading and
reflecting on the position statement, I realized that april
and Willis weren’t really included in the class because
although they had access, they weren’t fully participating
and they needed more support to achieve their IEP goals
and the goals of the regular curriculum. reflecting on and
thinking critically about my own behavior, I admitted to
myself that I wasn’t fully participating in team meetings
and was unsure about how best to teach Willis and april.
I also realized that both of these children and I were not
getting the supports we needed from the school system.
This led me to exercise my professional responsibility to
work with families and colleagues to advocate on their
behalf.
Reflection What else might this teacher have done to
help children succeed in her inclusive classroom?
Classroom Connection
Intentional teachers stay up to
date about new knowledge and
continue to grow as professionals.
In this video, you will see a
high-quality preschool program
in action and hear the teachers
discuss the importance of
continuing their education.
http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=cffwydahq80
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Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach532
advocates present research on program effectiveness, but they also share the stories of
children and families whose life experience is represented by the data.
Informed advocacy requires that early childhood professionals be familiar with the
central policy issues affecting the field, including compensation for teachers, financing
of the early education system, standards for curriculum, and appropriate methods of
assessment. They also need to understand how public policies are developed and dem-
onstrate essential advocacy skills, such as clear verbal and written communication skills
and the ability to work effectively with others toward a common goal (Kieff, 2009).
Figure 16.2 lists ways in which informed advocates act on behalf of children and the
profession.
Protect Children from abuse and neglect
Early childhood educators tend to focus on the positive and want only the best for young
children. But our responsibility goes beyond providing excellent care and education for
children to protecting them from harm to the extent possible. For this reason, reporting
suspected cases of child abuse and neglect is not only one of our most difficult pro-
fessional responsibilities but also the most sacred. To meet this responsibility, teachers
need to know the signs and symptoms of child abuse and also the legal requirements
surrounding it. The federal government’s Child Welfare Information Gateway website
(http://www.childwelfare.gov) provides up-to-date resources to help professionals fulfill
these obligations.
FIGURE 16.2 Becoming an Informed Advocate Effective teachers not only focus on the children
in their classrooms, but also advocate for high-quality programs for all children and families, and better
work environments for professionals.
Sources: Based on Advocates in Action: Making a Difference for Young Children, revised edition, by
A. Robinson and D. R. Stark, 2005, Washington, DC: NAEYC; Essentials for Child Development
Associates Working with Young Children, revised edition, edited by C. B. Day, 2005, Washington, DC:
Council for Professional Recognition.
• Write letters or e-mails to support better child care licensing standards or
legislation to support funding for child care assistance.
• Join a child advocacy group such as NAEYC, NBCDI, or NHSA, and stay
informed about policy issues through their websites and e-mail alerts.
• Provide information for parents to help them advocate for their children.
• Get to know and collaborate with colleagues across the full age spectrum of birth
through 8. Avoid pitting the needs of one age group or sector against those of
another.
• Participate in efforts to improve compensation and benefits for early childhood
professionals.
• Advocate for sufficient funding and effective services for all children, including
children with disabilities.
• Build your knowledge and understanding of cultural and linguistic diversity by
reading and joining diverse civic, community, volunteer and/or faith-based
groups.
• Attend school board meetings and voice your opinion on educational issues such
as developmentally appropriate practice, or appropriate curriculum and
assessment.
• Share your critical views with manufacturers of children’s products such as violent
video games or advertisers of junk food aimed at children.
• Vote in every election, help register parents to vote, and/or run for public office.
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http://www.childwelfare.gov
Chapter 16 Putting It All Together in Practice: Making a Difference for Children 533
Signs and Symptoms of Child Abuse and Neglect There are several
types of child abuse, including physical abuse, neglect, sexual abuse, and emotional
abuse. In most cases, however, children experience these abuses in combination—a sexu-
ally abused child is also harmed physically and mentally. Teachers need to be alert to
general warning signs for abuse. If a teacher suspects a parent or other adult of abusing a
child, it is important to observe both the child’s and adult’s behavior individually and also
to observe the interaction between them. For example, a child might be always watching
as though waiting for something bad to happen, a parent may show little concern for the
child, and when together they may avoid looking at or touching each other (Child Welfare
Information Gateway, 2007). Teachers also need to know the typical warning signs of
specific types of abuse, which are listed in Table 16.5.
Reporting Requirements Almost every day the media report tragic incidents of
child abuse that could have been alleviated if someone had reported their suspicions to the
proper authorities. Too many people feel that it is none of their business or they are afraid
Source: Child Welfare Information Gateway, retrieved from https://www.childwelfare.gov/pubs/factsheets/ques.cfm.
Type of Abuse
Consider the Possibility of Abuse
When the Child:
Consider the Possibility of Abuse
When the Parent or Adult Caregiver:
Physical abuse • Has unexplained burns, bites, bruises, broken
bones, or black eyes
• Has fading bruises or other marks noticeable after
an absence from school
• Seems frightened of the parents and protests or
cries when it is time to go home
• Shrinks at the approach of adults
• Reports injury by a parent or another adult
caregiver
• Offers conflicting, unconvincing, or no explanation
for the child’s injury
• Describes the child as “evil,” or in some other very
negative way
• Uses harsh physical discipline with the child
• Has a history of abuse as a child
neglect • Is frequently absent from school
• Begs or steals food or money
• Lacks needed medical or dental care, immuniza-
tions, or glasses
• Is consistently dirty and has severe body odor
• Lacks sufficient clothing for the weather
• States that there is no one at home to provide care
• Appears to be indifferent to the child
• Seems apathetic or depressed
• Behaves irrationally or in a bizarre manner
• Is abusing alcohol or other drugs
Sexual abuse • Has difficulty walking or sitting
• Suddenly refuses to change clothes or to partici-
pate in physical activities
• Reports nightmares or bedwetting
• Experiences a sudden change in appetite
• Demonstrates bizarre, sophisticated, or unusual
sexual knowledge or behavior
• Is unduly protective of the child or severely limits
the child’s contact with other children, especially
of the opposite sex
• Is secretive and isolated
Emotional abuse • Shows extremes in behavior, such as overly
compliant or demanding behavior, extreme
passivity, or aggression
• Is either inappropriately adult (parenting other
children, for example) or inappropriately infantile
(frequently rocking or head-banging, for example)
• Is delayed in physical or emotional development
• Constantly blames, belittles, or berates the child
• Is unconcerned about the child and refuses to
consider offers of help for the child’s problems
• Overtly rejects the child
Table 16.5 Recognizing Potential Signs of Child Abuse
Knowing these potential warning signs is essential for teachers to fulfil their legal and moral responsibility to
report suspected incidents of child abuse and neglect.
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Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach534
of offending parents or colleagues. Although anyone can and should report suspected
abuse, teachers, child care workers, and school officials are mandatory reporters. They are
required by law to report maltreatment of children. Every state has child abuse reporting
procedures, but the specific regulations regarding confidentiality and how to report vary
from state to state. The Child Welfare Information Gateway provides links to each state’s
requirements.
Teachers are not only legally mandated to report suspected child abuse but
also have an ethical responsibility to do so. The NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct
(NAEYC, 2011a) states that even when another person tells us of their suspicion, we
should assist them in taking action, and if a child protective service agency fails in its
responsibilities, we should advocate for improved services. Being the one person in
a child’s life who intervenes to stop the horror of abuse is probably the most difficult
task of any teacher’s career but would also make the biggest difference in an individual
child’s life.
Join a Profession That Makes a difference
Teaching young children is a career that brings great personal fulfillment. Every hour, your
small charges burst into laughter, need comforting, figure something out, and learn new
words. Each day has its small rewards—a wilting dandelion, a shared joke, an “Ah-ha!”
expression of understanding, or a whispered “I love you, Teacher.” Looking back at the end
of every year, teachers can’t believe how far most of their children have come, and they
regret that some have not come further. Over time, teachers learn more about children but
mostly from children, and they are humbled by the job. They realize how much they don’t
know and that there are no simple answers to complex questions. They are awed by the trust
that children and parents place in them and they use their power wisely. Most of all, they
know that the lives they touch will be changed, as will their own. They are committed to
making a positive difference in children’s lives. Read the feature What Works: Having an
Effective Teacher to find out just how important high-quality teachers can be.
We end with a succinct statement of the early childhood professional’s commitment
to children. The Statement of Commitment (NAEYC, 2011a) in Figure 16.3 is not an offi-
cial part of the NAEYC’s Code of Ethical Conduct, but rather a personal acknowledgment
What Works
Having an Effective Teacher
Most people intuitively know that good teachers make a difference
in how well children learn. In fact, some studies show that the
most effective teachers can contribute as much as an extra year’s
growth in academic achievement for the fortunate children in their
classes. But conducting such research is difficult because it is
hard to know whether the differences were caused more by the
children’s inborn abilities or their environmental circumstances
than by the teacher’s practice.
a well-designed study addressed the question of cause and
effect directly by measuring the reading achievement of identical
and fraternal twins who had more- or less-effective teachers. using
twins enabled the researchers to control for genetics because
identical twins share 100% of their genes, and fraternal twins
share 50%. In the study of more than 800 first and second graders,
teacher effectiveness was measured
by how much the twins’ classmates’
reading ability improved over the course of the
year. What the researchers found was that among
identical twins with different teachers, the twin with the more
effective teacher had better reading skills. looking at fraternal
and identical twins, the researchers concluded that if teachers are
equally excellent, genetics plays a larger role in reading achieve-
ment, but that poor-quality, ineffective teaching inhibits chil-
dren’s ability to reach their full potential.
Source: Based on “Teacher Quality Moderates the Genetic Effects on Early
Reading,” by J. Taylor, A. D. Roehrig, B. S. Hensler, C. M. Connor, & C.
Schatschneider, 2010, Science, 328(5977), 512–514.
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Chapter 16 Putting It All Together in Practice: Making a Difference for Children 535
of the individual’s willingness to embrace the values and moral obligations that lead to
becoming part of the early childhood profession.
✓ Check Your Understanding 16.2: Beginning Your Journey as an Early Childhood
Educator
As an individual who works with young children, I commit myself to furthering
the values of early childhood education as they are reflected in the ideals and
principles of the NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct. To the best of my ability I will:
• Never harm children.
• Ensure that programs for young children are based on current knowledge and
research of child development and early childhood education.
• Respect and support families in their task of nurturing children.
• Respect colleagues in early childhood care and education and support them in
maintaining the NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct.
• Serve as an advocate for children, their families, and their teachers in community
and society.
• Stay informed of and maintain high standards of professional conduct.
• Engage in an ongoing process of self-reflection, realizing that personal
characteristics, biases, and beliefs have an impact on children and families.
• Be open to new ideas and be willing to learn from the suggestions of others.
• Continue to learn, grow, and contribute as a professional.
• Honor the ideals and principles of the NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct.
FIGURE 16.3 NAEYC Statement of Commitment The naEYC Code of Ethical Conduct and all the
organization’s work is based on this foundational statement of commitment to children and families.
Source: From Code of Ethical Conduct and Statement of Commitment, revised edition, 2011a, Washington,
DC: NAEYC. Reprinted with permission from the National Association for the Education of Young Children.
. . . the College Classroom
At the outset of this chapter we saw into the thoughts and motivations of several college students as
they embarked on an early childhood education class. Those brief descriptions reveal only some of the
diverse paths that individuals take into the field. Undoubtedly, their paths will diverge again as they make
decisions about which of the many career options, settings, and age groups they wish to pursue. We’ve
shined a light on what future days might be like, and some of what they need to consider in their choices.
We began this journey by looking back at the beginnings of early childhood education and the
contributions of dauntless women and men who provided the foundations on which it stands today.
While those foundations are firm, they are not limiting. The future of children and of early childhood
education continues to be built as we learn more about effective practices and our country commits
more resources to improving schools for young children. Early childhood education is indeed a field on
the rise. If you join this profession, you will discover that you have the power to shape that future for
the better. ■
Revisiting the Case Study
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Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach536
Chapter Summary16
• A career in early childhood education is filled with
never-ending rewards and challenges. Among the ma-
jor questions early childhood educators face is which
age group(s) they would most like to work with and
why. For each age group/position, there are interesting
points to consider.
• The NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct guides early
childhood educators in making decisions about their
professional responsibilities and resolving ethical
dilemmas that arise in their relationships with children,
families, colleagues, and society.
• Early childhood educators are also effective advocates
for children and the profession. They know about the
central policy issues in the field, including professional
compensation, financing of the early education system,
and standards for curriculum and assessment.
• Teachers and child care providers must know the warning
signs of child abuse and neglect, and are required by law
to report suspected abuse to the proper authorities.
• Early childhood teachers have the opportunity to make
lasting, positive contributions to the lives of children and
to make a significant difference in the world.
Key Terms
■■ advocacy
■■ code of ethics
■■ ethical dilemma
■■ ethical responsibilities
■■ ethics
■■ morality
■■ profession
■■ professional ethics
Demonstrate Your Learning
Click here to assess how well you’ve learned the content in this chapter.
✓
Institute of Medicine (IOM) & National Research
Council (NRC) (2015). Transforming the workforce for
children birth through age 9: A unifying foundation.
Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
Chenfeld, M. B. (2014). Still teaching in the key of life:
Joyful stories for early childhood settings. Washington,
DC: National Association for the Education of Young
Children.
Feeney, S., & Freeman, N. K. (2012). Ethics and the
early childhood educator: Using the NAEYC code
(2nd ed.). Washington, DC: National Association for
the Education of Young Children.
Lutton, A. (Ed.). (2012). Advancing the early childhood
profession: NAEYC standards and guidelines for
professional development. Washington, DC: National
Association for the Education of Young Children.
Child Welfare Information Gateway
On this government website, you will find information
on identifying signs of child abuse and neglect,
reporting requirements, and effective ways to prevent
child abuse.
MenTeach
MenTeach is a clearinghouse for both men and women
seeking information and resources about men teaching.
This website provides information on careers and
resources for recruiting men into early education.
National Black Child Development Institute
The National Black Child Development Institute works
with policy makers, professionals, and parents on critical
issues that directly impact African American children and
their families. This website provides culturally relevant
resources on early childhood education, health, child
welfare, literacy, and family engagement, addressing the
unique strengths and needs of Black children.
National Head Start Association
The National Head Start Association is a nonpartisan,
not-for-profit organization that advocates on behalf of
more than 1 million children, 200,000 staff, and 1,600
Head Start grantees in the United States. Their website
provides resources to assist advocates, and professional
development information and services for Head Start
staff members.
Readings and Websites
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absorbent mind—Maria Montessori’s image of
the child as actively learning from sensory
experiences.
abstraction—The concept that anything can be
counted.
academic discourse—The language of school,
which is important for school success.
accommodation—When new information or
experience doesn’t fit within an existing
concept (scheme), the child must modify
it or construct a new scheme.
accommodations—Changes in assessment
procedures, materials, or setting to eliminate
barriers related to the child’s disability that
might keep children from demonstrating their
full capabilities.
accountability—The process of holding
teachers, schools, or programs responsible
for meeting a required level of performance.
accreditation system—NAEYC’s voluntary
system for identifying high-quality early
childhood centers and schools serving
children from birth through kindergarten.
acculturation—The process whereby children
learn expected rules of behavior.
achievement tests—Tests designed to measure
what children have learned in general or in a
content area such as reading or mathematics.
acknowledging—Giving positive verbal or
nonverbal attention that promotes the child’s
persistence and effort.
adaptation—The mental process of altering
concepts (schemes) in response to
experience, which occurs in two ways:
through assimilation and accommodation.
advance organizers—Ways of introducing new
information that serve as a bridge between
what the student already knows and the
new learning.
advocacy—Aiding a cause that you believe in.
age appropriate—Age-related human charac-
teristics that allow teachers to make general
predictions within an age range about what
materials, interactions, and experiences will
be safe, interesting, challenging, and within
reach for children and, thus, likely to best
promote their learning and development.
aggressive communication—Speaking the truth
in a hurtful way.
alignment—Coordination of the curriculum
from one level of education to the next in
order to build on what children have already
learned and to ease transitions for students
between schools and school levels.
alliteration—Two words beginning with the
same sound.
alphabetic principle—The understanding that
there is a systematic relationship between
letters and sounds, and that all spoken sounds
and words can be represented by a limited set
of agreed-on symbols called letters.
alternative assessments—Assessments that call
for a child to produce a response rather than
select from a list of possible responses.
anecdotal records—Short descriptions written
by teachers and based on observations of
incidents, or anecdotes, involving one or
more children.
anti-bias education—Learning experiences
and teaching strategies that are specifically
designed not only to prepare all children for
life in a culturally rich society, but also to counter
the stereotyping of diverse groups, and to
guard against expressions of bias
apprenticeship—The process of children
learning by observing adults and more
accomplished peers performing tasks and by
practicing the skills themselves with adult
guidance and support.
approaches to learning—Behaviors, tendencies,
or typical patterns that children use in
learning situations that include both how
they feel about learning—their level of
enthusiasm, interest, and motivation—and
how they engage with learning.
aptitude tests—Tests designed to measure
children’s potential for learning in the future.
assertive communication—Telling the truth in
a thoughtful and considerate way; considered
the most effective form of communication.
assessment—The ongoing process of gathering
evidence of children’s learning and develop-
ment, and then organizing and interpreting
the information to make informed decisions
about instructional practice.
assimilation—When new information or
experience is understood in connection with
existing knowledge (schemes).
assistive technology—A piece of equipment or
product that is used to increase, maintain,
or improve the functional capabilities of
individuals with disabilities.
associative play—Children play and share with
each other, usually one other child.
attachment theory—The theory that children’s
ability to learn depends on their developing
trusting relationships with caregivers.
auditory awareness—Listening to verbal input
or distinguishing between different sounds.
autism spectrum disorder (ASD)—Complex
developmental disabilities that impact
the normal development of the brain pro-
cesses related to social interaction and
communication skills.
babble—Produce consonant/vowel sounds such
as “ba ba.”
background knowledge—Concepts and basic
information about how the world works that
is essential for reading comprehension.
balanced approach—Effective reading instruc-
tion that helps children master the alphabetic
principle and acquire meaning from text.
Bank Street approach—Originating with Lucy
Sprague Mitchell at Bank Street College and
later called the Developmental-Interaction
approach, a curriculum framework based
on individual children’s development,
emphasizing that learning begins in
children’s experiences in the immediate
environment (here and now).
base ten place value system—Highly efficient
system of using just 10 numerals to write
any counting number no matter how large, in
which the meaning of a numeral depends on
where it is placed within the number.
behavior intervention plan—Describes the
strategies adults will use to prevent a child’s
negative behavior and to teach more accept-
able behavior.
behaviorism or behavioral learning—Theory
that learning is a change in behavior that is
controlled by the consequences, either posi-
tive or negative, that follow the behavior.
bias—Negative feelings and expressions toward
groups or individuals.
bicultural—Capable of operating successfully in
both the home environment and the dominant
culture of the larger world.
body composition—Weight and body fat.
bullying—Occurs when a person repeatedly
commits aggressive acts that intend to harm,
and an imbalance of power makes it hard for
the victim to defend himself or herself.
cardinality—The concept that the last number
said stands for the total number in the set.
cardiorespiratory (aerobic) system—Body
system made up of the heart, lungs, and
blood; provides the stamina needed to be
active for a long period of time.
caring community of learners—A group or
classroom in which children and adults
engage in warm, positive relationships, treat
each other with respect, and learn from and
with each other.
challenging behavior—Any behavior that inter-
feres with children’s learning, development,
and success at play; is harmful to the child,
other children, or adults; or puts a child at high
risk for later social problems or school failure.
charter schools—Independently operated,
publicly funded schools that have greater
flexibility than regular schools in meeting
regulations and achieving goals.
checklists—Practical and versatile tools for
gathering assessment information about
children’s behavior, skills, or attitudes.
Child Care and Development Block Grants
(CCDBG)—Federal funds allocated to states
for low-income working families to purchase
child care.
child care center—Group program that provides
care and education for young children during
the hours that their parents are employed.
Glossary
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Glossary538
child care licensing standards—Minimum
requirements, legally established by each
state, for a child care program to operate.
Child Development Associate (CDA)
credential—National competency-based
credential for entry-level early childhood
educators.
child study movement—Early 20th-century
effort to scientifically observe and systemati-
cally document children’s individual devel-
opment under the leadership of G. Stanley
Hall and Arnold Gesell.
child-centered curriculum—John Dewey’s idea
that curriculum should reflect the concepts
and topics that the child is interested in and
capable of learning.
child-initiated experiences—Experiences that
allow children to gain knowledge and skills
through their own exploration and interac-
tions with objects and other children.
children with disabilities—Children who have
been identified as having a specific category
of disability, such as autism or cerebral palsy.
children with special needs—A broad term used
to describe children who may have multiple
risk factors, specialized health care needs,
mental or emotional health concerns, severe al-
lergies, or physical and/or cognitive disabilities.
chronosystem—System that refers to effects of
circumstances over time.
classification systems—Systems teachers use to
help children build concepts by identifying
similarities and differences or by comparing
and contrasting objects and ideas.
Classroom Assessment Scoring System
(CLASS)—Preschool and elementary class-
room observational instrument that assesses
the quality of teachers’ relationships and in-
teractions with children and the instructional
strategies used to support children’s learning.
closed questions—Lower-level questions that
have one right answer and usually require
children to recall information or facts.
co-construction—Children learning by solving
problems collaboratively with the teacher’s
support or by working with peers; also called
social construction of knowledge.
code of ethics—Defines the core values of a
profession and provides guidance for what
professionals should do when they encounter
difficult or conflicting obligations or
responsibilities in their work.
code switch—The ability to understand and use
both the mainstream version of English and
the home dialect or language.
cognitive (mental) flexibility—The ability to
find new solutions or revise plans in response
to changing circumstances.
cognitive development—Thinking, intelligence,
and language abilities.
Common Core State Standards—Rigorous
national standards in English language arts
and mathematics for kindergarten through
grade 12 developed by the Council of Chief
State Officers (CCSSO) and the National
Governor’s Association (NGA).
competent child—The image of children as
active players in their own development and
learning.
completion prompt—A prompt that requires
the child to verbally complete the end of a
sentence.
composing/decomposing—Mathematical pro-
cesses of putting together and taking apart
(for example, addition and subtraction).
comprehension—The ability to understand
what is read and to interpret and analyze the
author’s meaning; the ability to make sense
of what is read.
concepts of print—Beginning understandings
about the forms and functions of written
language, such as that words carry messages.
conceptual frameworks—Mental models that
connect new learning to prior knowledge,
enhance memory, and deepen understanding.
conceptual organizer—Ways of organizing
curriculum, such as the project approach, that
make content knowledge more meaningful,
interesting, and understandable for children.
connections—Refers to understanding links
between different areas of math and connect-
ing math concepts to real-world problems.
consequences—Principle of operant condition-
ing that behavior changes as a result of what
occurs immediately afterward.
conservation—The understanding that the
quantity of objects stays the same regardless
of changes in appearance.
constructivism—Learning theory derived from
the work of Jean Piaget, which assumes
that children actively build their knowledge
from firsthand experiences in stimulating
environments.
content standards—Describe what students
should know and/or be able to do within a
particular discipline such as math or science.
conventional reading—Reading in which the
reader gains meaning from unfamiliar text.
cooing—Vocalizing vowel sounds.
cooperative play—Children assume different
roles and share a purpose for the play.
co-player—Teachers actually join in and take an
active role in children’s play.
