complete multiple choice 120 questions

120 questions•
Question 1
0.25 out of 0.25 points
A measure of central tendency provides
Answers: a.
A single value that tells you how variable scores are
b.
A frequency distribution of values
c.
A single value that tells you about the range of scores
d.
A single value considered most typical of the values of a variable
•
Question 2
0.25 out of 0.25 points
Among the following, which could be considered a strength of quantitative research?
Answers: a.
It is a strong method for testing hypotheses that are constructed
before the data are collected
b.
It is the only method that can determine ideographic causation
c.
It is the best method for describing in rich detail phenomena
d.
Findings might be too abstract and general for application to unique
situations
•
Question 3
0.25 out of 0.25 points
Which of the following is true about the design: QUAL + QUAN?
Answers: a.
It is an equal-status concurrent mixed methods design
b.
It is an equal-status sequential mixed methods design
c.
It is a primary status concurrent mixed methods design
d.
It is a primary status sequential mixed methods design
•
Question 4
0.25 out of 0.25 points
According to ______, research components should be mixed in a way the
researcher believes will work when taking the research problem, research
question, and research circumstance into consideration.
Answers: a.
pragmatist philosophy
b.
constructivist philosophy
c.
positivist philosophy
d.
structuralist philosophy
•
Question 5
0.25 out of 0.25 points
A contingency table with frequencies and column percentages that looks at
the relationship between handedness and college majors is presented below.
Is there a likely relationship between handedness and major?
Answers: a.
Yes
b.
No
•
Question 6
0.25 out of 0.25 points
Due to the fact that conducting mixed research studies requires expertise in
both qualitative and quantitative strategies, some pragmatist researchers
suggest that multiple researchers be involved in these projects.
Answers: a.
True
b.
False
•
Question 7
0.25 out of 0.25 points
Approximately what percentage of scores fall within one standard deviation
of the mean in a normal distribution?
Answers: a.
34%
b.
95%
c.
99%
d.
68%
•
Question 8
0.25 out of 0.25 points
Among the following choices, which one best allows people to visualize the relationship between
two quantitative variables?
Answers: a.
A contingency table
b.
A bar graph
c.
A scatter plot
d.
A frequency distribution
•
Question 9
0.25 out of 0.25 points
What is the purpose of descriptive statistics?
Answers: a.
Make inferences about a population from a sample
b.
Test hypotheses
c.
Make interval estimates
d.
Summarize and explain a set of data
•
Question 10
0.25 out of 0.25 points
Among the following, which could be considered a limitation of mixed research designs?
Answers: a.
Mixed research designs usually require more time and resources.
b.
Expertise in quantitative and qualitative research is required.
c.
Sometimes the qualitative and quantitative data present contradictory
findings.
d.
all of the above.
•
Question 11
0.25 out of 0.25 points
Four sets of intervals for grouped frequency distributions are presented
below. The data on which they are based has scores ranging from 0 to 49. Only one set of intervals belowmeets
the necessary criteria for groupings. Select the one that meets the criteria:
Answers: a.
40-49
30-39
20-29
10-19
0-9
b.
40-49
30-39
20-29
10-19
1-9
c.
40-49
30-40
20-30
10-20
0-9
d.
30-40
20-30
10-20
0-10
•
Question 12
0.25 out of 0.25 points
Measures of variability indicate
Answers: a.
Where the modal score lies
b.
The median score value
c.
The degree of skewness in the distribution
d.
How spread out scores are in a distribution
•
Question 13
0.25 out of 0.25 points
On an IQ test with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15, what is
the z score for someone with an IQ of 130?
Answers: a.
+1.30
b.
+2.00
c.
+1.00
d.
+13
•
Question 14
0.25 out of 0.25 points
An advantage of the mean as a measure of central tendency is?
Answers: a.
It is not influenced by extreme scores
b.
It is representative even when there is extreme skewness
c.
It is the most precise measure of central tendency
d.
It can be used with nominal variables
•
Question 15
0.25 out of 0.25 points
The difference between the regression coefficient in a simple regression and
the regression coefficients in a multiple regression is what?
Answers: a.
The simple regression coefficient is always less than one.
b.
