Academic Writing

Research

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University College – Senior Project

Academic Writing

What is academic writing?
Academic writing is a type of written expression used by scholars to convey structured research that answers research questions or solves academic or practical problems. Simply describing a topic does not qualify as academic writing.

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Characteristics of Academic Writing
Formal tone;
Clear concise writing style;
Use of the third person rather than the first (usually);
Thesis driven with a clear focus on the research questions or problems under investigation;
Reason dominates personal experience or perception;
The audience is rational and will form a rational response to the writing.

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Formal Tone
Use language appropriate for your purpose and audience.

Avoid slang, clichés, or informal language.
Instead of: The professor’s lecture was clear as mud.
Use: The professor’s lecture was difficult to understand.
Instead of: Smith’s research is OK.
Use: Smith’s research is significant because…
Do not use contractions or abbreviations.
Instead of : doesn’t, can’t, TV, quote
Use: does not, cannot, television, quotation

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Clear concise writing
Omit unnecessary words.
Combine short sentences.
Do not use phrases or sentences to express a word.
Use active voice.
Use active verbs.
Refer to Writing Concisely PowerPoint in this module for more information on writing concisely.
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Use third person rather than first
This is a convention of academic writing that gives the writer an authoritative voice. Rather than relying on one’s personal experience or opinion, one conveys the knowledge gained by performing the research. The research “speaks for itself.”
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Thesis driven
Academic writing does not just describe a topic. It has to have a point. That point is called the “thesis.” This thesis describes what research questions you are trying to answer or problems you are trying to solve.
For example, if you say you want to write a paper on “childhood obesity,” there is not clear thesis for that topic.
If you say you want to investigate the effects of physical activity at school on the childhood obesity rate, then you have a thesis ( lack of school activity has increased the obesity rate) with questions to answer and a problem to solve.
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Reason dominates personal opinion
Academic writing should convey the results of your research, regardless of how you feel about it. Your readers should be able to tell that from your writing. Your personal opinions and experiences are secondary to what the research tells you and your reader.
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Rational audience
In academic writing, we presume that a rational audience is reading our research for information and will form a rational response to that research.
For the purposes of this course, your primary audience is your instructor. When writing, it sometimes helps to consider a wider audience. Think of your “rational reader” as a college-educated individual who is generally sophisticated, but is not an expert in your field of research.
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Points to remember
Academic writing:
Uses a formal tone with clear concise writing;
Is thesis driven – it has a point;

Reason dominates over personal opinion or perception;
Writes for a rational sophisticated audience.
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Sources used for this presentation
http
://www.library.dmu.ac.uk/Support/Heat/index.php?page=488

h
ttp
://
libguides.usc.edu/content.php?pid=83009&sid=645284

http://
twp.duke.edu/uploads/media_items/academic-style-guide.original

http://
writingspaces.org/essays/what-is-academic-writing
Booth, W., Colomb, G., & Williams, J. (2008). The craft of research (Third ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Strunk, W., & White, E. (2000). Elements of style (Fourth ed.). New York: Longman.
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11

University College – Senior Project

Establishing a Thesis &
Supporting an Argument

What is a thesis?
In an academic paper, you cannot just describe a topic. You have to answer important questions or solve problems. It has to have a point. The main point of an academic paper is called the thesis.
Your thesis should be narrow enough to focus on, but broad enough that you find enough evidence to support it.
So what does that mean? Let’s take a look at a sample.
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2

What is a thesis?
Read the following introductory paragraph to a brief essay:
Mercedes-Benz is a German automobile manufacturer that produces cars ranging in price from $30,000 to $95,000. The cars are numbered in series, the higher numbers representing the bigger, stronger and more luxurious models. Mercedes-Benz cars, sold worldwide, are considered the best because of their styling, engines and construction.
The highlighted phrase above is the author’s thesis. This is the point he will try to prove with the rest of his paper.
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Supporting an argument
In order to prove your thesis, you must present an argument. An academic argument in not a disagreement between opposing sides, but rather the organized presentation of a viewpoint. You must prove your thesis or claim by presenting reasons and evidence.
Let’s look at our sample essay again.