Council for Exceptional Children (CEC)—
The national professional association for
special educators.
criterion-referenced tests—Tests that compare
a person’s score to a predetermined level of
performance.
cultural competence—The ability to work
effectively across cultural groups.
culturally appropriate—Applying knowledge
of the social and cultural contexts in which
children live, which helps teachers build on
children’s prior knowledge and make experi-
ences meaningful and responsive.
culture—The explicit and implicit values,
beliefs, rules, and expectations for behavior
of members of a group that are passed on
from one generation to the next. These rules
determine to a large extent what group mem-
bers regard as important and what values
shape their actions and judgments.
curriculum—A written plan that describes
the goals for children’s learning and
development, and the learning experiences,
materials, and teaching strategies that are
used to help children achieve those goals.
curriculum approach—Describes the main
elements or direction of a program; is less
detailed than a curriculum model.
curriculum framework—A guide for designing
or choosing a curriculum.
curriculum model—A research-based, idealized
version of what and how teaching and
learning should occur.
curriculum-embedded assessment—Formative
assessment that is integrated into the
curriculum; this assessment does not
occur as a separate procedure.
day nurseries—Programs designed to serve
working families in the late 19th and early
20th centuries; the forerunner of present-day
child care centers.
decode—The ability to figure out what written
symbols—letters of the alphabet—represent.
decontextualized speech—Talk about events,
experiences, or people that are beyond the
here and now or that inhabit children’s
imaginations.
demonstrating—Showing the correct way to
perform a skill or procedure while children
observe the outcome.
development—Age-related change that results
from an interaction between biological matu-
ration and physical and/or social experience;
development occurs as children grow, adapt,
and change in response to various experiences.
developmental continuum—A predictable, but
not rigid, sequence of typical accomplish-
ments within age ranges that is used to plan
curriculum; also an effective assessment tool
used to focus teacher attention on what is
important to assess—what children can do—
and to identify goals for continued progress.
developmental domain—An area of develop-
ment such as fine- and gross-motor skills,
cognitive abilities, self-help capabilities,
and social and communication skills.
developmentally appropriate practice
(DAP)—Ways of teaching that engage
children’s interests and adapt for their age,
experience, and ability to help them meet
challenging and achievable learning goals.
diagnostic tests—Tests designed to identify the
specific learning or developmental problems a
child has and to plan interventions; must be ad-
ministered by specially trained professionals.
dialogic reading—Interactive, shared picture
book reading during which the adult and the
child gradually switch roles so that the child
learns to become the storyteller with the
assistance of the adult, who plays the role of
active listener and questioner.
differentiated instruction—The creation of
multiple paths so that children of different
abilities, interests, and learning needs experi-
ence equally appropriate ways to achieve
important learning goals.
digital literacy—The ability to obtain, use,
interpret, and evaluate information available
through multimedia, digital sources.
direct instruction—Explicitly giving direc-
tions for completing a task; providing facts,
verbal labels, or other specific information;
or providing instructions for a child’s action
or behavior.
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Glossary 539
directional awareness—Anticipating which
way to go.
disequilibrium—An imbalance in think-
ing that occurs when new information or
physical experience cannot be understood in
terms of what is already known (cannot be
assimilated).
disorganized/disoriented attachment—Seen
in children who lack secure attachments with
adults due to having experienced neglect,
abuse, or violence in the home, who have not
developed useful strategies for seeking com-
fort or attention or handling difficulties.
distancing questions—Questions that relate
pictures and words in the book to children’s
own experiences beyond the book.
Division for Early Childhood (DEC)—
Subdivision of the Council for Exceptional
Children that is the national professional
organization for early childhood special
educators and early intervention specialists.
domain-general processes—Broad abilities that
cut across traditionally defined developmen-
tal domains.
domains of development—Areas of human
development and functioning that include
cognitive, social, emotional, and physical.
dual language learners—Children who are
learning to speak two languages at the same
time—usually their home language and
English.
dual language learning—Simultaneously learn-
ing two languages: the home or first language
as well as English or another second
language.
dynamic assessment—Analyzes a child’s per-
formance not just in terms of what the child
can do independently, but what the child can
do with the assistance of a teacher or peer.
early childhood education—Education and
child care services provided for children
from birth through age 8.
Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale
(ECERS-3)—Observational instrument used
to rate program quality on a 7-point scale
from inadequate to excellent.
early childhood special education—Services
for children with disabilities or special
needs who meet eligibility guidelines that
are determined on a state-by-state basis
according to the Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act.
Early Head Start—Federally funded program
serving low-income pregnant mothers,
infants, and toddlers that promotes healthy
family functioning.
early intervention—Services for infants and
toddlers who are at risk of developmental
delay and their families.
early learning standards—Describe what
children should know and be able to do
before entering kindergarten.
early literacy—Skills and knowledge that come
before and lead up to (forerunners) conven-
tional reading and writing.
earth and space science—Studying properties
of earth materials, changes on the earth,
patterns of movement, and changes of the
sun and moon.
ecological systems theory—Bronfenbrenner’s
theory that describes the diverse, interac-
tive contexts that influence children’s
development over time.
effective teaching—The use of approaches that
are proven to be successful based on scientific
evidence and that have a high probability of en-
hancing children’s learning and development.
efficacy—Children’s belief in their own ability to
accomplish what they set out to do.
egocentrism—The process whereby very young
children tend to see everything from their
own intellectual and emotional point of view.
Elementary and Secondary Education Act
(ESEA)—Law governing how the federal
government distributes education funds to
states and holds public schools accountable
for the use of funding.
eligibility guidelines—Guidelines established
on a state-by-state basis according to IDEA
that determine whether children may receive
special education services.
emergent curriculum—Curriculum that
develops in an educational environment in
response to children’s interests and needs
rather than according to predeveloped plans.
emotional development—Acquisition of
important emotional skills such as identifying
feelings and learning to regulate emotions
and express them appropriately.
emotional literacy—Children’s ability to
identify their own and others’ emotions, to
express emotions in a healthy way, and to
self-regulate their feelings.
encode—Translating speech sounds into
symbols—the letters of the alphabet—to
create writing.
encouragement—Verbal comments or non-
verbal signs such as pats or high fives that
promote the child’s persistence and effort.
engaged citizens—Children as change agents
in schools, communities, and eventually in
the world.
enumeration—The act of counting.
equilibration—The process whereby humans
try to make sense of new experiences by
creating new concepts (schemes) or adapting
existing ones.
equity pedagogy—The idea that teaching about
differences needs to include teaching about
oppression and equity.
ethical dilemma—Deciding the right thing to do
when two or more values conflict.
ethical responsibilities—The obligations that
every teacher agrees to uphold with honesty,
integrity, and respect.
ethics—Critical thinking about morality and
people’s ability to make choices about their
own values.
ethnicity—The shared characteristics and expe-
riences of a group of people, such as nation-
ality, race, history, religion, and language.
evaluation—The process of making a judgment
about assessment results; frequently consid-
ered the last step in assessment.
everyday mathematics—Informal, intuitive
knowledge about math, including basic ideas
about quantity (more and less), size, shape,
and pattern.
evidence—An outward sign or indication of
children’s learning, such as their response to
a question or their solution to a problem.
exceptional children—An all-encompassing
term used to communicate inclusion of gifted
and talented children as well as children
whose development is below the expected
range.
executive function—The ability to control
emotions, focus attention, plan and think
ahead, and monitor cognitive processes.
exosystem—Systems that affect the child’s mi-
crosystems, but that the child doesn’t directly
participate in, including economic, media,
education, health, legal and political entities
that directly affect a person or circumstance
in the child’s microsystem.
expressive language—The ability to communi-
cate; use and knowledge of spoken language.
extended discourse—Talking with children in
ways that build on and expand what they say.
extinction—The process whereby a condi-
tioned behavior diminishes and eventually
disappears when reinforcers are removed.
facilitating—Providing short-term, temporary
assistance to help a child achieve the next
level of functioning.
family-centered practice—Providing resources
and supports to families that promote
children’s development and learning and, at
the same time, strengthen the competency of
families in their role.
family child care home—Child care in which
caregivers provide care in their own homes
for a small group of children, often multi-age
groups.
family systems theory—Views family members
as interconnected parts, with each member
influencing the others in predictable and
recurring ways.
feedback loop—Back-and-forth communica-
tion between a teacher and a child or small
group of children in an effort to reach deeper
understanding.
fidelity—Faithful implementation of a
curriculum model.
fine-motor development—Physical skills
related to the small muscles found in
individual body parts, especially those
in the hands and feet.
fine-motor manipulative movements—Control,
precision, and accuracy of small muscle
movement.
5- to 7-year shift—Major transition in cognitive
abilities that gradually occurs between 5 and
7 years of age, resulting in increased ability
to think logically, self-regulate, and solve
problems.
flexibility—The ability to bend and stretch
easily.
fluency—Rapid, efficient, and accurate word
recognition skills that permit the reader to
comprehend the meaning of text.
formal assessment—Assessment that follows
a specific procedure and uses a specially
designed instrument or tool.
formative assessment—The process of gather-
ing information about children and using it to
plan effective and individualized instruction.
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Glossary540
free appropriate public education (FAPE)—
Education for children with disabilities that
is required by IDEA, so that children with
disabilities are not denied the same opportu-
nities offered to everyone else.
frequency counts—Method used by teachers to
keep track of how often a behavior occurs.
Froebel’s occupations and gifts—Invented
by Froebel for kindergartners, occupa-
tions were planned experiences designed to
train children’s eye-hand coordination and
mental activity, and gifts were concrete ma-
terials, many of which influenced later toy
development.
functional assessment or functional analysis—
The process of determining why a child is
behaving a certain way, based on the
principle that all behavior serves a function
or purpose.
functional skills—The essential abilities needed
to fulfill goals parents have for their children,
such as communicating, making friends, and
learning self-help skills.
funds of knowledge—Experiences, traditions,
goals, resources, and rich culture that fami-
lies bring to their roles.
generative skills—Skills that can be used across
settings, people, events, and objects.
geometry—The study of shapes and space,
including flat, two-dimensional space and
three-dimensional space.
graphic representation—The process of
depicting thoughts and ideas through
drawing, modeling, or other media.
gross-motor development—Physical skills
related to moving the whole body or major
parts of the body.
gross-motor manipulative movements—
Large muscle movements involving giving
or receiving force from objects such as
throwing, catching, or kicking.
guidance—The process of teaching children the
life skills they need to function productively
with other children.
hazard—A danger that must be avoided.
Head Start—Federally funded, national pro-
gram that promotes school readiness by en-
hancing the social and cognitive development
of children ages 3, 4, and 5 through provid-
ing educational, health, nutritional, social,
and other services to the nation’s poorest
children and families.
Head Start Program Performance Stan-
dards—National standards that establish the
level of quality of services provided by every
Head Start program.
health-related fitness—Any aspect of health
that can be improved by physical exercise
and activity.
high-context culture—Culture in which
communication relies less on words and
more on contextual cues, such as facial
expressions, gestures, or other physical clues,
to convey meaning.
high-stakes testing—Using standardized test
scores to make decisions about individual
children, teachers, or schools that have
potential long-term consequences.
home-based programs—Programs based on
visits to families designed to support parents
in the parenting role, involve them in their
children’s education, and help them achieve
their own life goals.
home visiting—Visits made by a teacher to
the child’s home on a regular basis to get
to know children and their families.
hypothesis—An assumption about or tentative
explanation of a phenomenon.
hypothesis generating and testing—Applying
previously acquired knowledge to a new
situation by making a prediction and then
observing and reflecting on the outcome.
identity—The collection of characteristics that
individuals recognize as constituting their
sense of self and belonging to a group.
inclusion—Participation and services for
children with disabilities and special needs in
programs and settings where their typically
developing peers are served.
individualistic cultural groups—Cultural
groups that focus on the needs of the
individual, independence, self-expression,
and personal property and choice.
individualized education program (IEP)—A
written plan designed to meet the unique
needs of a child with a disability or special
need; it is developed, reviewed, and revised
by an IEP team during meetings for each
child who is eligible for special education
services.
individualized family service plan (IFSP)—
Documents and guides the early intervention
process for children with disabilities from
birth to age 3 and their families; contains
information about the services necessary to
facilitate a child’s development and enhance
the family’s capacity to facilitate the child’s
development.
individualized intervention—A systematically
planned and implemented set of actions
designed to alter the course of a child’s
development or learning.
individually appropriate—Information about
the strengths, interests, abilities, and needs
of each individual child in the group that
enables teachers to adapt to and be
responsive to individual variation.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
(IDEA)—Federal law governing provision
of services for children with disabilities and
special needs.
informal assessment—Gathering information
for teacher’s use to make everyday classroom
decisions or adjustments to teaching.
inhibitory control or cognitive self-control—
The ability to think before we act and to
focus attention on what is necessary.
insecure-ambivalent/resistant attachment—
Children’s inability to trust adults to keep
them safe due to neglect, abuse, or other
difficult circumstances that results in a lack
of social competence.
insecure-avoidant attachment—Rejection and
insensitivity from adult caregivers that causes
children to turn away from or avoid adults
and not seek their comfort.
integrated curriculum—Learning plan that
addresses goals across multiple areas of the
curriculum at the same time.
intentional teachers—Teachers who have a
purpose for the decisions they make and can
explain that purpose to others.
interdependent cultural groups—Cultural
groups that focus on the needs of the group
rather than those of the individual, also called
collectivist.
interviews—Teacher-created, predetermined
questions that are designed to reveal what
children understand.
invented spelling—Developmental or phonetic
spelling that represents children’s initial
attempts to associate sounds with letters.
kindergarten—Typically considered the first
year of formal schooling; serves 5- and
6-year-olds.
K-W-L—An advance organizer strategy in
which teachers ask children what they al-
ready know (K) about the topic of study,
what they want (W) to know, and then what
they learned (L).
laboratory school—School operated by colleges
and universities that usually serves children
of students and faculty and also acts as a
model of excellent education for student
teachers.
Lanham Act—Federal legislation to provide
emergency child care and other services for
families employed in the war effort during
World War II.
learning—A change in knowledge or skill that
results from experience or instruction.
learning centers—Defined areas of the class-
room that have a particular purpose and that
contain relevant furnishings and materials.
learning continuum, learning trajectory, or
learning path—Similar to a developmental
continuum, but focuses on sequences of
knowledge or skill in a content area.
learning standards—Expectations for student
learning.
learning strategy—How children construct
meaning in any context or situation.
learning trajectory—Sequence of teaching and
learning knowledge or skills in a content
area. Also called developmental or learning
continuum.
life science—The study of the characteristics,
life cycles, and environments of organisms.
listening—The process of taking in information
through the sense of hearing and making
meaning from what is heard.
locomotor movements—Movements that allow
the body to proceed in a horizontal or vertical
direction from one place to another, such as
walking, running, leaping, or jumping.
logico-mathematical knowledge—The
relationships that are constructed in our
minds between objects or concepts.
low-context culture—Culture that focuses
on direct, logical, precise verbal
communication.
macrosystem—System that includes the over-
arching cultural context of the values, beliefs,
laws, and policies of a society
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Glossary 541
manipulatives—Small-sized blocks, cubes, pat-
tern blocks, beads, pegs, and the like that are
designed for children’s play and learning.
mathematize—To understand and think about
everyday problems and experiences in ex-
plicitly mathematical terms.
math talk—Using the language and vocabulary
of mathematics.
maturationist—Theory of development that as-
sumes that the sequence of changes in abili-
ties and behavior is largely predetermined by
children’s biological growth processes rather
than by their experiences or learning.
measurement—The process of determining
size, length, area, or volume using a standard
unit.
mesosystem—Interaction of different
microsystems in a child’s life.
metacognitive activities—Activities that engage
children in thinking and reflecting about their
own learning.
microsystem—System in which the child
directly participates on a regular basis and
include the family, child care, school and
faith-based settings.
mindfulness—The practice of purposefully
and nonjudgmentally noticing sensations
(bodily, mentally, emotionally) in the present
moment.
mistaken behavior—Alternative term for chil-
dren’s misbehavior, recognizing the fact that
young children are still learning acceptable
behavior and that they are bound to make
mistakes.
modeling—Teacher showing children a skill or
desirable way of behaving or speaking; also
children imitating the behavior of others.
modifications—Changes in an assessment that
alter what the assessment measures or what
the results mean.
morality—Personal views about what is right
and wrong and how to behave.
motor planning—The ability of the brain to
conceive, organize, and carry out a series of
unfamiliar actions.
multi-language learners—Children who are
learning more than two languages.
muscular strength and endurance—The ability
to keep moving without stopping because of
fatigue.
narrative—A story with a beginning, middle,
and end; characters; dialogue; and a plot
with a problem to solve or a dilemma to be
resolved.
narrative records—Teachers’ attempts to record
detailed descriptions of children in a situation
or event that is the focus of the observation.
National Association for the Education of
Young Children (NAEYC)—The world’s
largest organization of early childhood
educators, whose mission is to act on behalf
of the needs and interests of children from
birth through age 8. NAEYC establishes
standards for teacher preparation and
accreditation of early childhood programs.
natural learning environments—Settings that are
natural or normal for the child’s same-age peers
without disabilities such as child care centers,
parks, a neighbor’s house, or the zoo, as op-
posed to hospitals, clinics, and therapy offices.
naturally occurring reinforcers—Conse-
quences that are likely to occur whenever the
child performs the skill and are, therefore,
highly effective.
nature—The hereditary or genetic contributions
to human development.
nature-deficit disorder—Hypothetical disorder
related to lack of exposure and experience
outdoors and in the natural world.
negative reinforcement—An unpleasant conse-
quence that is avoided if the person performs
a desired behavior more frequently.
neurons—Nerve cells in the brain that receive
information through the senses or from other
neurons, and then communicate information
back to other parts of the body.
normal curve—A distribution of scores that
looks like a bell shape, with most people
scoring at the midrange and fewer scoring at
the higher and lower ends.
norm-referenced tests—Tests that compare an
individual’s score to that of other test takers.
nursery schools—Schools serving children
younger than kindergarten age; out-of-date
term for preschool or prekindergarten.
nurture—Environmental factors and experi-
ences that influence human development and
behavior.
object permanence—A concept that babies lack
early in the period of sensorimotor develop-
ment, so that when an object is no longer in
their sight, it ceases to exist for them.
one-to-one correspondence—Attaching one
and only one number word to each object
being counted.
onlooker—Teachers act as the audience for
children’s play.
open-ended questions—Questions that require
children to analyze information in some way
and that have many possible answers.
operant conditioning—The process of using
pleasant or unpleasant consequences to
control behavior.
operations—Working with and solving prob-
lems about relationships such as more than
or less than.
order irrelevance principle—The concept that
counting can begin with any object in the set
as long as each is counted only once.
parallel play—Children play next to each other,
but not with each other; they may speak, but
don’t really converse.
parent cooperative—Preschool program owned,
operated, and partially staffed by parents.
parentese—The high-pitched tone of voice
adults and even children tend to use naturally
with babies; also called motherese.
passive communication—Speaking in a way
that is sensitive to the listener’s feelings,
but so vague that the message is easily
misunderstood.
pedagogy—What a teacher says or does that
engages children and contributes to their
learning and development.
perceptual-motor development—Occurs when
children use their senses to take in information
about objects in the environment and use this
information to coordinate their movements.
performance assessment or authentic assess-
ment—Determines what children know and
can do from their demonstration of a skill or
their creation of a product.
performance standards—Describe the knowl-
edge or skill that students should acquire by
a particular point in their schooling, usually
tied to grade or age level; also known as
benchmarks.
person-first language—Language that recog-
nizes that a child is a child first, whether or
not he or she has a disability (e.g., saying
“child with special needs” as opposed to
“special needs child”).
phonemes—The individual sounds of spoken
language; changing one in a word changes
the meaning of the word.
phonemic awareness—Recognizing that spoken
words are made up of individual sounds that
can be manipulated.
phonics—A system of teaching the correspon-
dences between letters or groups of letters
and the sounds they represent.
phonological awareness—Consciousness that
the stream of spoken language is made up of
smaller units or chunks of sound.
physical development—Biological growth and ac-
quisition of fine-motor and gross-motor skills.
physical fitness—Children’s overall physical
condition: growth, strength, stamina, and
flexibility.
physical knowledge—Understanding how
objects move and function in space and
how the physical world works.
physical science—Basic ideas about the proper-
ties of liquids and solid materials, how things
move and change position, and cause-and-
effect relationships.
pincer grasp—Grasp used to pick up objects
with the thumb and forefinger.
planning—Requires children to make inten-
tional choices and encourages them to
identify their goals, consider the options for
achieving them, make predictions, and an-
ticipate consequences; helps build children’s
higher-level thinking and problem solving.
plasticity—The brain’s ability to develop and
change in response to experiences.
play-based assessment—Similar to curriculum-
embedded assessment, but the context for
observing and interacting with children is the
children’s play.
play-by-play language—Language that de-
scribes what is happening during routines
and social interactions with babies and
toddlers; also called running commentary.
play leader—Teachers participate in children’s
play; includes making deliberate attempts to
enrich and extend the play episode.
portfolios—Systematic and organized collections
of children’s work and demonstrations of their
progress relevant to the goals of the curriculum.
position statement—A document that articu-
lates a stance, usually research based, that an
organization is taking in response to an issue
or a problem.