The multiple regression coefficients do not control for other
independent variables.
c.
The simple regression coefficient does not control for other
independent variables.
d.
There are no differences between simple and multiple regression.
•
Question 16
0.25 out of 0.25 points
A z score of 0.00 means that:
Answers: a.
A person had zero points on a test
b.
A person scored at the mean
c.
A person scored below the mean
d.
A person scored in the bottom percentile
•
Question 17
0.25 out of 0.25 points
Dr. Whim designed a mixed methods research study with the purpose of seeking convergence, corroboration, and
correspondence of the results from each research strand. What is the formal name of this strategy?
Answers: a.
Expansion
b.
Development
c.
Initiation
d.
Triangulation
•
Question 18
0 out of 0.25 points
Mark achieved a percentile rank of 70 on a standardized math test. What does that mean?
Answers: a.
He did poorly, since he only correctly answered 70% of the questions.
b.
He did well in that he scored higher than 70% of the people that took
the test.
c.
He did well, in that he answered 70% of the items correctly.
d.
He did poorly since he only answered 70% of the items that an average
individual would answer correctly.
•
Question 19
0.25 out of 0.25 points
A graph that plots out the relationship between two quantitative variables
is called:
Answers: a.
Line graph
b.
Scatter plot
c.
Bar graph
d.
Frequency distribution
•
Question 20
0.25 out of 0.25 points
When is the median is the best measure of central tendency?
Answers: a.
The data are in a symmetrical distribution
b.
When there are a large number of cases
c.
There is a great deal of variability in the scores
d.
The data are highly skewed
•
Question 1
2 out of 2 points
The variable that is thought to be influenced by one or more independent
variables is called a(n)
Answers: a.
Categorical variable
b.
Dependent variable
c.
Independent variable
d.
Intervening variable
•
Question 2
2 out of 2 points
Which position views that knowledge comes from experience?
Answers: a.
Rationalism
b.
Empiricism
c.
Innatism
d.
Nativism
•
Question 3
2 out of 2 points
The main focus of basic research is:
Answers: a.
Current educational interventions
b.
Immediate solutions
c.
Practical questions
d.
Fundamental knowledge
•
Question 4
2 out of 2 points
Which of the following variables is measured on a ratio scale?
Answers: a.
IQ
b.
Class Rank
c.
Gender
d.
Time to finish an assignment measured in seconds
•
Question 5
2 out of 2 points
Which item below is not included in a good research proposal:
Answers: a.
Introduction to the research topic
b.
Specification of the research participants
c.
Specification of the procedure by which the data are to be collected
d.
Discussion of the results of the research study
e.
Proposed analysis of the data obtained from the research participants
•
Question 6
2 out of 2 points
What type of research is centered on solving specific problems that local
educators face in their schools and communities?
Answers: a.
Evaluation research
b.
Basic research
c.
Action research
d.
Orientational research
•
Question 7
2 out of 2 points
If you assessed the ethics of a research study by comparing the costs of the
research relative to the benefits, you would have used which ethical
approach?
Answers: a.
Utilitarianism
b.
Deontology
c.
Ethical skepticism
d.
Comparativeism
•
Question 8
2 out of 2 points
The rule of parsimony suggests that researchers ought to:
Answers: a.
Use the most complex theory
b.
Use an inductive method
c.
Use experimental designs
d.
Prefer the simplest theory that works
•
Question 9
2 out of 2 points
A “who does what, when chart” is the outcome of which phase of the action research cycle?
Answers: a.
Reflect
b.
Plan
c.
Act
d.
Observe
•
Question 10
2 out of 2 points
To specify the appropriate way of analyzing data from a quantitative study,
you must have some knowledge of ___________.
Answers: a.
statistics
b.
research design
c.
coding
d.
the characteristics of the research participants
•
Question 11
2 out of 2 points
What type of research is the inductive or exploratory scientific method most
associated with?
Answers: a.
quantitative
b.
qualitative
c.
correlational
d.
mixed
•
Question 12
2 out of 2 points
A test has a coefficient alpha of .75. This is evidence of:
Answers: a.
Criterion-related validity evidence
b.
Content-related validity evidence
c.