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Supporting an argument
Mercedes-Benz is a German automobile manufacturer that produces cars ranging in price from $30,000 to $95,000. The cars are numbered in series, the higher numbers representing the bigger, stronger and more luxurious models. Mercedes-Benz cars, sold worldwide, are considered the best because of their styling, engines and construction.
The highlighted phrase above states the reasons that the author believes Mercedes makes the best cars.
Next, he has to present evidence that will convince his readers that those reasons are true and we should accept his thesis.

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Supporting an argument
Let’s take a look at how the author presents his evidence that styling is a feature that makes Mercedes the best:
The styling of the Mercedes-Benz is its most distinctive feature, and is more enduring than the styles of other cars. American and Japanese cars, for example, become outdated within a couple of years after their introduction, but Mercedes styling remains consistent and attractive for decades. The interior styling of a Mercedes is particularly impressive. Its richly padded seats and dashboard and its precision instrumentation give drivers a feeling of security and luxury. Mercedes-Benz places driver and passenger comfort high on its list of priorities.
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Supporting an argument
The author writes a paragraph with evidence supporting his reason that Mercedes’ styling makes it the world’s best car.
He goes on to present evidence in two more paragraphs that Mercedes’ construction and engines are also reasons that they are the best cars.
Please note that we have used a short simple example here so that you can easily see the thesis, reasons, and evidence. In your paper for this class, you will need to provide evidence from relevant and reliable sources such as academic journals, books, and approved websites. You will need to write more than one paragraph to support your reasons.
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Organizing an Academic Argument
Try using the Toulmin Method for organizing the academic argument to support your thesis.
Present your main claim or thesis at the end of your introduction. You may also include your reasons for believing your thesis at this time as the author did in our sample essay.
Take each reason and present your evidence for it in a paragraph or section depending on the length of the paper.
Present any opposing viewpoints and rebut them with evidence supporting your view.

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Hierarchy of a Research Argument
This is a visual representation of a thesis supported by reasons and evidence.
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Main Claim

Reason 1

Evidence 1

Evidence 2

Reason 2

Evidence 1

Reason 3

Evidence 3

Evidence 2

Evidence 3

Evidence 1

Evidence 2

Evidence 3

Points to remember
An academic paper must have a point, called a thesis.
You must present your readers with reasons that they should believe your thesis.
These reasons should be backed up by evidence from relevant reliable sources.
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Sources used for this presentation
https://
www.bellevuecollege.edu/asc/writing/essays-guides/documents/analyticalessay

http://
writingspaces.org/essays/what-is-academic-writing

https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/588/03
/

Booth, W., Colomb, G., & Williams, J. (2008). The craft of
research (Third ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
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University College – Senior Project

Writing Concisely

Quote from Elements of Style
Vigorous writing is concise. A sentence should contain no unnecessary words, a paragraph no unnecessary sentences for the same reason that a drawing should have no unnecessary line and a machine no unnecessary parts. This requires not that the writer make all his sentences short, or that he avoid detail and treat his subjects only in outline, but that every word tell.

Writing Concisely
When you write concisely you use the strongest, not just the fewest words, to convey your ideas to your readers. There are a few rules you can follow to accomplish the goal of writing concisely.

Replace vague words with specific words
Instead of:
Working as a student under someone who builds houses was an experience that really helped me learn a lot.
Use:
Working as a carpenter’s apprentice was an educational experience.

Each word should be necessary to the sentence
Omit unnecessary words.

Omit unnecessary modifiers and determiners
The following words and phrases are frequently used as filler and can usually be eliminated:
Particular
Kind of
Basically
For all intents and purposes
Definitely
Actually
Really
Generally
Individually
Specific

Omit Redundant Pairs
Past memories
Various differences
Each individual ___________
Basic fundamentals
True facts
Important essentials
Future plans
Terrible tragedy
End result
Final outcome
Free gift
Past history

Omit Redundant Categories
Large in size
Often times
Of a bright color
Heavy in weight
Period in time
Round in shape
Of cheap quality
Honest in character
In a confused state
Unusual in nature
Extreme in degree
Of a strange type

Combine short sentences
Instead of:
I bought a new car. It is red.
Use:
I bought a new red car.

Use active voice rather than passive
Make the actor of the sentence the subject of that sentence.
For example, this sentence uses passive voice:
The ball was thrown by John.
John is the actor, but he is NOT the subject.