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Glossary542
positive behavior support (PBS)—A method of
identifying the causes and functions of prob-
lem behaviors in order to develop support
strategies that prevent challenging behaviors
and teach new, more appropriate skills.
positive reinforcement—A reward or pleasant
consequence that follows a behavior, causing
that behavior to be repeated.
predictable books—Books with controlled
vocabulary using parallel text structures that
become familiar to children.
predictors—Set of early literacy skills and
knowledge that increase the likelihood of
later success in learning to read and write.
prekindergarten (pre-K)—Educational pro-
gram serving 3- and 4-year-olds, usually in
public schools.
preschool—Educational programs serving
3- and 4-year-olds delivered under various
sponsorships.
primary grades—First, second, and third grade;
sometimes includes kindergarten.
print awareness—Beginning knowledge about
written language.
private speech—The process whereby interper-
sonal understanding or socially constructed
knowledge is turned into intrapersonal
knowledge (thinking aloud becomes thinking
to oneself).
process quality—The quality of the relationships
and interactions among teachers and children,
and the appropriateness of the materials,
learning experiences, and teaching strategies
occurring in an early childhood program.
profession—An occupation that requires exten-
sive education and/or specialized training.
professional ethics—The kinds of actions that
are right or wrong in the workplace and are
a public matter.
professionals—Members of an occupational
group that make decisions based on a special-
ized body of knowledge, continue to learn
throughout their careers, and are committed
to meeting the needs of others.
program evaluation—The process of gathering
information about a program’s quality and
effectiveness.
progressive education movement—Major effort
to reform schooling in the early 20th century
to make it more democratic and responsive to
children’s needs. This movement was highly
influential on early childhood education and
later ideas about developmentally appropriate
practice.
project—An in-depth investigation of a topic
worth learning more about, usually involving
a small group, but occasionally the whole
class.
project approach—Strategy for conceptually
organizing curriculum by engaging children
in in-depth investigation of a topic, focused
on finding answers to questions posed by the
children, the teacher, or the teacher working
with the children.
prompts—Gestural, model, physical, pictorial,
or verbal clues that elicit responses from chil-
dren to assist them in using a specific skill.
protective factors—Mechanisms, both inher-
ited and experiential, that may minimize the
potentially negative effects for children living
in identified high-risk situations.
proximal processes—Interactions in the context
of daily living that have the most impact on
a child’s development, due to their frequent,
ongoing nature, often over extended periods
of time.
pruning—The process whereby the brain
eliminates unnecessary or unused synapses,
which contributes to efficient brain operation,
aids learning and memory, and increases the
brain’s flexibility.
punishment—An unpleasant consequence that
stops or decreases the frequency of a behavior.
push-down curriculum—Content previously
taught in a higher grade in school being
expected to be learned in an earlier grade
quality rating and improvement systems
(QRIS)—State-operated tiered systems
that evaluate and rate the quality of child
care programs according to achievement of
benchmarks beyond those required for mini-
mal licensing, such as having more highly
qualified teachers or better ratios.
questioning—Eliciting different types of responses
and promoting different types of thinking.
rare words—Multisyllable words that are not
typically part of a young child’s vocabulary.
rating scales—Method of recording teacher’s
judgments about how a child’s performance
compares to that of peers or to a predeter-
mined standard.
readiness tests—Achievement tests adminis-
tered to children at entry to kindergarten.
reasoning—Thinking logically to come to a
conclusion or find a result.
recall questions—Questions asked by the
teacher about a book to see what children
remember.
receptive language—The ability to understand
what is being said.
reciprocal relationship—A two-way relation-
ship in which information and power are
shared evenly.
reciprocal teaching—A strategy that promotes
children’s reading comprehension and higher-
order thinking by engaging them in summa-
rizing, questioning, clarifying, and predicting
redirection—Drawing a child’s attention or
behavior toward a more desirable alternative
than the one on which the child is currently
focusing.
reflection—Teaching strategy in which teachers
help children go beyond remembering what
they did to becoming aware of what they
learned, what was interesting, how they felt
about the experience, and what they can do
to build on and extend the experience.
reinforcer—Consequence—either positive or
negative—that increases or strengthens a
behavior.
reliability—The extent to which the results ob-
tained from a test are accurate and consistent
over time.
replacement behaviors—Desirable prosocial
behaviors that replace problem behaviors.
representing—Expressing mathematical ideas
with words, diagrams, pictures, and/or
symbols.
resilience—A child’s ability to overcome, adapt to,
or minimize the damaging effects of adversity.
Response to Intervention (RTI)—A three-tiered
framework intended to prevent learning delays
in primary grades from becoming learning
disabilities.
rhymes—Two words ending with the same sound.
risk—A possibility of harm that can be mini-
mized with planning and supervision.
risk factors—Inherited or experiential condi-
tions that potentially contribute to poor
developmental outcomes for children, such
as peer rejection, academic failure, juvenile
delinquency, and school expulsion.
risk vs. challenge continuum—Concept that
children not only need to be safe but they
also need to be challenged if they are to
advance their skills and learn how to keep
themselves safe.
rough-and-tumble play or big body play—The
boisterous, large-motor, physical activity
children seem to crave.
rubrics—Descriptive rating scales that detail the
qualities related to each rank on the scale;
includes clear descriptions of each point on
the scale or guidelines for making judgments
about a rating.
running record—A chronological record, like
a diary, of an individual child’s behavior that
helps teachers better understand that behavior.
scaffolding—The assistance, guidance, and
direction teachers provide children to help
them accomplish a task or learn a skill
(within their ZPD) that they could not
achieve on their own.
scheme or schema—The organization of mental
structures people use to think or guide behav-
ior; the structures develop and change with
experience.
school readiness—Children’s competencies
related to success in kindergarten, including
physical development, health, and well-
being; social-emotional development and
learning; cognitive development and general
knowledge such as mathematics and science;
positive approaches to learning such as
curiosity and motivation; and language
development and early literacy skills.
science—Study of the physical and natu-
ral world, especially by observing and
experimenting.
scientifically based curriculum—Derives from
research evidence about what kinds of learn-
ing outcomes relate to later achievement, and
what types of teaching and learning experi-
ences help children acquire those outcomes.
Such a curriculum has been evaluated and its
effectiveness demonstrated.
scientifically based instructional practices—
Curriculum and instructional practices that
research has demonstrated improve learning
outcomes.
scientific inquiry—Involving children in
observing, predicting, and investigating.
scientific method—Method of beginning with
a hypothesis, testing it with an experiment,
making observations and gathering data, and
then confirming or disconfirming the initial
hypothesis.
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Glossary 543
scope—The particular focus of the curriculum at
a given point in time; that is, how much of a
larger content area will be taught.
screening tests—Tests administered to all chil-
dren, usually in preschool or kindergarten, as
the first step in a process to determine which
children are at risk of a possible disability or
learning problem; also called developmental
screening.
script language—The typical ways that people
communicate in different contexts or settings.
secure attachment relationship—A responsive
and sensitive relationship with caregivers that
allows children to venture forth and comfort-
ably explore and learn about the world.
secure base—An attachment figure (mother or
caregiver) who serves as an anchor for chil-
dren to rely on and from which children can
safely venture out and explore.
self-actualization theory—Maslow’s view that
behavior and learning are motivated by a hi-
erarchy of needs.
self-concept—Children’s stable perceptions about
themselves despite variations in their behavior.
self-esteem—Children’s perception of their own
worth.
self-regulated learning—Bandura’s theory that
people not only learn by modeling the behav-
ior of others, but by observing and evaluating
their own.
self-regulation—The ability to adapt or control
behavior, emotions, and thinking according
to the demands of the situation.
separation anxiety—Feeling a baby experiences
when the caregiver is not in sight; the baby
may cry or cling to a caregiver in the pres-
ence of strangers; usually occurs around 8
months of age.
sequence—The order in which knowledge and
skills will be taught.
sequential language learning—Learning a
second language after the first language is
relatively well established.
shaping—Teaching a new skill or behavior by
rewarding each step or successive approxi-
mation toward the goal.
simultaneous acquisition—Learning two lan-
guages at the same time during the earliest
years of life.
slippery egg messages—Communications that
are difficult to “toss” (send) and “catch”
(receive), and must be expressed gently to
be sure that the “catcher” receives the
communication as intended.
social cognitive theory—Bandura’s theory that
people can learn efficiently from observ-
ing the consequences of another person’s
behavior.
social development—The ability to estab-
lish positive relationships with adults and
peers, make friends, cooperate, and resolve
conflicts.
social studies—The integrated study of the his-
tory, geography, economics, political science,
and other related aspects of societies of the
past, present, and future.
social-conventional knowledge—The culturally
agreed-on names and symbols that need to be
transmitted to the learner directly.
social-emotional learning—Children’s ability
to recognize and regulate their emotions,
establish and maintain positive relationships,
make responsible decisions, and solve social
problems constructively. Also called social
competence.
sociocultural theory—Vygotsky’s theory that
children learn from social interaction within
a cultural context.
socioeconomic status (SES)—Family income
level.
solitary play—Children play alone, usually with
toys or objects.
spatial awareness—Perceptions of where the
body is.
spatial relations—Spatial sense and familiarity
with shape, structure, and location.
specialized instruction—Involves teachers
matching an individual child’s goals and
objectives with appropriate teaching meth-
ods and materials, deciding what amount
of assistance each child with special needs
requires, providing the assistance, and then
determining whether the instruction was
effective.
stability movements—Movements in which the
body remains in place but moves around its
horizontal or vertical axis; examples include
balancing, dodging, starting, and stopping.
stable order principle—The concept that num-
ber words need to be said in the same order
every time.
stage manager—Teachers set the stage for chil-
dren’s play by providing the props and theme
and being available to respond to children’s
requests.
standardized assessment—Assessment of all
children using the same procedures and
performing the same task under the same
conditions.
standardized testing—Uses prescribed methods
for administering and scoring.
structural quality—Features of an early child-
hood program, such as maximum group
sizes, teacher/child ratios, and teacher quali-
fications, that are relatively easy to quantify
and measure.
structured physical activity—Adult-guided
play that is designed for a purpose such as
increasing endurance or flexibility.
subitizing—The ability to look at a small set of
objects (four or fewer) and know how many
there are without counting.
successive approximations—Behaviors that are
reinforced (shaped) that are not the actual
desired behaviors, but each approximate
behavior that is closer to the goal.
summative assessment—Assessing student
learning at the end of an educational experi-
ence to evaluate the effectiveness of the
experience.
supporting—Providing assistance that helps the
child to accomplish a difficult task by making
it easier.
symbolic representation—The process of men-
tally using one thing to stand for something
else.
synapses—Connections in the brain that carry
information between neurons.
syntax—Grammar and sentence structure.
teacher-initiated experiences—Learning ex-
periences in which teachers take the lead by
providing explicit information and modeling
or demonstrating a skill, as determined by
the teacher’s goals and direction.
teaching strategy—A behavior or activity that
a teacher deliberately selects and flexibly
applies to help students construct meaning.
technology—Tools used to change or modify the
natural world to meet human needs.
telegraphic speech—Combining words into
two-word utterances.
temperament—The pattern of arousal and
emotionality that is characteristic of an
individual.
temporal awareness—Speeding up or slowing
down a movement.
Temporary Assistance for Needy Families
(TANF)—Federally funded program, more
commonly known as Welfare to Work, that
provides temporary financial aid but requires
recipients to move into the labor force or
schooling.
tennis ball messages—Communications that are
easily “tossed” and easily received and that
help form the foundation of a relationship;
they constitute the everyday chitchat between
teachers and parents.
testing—A systematic procedure for evaluating
a child’s behavior and knowledge that is then
assigned a score.
thematic curriculum—Way of integrating cur-
riculum in which a broad topic of interest or
a “big idea” provides the basis for making
connections across learning goals.
theory—An explanation of how information and
observations are organized and relate to one
another.
theory of multiple intelligences—Theory devel-
oped by Howard Gardner that identifies eight
different intelligences as opposed to a single
score on an intelligence test; this theory is
useful for thinking about variation among
children and teaching to their strengths.
time-out—Removing a child to a specified chair
or area of the room for a period of time
following an unacceptable behavior.
tourist curriculum—An approach in which a
culture is visited as though it were an exotic
destination where people dress, talk, dance,
and eat differently before returning to the
“normal” place where we all live.
toxic stress—Children’s experience of intense,
frequent, and/or prolonged anxiety such as
abuse, neglect, violence, or economic depriva-
tion without adult support to help them cope.
transactional theory of development—Theory
that development is the result of both biology
and experience and how they influence each
other.
transitions—Changes from one activity or place
to another.
unitizing—Finding or creating a mathematical
unit.
universal design—The concept that materials
and environments need to be usable by
everyone, including those with disabilities,
to the greatest extent possible.
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Glossary544
universal voluntary prekindergarten—Pub-
licly funded preschool, usually for 4-year-
olds but sometimes 3-year-olds; available to
any family that chooses to use it.
unstructured free play—Play that is chosen
and initiated by children, such as that which
occurs on a playground.
utility—Used to benefit children.
validated curriculum—Curriculum that
has been evaluated and its effectiveness
demonstrated.
validity—The degree to which an instrument
measures what it purports to measure.
vicarious learning—Learning by observing
the effects of other people’s behavior, rather
than experiencing rewards or punishments
directly.
virtual field trip—Trip taken via the Internet
in which children can go anywhere in the
world.
visual arts—Creative processes and products
that involve drawing, painting, sculpting with
clay, or making models of objects using a
variety of materials.
visual literacy—Ability to create visual mes-
sages and to interpret messages contained in
visual communications.
vocabulary—A combination of receptive and
expressive language; the number of words
a person knows and uses when listening or
speaking.
wait time—The length of time that a teacher
waits for a response after asking a question
or responding to a comment.
webbing—A planning tool that teachers and
children create together to organize
curriculum content.
Wh- questions—Questions that begin with
“Why” or “What” to get children thinking
about characters’ motives or feelings.
widening horizons approach—Approach to so-
cial studies curriculum planning designed to
begin “where children are” and then expand
outward.
windows of opportunity—Periods of time
during which human brains are particularly
susceptible and responsive to certain types of
experience.
word identification—The process of decoding
unfamiliar words and recognizing high-
frequency (both regularly and irregularly
spelled) words by sight.
working memory—The ability to retain in-
formation for a short period of time, which
enables transfer to long-term memory.
WPA nurseries—Federal emergency relief
nursery schools, funded by the Works Prog-
ress Administration (WPA) during the Great
Depression, designed to support the economy
by providing jobs for those who worked on
the site and child care services to families
seeking work.
zone of proximal development (ZPD)—The
distance between the actual developmental
level an individual has achieved (her inde-
pendent level of problem solving) and the
level of potential development she could
achieve with adult guidance or through
collaboration with other children.
Z01_BRED6702_03_SE_GLOS.indd 544 10/7/15 5:30 PM
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Z02_BRED6702_03_SE_REF.indd 565 10/8/15 3:45 PM
Name Index
566
A
Abou-Sayed, Y., 296
Achieve, Inc., 442
Ackerman, D. J., 313
Acock, A. C., 119, 457
Adams, M., 398
Adelstein, S., 95
Administration for Children and Families, 310
Aikens, N., 144, 245, 357
Ainsworth, M. D. S., 244, 245
Aiyer, S. M., 311, 412, 497
Alanis, I., 191
Albert, N. G., 10, 12
Albert Shanker Institute, 446
Albrecht, K., 494, 499, 500, 503
Algina, J., 243
Alliance for Childhood, 71, 72, 131
Allington, R. L., 151
Almon, J. W., 30, 71, 95, 408
Alper, M., 303
Amanti, C., 212
American Academy of Pediatrics, 31, 458, 493, 494,
496, 504, 507
American Association for the Advancement of
Science, 422, 447
American Educational Research Association
(AERA), 348
American Psychiatric Association, 155–156
American Public Health Association, 504, 507
Ames, L. B., 103
Anderson, C. J., 56
Andrews, R. K., 241
Annie E. Casey Foundation, 9, 10–11
Ansari, A., 47
Aries, P, 39, 42
Armistead, M. E., 409
Arnold, D. H., 436
Aronson, S. S., 507
Arts Education Partnership, 416–417
Atkins-Burnett, S., 357, 358
Au, W., 352, 373
Aud, S., 25, 26
Austin, B., 449
Ausubel, D. P., 289
B
Baby FACES Team, 225
Bagnato, S. J., 358, 359
Bailey, B. A., 119
Bailey, D., 163
Bailey, M., 304
Bailey, R., 102, 120
Bailey & Brooks, 119
Baillargeon, R., 116
Baker, A. C., 213
Baldini, R., 333
Balfanz, R., 424
Bandel, E., 357
Bandura, A., 124, 128–130
Bandy, T., 212
Banks, J. A., 176, 474
Barbarin, O., 94, 182, 185, 228, 263–264, 265
Barbour, C., 226
Barbour, N. H., 226
Barker, K., 80
Barnes, H. V., 23, 328
Barnett, W. S., 4, 6, 9, 22–27, 87, 89, 94–95, 120, 301,
318
Barr, R., 223, 302
Barros, R. M., 495
Barrueco, S., 184
Barton, E. E., 158
Bassok, D., 71, 97
Bates, C. C., 296, 389
Bates, D., 192
Bates, J. E., 145
Baucum, D., 500
Bauer, D., 512
Bauer, P. J., 116
Baumi, M., 53, 54
Baumrind, D., 104
Beatty, B., 313
Beaty, J. J., 364, 370
Beck, I. L., 280, 407
Beiland, S. L., 446
Bell, D., 335
Benedett, B., 409
Beneke, S., 276, 325, 369, 433
Bennett, T., 153, 184
Berk, L. E., 69, 116, 131, 133, 301, 500
Berkule, S. B., 403
Bernath, P., 512
Berrueta-Clement, J. R., 23
Bhattacharya, J., 172
Biber, B., 54
Biddle, J. K., 335
Bierman, K., 97, 335
Bilbrey, C., 24
Bishop-Josef, S. J., 89, 131, 133, 298
Blagojevic, B., 304, 506
Blair, C., 119, 331, 332, 457
Bloodworth, M. R., 241
Bodrova, E., 117, 119, 120, 122, 132, 133, 298, 301,
331, 346, 364, 366, 370, 383, 404, 439, 464, 468
Bornfreund, L., 30
Bosseler, A., 107
Boulware, G. L., 287
Bowlby, J., 244, 245
Bowman, B. T., 94, 145, 182, 278, 288, 289, 335, 373
Boxmeyer, C., 120
Boyce, W. T., 107, 120
Boyd, J., 120, 122
Boyd, J. S., 423
Bradley, B. A., 402
Bransford, J. D., 290, 324
Brazelton, T. B., 213
Bredekamp, S., 13, 38, 49, 52, 70, 73–74, 80, 85, 87,
97, 117, 127, 133, 135, 196, 198, 214, 278, 279,
318, 319, 333, 335–336, 353, 360, 386, 398, 491,
494, 495, 498, 500, 503, 518, 519, 524, 531
Brenneman, K., 319, 428, 442, 445
Briley, L., 492
Brock, L., 21, 240
Brookes, C., 119
Bromer, J., 179