Internal consistency reliability
d.
Test-retest reliability
e.
Alternate forms reliability
•
Question 13
2 out of 2 points
In a ___________ study there is a specific way of analyzing the data whereas
in a _______________ study there is no single “correct” way of analyzing the
data.
Answers: a.
quantitative; qualitative
b.
qualitative, ethnographic
c.
qualitative; quantitative
d.
phenomenological; qualitative
•
Question 14
2 out of 2 points
The optimal number of participants who should participate in a focus group is 20.
Answers: a.
True
b.
False
•
Question 15
2 out of 2 points
A way to gather ideas for an action research project is to have a colleague observe you teach and suggest ways
you could improve your teaching. This is an example of using a(n)
Answers: a.
action plan.
b.
who does what, when chart.
c.
critical friend.
d.
action research journal.
•
Question 16
2 out of 2 points
When a researcher looks for a specific number of people with a unique characteristic to serve in her sample, and
she recruits such individuals until she has the number she wants,this is known as:
Answers: a.
Quota sampling
b.
Cluster sampling
c.
Stratified random sampling
d.
Snowball sampling
•
Question 17
0 out of 2 points
The goals of action research include
Answers: a.
producing knowledge for knowledge’s sake
b.
the importance of generalizability
c.
an emphasis on the particular
d.
all of the above
•
Question 18
2 out of 2 points
Referring to the principle of evidence, empirical research suggests degrees
of evidence but it does not provide proof.
Answers: a.
True
b.
False
•
Question 19
2 out of 2 points
An educational researcher is studying underachievement of gifted students in a qualitative study. She
samples two children who are overachieving and two children who areunderachieving. What sampling technique
did she use?
Answers: a.
Maximum-variation sampling
b.
Extreme-case sampling
c.
Homogeneous sample selection
d.
Typical-case sampling
•
Question 20
2 out of 2 points
When you draft a research proposal, the purpose of the ________________ section is to convince the reader of the
importance of your study.
Answers: a.
abstract
b.
introduction
c.
method
d.
procedure
•
Question 21
2 out of 2 points
What form of research is critical action research a type of?
Answers: a.
evaluation research.
b.
basic research.
c.
orientational research.
d.
none of the above.
•
Question 22
2 out of 2 points
Dr. Rice stated that the purpose of his study was to explore the ways by which students learned to interact with
people from other cultures. This purpose statement would most likely come from a:
Answers: a.
Qualitative study
b.
Quantitative study investigating a causal connection
c.
Quantitative study investigating a predictive relationship
d.
Heuristic study
•
Question 23
2 out of 2 points
To make a set of categories exhaustive, one must:
Answers: a.
Not use ranges of responses
b.
Not use closed-ended items
c.
Not use mutually exclusive categories
d.
Include responses that will account for all possible responses
•
Question 24
2 out of 2 points
Concurrent validity evidence refers to:
Answers: a.
The relationship between test scores and criterion scores obtained at
the same time.
b.
Whether scores on a test correlated with scores on the same test
given a week later.
c.
Whether a test predicts scores on some criterion measure (e.g.,
success in training).
d.
Whether a test has an adequate coefficient alpha.
•
Question 25
2 out of 2 points
What problem is evident in this question: “Should teachers be given raises and shorter
work days?”
Answers: a.
It’s a leading question
b.
It’s an open-ended question
c.
It’s a double barreled question
d.
It’s too short
•
Question 26
2 out of 2 points
Political party affiliation is an example of which type of measurement?
Answers: a.
Ratio
b.
Ordinal
c.
Nominal
d.
Interval
•
Question 27
2 out of 2 points
The participants section of a research proposal should give general information about the subjects, such as age
range and where they are located, but should never indicate if they are volunteers or are compensated in some
way.
Answers: a.
True
b.
False
•
Question 28
2 out of 2 points
Which of the following research methods produces the strongest evidence for causality?
Answers: a.
Experimental
b.
Causal-comparative
c.
Correlational
d.
Ethnography
•
Question 29
2 out of 2 points
A good quantitative problem statement:
Answers: a.
Is very general about what relationships are predicted.
b.
Conveys a sense of emerging design.
c.