This sentence is written in active voice
John threw the ball.
John is the actor so he is the subject of the sentence.
Place the subject of the sentence near the front of the sentence to aid reader comprehension.

Use active forms of verbs
Use active forms of verbs as the main verbs in your sentences instead of the “be” verb or infinitives (to+verb).
This sentence uses the infinitive form of verbs:
It is the job of the president to sign or to veto bills.

This sentence uses active forms of verbs
The president signs or vetoes bills.
It uses fewer, stronger words.

Summary
To write concisely:
Eliminate unnecessary words.
Combine short sentences.
Do not use phrases or sentences to express one word.
Use the active voice.
Use active verbs.

Student:

Semester:

Instructor:

Grade:

5

Some minor errors

5

5

Graded Item

Max.

Pts.

“A” Paper

“B” Paper

“C” Paper

“D” Paper

“F” Paper

Mechanics

5

Few/No mechanical errors

Some minor errors

Many mechanical errors, some major

Many major mechanical errors

Major mechanical errors pervasive throughout.

Grammar

Few/No grammar errors

Many grammatical errors, some major

Many major grammatical errors

Major grammatical errors pervasive throughout.

Organization

Unity of whole, well-developed paragraphs with topic sentences, good transitions, well-written introduction, conclusion, & abstract, good use of headings.

Some paragraphs may lack the development and transitions present in an “A” paper. Introduction, conclusion, & abstract are present.

Many weak paragraphs with some unrelated to paper. Introduction, conclusion, & abstract may not be present. Ineffective use of headings to divide paper.

Paper is very disorganized with few or no transitions, paragraphs lack adequate development, no headings, reader has difficulty understanding paper due to lack of organization.

Even greater weaknesses than a “D” essay. Severe disorganization, no introduction, conclusion, or abstract, no use of headings.

Readability

10

Writer communicates effectively in writing to an identified audience using standard English structures. The reader has no difficulty understanding the content. Paper appears professional in its presentation.

Writer communicates effectively in writing to an identified audience using standard English structures. Reader understands content, though a few awkward structures may be present. Paper appears professional in its presentation.

Writer may have trouble identifying his audience and some slang or non-standard structures may be present. The reader may have difficulty understanding some passages because the writer has no clear purpose and does not understand what questions s/he is trying to answer with this paper. Presentation skills are developing.

The reader has difficulty understanding what the content because the writer has not done adequate research and is unclear about the readings. Many slang terms and non-standard structures present. Paper lacks professional presentation.

Greater weaknesses than a “D” essay. Reader has great difficulty understanding content, even after multiple readings. Many slang terms and non-standard structures are present. Paper lacks professional presentation.

Content of Argument

20

Argument is complete and conclusions logically flow from readings; critical thinking skills are well-developed. Writer shows an excellent ability to analyze, synthesize, and evaluate research materials.

Argument is clear and well-grounded in the research because critical thinking skills are adequate. Writer demonstrates a good ability to analyze, synthesize, and evaluate research materials.

Weak, fuzzy or trivial points with weak substantiation because critical thinking skills are still developing. Serious misinterpretation of readings. examples given for their own sakes or to demonstrate only that the writer has read rather than to prove a particular point. The writer has great difficulty analyzing, synthesizing, or evaluating research materials.

Serious misinterpretation of readings; stretches of logic; narrative account of the readings with no apparent purpose. Writer hasn’t analyzed, synthesized, or evaluated the research materials. Paper may be shorter than required length.

The argument is incomplete and does not flow logically from the readings. Writer has probably not read or conducted sufficient research, and it shows in the paper.

Substantiation

Writer makes effective use of a variety sources, cites them properly, uses APA formatting both (in-text and on references page). Cites at least 10 sources; all are relevant and reliable; 5 are from academic/scholarly sources.

Writer makes good use of a variety sources and cites them using APA formatting both in-text and on the bibliography page. There are at least 10 sources. All sources are relevant and reliable; 5 are from scholarly/academic sources. Some minor errors of form in citation.

Sources may lack variety and there may be problems with some citations. May not meet minimum requirements for sources and some may not be relevant or reliable. May not have 5 scholarly/academic sources.

Serious problems with sources and citations. Sources are lacking in both quality and quantity.

Paper is plagiarized in whole or part.

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