Bronfenbrenner, U., 82, 122–124, 130, 173, 208–209, 336
Bronson, M. B., 295
Brown, A. L., 290, 292, 324
Brown, C., 97
Brown, E. D., 409, 417
Brown, K. C., 4
Brown, M. W., 54
Brown, W. H., 488
Browning, K., 24
Bruder, M. B., 160, 161
Bruner, C., 375
Bruner, J. S., 285
Bryant, D., 95, 230, 394
Buell, M., 281
Bukatko, D., 143
Buly, M. R., 374
Bunseki Fu-Kiai, K. K., 57
Burchinal, M., 87, 95, 142, 230
Bureau of Labor Statistics, 9
Burger, K., 27
Burns, M. S., 381, 396, 406
Burns, S., 94, 145, 182, 278, 335
Burr, J. E., 144
Buysse, V., 276, 460
Bye, B., 27
C
Cabrera, N., 212
California Department of Education Child Development
Division, 191
Calkins, S. D., 119, 457
Callahan, C., 179
Cameron, C. E., 289, 294
Camilli, G., 24
Campaign for Commercial-Free Childhood, 72
Campbell, F. A., 23
Cantor, P., 47
Carle, E., 74, 390
Carlson, B. W., 7
Carlson, F. M., 504, 506–507, 508
Carlsson-Paige, N., 72, 408
Carolan, M. E., 4, 6, 9, 22, 26
Carrasquillo, A., 391
Carroll, M. D., 486
Carta, J., 239
Casas, J. F., 144
Case, R., 116
Casey, B., 204
Casey, M. B., 143, 440, 441
Castle, S., 478
Cates, C. B., 403
Cavallini, I., 333
Ceder, I., 143, 440
Celano, D., 395
Center for Law and Social Policy (CLASP), 30
Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University,
105, 106, 107, 108, 141, 142, 424, 458
Cerda, N., 61
Chahin, E., 492
Chalk, R., 212
Chall, J., 406
Chalufour, I., 324
Chang, F., 394
Chard, D. J., 406
Chard, S. C., 325
Charner, K., 70, 74, 319, 518, 519, 524
Cheung, A., 187, 391
Chhabra, V., 275
Child Care Aware® of America, 19, 21
Child Trends, 172, 207, 212, 216
Child Welfare Information Gateway, 214, 532–533, 534
Children’s Defense Fund (CDF), 9, 58–59, 207, 211
Ching, D., 30
Chiong, C., 408
Z03_BRED6702_03_SE_NIDX.indd 566 10/8/15 11:05 AM
Name Index 567
Christian, L. G., 209, 210
Christie, J. F., 131, 298, 299, 467
Christodoulou, D., 311
Christopoulos, C., 457
Church, A., 283
Church, V., 177
Clark, C., 328
Clark, K. F., 285
Clark, S. K., 398, 399
Clements, D. H., 116, 143, 302, 332, 337, 423, 426,
429, 430, 431, 432, 436, 437, 438, 439, 440, 450
Clements, M. A., 90, 278
Clifford, R.M., 21, 198, 352
Cloud, N., 185–186
Cocking, R. R., 290, 324
Coffman, J., 30, 116, 319
Cohen, D., 512
Cohen, R. C., 225
Cohen Group, 302
Cohrssen, C., 283
Colasanti, M., 9
Coleman, M. R., 149, 152
Colker, L. J., 12, 14, 93, 513
Collier, V. P., 391, 394
Collins, M. F., 388, 390, 397, 398–399, 400, 502
Commeyras, M., 314
Committee for Economic Development, 4
Committee on Psychosocial Effects of Child and Family
Health, 22
Common Core State Standards Initiative, 72, 273, 318,
322, 408, 431
Common Sense Media,72, 301
Compher, C., 512
Connor, C. M., 534
Copeland, K. A., 31
Copley, J. V., 296
Copple, C., 13, 38, 49, 70, 73–74, 80, 85, 87, 97, 117,
127, 135, 191, 196, 278, 279, 292, 295, 319, 360,
398, 491, 494, 495, 498, 500, 503, 518, 519, 524
Core Knowledge Foundation, 330
Cortes, R., 468
Cost, Quality, and Child Care Outcomes Study Team, 24
Council for Professional Recognition, 226, 532
Cowan, C. P., 228
Cowan, P. A., 228
Crago, M. G., 184, 185, 390
Craig, G. J., 500
Crawford, G., 394
Crick, N., 144
Cross, C. T., 53
Crowe, H., 510
Cryer, D., 21, 198, 352
Cullerton-Sen, C., 144
Cunningham, A. E., 335
Cunningham, C. E., 58, 59
Curby, T. W., 21, 240
Curtis, D., 508, 509
Czerniak, C. M., 447
D
Daehler, M. W., 143
Dahlberg, G., 72, 197
Daniel-Echols, M., 24
Daugherty, L., 302
David, J., 54, 474
David, J. L., 327
Davidson, A. J., 142
Davidson, J., 416
Davidson, M., 335
Davidson, R. J., 470
Dawson, G., 157
Day, C. B., 175
De Bellis, M. D., 23
Dean, C. B., 278, 289, 291, 292
Dearing, E., 228
DeCaro, J., 120
Defending the Early Years, 72
Defeyter, M. A., 512
Delaney, K., 72, 197
Delpit, L., 176, 197
Denton, K., 144
Derman-Sparks, L., 177, 192, 193, 194, 195, 478
Derringer, S. T., 494, 495, 504–505, 510
Desouza, J. M. S., 447
Dev, D. A., 513
DeVries, R., 259, 446
Dewey, J., 48–50, 54, 58, 325, 479
Diamond, A., 132, 133, 241, 242, 278, 298, 301, 331,
423, 424, 445, 457
Diamond, K. E., 94, 95
Dichtelmiller, M., 368
Dickerman, B., 512
Dickinson, D., 281, 294, 296, 297, 332–333, 385, 386,
388, 390
Diehl, A., 197
Division for Early Childhood of the Council (DEC) for
Exceptional Children, 8, 126, 154, 161, 162, 287,
351, 352, 358, 531
Dobbs, J., 436
Dobrec, T., 60
Doctoroff, G. L., 436
Dodge, D. T., 93, 330
Dolgin, K., 143
Dolnick, M., 471
Dombro, A. L., 371
Domitrovich, C. E., 468
Dong, N., 24
Donohue, C., 72, 304, 450
Donovan, A., 260
Donovan, M. S., 94, 145, 182, 278, 335
Dossani, R., 302
Downer, J. T., 21, 96, 246
Drake, E. A., 24
Duke, N. K., 407
Duncan, G. J., 422
Dunlap, G., 239, 243
Dunst, C. J., 161, 214
Durlak, J. A., 242, 247
Dymnicki, A. B., 242
E
Early, D., 206, 252, 275, 276, 285, 296
Education Commission of the States, 9
Edwards, C. P., 246, 291, 311, 333
Edwards, J. O., 177, 192, 193, 194, 195, 368, 478
Elias, C. L., 301
Eliot, Abigail, 52, 56, 58
Eliot, L., 143
Elkind, D., 41, 44, 131
Ellis, R. R., 207
Else-Quest, N. M., 47
Ennis, S. R., 10, 12
Entz, S., 191, 283, 284
Epstein, A. S, 13, 23, 87, 278, 292, 297, 328, 329, 367,
368, 371, 412, 455, 456, 468, 519
Epstein, J. L., 228
Erikson, E., 108–111, 130
Erkut, S., 143, 440–441
Erwin, P., 143
Espinosa, L. M., 12, 152, 184, 187, 190, 191, 284, 317,
356, 375, 390, 391, 393
Etnier, J. L., 121
Etzel, R. A., 512
Eyer, D. W., 319
F
Faber Taylor, A., 504
FairTest, 349, 373
Falconer, R. C., 478
Fan, X., 198
Fantuzzo, J. W., 104, 145, 324
Farran, D., 24, 436
Feeney, S., 527, 528
Felitti, V. J., 458
Fernald, A., 26, 381
Field, S. L., 53, 54
Fight Crime: Invest in Kids, 4
First Five Years Fund, 4
Fischer, P. H., 436
Fisher, R., 232, 233
Fitzgerald, J., 9
Flanagan, K. D., 9
Flegal, K. M., 486
Fleischman, H. L., 422
Fleming, D., 324
Flook, L., 470
Forbis, S. G., 512
Forman, G., 291, 311, 333, 368
Foulger, T. S., 223
Foundation for Child Development, 12, 26, 317
Fountas, I. C., 314
Fox, L., 239, 243, 248, 249, 258, 260
Fox, M., 25
FPG Child Development Institute, 8, 21, 151
Frede, E., 25, 27, 95, 313
Freeman, D., 512
Freeman, N. K., 527, 528
French, L. A., 443, 444
Froschl, M., 263, 265
Frost, J. L., 42, 133
Fuligni, A. S., 96
Fuller, B. F., 27
Fuller, M. L., 213, 229
Fusaro, M., 105, 106
Fuson, K. C., 440
G
Gabriel, M. M., 504
Gadsden, V. L., 324
Gadzikowski, A., 276
Gainsley, S., 328, 367, 368, 371
Galinsky, E., 102, 120, 241
Gallagher, K. C., 145, 246, 248, 458
Gallahue, D. L., 486, 489, 490, 506, 509, 510
Gallistel, C. R., 424, 430
Galper, A., 428, 442, 443, 479
Gandini, L., 291, 311, 333, 334, 368
Gapin, J., 121
Garcia, E. E., 357, 375, 391
Gardner, H., 147–148, 330
Garner, A. S., 22, 108
Garner, P. W., 241
Gartrell, D., 127, 251, 253, 259, 264, 265
Gartstein, M. A., 145
Gelman, R., 116, 319, 424, 428, 430, 442, 445
Genesee, F., 184, 185, 186, 390
Gerde, H. K., 213
Germino-Hausken, E., 144
Gesell, A., 50, 52, 103
Gest, S. D., 142
Gewertz, C., 318
Giardiello, P., 44
Gilden, R., 335
Gillanders, C., 182, 185
Gilliam, W. S., 89, 241
Gilpin, A., 120
Ginsburg, H. P., 133, 423, 424, 426, 427, 428,
429, 439, 503
Ginsburg, K. R., 31
Glowacki, S., 38
Goffin, S. G., 17, 313, 527, 531
Goldberg, S. B., 470
Goldman, B. D., 460
Golinkoff, R. M., 131, 298
Gomby, D., 120
Gonzalez, J. E., 282, 296, 389
Gonzalez, N., 212
Z03_BRED6702_03_SE_NIDX.indd 567 10/8/15 11:05 AM
Name Index568
Gonzalez-Mena, J., 174, 177, 183, 189, 197, 319, 491,
492, 498
Goodman, M., 142, 456
Goodway, J. D., 486, 489, 490, 494, 495, 505, 506, 510
Gopnik, A., 112
Gormley, W. T., 25, 95
Graham, E. T., 60
Graham, S., 400
Gramling, M., 508
Grammer, J. K., 116
Graue, M. E., 29, 30, 72, 90, 97, 197, 278, 523
Graves, M. F., 285
Gray, J., 450, 451
Greenberg, J., 383, 385, 387
Greenberg, M. T., 256, 468
Greenberg, P., 53, 54
Greenes, C., 424, 436
Greenman, J., 240, 266, 267, 504, 507, 508
Greenspan, S. I., 213
Greenwald, D., 319
Gretchell, N., 500
Griffin, P., 381, 396, 406
Griffin, S., 171, 423, 436
Grimm, K. J., 311, 412, 497
Grissmer, D. W., 311, 412, 497
Grollman, S., 441, 444, 445
Gropper, N., 263, 265
Guernsey, L., 30, 72, 408
Gullo, D. F., 295, 348, 368, 511
Gunderson, E. A., 437, 446
Gutiérrez-Clellen, V. F., 357
H
Haigh, K. M., 335
Hale, J. E., 58, 197
Halgunseth, L. C., 228
Hall, E. L., 41
Hall, G. S., 50, 58
Halle, J., 184
Hamayan, E., 185, 186
Hamby, D., 161, 214
Hamoudi, A., 457
Hamre, B., 21, 95, 142, 240, 242, 246, 275, 276, 278,
280, 283, 285, 352
Han, M., 281
Hanhan, S. F., 224
Hannust, T., 426
Hanson, M. J., 175, 176, 178, 179, 184, 188, 463
Hardin, B. J., 365
Harms, T., 21, 198, 352
Harris, K. R., 400
Harris, W., 47, 61
Hart, B., 144, 381, 382
Hatfield, B., 275
Haugen, K., 162
Hayslip, W. W., 191
Haywood, K. M., 500
Head Start, 6, 7, 20, 29, 30, 175, 320, 415, 435, 507
Head-Reeves, D., 228
Healey, K. M., 403
Heckman, J., 4, 328
Hedges, L. V., 437
Heffron, S., 478, 479
Helm, J. H., 325, 326, 369
Hemmeter, M. L., 239, 243, 260
Hemphill, F. C., 25
Hendricks, C., 511
Hennon, C. B., 229
Henry, G. T., 328
Hensler, B. S., 534
Herald, S. L., 241
Hernandez, C. M., 61
Hernandez, D. J., 26
Heroman, C., 93, 295
Herr-Stephenson, B., 303
Heward, W. L., 149, 305
Hewes, D. W., 50, 51, 52
Hiemenz, J., 358
HighScope, 436
Hill, C. J., 95
Hill, P. S., 51
Hills, T. W., 353, 355, 356
Hinitz, B. S. F., 59, 63
Hirsch, E. D., 330, 407
Hirsh-Pasek, K., 131, 298
HITN Early Learning Collaborative, 303
Hoberman, M. A., 55
Hofer, K., 24
Hohmann, M., 292, 328, 468
Holland, A. L., 285
Hollingsworth, H., 460
Hong, S. S., 96
Hong, S.-Y., 278, 445
Honig, A. S., 95, 466, 504
Hooper, S. R., 305
Hopstock, P. J., 422
Horton, C., 373
Howes, C., 21, 29, 96, 142, 242, 246, 280
Hu, B. Y., 198
Huang, F. L., 24
Huang, Y., 96
Hubbell, E. R., 278
Hudson, S., 508
Huffman, L. C., 142
Hulsey, L., 245
Huntsinger, C. S., 411
Hurley, S., 436
Hutchins, P., 441
Huttenlocher, J., 116, 437, 440
Hwang, W., 512
Hyson, M., 102–103, 145, 466, 494, 503
I
Ilg, F, 103
Imada, T., 107
Ingwersen, J., 512
Institute of Education Sciences, 312, 389
Institute of Medicine (IOM), 29, 529
International Reading Association (IRA), 293, 387, 393,
396, 404, 406, 407
Invernizzi, M. A., 24
Iruka, I., 212, 213, 214
Isenberg, J. P., 409, 410, 415, 417
Izard, C. E., 246
J
Jablon, J., 368
Jacklin, C. M., 143
Jacobson Chernoff, J., 9
Jalongo, M. R., 386, 409, 410, 415, 417
Jamil, F., 275
Jansen, E. A., 144
Janson, G. R., 240, 263, 264, 265
Jarrett, O. S., 496
Jenkins, H., 303
Jennings, P. A., 249
Jensen, A. R., 140
Jewkes, A. M., 371
Jirout, J., 424
Johnsen, S. K., 149
Johnson, E.-E., 302
Johnson, J. E., 131, 298, 299, 300, 467, 468
Johnson, M. H., 414
Johnson, S. M., 313
Johnson, S. R., 246, 311
Jones, C. D., 398, 399
Jones, E., 294, 298, 299, 322–323
Jones, I., 442, 443
Jones, J., 4
Jones, S., 102, 120
Jones-Branch, J., 504
Jordan, N. C., 440
Jose, P. E., 411
Joseph, G. E., 243, 256, 257, 325, 374, 465, 469
Jung, K., 95
Jung, L. A., 356, 360, 365, 367
Justice, L. M., 283
K
Kahng, R., 358
Kainz, K., 246
Kaiser, B., 241, 242, 249, 250, 251, 255, 260, 262,
268–269
Kaldor, T., 222, 223
Kalich, K., 512
Kalkwarf, H. J., 31
Kardos, S. M., 313
Kartoshkina, Y., 224
Karweit, N., 389
Katz, L. G., 325, 326, 433
Kauerz, K., 30, 319
Kauffman, D., 313
Kelley, K., 145
Kelly, S. M., 177
Kendeigh, C. A., 31
Kennedy, D. O., 512
KewalRamani, A., 25
Keyser, J., 212, 214, 226
KidHealth.org, 512
Kieff, J., 532
Kikas, E., 426
Kilbourne, J., 40, 41
Killen, M., 193, 197
Kim, J. S., 404
Kim, K., 328
Kim, S., 143
King, M., 240, 263, 264, 265
Kisker, E. E., 7
Kit, B. K., 486
Klahr, D., 424
Kleeman, D., 302
Klein, A., 422, 423
Klein, E. L., 133, 298, 467
Klibanoff, R. S., 437
Klinkner, J., 241
Kobak, R., 246
Kohn, A., 127
Koralek, D., 74, 319, 518, 519, 524
Kostelnik, M. J., 69
Kotler, J., 512
Krauss, R., 54, 55
Kreider, H., 228
Kreider, R. M., 207
Krieg, D. B., 411
Krinzinger, H., 143
Kroeger, J., 97
Kucan, L., 280, 407
Kuhl, P. K., 107, 112, 384, 391
Kuo, F. E., 504, 505
Kusché, C. A., 256, 468
Kuwahara, R. H., 191
Kyger, C. S., 266
Kyler, A., 197
L
La Paro, K., 21, 96, 240, 275, 352
Labbo, L. D., 408
Ladd, G. W., 241
Lally, J. R., 319
Landry, C. E., 291
Landry, S. H., 335
Landy, S., 456
Lange, A. A., 436
Lara-Cinisomo, S, 96
Larner, M., 96, 328
Lascarides, V. C., 59
Laski, E. V., 440
Z03_BRED6702_03_SE_NIDX.indd 568 10/8/15 11:05 AM
Name Index 569
Lawner, E. K., 268
Lee, J., 494, 495, 505, 510
Lee, J. S., 423
Lee, K., 132, 133, 298, 331, 423
Lee, K. S., 391
Lenhart, L. A., 387, 393, 395, 402
Lentini, R. H., 258
Leong, D. J., 117, 119–120, 122, 132, 133, 298,
301, 331, 337, 346, 364, 366, 370, 404, 439,
464, 468, 491
Lerner, C., 223, 302
Levin, D. E., 40, 41, 302
Levine, M., 408
Levine, S. C., 116, 437, 440, 446
Levitt, P., 106, 497
Li, K., 198
Lieber, J., 241
Lieberman, D. A., 132
Lifter, K., 158
Lillard, A. S., 47
Lim, S., 227
Linder, S. M., 450
Linebarger, D. L., 302
Lipsey, M., 24, 436
Liu, E., 313
Liu, J., 512
Locasale-Crouch, J., 21
Lochman, J., 120
Lonigan, C. J., 296, 390, 394, 397, 398
Lopez, A., 61, 62, 198
López, L. M., 357
Lopez, M., 62, 184
Louv, R., 504
Lowenstein, D., 30
Lozano, P., 184
Lukondo-Wamba, A. M., 57
Luo, Z., 411
Lutton, A., 526, 527, 529, 531
Lynch, E. W., 173–180, 184, 188, 189
Lyons, K. E., 470
M
Maccoby, E., 144
MacDonald, G., 442
Mack, M. G., 508
MacKenzie, B., 56
Macy, M., 358, 359
Magruder, E. S., 191
Main, M., 245
Malaguzzi, L., 291, 333–334
Mallory, B. L., 196
Malone, K., 505
Malone. L., 245
Mangione, P. L., 319
Mann, T. D., 133
Marcelo, A. K., 186
Marchman, V. A., 26, 381
Marks, E. L., 60
Marsden, D. B., 368, 371
Marshall, B., 328, 367, 368, 371
Martin, B., 81
Marzano, R. J., 292
Mashburn, A. J., 95, 96, 212, 283
Masi, W., 512
Maslow, A. H., 111–112
Mason, E. J., 158
Masten, A. S., 142
Matera, C., 191
Matychuk, P., 80
Maxwell, K. L., 230, 375
Mbiti, J., 57
McAfee, O., 337, 346, 347, 348, 351, 352, 354, 355,
360, 362, 363, 364, 365, 366, 367, 369, 370, 372,
383, 404, 464, 491
McBride, B. A., 513
McBride, B. J., 287
McCann, C., 30
McCardle, P., 275
McClelland, M. M., 119, 457
McCollum, J., 184
McConnell-Farmer, J. L., 59
McDermott, M. J., 289
McDermott, P. A., 145, 324
McDevitt, T. M., 109, 355, 369
McDonough, S., 116
McEvoy, M., 260
McGee, L. M., 388, 389, 390
McGuire, M., 474
McKeown, M. G., 280, 407
McLaughlin, G. B., 408
McLoyd, V. C., 26
McMenamin, K., 302
McPartlin, D., 512
McPhee, C., 9
McWayne, C. M., 104
McWilliam, R. A., 164, 165
Meacham, S., 281, 282, 283
Mehigan, K. R., 277
Meier, D. R., 505
Meisels, S. J., 368, 371, 373
Melhuish, E., 96, 283
Meltzoff, A. N., 112
Mendelsohn, A. L., 403
MenTeach, 263
Miller, E., 30, 71, 72, 95
Miller, J. L., 504
Miller, L. G., 494, 499, 500, 503
Miller, M., 121
Milteer, R. M., 503
Mindes, G., 356, 360, 365, 367, 480
Minervino, J., 21, 23, 24, 29
Mitchell, A., 19, 54, 474
Mitchell, S. M., 223
Mix, K. S., 116
Modigliani, K., 179
Moffitt, T. E., 241, 457
Moiduddun, E. M., 7, 144
Moll, L. C., 212
Montessori, M., 45–47
Montie, J. E., 295
Moodie, S., 228
Moore, K. A., 142, 210, 212
Morhard, R. H., 265
Morris, P., 469
Morris, P. A., 123, 208, 336
Morrison, F. J., 119, 289, 294, 457
Morrow, L. M., 296, 389, 403
Mosher, M., 144
Moss, J., 439
Moss, P., 72, 197, 333
Munsen, S., 409
Murphy, S., 120
Murrah, W. M., 311, 412, 497
Murray, D. W., 457
Muttock, S., 355
N
NAEYC Organizational History and Archives
Committee, 50
Nager, N., 54, 64
National Association for Gifted Children, 149
National Association for Sports and Physical Education
(NASPE), 486
National Association for the Education of Young
Children (NAEYC), 4–5, 8, 20, 52, 69, 85,
127, 135, 161, 172, 191, 192, 246, 336, 353,
354, 396, 404, 406, 446, 511, 527,
531, 535
National Association of Child Care Resource and
Referral Agencies (NACCRRA), 11
National Center for Children in Poverty (NCCP), 25,
211, 314
National Center for Education Statistics, 9, 10, 26, 171
National Center on Cultural and Linguistic
Responsiveness, 393
National Center on Family Homelessness at American
Institutes for Research, 11
National Center on Quality Teaching and Learning, 310,
311, 313, 316, 444, 447
National Center on Response to Intervention, 151,
350–351
National Center on Universal Design for Learning, 162
National Child Care Information Center, 10
National Child Traumatic Stress Network, 458–459
National Coalition for Core Arts Standards, 409, 415
National Council for the Social Studies, 455, 473,
475, 480
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 327, 429
National Council on Measurement in Education, 348
National Early Literacy Panel (NELP), 275, 327, 394
National Institute for Literacy, 312
National Institute of Child Health and Human
Development (NICHD), 275, 327, 380
National Parent Teacher Association, 228
National Professional Development Center on Inclusion
(NPDCI), 151
National Research Council (NRC), 29, 53, 214, 275,
318–319, 350, 422, 431, 432, 529
National Resource Center for Health and Safety in
Child Care and Early Education, 504, 507
National Responsible Fatherhood Clearinghouse, 229
National Science Foundation Discoveries, 492
Nayfeld, I., 319, 445
NCTSN Core Curriculum on Childhood Trauma Task
Force, 458–459
Neilsen, S. L., 260
Neitzel, J., 165
Nelson, C. A., III,104, 105, 106
Nemeth, K. N., 192, 224
Nemours Health and Prevention Services, 512
Neugebauer, B., 60
Neugebauer, R., 21
Neuman, S. B., 26, 280, 319, 380, 381, 385, 386, 388,
395, 398, 400, 402, 403, 407
New, R. S., 196, 197
Niles, M. D., 90, 278
Nimmo, J., 313, 323
Nogueron-Liu, S., 408
North Carolina Foundations Task Force (2013),
461, 462
Nourot, P. M., 43, 44, 56
O
Obradovi, J., 107, 120
O’Connell, A., 398
Oczkus, L. D., 292, 293
Oertwig, S., 182, 185, 285
Office of Early Learning, 27
Ogan, A. T., 133
Ogden, C. L., 486, 487
Ogle, D. M., 289
Okamoto, Y., 116
Oklahoma Child Care Services, 320
Oklahoma Department of Human Services, 320
O’Leary, P. M., 213
Olive, M. L., 260
Olsen, G., 213, 229
Olsen, L., 172, 188
Ong, C., 184
Ormrod, J. E., 109, 355, 369
Ornstein, P. A., 116
Osborn, D. K., 58, 59
Ostrosky, M. M., 184, 256, 257, 276, 433
Ostrov, J. M., 144
Ou, S. R., 24
Owsianik, M., 104
Ozmun, J. C., 486, 489, 490, 494, 495, 505,
506, 510
Z03_BRED6702_03_SE_NIDX.indd 569 10/8/15 11:05 AM
Name Index570
P
Paley, V., 247
Palincsar, A. S., 292
Palm, G., 229
Palmer, K., 121
Pan, B. A., 357
Pan, Y., 198
Papert, S., 112
Pappas, S., 428
Paradis, J., 184, 185, 390
Park, J., 9
Parkinson, J., 26
Parten, M., 467
Partnership for 21st Century Learning, 102
Pascoe, J. M., 512
Patton, B., 232
Peisner-Feinberg, E. S., 24
Pelatti, C. Y., 397–398
Pelczar, M. P., 422
Pence, A. R., 72, 197
Pepe, M. S., 487
Perry, N. E., 143, 145, 146, 185
Peske, H. G., 313
Pestalozzi, J. H., 43–44
Peterson, A., 228
Pew Center on the States, 226, 227
Phillips, D. A., 21, 29, 94, 140, 141, 142, 459
Piaget, J., 103, 112, 132, 426
Pianta, R., 21, 87, 94, 95, 96, 142, 212, 240, 246, 249,
275, 276, 278, 280, 283, 285, 352
Piasta, S. B., 398
Pica, R., 502, 510
Pickering, D. J., 292
Pikulski, J. J., 406
Pinger, L., 470
Pinnell, G. S., 314
Pinto, R., 328
Pitler, H., 278
Pollman, M. J., 439
Pollock, J. E., 292
Portilla, X. A., 107, 120
Post, J., 328
Powell, D. R., 213, 227, 228
Powell, J. L., 142
Pratt, C., 52
Preschool Curriculum Evaluation Research
Consortium (PCERC), 335, 423
Pretzel, R. E., 358
Price, L. H., 402
Project Zero, 334, 369
Pruett, K. D., 228
Pruett, M. K., 228
Puma, M., 24
Puranik, C. S., 398
Purtell, K. M., 26
Putnam, S. P., 145
Q
Qin, J., 198
Quenqua, D., 382
R
Raab, M., 161
Raikes, H. H., 246
Ramani, G. B., 440
Ramirez, G., 446
Ramirez, R. R., 107
Ramming, P., 266
Ramminger, A., 241
Ramos, M., 216
Ramsey, P. G., 174, 193
Rasinski, T., 406
Rasminsky, J. S., 241, 242, 249, 250, 251, 255, 260,
262, 268–269
Raver, C. C., 241, 331, 332
Ravitch, D., 29, 374
Razza, R. C., 119, 457
Reagan, T., 57
Reardon, S. F., 71, 317
Reggio Children, 334, 369
Reid, M., 257
Reifel, S., 42, 133, 346
Reilly, E., 303
Reineke, J., 127
Rejeski, D., 30
Reutzel, D. R., 274, 398, 399, 403
Reynolds, A. J., 24, 26, 90, 278
Reynolds, G., 298, 299
Riley, D., 241
Riley-Ayers, S., 346
Rimm-Kaufman, S. E., 96
Rinaldi, C., 333
Ríos-Vargas, M., 10, 12
Risley, T. R., 144, 381, 382
Ritchie, S., 142, 182, 185, 242, 246, 274, 275,
356, 456
Rivera-Gaxiola, M., 384, 391
Rivkin, M. S., 504, 505
Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, 494
Robertson, D. L., 24
Robin, A., 471
Robinson, A., 532
Robinson, L., 121
Robinson, M. A., 510
Rodriguez, D., 391
Roe, M. L., 437
Roehrig, A. D., 534
Roggman, L., 227
Rogoff, B., 103, 174, 281
Rogow, F., 72
Román, M., 442
Roopnarine, J., 311
Rorem, A., 71, 97
Rosanbalm, K., 457
Rose, M., 318
Rosegrant, T., 335–336, 353
Roskos, K. A., 319, 387, 393, 395, 402
Ross, G., 285
Ross, T., 512
Roth, F. P., 152
Rothbart, M. K., 145
Rothstein-Fisch, C., 183
Rotner, S., 177
Rowan, B., 26
Rowe, D. W., 332
Rudasill, K. M., 145
Rudkin, J. K., 41
Rumbaut, R. G., 61
Rupiper, M. Q., 69
Ruppert, S. S., 409, 417
Ryan, S., 24
S
Sabol, T. J., 142
Saelens, B. E., 31
Sales, C., 446
Sameroff, A. J., 104, 116, 141
Sammons, P., 96, 275, 283, 422
San Juan, R. R., 241
Sandall, S. R., 165, 194, 287
Sanders, K. E., 197
Sanders, M. G., 198
Sanders, S. W., 486, 511
Santos, R. M., 373
Sarama, J., 116, 143, 302, 332, 337, 423, 426, 429, 430,
431, 432, 436, 437, 438, 439, 440, 450
Saunders, R., 292
Savelyev, P., 328
Scarpa, J., 212
Scharf, A., 172
Schatschneider, C., 534
Schechter, C., 27
Scheinfeld, D. R., 335
Scheinfeld, J. P., 335
Schellinger, K. B., 242
Schickedanz, J., 332, 390, 397, 399, 400, 406,
440–441, 502
Schneider, M., 471
Schoenfeld, A. H., 436
Scholey, A. B., 512
Schultz, T., 375
Schwartz, I. S., 165, 194, 287, 465
Schweikert, G., 266
Schweingruber, H., 53
Schweinhart, L. J., 23, 24, 96–97, 295, 328
Scott-Little, C., 22, 318, 375
Scroufe, L. A., 244
Scully, P. A., 226
Seefeldt, C., 428, 442, 443, 478, 479, 480
Seidel, K. D., 487
Seidenfeld, A. M., 246
Seo, K.-H., 428, 439
Sesame Workshop, 303, 512
Severns, M., 408
Shaikh, U., 512
Shanahan, T., 312, 390, 394, 397
Shanker, S., 95
SHAPE America, 487
Shapiro, E. K., 54, 64