Defines a global question only.
d.
Specifies the relationship that the researcher expects to find.
•
Question 30
2 out of 2 points
What is it called when participants respond in a particular way regardless
of content?
Answers: a.
A Likert scale
b.
A double-barreled question
c.
A semantic differential
d.
A response set
•
Question 31
0 out of 2 points
An educational researcher is interested in the effects of problem solving skills on students’ abilities to
solve mathematics problems. She randomly assigns students to either learn the strategies, or to remain in a control
group. She then compares their performance on a complex problem-solving task. The student performance scores
on the complex problem task are the:
Answers: a.
Independent variable
b.
Dependent variable
c.
Moderating variable
d.
Mediating variable
•
Question 32
2 out of 2 points
The main reason for conducting a literature review for a quantitative study
is to:
Answers: a.
Determine which statistical test to use
b.
Find the proper phrasing of the research hypothesis
c.
Gain an understanding of the current state of knowledge in the area
d.
Determine who the research participants should be
•
Question 33
2 out of 2 points
Which is most likely to decrease participation in research studies?
Answers: a.
Active Consent
b.
Passive Consent
c.
Waving Consent
d.
None of the above
•
Question 34
2 out of 2 points
Which of the following need(s) to be obtained when doing research with
children?
Answers: a.
Informed consent from the parent or guardian
b.
Assent from the child if he or she is capable
c.
Informed consent from the child
d.
Both a. and b.
•
Question 35
2 out of 2 points
In interviews, the purpose of using a probe is to
Answers: a.
to improve understanding and the depth or responses.
b.
establish rapport with the interviewee.
c.
make the interview last longer.
d.
all of the above
•
Question 36
2 out of 2 points
Typically, as sample size increases, sampling error does what?
Answers: a.
Increases
b.
Decreases
c.
Stays the same
d.
Both increases and decreases
•
Question 37
2 out of 2 points
Every fifteen minutes a camera comes on in a classroom and records for three minutes in order
to take a sampling of what is occuring in this class. This is called time-interval sampling.
Answers: a.
True
b.
False
•
Question 38
2 out of 2 points
A scientific hypothesis must be able to be supported or refuted by empirical evidence.
Answers: a.
True
b.
False
•
Question 39
2 out of 2 points
A meta-analysis is:
Answers: a.
A quantitative review of the literature
b.
A qualitative study
c.
Part of the research plan
d.
A narrative review of the literature
•
Question 40
0 out of 2 points
An introductory employment test correlates .90 with work performance after one service year. This is a type of:
Answers: a.
Criterion-related validity evidence
b.
Content-related validity evidence
c.
Internal consistency reliability
d.
Convergent/discriminant validity
e.
Alternate forms reliability
•
Question 41
2 out of 2 points
Generally, a study is ethical to perform if:
Answers: a.
The benefits outweigh the costs associated with the study.
b.
The costs outweigh the benefits associated with the study.
c.
There is at least one benefit from the study.
d.
The study will advance knowledge regardless of the costs.
•
Question 42
2 out of 2 points
A researcher is interested in surveying doctors from a local hospital to examine their continuing education needs.
She decides that she will obtain a sample that contains physicians from a variety of specialties. She separates the
list of the population up by specialty, and then randomly selects the number of physicians within each specialty in
proportion to their percenta ge in the population. What is this type of sampling?
Answers: a.
Simple random
b.
Systematic
c.
Stratified random
d.
One stage cluster
•
Question 43
2 out of 2 points
What type of interviews ask questions in the natural course of conversation and in no
predetermined order?
Answers: a.
Standardized open-ended interviews
b.
Closed quantitative interview
c.
The interview guide approach
d.
The informal conversational interview
•
Question 44
2 out of 2 points
The following scatterplot
indicates
Answers: a.
No relationship
b.
A positive relationship
c.
A negative relationship
d.
A nonlinear relationship
•
Question 45
2 out of 2 points
Dehoaxing refers to:
Answers: a.
Helping to squelch rumors about research.
b.
Helping participants get over any stress from being deceived.
c.
Telling participants about any deception and the reasons for its use
in the study.
d.
A form of deception.