Shefatya, L., 133, 298
Sheldon, S. B., 227
Shelley, B. E., 422
Sheridan, S. M., 94
Sherman, S. N., 31
Shillady, A., 504
Shonkoff, J. P., 22, 30, 94, 108, 140, 141, 142, 459
Shuler, C., 30, 302
Shure, M. B., 468
Siegler, R. S., 94, 440
Sigel, I. E., 292
Silva-Pereyra, J., 384, 391
Silver, E. J., 495
Simmons, T., 207
Simon, F. S., 192
Simpkins, S., 228
Simpson, J. W., 57, 58, 59
Singer, D. G., 131, 133, 298
Siraj-Blatchford, I., 96, 283, 335
Sisk-Hilton, S., 505
Skinner, B. F., 141
Slavin, R. E., 115, 187, 391
Smilansky, S., 133, 298
Smith, A. P., 512
Smith, C. J., 511
Smith, J. K., 296
Smith, J. M., 402
Smith, M. W., 296
Smith, R. S., 142
Smith-Donald, R., 241
Snow, C. E., 381, 387, 396, 397, 400, 402, 404,
406, 407
Snow, K., 372, 375, 381
Snyder, A., 39, 47, 48, 51, 52
Snyder, P., 243
Snyder, P. A., 94
Soderman, A. K., 69
Solomon, J., 245
Sonsteng, K., 127
SooHoo, T., 463
Sophian, C., 435
Sorongon, A., 328
Sparrow, J., 188
Sprung, B., 263, 265
Squires, J., 4, 9, 71
Stahl, K. A. D., 398, 399
Stanovich, K. E., 402
Stark, D. R., 228, 532
Starkey, P., 422, 423
Z03_BRED6702_03_SE_NIDX.indd 570 10/8/15 11:05 AM
Name Index 571
State of Washington, 461, 462
Steele, J. S., 311, 412, 497
Stein, R. E. K., 495
Steinheimer, K., 325, 369
Stephenson, C., 439
Stetsenko, A., 117
Stevenson-Garcia, J., 428
Stipek, D., 95, 436
Stoltz, L. M. H., 49
Stone, B. J., 278
Stonehouse, A., 266
Strain, P. S., 163, 239, 243, 256, 257, 260, 465, 469
Strauss, V., 45, 71
Strickland, D. S., 406
Stright, A. D., 145
Sullivan, W. C., 505
Suriyakham, L. W., 437
Sutton-Smith, B., 298
Swick, D. C., 228
Sylva, K., 96, 283, 284, 297, 335
Sylvester, P., 248, 458
Szekely, A., 423
T
Tabors, P. O., 187, 357, 386, 387, 393, 395
Taggart, B., 96, 283
Tarullo, L., 144, 245
Tayler, C., 283
Taylor, A. F., 505
Taylor, J., 534
Taylor, R. D., 242
Teaching Tolerance, 192
Temkin, D., 268
Temple, J. A., 24
Tepylo, D. H., 439
Terzian, M. A., 268
Thai, A., 30
Tharp, R., 191, 283, 284
Thomas, W. P., 391, 394
Thomes, K., 506
Thompson, C. M., 410, 411, 412, 417
Thompson, D., 508
Thompson, R. A., 142, 456, 458
Thompson, S. D., 266
Thornburg, K. R., 87, 94–95
Tierney, A. L., 104, 106
Tobin, K. J., 512
Tomlinson, C. A., 150
Tomlinson, H. B., 494, 495, 503
Torquati, J., 504
Tranter, P., 505
Trawick-Smith, J., 173–174
Trivette, C. M., 161, 214
Trumbull, E., 183
U
Umansky, W., 305
Underwood, M., 144
United Nations Convention on the Rights of the
Child, 42
Ury, W., 232
U.S. Department of Agriculture, 512
U.S. Department of Education, 185, 246, 263, 389
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 9, 25,
26, 211, 310, 316, 321, 357, 393, 447
V
Vagh, S. B., 357
Valencia, S. W., 374
Vance, E., 247
Vandivere, S., 212
Vanneman, A., 25
Vargas, S., 24
Vasilyeva, M., 437
Vaughn, S., 465
Vecchi, V., 333, 334, 335
Verdick, E., 512
Vernon-Feagans, L., 246
Vianna, E., 117
Vick Whittaker, J. E., 246
Vitiello, V. E., 246
Vogel, C. A., 7, 225
Vukelich, C., 281
Vygotsky, L. S., 103, 118, 122, 132, 192, 285
W
Wainwright, D. K., 302
Wakabayashi, T., 24
Wakeley, A., 423
Walberg, H. J., 241
Walters, C., 24, 29
Wang, L., 212
Wardle, F., 131, 176, 177, 193, 298,
299, 467
Washington, V., 17, 313
Wasik, B., 94, 296, 389
Watson, B., 436
Watson, M., 244
Webster-Stratton, C., 257, 468, 469–470
Weikart, D. P., 23, 96–97, 292, 328
Weiland, C., 94, 96, 332
Weinstock, M., 449
Weislader, A., 26
Weiss, H., 228
Weissberg, R. P., 241, 242
Weitzman, E., 383, 385, 387
Welch, K. J., 207, 209
Werner, E. E., 142
Wesley, P., 276
Wesnes, K. A., 512
West, J., 144
West, T., 152, 460
WestEd San Marcos, 249
Weston, D. R., 371
Wetzel, K., 223
Wheeler, E., 259
Whiren, A. P., 69
Whitaker, R. C., 249, 487
White, B., 335
White, B. A. B., 24
White, J. M., 145
White, K. M., 246
Whitebook, M., 13, 21, 29
Whitehurst, G. J., 296
Wiggins, A. K., 330
Wilbers, J., 155
Willemin, C., 95
Willer, B., 274, 275, 356
Williams, C., 30
Williams, L., 416
Williford, A. P., 119, 246, 457
Willmes, K., 143
Willoughby, M., 142
Wilson, S., 436
Wilson, S. J., 332
Wiltz, N. W., 133, 298, 467
Winsler, A, 47
Winton, P., 206
Wolery, M., 155, 158, 163, 165
Wolfe, C. B., 436
Wolfe, J., 40, 42, 43, 44, 45, 49, 51, 52, 54
Wong, C. S., 126, 157, 468
Wong, J., 228
Wong Filmore, L., 187
Wood, D., 285
Wood, G., 143
Woodhead, M., 72
Woodring, S. D., 443, 444
Woods, T. A., 53
Woolfolk, A., 143, 146, 185
Woolverton, M., 328
Worth, K., 324, 441, 444, 445
Wortham, S. C., 42, 59, 133, 365
Wright, C., 302
Wright, J., 144
Wright, J. A., 487
Wright, T. S., 280, 380, 381, 385, 386, 388, 402,
403, 407
X
Xiang, X., 295
Xiang, Z., 24
Y
Yamauchi, L. A., 191
Yange, Y., 7
Yarosz, D. J., 9
Yates, T., 184
Yates, T. M., 186
Yopp, H. K., 397, 398
Yopp, R. H., 397, 398
Yoshikawa, H., 23, 24, 26, 27, 94, 96, 332, 335
Youn, M.-J., 95
Young, J. M., 143, 440
Z
Zakriski, A., 144
Zan, B., 259
Zelazo, P. D., 470
Zellizer, V., 40
Zepeda, M., 183, 197
Zero to Six Collaborative Group, 458
Zigler, E. F., 89, 131, 133, 298
Zill, N., 328
Zimmerman, C., 424
Zins, J. E., 241
Z03_BRED6702_03_SE_NIDX.indd 571 10/8/15 11:05 AM
Subject Index
A
ABC’s of behavior analysis, 260–61
Abecedarian Early Childhood Intervention Project,
23, 225
Ability tests, 372–73
Absorbent mind, 45–47
Abstraction, 430
Abuse, child, 214, 226–27, 532–34
Academic discourse, 381
Accommodation(s)
children with special needs, 358–60
Piaget’s theory, 113
Accountability, 28, 373–74
Accreditation, 19–20
Acculturation, 174
Achievement gap, closing of
language development, 381
mathematics, 422–23, 428–29
overview, 25–26
self-regulation and, 457
technology use, 301
Achievement tests, 372
Acknowledging and encouraging, 278–80
Adaptation, Piaget’s theory, 113
ADHD (Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder), 154,
241. See also Special education
Advance organizers, 289–290
Advocacy, 39, 531–32
Aerobic system, 486
African-Americans
cultural differences, 185
demographic trends, 10–11
in early childhood history, 58–59
family configurations, 207
Age appropriate, defined, 79. See also Developmentally
appropriate practice
Age of enrollment, 7
Aggression
gender differences, 143–44
rough-and-tumble play, 503–4
social problem solving skills, 469–70
Teaching Pyramid model, 242–43
Turtle Technique, 471
Aggressive communication, 220
Alaskan Natives, 59–60
Alignment of curriculum, 30, 319
Alliteration, 397
Alphabetic principle, 398
Alphabet knowledge, 397–98
Alternative assessments, 348
American Federation of Teachers, 527
American Sign Language, 337–39
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), 63
Analysis, mathematic skills, 434
Anecdotal records, 365–66, 370
Anger management, 471
Antecedents, behavior, 261
Anti-bias curriculum, 196
Anxiety, 107–8, 458
Apprenticeship, 281
Approaches to learning, 145
Approximations, successive, 126
Aptitude tests, 372–73
Artistic development. See Creative arts
Art of teaching, 276–77. See also Teaching
strategies
Art production apps, 411
Arts education
case study, 379, 417
creativity, supporting, 410–11
developmental continuum, 412
drama, 416
music, movement, and dance, 415–16
scaffolding, 412–13
symbolic representation, 410
value of, 409–11
visual arts, 411
visual literacy, 414–15
ASD. See Autism spectrum disorder (ASD); Special
education
Asian-Americans, family configurations, 207
Aspira vs. the City of New York, 61
Assertive communication, 220
Assessment of progress
accountability and, 352
case study, 345, 376
children with special needs, 358–60
concerns about, 373–74
cultural and linguistic diversity, 183–84,
356–58
curriculum decisions, 87, 319
developmentally appropriate assessment,
354–56
dynamic assessment, 348
effectiveness of, overview, 353–54
formative and summative assessment, 346–47
informal and formal assessments, 347
interpreting and using, 369–372
methods, summary chart, 353, 364
observation, 347, 360–63
overview, 346
performance assessment, 347–48
program evaluation, 352
recording progress, 363–69
screening and diagnostic purposes, 351–52
special education, 166
standardized testing, 348–49, 372–76
standards for, 20
for teaching and learning purposes,
350–51
technology and, 371
Assimilation, 113
Assistance, offering, 279
Assistive technology, use of, 304–5
Associative play, 467
At risk, family challenges, 209–12
Attachment theory, 244–46
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), 154,
241. See also Special education
Audiotapes, recording observations, 366
Auditory awareness, 501
Authentic assessment, 371–72. See also Assessment of
progress
defined, 347–48
Authoritarian parenting, 104
Authoritative parenting, 104
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD). See also Special
education
behaviorism, 126–27
defined, 154
early intervention, Project DATA, 287
individual differences, 155–57
nutrition and, 513
social behavior skills, 241
B
Babble, 383, 384
Background knowledge, 402
Back to Sleep, 492
Bandura, Albert, 128–29, 130
Bank Street approach, 325–27, 474
Bank Street College, 54, 64
Base ten place value system, 427
Becoming an Intentional Teacher
advocating for children with disabilities, 531
alphabet and phonological awareness, 399
assessment, uses of, 365
being purposeful and playful, 15
block building, integrating science, 446
cultural differences, responding to, 199
curriculum, connecting to students, 315
expanding children’s experience, 55
fine-motor skills, 501
individualizing group time, 167
interviewing to uncover thinking, 118
responding to parent complaints, 221
separation anxiety, easing of, 245
small group work, 296
social studies, integrating, 477
thinking and communication skills, 77
Behavior challenges. See Challenging behavior
Behavior intervention plan, 261–62
Behaviorism, Skinner, 124–25, 130
Bell curve, 349
Bias
anti-bias curriculum, 196
learning goals, 192–99
standardized tests, 373
Bicultural, 198
Big Math for Little Kids, 436
Bilingual education. See also Dual-language learners
Bilingual Education Act, 61
history of, 60–62
teachers, role of, 16
Bilingualism, benefits of, 391–94
Biology, influence of, 140–41
Biting, response to, 266–67
Blended families, 207
Blind students, 154. See also Special education
Blocks, 52–53, 436, 438–39, 446, 493
Board games, 440, 473
Body composition, 486
Book appreciation, 400–402
Both/and thinking, 49, 89–90, 111, 178
Boundaries, family systems, 209–10
Boys, teaching strategies for, 263–66
Brain development, 105–8
Brain research, 22–23
Bronfenbrenner, Urie, 122–24, 130, 208–9
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model, 208–9
Building blocks, mathematics curriculum,
332–33, 436
Bullying, 268–69
Bureau of Educational Experiments
(BEE), 54
C
Calendar, 433
California Achievement Test, 372
Cardinality, 430
Cardiorespiratory system, 486
572
Z04_BRED6702_03_SE_SIDX.indd 572 10/27/15 2:31 PM
Subject Index 573
Career opportunities, 13–17. See also Professional
development
Caring community of learners, creating
case study, 239, 269–70
conflict resolution, 257–59
defined, 85–86, 240
guidance and punishment, 255–56
individualized interventions, 259–63
physical environment, 251–52
relationships with children, 244–51
rules for behavior, 253
supporting positive behavior, 253–55
Teaching Pyramid Model, 240–43
time schedule, 252
Casa dei Bambini, 45
Case Studies
assessment, 345, 376
caring community of learners, 269–70
child development and learning, 101
community of learners, creating, 239
cultural and linguistic diversity, 200
curriculum planning, 309, 340–41
developmentally appropriate practice, 69, 98
early childhood education, overview, 3, 33
family partnerships, 205, 235
individual differences, 139, 167–68
instructional strategies, 305
language, literacy, and arts, 379, 417
physical development and health, 485, 514
problem solving skills, 421, 452
social studies, 455, 482
tradition of excellence, 37, 65
Cause and effect, science concept, 427–28, 443
Center for Multicultural Education, University of
Washington, 474
Cerebral palsy, 154. See also Special education
Challenges, providing, 279, 282
Challenging behavior
biting, 266–67
defined, 242
individualized interventions, 259–63
preventing, 241–42
responses to, 248–50
rules for classroom, 253
social problem solving skills, 469–70
supporting positive behavior, 253–55
Charter schools, 9
Checklists, recording methods, 367, 370
Chicago Child-Parent Centers (CPC), 23–24
Child abuse, 214, 226–27, 532–34
Child care
Child Care and Development Block Grants
(CCDBG), 10
child care movement, 55–56
current trends, 10–11
families, communication barriers, 216–18
Lanham Act, 56
licensing standards, 19–20
overview of, 6
teachers, role of, 15–16
Child Care Aware of America, 19
Child-centered curriculum, 49
Child development. See also Developmentally
appropriate practice; Individual differences;
Language development
artistic development, 412–14
attachment theory, 244–46
Bank Street College, 53–54
benefits of early childhood education, 22–26
brain development, 105–8
case study, 101
cognitive development, 423–29
constructivist learning theory, Piaget, 112–17
culture and, 82–83, 173–74
definitions of, 102
developmentally appropriate assessment, 354–56
diversity concepts, 194–98
ecological model, Bronfenbrenner, 208–9
ecological systems theory, Bronfenbrenner,
122–24
emotional development, 456–57
gender differences, 143–44
IFSP (Individualized family service plan), 160–61
instructional decisions and, 76
language development, 380–84
model of, 79
motor skills, fine, 500
motor skills, gross, 490–96
motor skills, perceptual, 501–2
overview of, 102–5
physical development, overview, 488–89
Piaget, Jean, 43
play, role of, 131–33
psychosocial theory, Erikson, 108–11
screening and diagnostic tests, 351–52
self-actualization theory, Maslow, 111–12
self identity, 193
self-regulation, 457
social-emotional development, 459–65
sociocultural theory, Vygotsky, 117–22
theories, summary chart of, 130
transactional theory of development, 141
Child Development Associate (CDA), 29, 59, 62
Child-initiated experiences, 90, 278
Child labor laws, 40
Child poverty, 211
Children
changing views of, 39–41
economic value, historical view, 40
as innocents, 40
“limited English proficient” children, 61
rights of, 41
teacher-child interactions, effects of, 95–96
Children’s Defense Fund, 58–59
Children’s Technology Review, 450
Children with disabilities, defined, 154. See also
Disabilities, children with
Children with special needs. See also Special education
defined, 154
screening assessments for, 351–52
Child study movement, 50
Child/teacher ratios, 19
Child Trends, 212
Child Welfare Information Gateway, 532
Chronosystems, 124
Circle time, 294–95
Citizenship, 479–80. See also Social studies
Civil Rights Movement, 63
CLASS (Classroom Assessment Scoring System), 21,
95, 96, 240, 275–76, 352
Classification systems, 291
Classroom Connections. See Video clips
Classroom environment. See also Community of
learners, creating
arrangement of room, 252
assessment and, 355
boys, strategies for, 264–65
differentiated instruction, 150–51
group work, 294–96
literacy-rich environments, 395
Montessori method, 45–46
research on, 275–76
standards for, 20
Teaching Pyramid model, 242–43
universal design, 493
welcoming environments, 217
Classroom Observation of Early Mathematics-
Environment and Teaching (COEMET), 437
Climate, family systems theory, 209–10
Closed questions, defined, 282
Co-construction of knowledge, 118–19, 279, 284
Code of Ethics. See Ethics
Code switch, 391, 393
Cognitive development
children’s thinking, 424–27
continuum of, 424
creative arts and, 409–10
defined, 102
executive function, 422–23
gender differences, 143
gifted and talented children, 149
individual differences, 144
language and, 427–28
screening and diagnostic tests, 351–52
Cognitive flexibility, 424
Cognitive self-control, 424
Cognitive theory, Piaget, 112–17, 130
Collaboration, 215. See also Families
Collectivist cultural, 178
Colors around Me, 177
Comenius, John Amos, 42–43
Common Core English Language Arts (ELA)
standards, 408
Common Core Standards, 29, 71–72, 318–22, 431
Communication skills. See also Creative arts;
Literacy skills
behavior as communication, 251
communication styles, 219–20
cross-cultural communication, 188–90
cultural and linguistic diversity, 182–87
intentional teaching, 77
mathematics process, 434–36
nonverbal communication, 189–90
Communication with families. See also Families
barriers to, 216–18
building partnerships, 87–88, 228–29
communication styles, 219–20
conferencing, 224–25
home visiting, 225–27
informal communication, 220–22
responding to parent complaints, 221
strategies for, 218–27
technology, use of, 222–24
Communities, relationships with, 20, 87–88, 230
Community of learners, creating
case study, 239, 269–70
defined, 85–86, 240
individualized interventions, 259–63
relationships with children, 244–51
rules of behavior, 253
supporting positive behavior, 253–55
Teaching Pyramid Model, 240–43
Community resources, risk and resilience, 142
Competent child, defined, 40–41
Completion prompt, 389, 390
Composing, mathematic process, 435
Comprehension skills, 386–87, 396–400
Concept development, 291–92
Conceptions, thinking skills, 426–27
Concepts of print, 398–99
Conceptual frameworks, defined, 288
Conceptual organizers, 337
Concrete operational stage of development, 116
Conditioning, 124–25
Conferences, 224–25, 363, 364
Conflict resolution
negotiation process, 232–34
teaching of, 257–59
Connections, mathematic process, 434
Consequences, behaviorism, 125
Consequences of behavior, documenting, 261
Conservation, concept of, 115, 426
Constructive play, 131–32
Constructivism
cultural diversity and, 197
defined, 43
Constructivist learning theory, Piaget, 112–17
Content standards, 318
Z04_BRED6702_03_SE_SIDX.indd 573 10/27/15 2:31 PM
Subject Index574
Context, assessment and, 355
Context, language development, 387–88
Conventional reading, 404
Convergence, 26
Conversation, language development and, 381, 386
Cooing, 383, 384
Cooperative play, 467
Cooperative preschools, history of, 54–55
Coping skills, play and, 466
Co-player role, 299–300
COR-Advantage, 371
Core Knowledge curriculum, 330–31
Council for Exceptional Children (CEC), 154
Council of Chief State School Officers (CCSSO), 29
Counting, 427, 430–32
CPC (Chicago Child-Parent Centers), 23–24
Creative arts
case study, 379, 417
creativity, supporting, 410–11
developmental continuum, 412
drama, 416
music, movement, and dance, 415–16
scaffolding, 412–13
symbolic representation, 410
value of, 409–11, 416–17
visual arts, 411
visual literacy, 414–15
Creative Curriculum System, 330, 371
Criterion-referenced tests, 349
CROWD, dialogic reading, 389
Cues, as instructional strategy, 279, 281–82, 289
Culture. See also Culture Lens; Individual differences;
Social studies
anti-bias curriculum, 196
assessments and, 356–58
behavior, view of, 250
case study, 171, 200
code switching, language, 381, 393
conflicting values, 182
creative arts, 411
cultural competence, 187–89
culturally appropriate practice, 82–83, 197–98
curriculum planning and, 336–37
defined, 172–73
development, role of culture, 83, 173–74
early childhood education, 17–19
effective practices, 182–87, 190–99
families, diversity of, 207–8
family systems theory, 209–10
father-friendly practices, 229
framework for understanding, 177–80
function of culture, 175–77
intentional teaching, 199
language and culture, 185–87
language development, 381
music, 415–16
norm-referenced tests, 349
personal perspectives, understanding, 180–82
research and theory, 104
science, teaching of, 445–46
social-emotional development, 463–65
sociocultural theory, Vygotsky, 117–22
Culture Lens. See also Culture
adapting to school, 250
code switching, 393
culture, role in development, 83
families, sharing power with, 216
finger counting, 432
gross-motor development, 492
individual differences, responding to, 147
Milestones Project, 476
non-western culture, 57
research and theory, 104
Curriculum
adapting for individual differences, 339–40
alignment with K–3, 30
anti-bias curriculum, 196
assessment for improving, 350–51
Bilingual and Bicultural Curriculum Models, 62
case study, 309, 340–41
child-centered curriculum, 49
Common Core Standards, 29, 72, 318, 431
components of, 316
Core Knowledge, 330–31
Creative Curriculum, 330
cultural and linguistic diversity, 190–99
culturally appropriate practice, 197–98
defining, 310–11
developmentally appropriate practice, 71, 84–90
differentiated instruction, 150–51
effectiveness, indicators of, 315–17
either/or and both/and thinking, 89–90
emergent curriculum, 322–23
focused curriculum, 332–33
health and safety, 511–14
HighScope, 328–29
high-stakes testing and, 373
infants and toddlers, standards for, 319
integrated curriculum, 324
intentional teaching, 315
kindergarten and primary grade standards,
320–22
knowledge, types of, 114
mathematics, 429, 431, 436
models, approaches, and frameworks, 311
physical activity needs, 487–88
physical development, 509–11
Piagetian theory, implications of, 118
planning, overview, 71, 87
planning model, 335–40
preschoolers, standards for, 319–20
project approach, 325–27
push-down curriculum, 71
rating scales and rubrics, 367
Reggio Emilia approach, 333–35
research-based curricula, 86–87, 328–35
Response to Intervention (RTI), 151–52
social cognitive theory, 128–29
social-emotional development, 469–70
sociocultural theory, 110–11, 121
sources of, 337
special education, effective practices, 162–66
standards for, 20, 318
summary chart, 314
teacher’s role, 313–15
thematic curriculum, 324
Tools of the Mind, 122, 331
tourist curriculum, 194
webbing, 325
written plans, 313
Curriculum developer, 16
Curriculum-embedded assessment, 347
D
Daily notes, 222
Daily schedule, 252
Dance, 415–16
Day nurseries, 56
Deafness, 154, 337–39. See also Special education
Decode, defined, 404
Decomposing, mathematic skills, 435
Decontextualized speech, 387–88
Democracy, teaching about, 479–80
Demographic trends, 10–11, 301, 486
Demonstrating, as teaching strategy, 279, 281
Department of Education, U.S.
No Child Left Behind, 374
Race to the Top, 28
Descriptive records, 364–66, 370
Developmental continuum. See also
Child development
assessment, interpreting results, 369
cognitive, 425
creative arts, 412
defined, 337
fine-motor skills, 498
gross-motor skills, 491
literacy skills, 396, 405
oral language, 383
second language learning, 390–91
Developmental delay, 154, 160, 351–52. See also
Special education
Developmentally appropriate practice
assessments, 354–56
case study, 69, 98
defined, 18
in the digital age, 72
either/or and both/and thinking, 89–90
future trends, 97
informed decision making, 78–84
intentional teaching, 13, 75–78
overview of, 70–75
research on, 91–94
teachers, role of, 84–90
teaching decisions, overview, 75
video segment, 70
Developmental screening, 351–52
Developmental spelling, 400
Dewey, John, 48–50
Diagnostic tests, 351–52
Dialogic reading, 389
Diet, education about, 512–13
Differentiated instruction, 150–51
Digital divide, 301, 450–51
Digital literacy, 407–8
Digital media
assistive technology, 304–5
research on, 301–2
teaching about and with technology, 448–51
trends in, 30
use of, 302–4
Direct instruction, 96–97, 284–85
Directional awareness, 501
Director, 16
Disabilities, children with. See also Individual
differences
advocacy for inclusion, 531
assessment, 184, 358–360
assistive technology, 304–5
autism spectrum disorders, 155–57, 287
behaviorism and, 126–27
defined, 154
developmentally appropriate practice, 80–81
diversity and, 184
early intervention, 8
effective teaching practices, 162–66
family centered practice, 214
gross-motor development, 493
Head Start, history of, 63
inclusion, 8, 161–62
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA),
8, 63, 157–58
key principles, 155
language of special education, 154
Response to Intervention (RTI), 151–52
science, teaching of, 448
self-help and social skills, 127
social-emotional development, 465
Disaster preparedness, 507
Discrimination, 175, 196
Disequilibrium, 113
Disorganized/disoriented attachment, 245
Distancing questions, 389, 390
Diversity. See also Culture
disabilities and, 184
families, trends in, 207–8
valuing, social studies curriculum, 474
Z04_BRED6702_03_SE_SIDX.indd 574 10/27/15 2:31 PM
Subject Index 575
Division for Early Childhood (DEC), 154
Documentation
behavior issues, 261
as dynamic assessment, 368–69, 370
methods for observation, 360–63
recording progress, methods of, 363–69
Reggio Emilia, 334
Domain-general processes, 102
Domains of development, 102–3
Down syndrome, 154. See also Special education
Drama, 416
Dual-language learners. See also Linguistic diversity
assessment of, 183–84, 356–58, 375–76
bilingualism, benefits of, 391–94
code switching, 381, 393
creative arts, 411
current trends, 11, 12
curriculum approaches for, 317
curriculum standards, 320
decisions about, family relations and, 216
dual language acquisition, developmental
continuum, 391
individual differences, 153
language and culture, 185–87
learning a second language, process of,
390–94
literacy skills, birth to age five, 392–93
modeling language, 381
norm-referenced tests, 349
parent role in assessment, 363
science, teaching of, 445–46
teachable moments, 297
teaching of, 394
technology, use of, 303
Dynamic assessment, defined, 348
E
Early childhood education
access to, 10
achievement gap, closing of, 25–26
African Americans, history of, 58–59
alignment with K–3, 30, 319
benefits of, 22–26
building on tradition, 64–65
child care movement, 55–56
continuity and change in, 31–32
culture of, 17–19
current trends, 9–10
defined, 4
European influences on, 41–47
groups served by, 5–9
history of, 37–41, 47–48
Latino, history of, 60–62
Native American, history of, 59–60
nursery school movement, 50–55
profession, overview of, 12–17
public support of, 27
settings, 5
special education, 8, 16
standards and accountability, 19–22, 28–29
teacher qualifications, 29–30
technology trends, 30
universal prekindergarten movement, 25
value of, 4–5
Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale
(ECERS-3), 21, 352
Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort
(2007), 9
Early Connections, 223
Early Head Start, 7, 15, 225
Early intervention specialists, 16
Early Learning Challenge grants, 375
Earth science, 443
Ebonics, 393
ECERS-3 (Early Childhood Environment Rating
Scale), 21, 95, 96
Ecological model of human development, 208–9
Ecological systems theory, Bronfenbrenner, 130
Economic factors. See Funding sources; Socioeconomic
status
Economics, teaching of, 478
Education for All Handicapped Children Act, 63
Effectiveness measures, 22
Effective teaching, 274. See also Teaching strategies
Efficacy, 241
Egocentrism, 115
Either/or thinking, 89–90
Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA),
28, 61
Eliot, Abigail, 56
Email, family communication, 223
Emergency preparedness, 507
Emergent curriculum, 319, 322–23
Emergent-reader story books, 408
Emotional development
of 3- through 5-year-olds, 462
building emotional skills, 241–42, 255–59
conflict resolution skills, 257–59
defined, 102
individual differences, 144–45
of infants and toddlers, 461
overview of, 456–57
of primary grades, 464
self-regulated learning, 129
Teaching Pyramid model, 242–43
Emotional disorders, 126–27
Emotional literacy, 257
Emotional literacy, defined, 456
Encode, defined, 404
Encouragement, as teaching strategy, 278–280
Engaged citizens, 455
English as second language (ESL). See Dual-language
learners
English-only laws, 394
Enumeration skills, 430
Environment, classroom. See also Community of
learners, creating
assessment and, 355
boys, strategies for, 264–65
classroom arrangement, 252
differentiated instruction, 150–51
group work, 294–96
literacy-rich environment, 395
Montessori method, 45–46
research on, 275–76
science, effective teaching of, 445
standards for, 20
Teaching Pyramid model, 242–43
universal design, 493
welcoming environments, 217
Environment, influence of. See also Culture
ecological model of human development, 208–9
literacy-rich environments, 395
overview, 141
risk and resilience, 142
sociocultural theory, Vygotsky, 117–22
toxic stress, 107–8
Environment, natural, 504–5
Equilibration, 113
Equilibrium, family systems theory, 209–10
Equity pedagogy, 474
Erikson, Erik, 108–11, 130
ESEA (Elementary and Secondary Education
Act), 61
ESL (English as second language). See Dual-language
learners
Ethics
code of conduct, 528–31
ethical dilemmas, 528–29
ethical responsibilities, 528–31
NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct, 17–18
NAEYC Statement of Commitment, 535
reporting abuse and neglect, 532–34
Ethnicity. See also Culture
achievement gap, 25–26
culture and, 175
early childhood education trends, 10–11
family configurations, 207
Head Start participation, 7
Evaluation, defined, 347
Evaluation, program, 352
Event sampling, assessment, 370
Evidence, defined, 346
Executive function, 120, 424
Exercise. See also Physical development and health
benefits of, 486
boys, strategies for, 264–65
curriculum planning, 487–88
gender differences, 143
recess, 493–95
Exosystem, defined, 123–24
Explicit teaching, providing, 284–85
Expressive language, 381
Extended discourse, 386, 389
Extended families, configurations, 207
Extinction, behaviorism, 126
Eye-hand coordination, 412
F
Facilitating learning, defined, 281
Fade-out, 26
Families. See also Culture
assessment, role in, 363, 364
attachment theory, 244–46
blended families, 207
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model, 208–9
case study, 205, 235
circumstances and challenges, 209–12
communication barriers, 216–18
communication strategies, 218–27
diversity of, 207–8
family centered practice (care), 214–15
family engagement, importance of, 228–30
family systems theory, 209–10
father-friendly practices, 229
Head Start, role in, 64
IFSP (Individualized family service plan), 160–61
overview of, 206
parenting styles, 104
relationships with, 87–88, 213–15
responding to parent complaints, 221
roles of parents and teachers, 213–14
standards for serving, 20
Family child care homes, 6, 16
Family services worker, 16
FAPE (Free appropriate public education), 157
Father-friendly practices, 229
Fear, play and, 466
Feedback, instructional strategy, 279, 280
Feedback loop, defined, 280
Feedback on behavior, 254–55
Fidelity, defined, 311
Field trips, 480–82
Fine-motor skills
artistic skills, 412
intentional teaching, 501
overview, 488, 496–503
Finger counting, 432
5- to 7- year shift, 116
Flexibility, physical fitness, 486
Fluency, 406
Food choices, 512
Formal assessments, 347, 348–49, 353. See also
Assessment of progress
Formative assessment, 346–47. See also
Assessment of progress
Fred Rogers Center for Early Learning and Children’s
Media, 30
Z04_BRED6702_03_SE_SIDX.indd 575 10/27/15 2:31 PM
Subject Index576
Free appropriate public education (FAPE), 157
Frequency counts, 366–67, 370
Friendships. See Social-emotional development
Froebel, Friedrich, 43, 47
Froebel’s occupations and gifts, 44–45
Functional analysis, behavior, 260–61
Functional assessment, behavior, 260–61
Functional play, 131
Functional skills, 359
Funding sources
charter schools, 9
current trends, 11
Head Start, 7
increasing support for programs, 5, 27
standards and accountability trends, 27–28
Funds of knowledge, 212
G
Games, 132, 440
Gaming apps, 302
Gardner, Howard, 147–49
Gender differences
boys, teaching strategies, 263–66
fine-motor skills, 500, 501
science, teaching of, 446–48
summary of, 143–44
Geography education standards, 477–78
Geography skills, 477–78
Geometry, 44, 367, 368, 432, 435
Gesell, Arnold, 50
Gesell Institute, Yale University, 50
Gifted and talented children, 149, 372
Goals, instructional. See also Developmentally
appropriate practice
inclusions, 161–62
individualized education program (IEP), 158–59,
305, 339–40
special education, effective practices, 164–66
standards, relationship to, 319
strategies, decisions about, 286
Grade school. See Primary grades
Grammar, development of, 381
Graphic representations, 291–92
Gross-motor development, 490–96, 509–11
Gross-motor manipulative movements,
defined, 490
Group time
individualizing, 167
mathematics, 438–39
reading, 388–89
Group work, as instructional strategy, 294–98
Guidance, 255–56
H
Hall, G. Stanley, 50
Hand-eye coordination, 412
Hand-washing procedures, 508
Hazards, 508–9
Head Start. See also Preschool
curriculum standards, 319–20
framework for, 22
history of, 39, 62–65
home visits, 225
Latino history, 60–62
Native Americans, 59–60
overview, 7
parent involvement, 228–29
performance standards, 20
teachers, qualifications of, 29–30
teachers, role of, 15
Health
health and safety curriculum, 511–14
standards for, 20, 507–9
Health-related fitness, 486
Healthy Habits for Life, 512
Hearing impairment. See also Special education
defined, 154
screening tests, 351
Heath, Shirley Brice, 189
Helicopter parent, 218
Helping strategies, 165–66
Heredity, influence of, 141
Hierarchy, family systems theory, 209–10
Hierarchy of needs, Maslow, 111–12
High-context cultures, 188–89
High-level thinking skills, 291–93
HighScope curriculum, 328–29, 468–69
HighScope Educational Research Foundation, 23,
96–97
High-stakes testing, concerns about, 373
Hill, Patty Smith, 50–52
Hints, as instructional strategy, 279, 281–82
Hispanics
achievement gap, 25–26
current trends, 10–11
family configurations, 207
history of, 60–62
History, concept of, 476–77
History of early childhood education
African Americans, 58–59
building on tradition, 64–65
child care movement, 55–56
European influences, 41–47
Head Start, 62–65
Kindergarten movement, 47–48
Latinos, 60–62
Native Americans, 59–60
nursery school movement, 50–55
overview, 37–41
Home-based programs, 226–27
home visitor, 16
Home visits, 225–26
Human development, culture and, 175–76
Hypotheses, generating and testing, 292–93, 427
Hypothesis, defined, 103
I
I Can Problem Solve curriculum, 468–69
IDEA (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act)
assistive technology, 304
history of, 63
overview, 8
requirements of, 157–58
Identity, sense of, 193, 474
IEP (individualized education plan)
assistive technology, 305
curriculum adaptations, 339–40
instructional goals, 158–59
IFSP (individualized family service plan), 160–61
Illness prevention, 507
Image, graphic representations, 291–92
Imaginative thinking. See Creative arts
Including All Children
autism spectrum disorders, 287
developmentally appropriate practice, 81
diversity and disability, 184
family-centered practice, 215
fostering friendships, 465
history of special education, 63
IEPs, meeting individual needs, 339
individually appropriate assessments, 359
Project DATA, autism spectrum disorders, 287
science exploration, 448
self-help and social skills, teaching of, 127
social and emotional skills, teaching of, 258
universal design, 493
Inclusion
advocacy for, 531
benefits of, 161–62
gross-motor skills, 493
overview of, 8
Individual differences. See also Disabilities,
children with
approaches to learning, 145
autism spectrum disorders, 155–57
case study, 139, 167–68
cognitive development, 144
Culture Lens, 147
curriculum adaptations, 339–340
differentiating instruction, 150–51
effective practices, 162–66
emotional and social development, 144–45
gender differences, 143–44
gifted and talented children, 149
importance of, 140–42
individualized education program (IEP), 158–59
multiple intelligences theory, 147–49
physical development, 146
responding to, 146
Response to Intervention (RTI), 151–52
sources of, 140–41
special education, overview of, 153–62
Individualistic cultural groups, 177
Individualized education plan (IEP)
assistive technology, 305
curriculum adaptations, 339–40
instructional goals, 158–59
sample of, 158
Individualized family service plan (IFSP), 160–61
Individualized instructional strategies, 166
Individualized interventions, behavior challenges,
259–263
Individually appropriate, defined, 80–82. See also
Developmentally appropriate practice
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)
assistive technology, 304
history of, 63
overview of, 8
requirements of, 157–58
Infants
building relationships, 245
cognitive development, 425
curriculum standards, 319
early literacy, 396, 397
fine-motor skills, 498–99
gross-motor development, 490–91, 494
language development, 384–85
perceptual-motors skills, 501–2
social-emotional development, 459–60
teachers, role of, 518–19, 520
Informal assessment, 347, 353. See also
Assessment of progress
Information logs, 222
Inhibitory control, 424
Injury prevention, 507–8
Insecure-ambivalent/resistant attachment, 245
Insecure-avoidant attachment, 244–45
Instruction, providing, 279
Instructional strategies. See Teaching strategies
Integrated curriculum, 324, 402
Intellectual disability, defined, 154. See also
Disabilities, children with; Special education
Intelligence tests, 372
Intentional teachers
advocating for children with disabilities, 531
assessment, uses of, 365
being purposeful and playful, 15
block building, integrating science, 445
characteristics of, 14
cultural differences, responding to, 199
curriculum, connecting to students, 315
defined, 13
expanding children’s experience, 56
feedback and encouragement, offering of,
254–55
fine-motor skills, 501
individualizing group time, 167
informed decision making, 78–84
Z04_BRED6702_03_SE_SIDX.indd 576 10/27/15 2:31 PM
Subject Index 577
interviewing to uncover thinking, 118
overview of, 75–78
responding to parent complaints, 221
scaffolding, 286
science, teaching of, 445
separation anxiety, easing of, 245
small group work, 296
social studies, integrating, 477
thinking and communication skills, 77
Interactive media, 450
Interactive reading, 388–89
Interdependent cultural groups, 178
International Kindergarten Union, 48
International Literacy Association (ILA), 407
International Reading Association (IRA), 407
International Step by Step Association, 43
Interviewing, application of, 118, 363
Invented spelling, 400
Iowa Test of Basic Skills, 372
IQ tests, 372
J
Jones, Elizabeth, 323
K
Kaiser Shipbuilding, 56
KidHealth.org, 512
Kid Pix, 449, 450
Kindergarten
curriculum standards, 320–22
gross-motor development, 492–93
history of, 44–45
kindergarten movement, history of, 47–48
overview of, 8–9
perceptual-motor skills, 502
social-emotional development, 460–62
teachers, role of, 522–24
Kindergarten Entry Assessments, 374–75
Kindergarten schedule, 93
Knowledge, types of, 114
knowledge gap, 26
K-W-L, advance organizer, 289–290, 326–27
L
Laboratory schools, 6
Language development. See also Language skills
babies and toddlers, 384–85
comprehension, promoting, 386–87
conversations, improving, 386
decontextualized speech, 387–88
development process, 380–84
individual differences, 144
play and, 403
preschoolers, 381–87
reading and, 388–89
sociocultural theory, 119
Language Lens, 12, 153, 297, 317, 357, 394
Language mixing, 391
Language skills. See also Dual-language learners;
Language development; Linguistic diversity;
Literacy skills
assessment, parent role in, 363
assessments, appropriateness of, 356–58
bilingualism, benefits of, 391–94
case study, 379, 417
cognition and, 427–28
Common Core Standards, 29
exposure to multiple languages, 107
International Children’s Digital Library, 303
kindergarten and primary grade standards, 320–22
mathematical language, math talk, 437
modeling, 280–81
norm-referenced tests, 349
preschool curriculum, 319–20
screening and diagnostic tests, 351–52
symbolic representation, 410
Lanham Act, 56
Latinos
achievement gap, 25–26
current trends, 10–11
defined, 177
family configurations, 207
history of, 60–62
Lau vs. Nichols, 61
Leadership, standards for, 20. See also Community of
learners, creating
Learning, approaches to, 145
Learning and development. See also Individual
differences; Language development
approaches to, 145
behaviorism, Skinner, 124–28
brain development, 105–8
case study, 101
cognitive development, 423–29
constructivist learning theory, Piaget, 112–17
developmentally appropriate assessment, 354–56
diversity concepts, learning of, 194–98
ecological model of human development, 208–9
ecological systems theory, Bronfenbrenner, 122–24
emotional development, 456–57
executive function, 120, 424
fine-motor skills, 500
gender differences, 143–44
gross-motor skills, 490–96
language development, process of, 380–84
learning, defined, 103
learning trajectories, 429–30
literacy skills, birth to age five, 396
multiple intelligences theory, 147–49
overview of, 102–5
perceptual-motor skills, 501–2
physical development, overview, 488–89
play, role of, 131–33
psychosocial theory of development, Erikson, 108–11
screening and diagnostic tests, 351–52
self-actualization theory, Maslow, 111–12
self identity, 193
self-regulation, 457
social cognitive theory, Bandura, 128–29
social-emotional development, 459–65
sociocultural theory, Vygotsky, 117–22
theories, summary chart of, 130
transactional theory of development, 141
Learning centers, 252, 294–98
Learning community. See Community of learners,
creating
Learning continuum, 337
Learning path, 337
Learning standards, 318
Learning strategies, defined, 277
Learning trajectory, 337, 429, 431
Legislation
children with special needs, history of, 63
Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), 28
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
(IDEA), 8, 63, 157–58, 304
Letters. See Alphabet knowledge
Licensing, standards for, 19–20
Life science, 443
“Limited English proficient” children, 61
Linguistic diversity. See also Dual-language learners
case study, 171, 200
cultural competence, 187–89
effective practices for learners, 190–99
issues for teachers, 182–87
language and culture, 185–87
Listening skills, 386–87. See also Communication
with families
Listservs, 223
Literacy skills
background knowledge, 402
birth through age five, 394–403
book appreciation and motivation to read, 400–402
case study, 379, 417
Creative Curriculum, 330
dialogic reading, 389
early writing, 400–402
HighScope curriculum, 328–29
individual differences, 144
interactive book reading, 388–89
large group reading, 390
literacy-rich environments, 395
Montessori method, 46
phonological awareness and letter knowledge,
397–98
primary grades, 404–8
print awareness, 398–99
small group reading, 389
visual literacy, 414–15
Locally developed curriculum, 312
Locomotor movements, 489
Logico-mathematical knowledge, 114
Low-context cultures, 189
M
Macrosystems, 124
Make-believe play, 122
Management, standards for, 20
Mandatory reporting, abuse, 214, 533–34
Manipulatives, 440
Mapping skills, 477–78
Mariner’s star, 85
Maslow, Abraham, 111–12, 130
Mathematics
achievement gap, 422–23
case study, 421, 452
children’s thinking, 424–27
Common Core Standards, 29
curriculum overview, 429–33
effective teaching of, 436–39
everyday mathematics, 428–29
geometry, spatial relations, and measurement, 432–33
importance of, 422–23
individual differences, 144
language of, 427, 438–39
logico-mathematical knowledge, 114
math talk, defined, 437
number and operations, 430–32
patterns, identifying, 435
play and, 439–41
problem solving and reasoning, 434
putting together and taking apart, 435
representations, designing and analyzing, 434–35
unit blocks, 52–53
unitizing, 435
Mathematize, defined, 428
Maturationist theory of development, 103–4
McCarthy Scales of Children’s Abilities, 372–73
McMillan, Margaret and Rachel, 55–56
Meaning
balanced approach to reading, 404
culture and, 174, 185
instructional strategies for, 289
Measurement skills, mathematics, 433
Media, technology uses, 448–51
Memory, 424
Mental flexibility, 424
Mentor teacher, role of, 16
Meriam Report, 59
Mesosystem, defined, 123
Messages, types of, 219. See also Communication
with families
Metacognitive activities, 288
Microsystems, defined, 123
Milestones Project, 474
Z04_BRED6702_03_SE_SIDX.indd 577 10/27/15 2:31 PM
Subject Index578
Military Child Care Act (1989), 21
Mindfulness, 249, 470
Misconceptions, thinking skills, 426–27
Mistaken behavior, 251
Mitchell, Lucy Sprague, 53–55
Modeling. See also Culture
as instructional strategy, 279, 280–81
language development, 381
reading fluency, 406
social cognitive theory, 128–29
social problem solving skills, 469–70
Modifications, for assessments, 358
Montessori, Maria, 45
Montessori method, 44–45
Morality, 528
Motherese, 384
Mothers, role of, 44. See also Families
Motivation
assessment and, 355–56
play and, 133
to read, 400–402
Motor development
artistic skills, 412
curriculum for, 509–11
overview, 488
screening tests, 351–52
Motor planning, 493
Movement, creative arts, 415–16
Multicultural curriculum, 62
Multiple intelligences theory, 147–49
Muscular strength and endurance, 486
Music, 415–16
My Pedagogic Creed (Dewey), 48
MyPlate, 512
N
NAEYC. See National Association for the Education of
Young Children (NAEYC)
Narrative, reading of, 389
Narrative records, 364–66, 370
National Association for Family Child Care, 527
National Association for Nursery Education
(NANE), 52
National Association for the Education of Young
Children (NAEYC)
accreditation standards, 19–20
Code of Ethical Conduct, 528–31
developmentally appropriate practice, 70–72
history of, 52, 58–59
overview of, 5
Technology and Young Children Interest Forum,
450–51
National Association of Colored Women (NACW), 58
National Black Child Development Institute
(NBCDI), 527
National Center for Children in Poverty, 211
National Committee on Nursery Schools, 52
National Council of La Raza, 61, 527
National Education Association, 527
National Governors Association (NGA), 29
National Head Start Association, 527
National Research Council, 422–23
Native Americans, 59–60, 185
Native Hawaiians, 59–60