•
Question 46
2 out of 2 points
An item that directs respondents to different follow-up questions depending
on their responses is known as a:
Answers: a.
Contingency question
b.
Leading question
c.
Loaded question
d.
Response Dependent question
•
Question 47
0 out of 2 points
Which of the following is not true about stratified random sampling?
Answers: a.
It involves a random selection process from identified subgroups
b.
Proportions of groups in the sample must always match their
population proportions
c.
Disproportional stratified random sampling is especially helpful for
getting large enough subgroup samples when subgroup comparisons are
to be done
d.
Proportional stratified random sampling yields a representative
sample
•
Question 48
0 out of 2 points
When a researcher serves as a participant-as-observer, he or she:
Answers: a.
Participates without revealing his or her identity to other participants in the setting
b.
Does not participate, but only observes the activities of the other participants
c.
Tells the other participants that he or she is a researcher and only observes
d.
Participates in the setting, and tells others he or she is a researcher
•
Question 49
0 out of 2 points
Which type of learning looks at and questions assumptions, values, realities, reasons for actions, and
how a problem relates to the larger system?
Answers: a.
Single-loop learning
b.
Insight learning
c.
Double-loop learning
d.
Theory in use learning
•
Question 50
2 out of 2 points
The question, “Please describe how you feel about the new test-preparation
system” would most likely appear on a:
Answers: a.
Quantitative Questionnaire
b.
Qualitative Questionnaire
c.
Demographic Questionnaire
d.
none of the above
•
Question 1
2 out of 2 points
Among qualitative research techniques, narrative inquiry is one of the oldest forms.
Answers: a.
True
b.
False
•
Question 2
2 out of 2 points
Which of the following steps ought to occur first in hypothesis testing?
Answers: a.
Obtain the probability value
b.
Determine practical significance
c.
Set the significance level
d.
Compare the probability value with the significance level
•
Question 3
2 out of 2 points
Two physics teachers at two different schools are friends. A new physics program is
introduced to them at a state conference. The two teachers decide to test the new program by having one teacher
use it, and one use the traditional program. An AP physics test is given to each class and the teachers decide to use
the results to compare the programs of instruction. Which type of research design is this?
Answers: a.
One-group posttest-only design
b.
One-group pretest-posttest design
c.
Posttest-only design with nonequivalent groups
d.
Nonequivalent posttest-only design
•
Question 4
2 out of 2 points
Quasi-experiments differ from strong experiments because of:
Answers: a.
The lack of a control group
b.
The lack of a pretest
c.
The lack of random assignment
d.
The lack of a posttest
•
Question 5
0 out of 2 points
What can be said about this design: QUALQUAN?
Answers: a.
It is an equal-status concurrent mixed methods design
b.
It is an equal-status sequential mixed methods design
c.
It is a primary status concurrent mixed methods design
d.
It is a primary status sequential mixed methods design
•
Question 6
2 out of 2 points
Which characteristic below best illustrates an experiement?
Answers: a.
Use of several dependent variables
b.
Focus on prediction of criterion variables
c.
Studying a phenomenon as it naturally occurs
d.
Studying a phenomenon under strictly controlled conditions
•
Question 7
2 out of 2 points
Which of the items below is typical of qualitative research?
Answers: a.
Use of inferential statistics
b.
Random sampling
c.
Random assignment to groups
d.
Emergent design flexibility
•
Question 8
2 out of 2 points
The consistency across different data coders is called:
Answers: a.
The master list
b.
Intracoder reliability
c.
Intercoder reliability
d.
Co-occurring codes
•
Question 9
2 out of 2 points
Which of the items below suggests an advantage of using the mean as a
measure of central tendency?
Answers: a.
It is not influenced by extreme scores
b.
It is representative even when there is extreme skewness
c.
It is very stable from sample to sample
d.
It can be used with nominal variables
•
Question 10
2 out of 2 points
Researcher Puck is conducting a study on the effects of a preschool program on future school
achievement. She selects children ONLY from low socio-economic-status (SES) homes because she feels that
SES is a potential extraneous variable. The control technique used was:
Answers: a.
Matching
b.
Random assignment
c.
Holding the extraneous variable constant
d.
Statistically controlling the extraneous variable
•
Question 11
2 out of 2 points
Which of the following is used to symbolize the population mean?
Answers: a.
r
b.
m
c.
SD
d.
s
•
Question 12
2 out of 2 points
If you increase the sample size in a research study, the power will
________.
Answers: a.
decrease
b.
not impact
c.
increase
d.
be unrelated to
•
Question 13
2 out of 2 points
The main focus of the written report in a grounded theory study is:
Answers: a.
On a rich description of context and culture.
b.
On a rich description of the essential structures of experience.
c.
On the presentation of the inductively generated theory.
d.
On a rich description of the context and operation of the case or
cases studied.
•
Question 14
2 out of 2 points
Dr. Baynes conducted a mixed methods research study with the goals of seeking
convergence, corroboration, and correspondence of the results from the
different methods employed. What is the formal name for this purpose?
Answers: a.
Expansion
b.
Development
c.
Complementarity
d.
Triangulation
•
Question 15
2 out of 2 points
Professor Klash conducts an investigation examining the effect teaching
styles have on student achievement. Because she is concerned that the gender
of teachers might be a confounding factor, she recruits only female
instructors. The control technique used was:
Answers: a.
Holding the extraneous variable constant
b.
Statistical control
c.
Matching
d.
Random assignment
•
Question 16
2 out of 2 points
In order to rule out rival hypothesis in an A-B-A research design, what important assumption must exist?
Answers: a.
That single participants will cooperate with long-term observations
b.
That the participant actually believes that the treatment has an
effect
c.
That the observation of the behavior is fun
d.
That the effects of the treatment are reversible upon withdrawal
•
Question 17
2 out of 2 points
What methods of data collection are generally used in grounded theory
studies?
Answers: a.
Standardized tests
b.
Interviews
c.
Observations
d.
B and C
•
Question 18
2 out of 2 points
A threat to interrupted time-series designs is history, but this is not a threat to nonequivalent comparison-group
designs.
Answers: a.
True
b.
False
•
Question 19
2 out of 2 points
Among the control techniques below, which has the strongest power to insure that extraneous variables do not
cause differential effects on the various groups participating in the experiment?
Answers: a.
Random assignment
b.
Matching
c.
Counterbalancing
d.
Precision matching
•
Question 20
2 out of 2 points
How would a confidence interval change if the sample size were
increased? (Assuming all other things are equal.)
Answers: a.
It will become narrower
b.
It will not change
c.
It will become wider
d.
The sample size has no effect of the width of a confidence interval
•
Question 21
2 out of 2 points
What is defined as the probability of the observed result of your study or a
more extreme result, if the null hypothesis were true?
Answers: a.
Alternative hypothesis
b.
Null hypothesis
c.
Probability value
d.
Significance level
•
Question 22
2 out of 2 points
When a grounded theorist has collected all the possible information and data related to her grounded theory from a
particular context, what has been reached?
Answers: a.
Ethnocentrism
b.
Axial coding
c.
Constant comparative analysis
d.
Theoretical saturation
•
Question 23
2 out of 2 points
Let’s assume that children’s achievement in school is related to the income level of the children’s parents. Which
of the following statements suggests that this is a spurious relationship?
Answers: a.
There is no relationship once you statistically control for parent
education.
b.
There is a relationship even after statistically controlling parent
education.
c.
There is a relationship, even when parent education is held constant.
d.
There is a smaller relationship once parent education is taken into
account.
•
Question 24
2 out of 2 points
Which of the items below about nonexperimental research is true?
Answers: a.
Nonexperimental research lacks manipulation of the independent
variable.
b.
Nonexperimental research is often based on what naturally occurs or
has already occurred.
c.
The researcher studies how variables are related in nonexperimental
research.
d.
All of the above are true.
•
Question 25
2 out of 2 points
What is it called if an extraneous variable systematically varies with the
independent variable and influences the dependent variable?
Answers: a.
Another dependent variable
b.
A confounding variable
c.
A moderating variable
d.
An unreliable variable
•
Question 26
2 out of 2 points
A quasi-experimental design is appropriate to utilize if a researcher needs
to run a research study using intact classrooms rather than randomly
assigning participants to the groups.