Natural environment experiences, 504–5
Natural learning environments, 161–62
Naturally occurring reinforcers, 166
Nature deficit disorder, 504
Nature vs. nurture, 140–41
Negative reinforcement, 125
Neglect, reporting, 533–34
Negotiations, 232–34
Nemours Health and Prevention Services, 512
Neurons, 105
No Child Left Behind Act (2001), 374
Nonstandard units, measurement skills, 440
Nonverbal communication, 189–90
Normal curve, assessments, 349
Norming group, 349
Norm-referenced tests, 349, 372
Numbers Plus Preschool Mathematics Curriculum, 436
Number Worlds, 436
Nursery school, 6. See also Preschool
Nursery school movement, 50–55
Nutrition education, 512–13
O
Obama administration, 28
Obesity, 486–87
Objectives, instructional. See Developmentally
appropriate practice
Object permanence, 114
Observation
advantages and disadvantages, 364
as assessment, 347
methods for, 360–63
recording, methods of, 363–69
recording, summary chart, 370
social cognitive theory, Bandura, 128–29
technology for, 371
Office of Bilingual Education and Minority Languages
Affairs (OBEMLA), 61
Office of English Language Acquisition, 61
Office of Indian Education, 60
Oklahoma universal prekindergarten, 25
One-to-one conversation, 386
One-to-one correspondence, 430
Online Child Observation Record, 371
Onlooker role, play, 299
Open-ended questions, defined, 282, 389, 390
Opening the World of Learning (OWL), 332–33
Operant conditioning, 124–25
Operations, mathematics, 430
Orbis Pictus, 42–43
Order irrelevance principle, 430
Ounce Scale, 371
Outdoor play environments, 505–6
Overweight and obesity, 486–87
Owen, Robert, 44
P
Pacific Islanders, 59–60
Parallel play, 460, 467
Parent Cooperative Preschools International, 54–55
Parent cooperative schools, 6, 16, 54–55
Parentese, 384
Parents, role of. See also Families
attachment theory, 244–46
father-friendly practices, 229
Head Start, 64
helicopter parent, 218
IFSP (Individualized family service plan), 160–61
parenting styles, 104
reciprocal relationships, 213–15
Parent-teacher conferences, 224–25
Parks, 505–6
Partnerships, with families, 230–34
Passive communication, 219–20
Patterns, identifying, 435
Paul, Alice, 60
Pedagogy, 274. See also Teaching strategies
PEER, reading technique, 389
Peer rejection, 127
Peer relationships. See Social-emotional learning
Perceptual-motor development, 488, 501–2
Performance assessment, 347–48. See also Assessment
of progress
Performance standards, 318
Permissive parenting, 104
Perry Preschool Project, 23, 225
Personality, students, 80–82
Person-first language, 155
Pestalozzi, Johan, 43–44
Phonemes, 397
Phonemic awareness, 397, 400, 406
Phonetic spelling, 400
Phonics, 406
Phonological awareness, 397–98
Photography, recording observations, 366, 371
Physical activity. See also Physical development and health
benefits of, 486
boys, strategies for, 264–65
curriculum planning, 487–88
gender differences, 143
recess, 493–95
Physical development and health
case study, 485, 514
culture and, 492
curriculum, health and safety, 511–14
curriculum, physical development, 509–11
defined, 102
fine-motor development, 496–503
gross-motor development, 490–96
health and safety standards, 507–9
intentional teaching, 501
natural environment experiences, 504–5
perceptual-motor skills, 501–2
physical fitness, benefits of, 486
recess, importance of, 493–95
types of physical development, 488
Physical knowledge, 114
Physical science, 442–43
Piaget, Jean, 44, 112–17, 130, 131
Pictures, graphic representations, 291–92
Pikler Institute, 492
Pincer grasp, 489
Plan-do-review process, 328
Planning. See also Curriculum
children’s involvement in, 329
differentiated instruction, 151
intentional teaching, 76
problem solving skills, teaching, 292
special education, effective practices, 164–66
Plasticity, brain development, 106
Play. See also Creative arts
assessment context, 361
digital play vs. traditional play, 451
drama, 416
ethical dilemma resolution and, 530
gaining control through, 467
gender differences, 143
language development and, 403
as a learning context, 298–301
levels of social play, 467
make-believe play, 122
mathematics, teaching of, 439–41
Montessori method, 45–46
natural environment experiences, 504–5
parallel play, 460
planning, involving children in, 329
progressive education movement, 52–53
promoting, 42
role in development and learning, 131–33
role of, 42
rough-and-tumble play, 503–4
social development and, 467–68
social-emotional development, role in,
466–68
social studies, teaching about, 480–82
sociocultural theory, 121
teachers, role of, 298–301
Play-based assessment, 348
Play-by-play language, 385
Playgrounds, 505–6
Play leader role, 300–301
Z04_BRED6702_03_SE_SIDX.indd 578 10/27/15 2:31 PM
Subject Index 579
Policy staff, 16
Portfolios, 363, 368–69
Position statement, defined, 70
Positive behavior support (PBS), 260
Positive reinforcement, 125, 254, 262–63
Poverty. See Socioeconomic status
Power
bullying, response to, 268–69
sharing with families, 214–15
Pratt, Caroline, 52–53
Predictable books, 390
Predictors, literacy skills, 397
Prekindergarten, 6, 27. See also Preschool
Preoperational stage of development, 115–16
Preschool
cognitive development, 425
curriculum, research on, 335
curriculum standards, 319–20
fine-motor skills, 497–98
gross-motor development, 492–93
language development, 381–87
literacy skill development, 394–403
mathematics trajectory, 431
overview, 6
peer relationships, 247
perceptual-motor skills, 502
social-emotional development, 460–62
teachers, role of, 16, 519–21
Preschool PATHS, 468–69
Pretend play. See Socio-dramatic play
Primary grades
cognitive development, 425
curriculum standards, 320–22
fine-motor skills, 500
gross-motor development, 491, 493–96
literacy development, 404–8
mathematics trajectory, 431
overview of, 8–9
perceptual-motor development, 502
social-emotional development, 359, 463
teachers, role of, 524–26
Print awareness, 397, 398–99
Private speech, 119
Problem solving skills
achievement gap, 422–23
case study, 421, 452
children’s thinking, 424–27
cognitive development, 424
everyday mathematics, 428–29
geometry, spatial relations, and measurement, 432–33
importance of, 422–23
instructional strategies for, 292
language and, 427
learning trajectories, 429–30
mathematics, teaching of, 436–39
mathematics curriculum, 429–33
number and operations, 430–32
overview, 434
patterns, identifying, 435
putting together and taking apart, 435
questioning, as strategy, 282–83
representations, designing and analyzing, 434–35
science, adapting for diversity, 445–48
science, effective teaching, 444–48
science curriculum, 441–42
social problems, 469–70
teaching about and with technology, 448–51
unitizing, 435
Process quality, defined, 21
Professional development
career opportunities, 13–17
overview of, 526–27
statement of commitment, 535
Professional ethics, 528–31
Professional organizations, 527
Professionals, defined, 4
Program evaluation, 352
Progress assessments. See Assessment of progress
Progressive education movement, 48–50
Project approach, curriculum, 325–27
Project DATA, autism intervention, 287
Prompts, use of, 165–66
Protective factors, 142
Proximal processes, 123
Pruning, brain development, 106
Psychosocial theory of development, Erikson, 108–11
Public Law 94-142, 63
Public Law 99-457, 63
Published curriculum, 313
Punishment, 125, 255–56
Push-down curriculum, 71
Puzzles, 440
Q
Quality
current trends, 28–29
program evaluation, 352
quality rating and improvement systems (QRIS), 19
standards and measures, overview, 19–22
teacher qualifications and, 29–30
Questioning, as instructional strategy, 279, 282–84, 289
R
Race. See also Culture
achievement gap, 25–26
culture and, 176–77
early childhood education trends, 10–11
family configurations, 207
Head Start participation, 7
Race to the Top, 28, 374
Rare words, 388
Rating scales, 367, 370
Readiness tests, 372
Reading
achievement gap, 25–26
book appreciation and motivation to read, 400–402
CROWD, 389
dialogic reading, 89
language development and, 388–89
to large groups, 390
literacy-rich environments, 395
literacy skills, birth to age five, 394–403
mathematics skills, 440
PEER, 389
phonological awareness and letter knowledge,
397–98
primary grades, 404–8
print awareness, 398–99
to small groups, 389
Reasoning skills, 434
Recall questions, 389, 390
Receptive language, 380
Recess, importance of, 493–95
Reciprocal relationships, 87–88, 212–13
Reciprocal teaching, 292
Recording progress, methods of, 363–69
Redirection, 254
Reflection, as instructional strategy, 292
Reggio Emilia, 284, 291–92, 311, 368–69
Reinforcement, 125, 167
Relationships. See also Social-emotional development
boys, strategies for, 264
between children, 246–48
with children, building, 244–51
gender differences, 144
standards for, 20
strategies for building in classroom, 248–50
Teaching Pyramid model, 242–43
Reliability, assessments, 348
Replacement behaviors, 262
Representations, mathematic skills, 434–35
Research
culturally responsive teaching, 191–92
developmentally appropriate practice, 91–94
Head Start and, 64
on preschool curriculum, 335
research-based curricula, 328–35
research reviews, 90
science of teaching, 275–76
scientifically based curriculum, 87
Research-based curriculum, 312
Resilience, 142, 466
Respect, building, 214
Responding to Linguistic and Cultural Diversity, 62
Response to Intervention (RTI), 151–52, 350–51
Rhymes, 397
Rights of children, 41
Risk factors, defined, 142
Risks, health and safety, 508–9
Risk vs. challenge continuum, 508–9
Role-playing, 468–72
Roles, family systems theory, 209–10
Rough-and-tumble play, 503–4
Routines, importance of, 252–53
Routines-based assessment, 164
Rubrics, 367, 370
Rules, family systems theory, 209–10
Rules for behavior, 253
Running commentary, 385
Running record, 365, 370
S
Safety, curriculum for, 511
Safety standards, 507
Sample, Winona, 60
Scaffolding
creative arts, 412–13
defined, 118
drama, 416
learning trajectories, mathematics, 429–30
manipulatives, 440
as teaching strategy, 279, 285–86
writing, 331
Schedule of activities, 252
Scheirbeck, Helen, 60
Scheme or schema, 113
School readiness, 6, 25
Schools, communication barriers, 216–18
Science
adapting for diversity, 445–48
children’s thinking, 424–27
curriculum, overview, 441–42
effective teaching, 444–48
importance of, 422–23
language and, 427–28
scientific inquiry, 444
scientific method, teaching of, 292–93
teaching about and with technology, 448–51
Scientifically based curriculum, 87. See also Research-
based curriculum
Scientifically based instructional practices, 28
Scope and sequence, 327
Screening tests, 351, 372–73
Script language, 381
Secure attachment relationships, 244
Secure base, 244–45
Self-actualization theory, 111–12, 130
Self-concept, 241
Self-esteem, 111–12, 241
Self-help skills, teaching of, 127
Self-regulated learning, 129
Self-regulation
overview of, 457
sociocultural theory, 119–20, 122
Teaching Pyramid model, 240–41
Tools of the Mind curriculum, 331
Z04_BRED6702_03_SE_SIDX.indd 579 10/27/15 2:31 PM
Subject Index580
Sensorimotor stage of development, 114–15
Sensory system, development of, 501–2
Separation anxiety, 245, 459
Sequence, curriculum, 327
Sequential language learners, 391
Sesame Workshop, 512
Shades of People, 177
Shaping behavior, 126
Simultaneous acquisition, dual language, 390
Skinner, B. F. 124–28, 130
Slippery egg messages, 219
Small-group discussions, assessment and, 363
Small group learning, 295–96, 439
Social benefits, early childhood education, 23–25
Social cognitive theory, 128–29, 130
Social competence. See Social-emotional learning
Social construction of knowledge, 118–19, 242
Social-conventional knowledge, 114, 284–85
Social development, 457–58, 467–68
Social-emotional development
3- through 5-year-olds, 462
diversity and, 463–65
gender differences, 143–44
individual differences, 144–45
infants and toddlers, 459–60
overview of, 456–58
play, role of, 466–68
primary grades, 464
Social-emotional learning
children with disabilities, 12
conflict resolution, 257–59
curriculum goals, 256, 456–57, 460–63
emotional development, 256, 456–57
overview, 455–56
self-regulation, 457
strategies for, 255–59
stress in children’s lives, 458–59
Teaching Pyramid model, 241–43
Social justice, 25
Social studies
case study, 455, 482
content goals, 472–82
defined, 455
intentional teaching, 477
overview of, 472–73
teaching strategies, 480–82
Sociocultural factors. See also Culture; Individual
differences
curriculum planning, 336–37
ecological model of human development, 208–9
psychosocial theory of development, Erikson, 108–11
risk and resilience, 142
social cognitive theory, Bandura, 128–29
toxic stress, 107–8, 458
Sociocultural theory, Vygotsky, 117–22, 130, 331
Socio-dramatic play, 332, 403, 439
Socioeconomic status
achievement gap (see Achievement gap, closing of)
current trends, 11
economics, teaching of, 478
family challenges, 209–12
family involvement, benefits of, 228
insecure-avoidant attachment, 244–45
language development, 381–82
literacy-rich environments, 395
Montessori method, 45
preschool program types, 6–8
risk and resilience, 142
Solitary play, 467
Space science, 443
Spatial awareness, 501
Spatial relations, 432–33
Spatial skills, 53, 439, 440
Special education
assessments, 358–60
children with disabilities, key principles, 155
creative arts, 411
cultural diversity and, 184
effective practices, 162–66
history of, 63
individualized education program (IEP), 158–59
language of, 154
natural learning environment and inclusion, 161–62
overview, 8
screening assessments for, 351–52
teachers, role of, 16
Specialized instruction, 163
Special needs, children with
assessment, 358–60
family centered practice, 214
gross-motor development, 493
science, teaching of, 445, 448
social-emotional development, 465
Spelling, early writing, 400. See also Language skills
Stability movements, 490
Stable order principle, 430
Stage manager role, play, 299
Standardized testing
concerns about, 373–74
overview of, 348–49
types of tests, 372–73
uses of, 373
Standards
accreditation standards, 19–20
child care licensing, 19–20
Common Core, 29, 318, 431
current trends, 28–29
curriculum, 29, 318, 431
Head Start, 20
health and safety, 507
Military Child Care Act, 21
professional development, 526–27
Standards for Early Childhood Professional
Preparation, 526
Stanford-Binet test, 372–73
Statement of Commitment, NAEYC, 535
STEM (science, technology, engineering, and
mathematics), 422
Stereotypes
anti-bias curriculum, 196
cultural perspectives, 182
father-friendly practices, 229
race and ethnicity, 175
tourist curriculum, 194
Storytelling Sagas, 440–41
Stress, 107–8, 458–59
Strong Start for America’s Children Act (2014), 27
Structural quality, defined, 21
Structured physical activity, 487
Subitizing, 426
Successive approximations, 126
Summative assessment, 346–49. See also Assessment
of progress
Supporting learning, defined, 281
Sustained shared thinking, 284
Symbolic play, 132
Symbolic representation, 132, 410
Synapses, 106
Syntax, 381
Systems, science skills, 443
Systems theory, family, 209–10
T
TANF (Temporary Assistance for Needy Families), 10
Teachable moment, identifying, 258
Teacher-developed curriculum, 312
Teacher-directed experiences, 90
Teacher-initiated experiences, defined, 278
Teacher-proof curriculum, 314
Teachers. See also Community of learners, creating;
Intentional teachers
attachment to teachers, 246
characteristics of, 14
child-centered curriculum, 49
child/teacher ratios, 19
cultural and linguistic diversity, working with,
182–87, 190–99
cultural competence, 187–89
cultural perspectives, personal, 180–82
curriculum, role in, 313–15
decision making, overview, 75
developmentally appropriate practice, role in,
84–90
high-stakes testing, 373
infants and toddlers, care of, 518–19, 520
intentional teaching, 14, 75–78
kindergarten, 522–24
kindergarten movement, history of, 47–48
licensing standards, 19–20
measuring quality of, 21
Montessori method, 46
practices, research on, 96–97
preschool teachers, 519–21, 522
primary grades, 524–26
profession, overview of, 12–17
qualifications of, 29
relationships in the classroom, 248–250
relationships with families, 213–15
role in play, 298–301
scaffolding, role in, 285–86
standards for, 20
teacher-child interactions, 95–96
Teaching Pyramid Model
biting, response to, 266–67
boys, teaching strategies, 263–66
bullying, response to, 268–69
overview, 240–43
Teaching strategies
acknowledging and encouraging, 278–80
art and science of teaching, 274–77
case study, 273, 305
challenges, creating, 282
co-constructing learning, 284
concept development strategies, 282–84
cues and hints, 281–82
demonstrating, 281
explicit or direct instruction, 284–85
feedback, providing, 280
group work, 294–98
learning goals and, 288–94
to make meaning, 289
modeling, 280–81
overview of, 277–78
play, 298–301
problem solving and higher-level thinking, 292
questioning, 282–84
scaffolding, 285–86
summary chart of, 279
teacher-initiated and child-initiated
experiences, 278
technology, use of, 301–5
Teaching Strategies GOLD, 371
Technology
art production apps, 411
assessments, use in, 371
assistive technology, 304–5
communicating with families, 222–24
current trends, 30
digital literacy, 407–8
digital media, research on, 301–2
digital media, using, 302–4
mathematics curriculum, 436
social studies, teaching of, 481–82
teaching about and with technology, 448–51
Telegraphic speech, 383
Temperament, individual differences, 145
Temporal awareness, 501
Z04_BRED6702_03_SE_SIDX.indd 580 10/27/15 2:31 PM
Subject Index 581
Temporary Assistance for Needy Families
(TANF), 10
Tennis ball messages, 219
Terrell, Mary Church, 58
Testing, defined, 348. See also Assessment of
progress
Texting, family communication, 223
The Incredible Years, 468–69
Thematic curriculum, 324
Theory, learning and development
behaviorism, Skinner, 124–28
cognitive theory, Piaget, 112–17
multiple intelligences theory, 147–49
role of, 103–4
social cognitive theory, Bandura, 128–29
sociocultural theory, Vygotsky, 117–22
summary chart, child development, 130
transactional theory of development, 141
Thinking skills, teaching of, 77
Time, concept of, 476–77
Timeline, early childhood education,
37–41
Time-out, 255
Time schedule, 252
Toddlers
building relationships, 246–47
cognitive development, 425
curriculum standards, 319
fine-motor skills, 498, 499
gross-motor development, 492–93, 494
language development, 384–85
literacy skill development, 394–403
mathematics trajectory, 431
perceptual-motor skills, 501–2
social-emotional development, 459–60
teachers, role of, 518–19, 520
Tools of the Mind, 331, 468–69
Tourist curriculum, 194
Toxic stress, 107–8, 458
Transactional theory of development, 141
Transitions, 252
Trust, building, 214, 244–51
Turtle Technique, 471
U
Unit blocks, 52–53, 438–39
United Nations Convention on the Rights of
the Child, 41
Unitizing, mathematic concept, 435
Universal design, 162, 493
Universal prekindergarten, 6
University of North Carolina, Abecedarian Early
Childhood Intervention Project, 23
Unstructured free play, 487
U.S. Department of Agriculture, 512
U.S. Department of Education, 29
V
Validated curriculum, 312
Validity, assessments, 348–49
Vicarious learning, 129
Video clips
arts education, 410
assessments, 347, 348, 362, 369
brain research, 23, 106
caring community of learners, creating, 86, 246, 252
Chicago Child-Parent programs, 24
communication styles, 219, 225
conflict resolution, 257
constructivism, 117
creative arts, 410
culture, 176, 178, 186
curriculum, 320, 323, 328, 335, 339
developmentally appropriate practice, 70, 74, 80, 91
digital media, 304
dual-language learning, 390
early intervention, 160
emotional literacy, 256
executive function, 120
family partnerships, 211, 231
foundations of practice, 19, 27
handwashing, 507
Head Start, 63
healthy eating, 512
inclusion, 9
intentional teachers, 285
intercultural communication, 188
kindergarten, Froebel’s, 44
language development, 384
literacy learning, 395, 404
mathematics, 150, 430, 439, 440
Montessori method, 46
music and movement, 416
nature vs. nurture, 141
nutrition, 512
physical development and health, 493, 504
play, benefits of, 80, 133
play, teacher role in, 301
professional advice, 521, 526
purposeful planning, 76
reading instruction, 404
redirection, 254
rewards of teaching, 253
science curriculum, 190, 444, 445
small groups, 295
social-emotional development, 460, 463, 468, 470
sociodramatic play, 122
teacher-child interactions, 275
Video observation, assessment, 371
Videotape, recording observations, 366
Virtual field trips, 482
Vision screening, 351
Visual arts, defined, 412. See also Creative arts
Visual literacy, 414–15
Visually impaired students, defined, 154. See also
Special education
Vocabulary, development of. See also Language
development
babies and toddlers, 384–85
early literacy, 397
mathematics, language of, 427, 434–36, 440–41
new and rare words, 388
overview of, 381, 383
preschoolers, 381–87
primary grades, 407
science, language of, 427–28
Voting, teaching about, 479–80
Vygotsky, Lev, 117–22, 130, 242, 331
W
Wait time, questions, 283–84
Ward, Evangeline, 59
War on Poverty, 63–64
Webbing, 325
Websites, family communication, 224
Weekly updates, 222
Wellness, curriculum for, 511–12
What Works
dialogic reading, 389
emotional literacy, 257
father-friendly practices, 229
languages, exposure to, 107
physical skills, teaching, 511
reciprocal teaching, 292–94
school readiness, 25–26
teacher, importance of, 534
teacher-directed and child-initiated experiences, 90
teaching STEM to dual-language learners, 448
technology, 371
Tools of the Mind curriculum, 332
Turtle Technique, 471
unit blocks, math skills, 53
universal design, 162
Wh- questions, 389, 390
Widening horizons approach, 474–76
Windows of opportunity, brain development, 106
Wireless Generation, 371
Word identification, 404
Working memory, 424
Work products, 363, 364, 368
Works Progress Administration (WPA), 56
WPA nurseries, 56
Writing skills, early writing, 400–402. See also
Language skills
Written curriculum plans, 313
Z
Zone of proximal development, 117–18, 285, 348
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STANDARD KEY ELEMENTS OF THE STANDARD CHAPTER AND TOPIC
11: Culturally and Linguistically Responsive Assessment
11: Language Lens: Involving Parents in Assessment of Dual Language Learners (F)
11: Including All Children: Individually Appropriate Assessment Practices (F)
11: Observation and Recording to Improve Learning
11: Observing and Gathering Evidence
11: Promoting Play: Play as an Assessment Context (F)
11: Table 11.3, Learning to Observe
11: Recording What Children Know and Can Do
11: Becoming an Intentional Teacher: Using Assessment to Inform Teaching (F)
11: Interpreting and Using Evidence to Improve Teaching and Learning
11: What Works: Using Technology to Assess Learning (F)
11: Standardized Testing of Young Children
11: Assessment and the Common Core
11: Kindergarten Entry Assessment
4: Using Developmentally Effective Approaches
to Connect with Children and Families
4a. Understanding positive relationships and sup-
portive interactions as the foundation of their
work with children
4b. Knowing and understanding effective strate-
gies and tools for early education
4c. Using a broad repertoire of developmentally
appropriate teaching/learning approaches
4d. Reflecting on their own practice to promote
positive outcomes for each child
1: Resolving Contradictions between Enduring Values and Current Trends
1: Embracing Both/And Thinking
3: Ch. 3, Understanding and Applying Developmentally Appropriate Practice
3: What Is Developmentally Appropriate Practice?
3: Promoting Play: Does Developmentally Appropriate Practice = Play? (F)
3: Intentional Teaching
3: Developmentally Appropriate Decision-Making
3: Including All Children: Developmentally Appropriate Practice and Children with Disabilities (F)
3: The Complex Role of the Teacher
4: Becoming an Intentional Teacher: Teaching in the “Zone” (F)5: Figure 5.1 Model of Differentiated Instruction
5: Responsive Education for All Learners
5: Figure 5.2, Response to Intervention (RTI) in Early Childhood
5: Individualized Education Programs
5: Promoting Play: Supporting Pretend Play for Children with Disabilities (F)
5: Effective Practices for Children with Diverse Abilities
5: Becoming an Intentional Teacher: Individualizing Group Time (F)
6: Understanding Your Own Cultural Perspective
6: Teaching in a Culturally and Linguistically Diverse World
6: Including All Children: Cultural Diversity and Diverse Ability (F)
6: Promoting Play: African American Children and Play (F)
6: Effective Practices for Diverse Learners
6: What Works: Making Education Culturally Compatible (F)
6: Linguistically Responsive Teaching
6: Language Lens: Using Technology to Teach Dual Language Learners (F)
6: Culturally Responsive Teaching
6: Developmentally Appropriate and Culturally Responsive Practices
6: Becoming an Intentional Teacher: Responding to Cultural Differences (F)
8: Ch. 8, Creating a Caring Community of Learners: Guiding Young Children
8: A Caring Community of Learners: The Teaching Pyramid Model
8: Figure 8.1, Teaching Pyramid Model for Promoting Children’s Social and Emotional Competence
8: Positive Relationships with Children
8: Promoting Play: All Can Play (F)
8: Table 8.1, What a Caring Community Looks Like
8: Personal, Family, and Cultural Views of Children’s Behavior
8: Examine Your Own Attitudes toward Challenging Behavior
8: High-Quality Supportive Environments
8: Teaching Social-Emotional Competence and Guiding Behavior
8: What Works: Teaching Emotional Literacy (F)
8: Table 8.2, Strategies for Teaching Conflict Resolution
8: Intensive Individualized Interventions
9: Ch. 9, Teaching to Enhance Learning and Development
9: A Repertoire of Effective Teaching Strategies
9: Table 9.1, Effective Teaching Strategies
9: The Power of Scaffolding: An Integrated Approach
9: Figure 9.1, Scaffolding in Action
9: Including All Children: Project DATA: A High-Quality Comprehensive Early Intervention Program for
Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders (F)
9: Connecting Teaching Strategies and Learning Goals
9: What Works: Reciprocal Teaching (F)
9: Grouping as an Instructional Approach
9: Becoming an Intentional Teacher: Working in Small Groups (F)
9: Language Lens: Teachable Moments with Dual Language Learners (F)
9: Play as a Context for Learning
9: Teachers’ Involvement during Play
9: Figure 9.3, Continuum of Teacher Roles in Play
9: Teaching with Digital Media
9: Promoting Play: Teaching and Learning through Transmedia Play (F)
9: Assistive Technology for Children with Diverse Abilities
12: Scaffolding Children’s Language Development
12: Table 12.1, Improving Teacher-Child Conversations
12: What Works: Dialogic Reading (F)
12: Culture Lens: Understanding and Responding to Code Switching (F)
12: Language Lens: Teaching Dual Language Learners (F)
12: Developmental Continuum: Early Literacy (F)
12: Literacy-Rich Environments
12: Becoming an Intentional Teacher: Teaching the Alphabet and Phonological Awareness (F)
12: Promoting Play: How Play Supports Language and Literacy Development
12: Literacy in the Primary Grades
12: Developmental Continuum: Literacy in Kindergarten and Primary Grades (F)
12: Digital Literacy
12: Impact of the Common Core State Standards
12: Scaffold Artistic Development and Learning
13: Effective Mathematics Teaching
13: Figure 13.2, Examples of High- and Low-Quality Mathematics Teaching
13: The Role of Play in Teaching and Learning Mathematics
13: Effective Science Teaching
13: Table 13.2, Effective Science Teaching Strategies
13: Including All Children: Science Exploration (F)
13: What Works: Teaching STEM to Dual Language Learners (F)
13: Teaching about and with Technology
13: Promoting Play: Digital Play and Traditional Play (F)
14: Including All Children: Fostering Friendships in the Inclusive Classroom (F)
Suggested Correlation of Sue Bredekamp’s Effective Practices in Early Childhood Education, 3e with NAEYC® Standards for Early Childhood Professional Preparation Programs
Z05_BRED6702_03_SE_IBC.indd 582 10/27/15 2:33 PM
Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
Intentional Teaching of Young Children
Current Research on Effective Practices
Connections between Curriculum and Child Development
Acknowledgments
Foreword
Brief Contents
Table of Contents
Special Features
Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education
Chapter 1 Continuity and Change in Early Childhood Education
What Is Early Childhood Education?
Why Early Childhood Education Is a Field on the Rise
The Landscape of Early Childhood Education
How Early Childhood Education Is Expanding
Access to Early Childhood Education
How Early Childhood Education Is Changing
Why Become an Early Childhood Educator?
The Joys of Teaching Young Children
Dimensions of Effective, Intentional Teaching
Career Options for Early Childhood Educators
The Culture of Early Childhood Education
Early Childhood Program Quality and Effectiveness
Setting Standards for Quality
Measuring Quality in Early Childhood Programs
Measuring Effectiveness
The Positive Effects of Early Childhood Education
Brain Research
Lasting Benefits of Early Childhood Education
The Positive Effects of Prekindergarten, Head Start, and Child Care
Social Justice and Closing the Achievement Gap
Current Trends in Early Childhood Education
New Federal and State Policy Initiatives
Standards and Accountability
Higher Teacher Qualifications
Alignment of Services from Birth Through Age 8
Advances in Technology
Stress in Children’s Lives
Continuity and Change
Chapter 2 Building on a Tradition of Excellence
Learning from the Past
Why History Is Relevant
The Changing View of Children
European Influences on American Early Childhood Education
John Amos Comenius
Johann Pestalozzi
Friedrich Froebel
Maria Montessori
Early Childhood Movements in the United States
The Kindergarten Movement
Progressive Education
The Nursery School Movement
The Child Care Movement
A Wider View of Early Childhood History
African Americans in Early Childhood History
Native American Early Childhood History
Latino Early Childhood History
Bringing the Stories Together
The Story of Head Start
The Prekindergarten Story
Building on a Tradition of Excellence
Chapter 3 Understanding and Applying Developmentally Appropriate Practice
What Is Developmentally Appropriate Practice?
NAEYC’S Position Statement on Developmentally Appropriate Practice
Current Issues in Developmentally Appropriate Practice
Developmentally Appropriate Practice in the Classroom
Intentional Teaching
Purposeful Planning
Understand and Explain Practices
Developmentally Appropriate Decision Making
Make Informed Decisions
Consider All You Know When Making Decisions
The Complex Role of the Teacher
Create a Caring Community of Learners
Teach to Enhance Learning and Development
Plan Curriculum to Achieve Important Goals
Assess Children’s Development and Learning
Build Relationships with Families and Communities
The Teacher’s Role in Context
Widening the Lens: Moving from Either/Or to Both/And Thinking
Developmentally Appropriate Learning Environments
Organize the Physical Space
Organize the Day
Research on Developmentally Appropriate Practice
Research Reviews
Research on Elements of Developmentally Appropriate Practice
The Future of Developmentally Appropriate Practice
Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach
Chapter 4 Applying What We Know about Children’s Learning and Development
Understanding Development and Learning
What Is Development?
What Is Learning?
The Role of Theory
The Relationship between Theory, Research, and Practice
Why Study Child Development and Learning?
Brain Development and Implications for Practice
How the Brain Promotes Learning
Implications for Children
Implications for Practice
Child Development Theories
Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory of Human Development
Maslow’s Self-Actualization Theory
Piaget and Cognitive Developmental Theory
Vygotsky and Sociocultural Theory
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory of Development
Learning Theories
B. F. Skinner and Behaviorism
Albert Bandura and Social Cognitive Theory
The Role of Play in Development and Learning
Types of Play
The Benefits of Play
Play and Motivation
Connecting Theory and Practice
Chapter 5 Adapting for Individual Differences
The Importance of Individual Differences
Why Pay Attention to Individual Differences?
Where Do Individual Differences Come From?
How Experience Affects Outcomes for Children: Risk or Resilience
What We Know About Individual Differences
Gender Differences
Cognitive Development and Abilities
Emotional and Social Development
Approaches to Learning
Physical Development
Seeing Each Child as an Individual
Multiple Intelligences: A Theory of Individual Differences
Gifted and Talented Children
Responsive Education for All Learners
Differentiating Instruction
Response to Intervention
Individual Differences in Ability
The Language of Early Childhood Special Education
What Teachers Should Know about Children with Disabilities
Seeing Children with Disabilities as Individuals: The Case of Autism
What Teachers Should Know about Legal Requirements for Children with Disabilities
Embracing Natural Learning Environments and Inclusion
Effective Practices for Children with Diverse Abilities
Work on a Team
Assess Young Children of Diverse Abilities
Plan Individualized Instructional Strategies
Chapter 6 Embracing a Culturally and Linguistically Diverse World
Understanding Cultural Diversity
What Is Culture?
The Role of Culture in Development
How Culture Functions: Principles to Keep in Mind
A Framework for Thinking About Culture
Individualistic Cultural Orientation
Interdependent Cultural Orientation
Continuum of Common Cultural Values
Applying the Continuum in Practice
Understanding Your Own Cultural Perspective
Become Aware of Your Own Cultural Experiences
Learn about the Perspectives of Various Cultural Groups
Teaching in a Culturally and Linguistically Diverse World
Why Does Culture Matter to Teachers?
Embracing Linguistic Diversity
Cultural Competence: The Key to Effective Teaching
Cross-Cultural Communication
Effective Practices for Diverse Learners
Culturally Responsive Teaching
Linguistically Responsive Teaching
Anti-Bias Education
Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach
Chapter 7 Building Effective Partnerships with Families
Today’s Families
Welcoming Diverse Families
Family Dynamics
Family Circumstances and Challenges
Reciprocal Relationships with Families
Roles of Teachers and Parents
Family-Centered Practice
Communication with Families
Barriers to Effective Communication
Effective Communication Strategies
Family Engagement in Programs and Schools
Benefits of Family Involvement
Opportunities for Meaningful Family Engagement
Community Partnerships
A Framework for Building Partnerships with Families
Clarify Preferences
Communicate Preferences
Negotiate Successfully
Demonstrate Willingness to Learn and Change
Chapter 8 Creating a Caring Community of Learners: Guiding Young Children
A Caring Community of Learners: The Teaching Pyramid Model
The Value of a Caring Community of Learners
The Teaching Pyramid Model
Positive Relationships with Children
The Importance of Relationships
Effective Strategies to Build Positive Relationships
High-Quality Supportive Environments
Establish Clear, Consistent, Fair Rules for Behavior
Support Children to Do Their Best
Teaching Social-Emotional Competence and Guiding Behavior
Guidance and Punishment
Teach Emotional Literacy and Social Skills
Conflict Resolution
Intensive Individualized Interventions
Understand Challenging Behaviors
Assess and Address the Function of the Child’s Behavior
Team with Families and Professionals to Implement Individualized Plans
Use Positive Behavior Support
Applying the Teaching Pyramid Model
Apply the Pyramid Model to Teaching Boys
Apply the Pyramid Model to Address Biting
Apply the Pyramid Model to Alleviate Bullying
Chapter 9 Teaching to Enhance Learning and Development
Teaching: Both a Science and an Art
The Science of Teaching
The Art of Teaching
A Repertoire of Effective Teaching Strategies
What Are Teaching Strategies?
Teacher-Initiated and Child-Initiated Experiences
Using an Array of Teaching Strategies
The Power of Scaffolding: An Integrated Approach
Connecting Teaching Strategies and Learning Goals
Reflect on Your Own Learning
Strategies That Make Learning Meaningful
Strategies That Develop Concepts
Strategies That Promote Higher-Level Thinking and Problem Solving
Grouping as an Instructional Approach
The Learning Environment
Play as a Context for Learning
Teachers’ Involvement during Play
Teachers’ Role during Play
Teaching with Digital Media
Research on Digital Media
Using Technology and Digital Media to Teach
Assistive Technology for Children with Diverse Abilities
Chapter 10 Planning Effective Curriculum
Defining Curriculum
What Is Curriculum?
Curriculum Models, Approaches, and Frameworks
Written Curriculum Plans
The Teacher’s Role
Components of Effective Curriculum
The Role of Standards in Curriculum
What Are Standards?
How Do Standards Affect Curriculum?
Alignment of Standards and Curriculum across Age Groups
Approaches to Planning Curriculum
Emergent Curriculum
Integrated Curriculum
Thematic Curriculum
Webbing
The Project Approach
Scope and Sequence
Research-Based Early Childhood Curricula
Comprehensive Curriculum
Focused Curriculum
The Reggio Emilia Approach
Research on Preschool Curriculum
A Model for Planning Effective Curriculum
The Child in the Sociocultural Context
Sources of Curriculum
Applying the Curriculum Model in Practice
Adapting for Individual Differences
Chapter 11 Assessing Children’s Learning and Development
Learning the Language of Assessment
Formative and Summative Assessment
Informal and Formal Assessments
Observation
Performance Assessment
Dynamic Assessment
Standardized Testing
Types of Standardized Tests
Purposes of Assessment: Why Assess?
Assessing to Improve Teaching and Learning
Identifying Children with Special Learning or Developmental Needs
Evaluating Program Quality
Assessing for Accountability
Connecting Purposes and Types of Assessment
Indicators of Effective Assessment
Developmentally Appropriate Assessment
Culturally and Linguistically Responsive Assessment
Individually Appropriate Assessment for Children with Special Needs
Observation and Recording to Improve Learning
Observing and Gathering Evidence
Recording What Children Know and Can Do
Interpreting and Using Evidence to Improve Teaching and Learning
Standardized Testing of Young Children
Types of Standardized Tests
Appropriate Uses of Standardized Testing
Concerns about Standardized Testing
Assessment and the Common Core
Kindergarten Entry Assessment
Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach
Chapter 12 Teaching Children to Communicate: Language, Literacy, and the Arts
Children’s Language Development
The Critical Importance of Language Development
Types of Language
Language Differences in Children
Developmental Continuum: Oral Language
Impact of Common Core Speaking and Listening Standards
Scaffolding Children’s Language Development
Supporting Language Development in Babies and Toddlers
Scaffolding Preschoolers’ Language Development
Dual Language Learning
How Children Learn a Second Language
Developmental Continuum: Dual Language Acquisition
Teaching Dual Language Learners
Early Literacy: Birth through Age 5
Developmental Continuum: Early Literacy Learning
Literacy-Rich Environments
Early Literacy from Birth to Kindergarten
Literacy in the Primary Grades
Learning to Read
Developmental Continuum: Literacy in Kindergarten and Primary Grades
Evidence-Based Reading Instruction
Digital Literacy
Impact of the Common Core State Standards
Communicating Through the Arts
The Value of Creative Arts
Visual Arts
Music, Movement, and Dance
Drama
Seeing the Arts with New Eyes
Chapter 13 Teaching Children to Investigate and Solve Problems: Mathematics, Science, and Technology
The Importance of Mathematics and Science
The Need for an Educated Workforce
The Mathematics Achievement Gap
The Cognitive Foundations of Early Learning
The Continuum of Cognitive Development
Executive Function
Children’s Thinking
Language and Cognition
Mathematical Language and the Achievement Gap
Effective Mathematics Curriculum and Teaching
Mathematics Curriculum Content
Mathematics Process Skills
Effective Mathematics Curriculum
Effective Mathematics Teaching
The Role of Play in Teaching and Learning Mathematics
Effective Science Curriculum and Teaching
Science and Technology in the Early Childhood Curriculum
Science Content
Effective Science Teaching
Teaching about and with Technology
A Developmentally and Technologically Appropriate Classroom
Chapter 14 Teaching Children to Live in a Democratic Society: Social-Emotional Learning and Social Studies
Social-Emotional Foundations of Early Learning
Emotional Development
Self-Regulation
Social Development
Stress in Children’s Lives
Continuum of Social and Emotional Development
Infants and Toddlers
Preschool and Kindergarten
Primary Grades
Diversity and Social-Emotional Development
The Role of Play in Social-Emotional Learning
Emotional Development and Play
Social Development and Play
Effective Social-Emotional Curriculum and Teaching
Social and Emotional Curriculum Goals
Effective Social Studies Curriculum and Teaching
What Is Social Studies?
Social Studies Content Goals
Effective Strategies for Teaching Social Studies
Chapter 15 Teaching Children to Be Healthy and Fit: Physical Development and Health
The Importance of Physical Fitness and Health
Benefits of Physical Fitness
Childhood Obesity Crisis
Implications for Early Childhood Programs
How Physical Development Occurs
The Continuum of Physical Development
Phases of Motor Development
Gross-Motor Development
Fine-Motor Development
The Role of Play in Physical Development
Childhood Experiences with the Natural Environment
Outdoor Play Environments
The Value of Rough-and-Tumble Play
Health and Safety Standards
The Teacher’s Role in Health and Safety
Effective Curriculum and Teaching to Promote Physical Fitness and Health
Curriculum for Physical Development
Effective Health Curriculum and Teaching
Chapter 16 Putting It All Together in Practice: Making a Difference for Children
Life as an Early Childhood Educator
Caring for and Educating Infants and Young Toddlers
Teaching the Whole Child in the Preschool
Teaching the Whole Child in the Kindergarten
Teaching the Whole Child in the Primary Grades
Beginning Your Journey as an Early Childhood Professional
Become a Professional
Protect Children from Abuse and Neglect
Join a Profession That Makes a Difference
Glossary
References
Author Index
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
X
Y
Z
Subject Index
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
Z
2016-02-05T10:02:15+0000
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