Answers: a.
True
b.
False
•
Question 27
2 out of 2 points
The main focus of research studies that test hypothesis and theories
about how and why events unfold is:
Answers: a.
Descriptive
b.
Predictive
c.
Explanatory
d.
Exploratory
•
Question 28
2 out of 2 points
In educational research, a non-equivalent comparison-group design is a
quasi-experiment in which we cannot assure that the control and treatment
groups are equivalent to each other at the start of the study.
An interpretational difficulty created by this design is:
Answers: a.
Measuring whether the two groups are different from each other on the
posttest
b.
Deciding how much each group has gained
c.
Determining when enough data points are collected
d.
Being sure that any differences between groups at the end of the
experiment are due to the independent variable’s influence and not
due to preexisting group differences
•
Question 29
2 out of 2 points
In which of the examples below is the independent variable manipulated by the technique known as
“presence versus absence”?
Answers: a.
In one experimental condition teachers receive in-service training.
In the other condition, the teachers receive no training.
b.
In one experimental condition teachers receive in-service training.
In the other experimental condition the teachers receive a written
training document for study.
c.
In one experimental condition, the teachers receive one day of inservice training. In the second condition, the teachers receive two
days of training. In the third condition, the teachers receive three
days of training.
d.
None of these examples use the presence versus absence technique.
•
Question 30
2 out of 2 points
Which philosophy below states that we should use what works well in practice?
Answers: a.
constructivism
b.
relativism
c.
pragmatism
d.
realism
•
Question 31
2 out of 2 points
Which of the items below is a weakness of quantitative research?
Answers: a.
It is difficult to test hypotheses and theories with large
participant pools
b.
Data analysis is extremely time consuming
c.
It generally has lower credibility with commissioners of programs
d.
The researcher might miss out on some phenomena because of the focus
on theory or hypothesis testing rather than on theory or hypothesis
generation
•
Question 32
2 out of 2 points
Of the following set of scores, what is the median: 18, 6, 12, 10, 14?
Answers: a.
10
b.
14
c.
18
d.
12
•
Question 33
2 out of 2 points
Which of the items below is a strength of quantitative research?
Answers: a.
It is useful when studying large numbers of people
b.
Data are based on the participants’ own categories of meaning
c.
Can describe in rich detail phenomena as they are situated and
embedded in local contexts
d.
The researchers’ theories will always reflect local constituencies’
understandings
•
Question 34
0 out of 2 points
When designing narrative inquiry studies:
Answers: a.
there are specific procedures to follow.
b.
research questions guide the procedures that are used.
c.
there is no need to get IRB approval.
d.
researchers follow where participants’ stories take them.
•
Question 35
2 out of 2 points
Researcher Carson is studying peer groups in junior high students. She
interviews 10 girls and 10 boys. Her study is a grounded theory study. She
begins by creating codes as she looks through her transcriptions. These
codes are known as:
Answers: a.
A priori codes
b.
Post hoc codes
c.
Inductive codes
d.
Master list codes
•
Question 36
2 out of 2 points
An IQ score of 100 is equivalent to a z score of ____.
Answers: a.
15
b.
1
c.
0
d.
-1
•
Question 37
2 out of 2 points
Which fictional research study below is an example of “type technique” of
variation of the independent variable?
Answers: a.
All participants’ reaction times are measured after ingesting two
beers.
b.
In a study of distraction on reading comprehension, one group is
distracted by noise, another by a flashing light, and a third by a
bad odor.
c.
The control group gets no drug, one experimental group gets 5 mg/kg
of a drug and a second experimental group gets 10 mg/kg of the drug.
d.
An experimental group receives 5 mg/kg of a drug and the control
group receives no drug.
•
Question 38
2 out of 2 points
California initiated legislation that required motorists to use seatbelts. That
same year, the federal government decreased speed limits from 75 MPH to
60 MPH nationwide. Highway deaths decreased during the first year of the
seatbelt law, and lawmakers attributed this decrease to a use of seatbelts.
What kind of threat to internal validity was represented by the change in
speed limits?
Answers: a.
Maturation effect
b.
Instrumentation effect
c.
Testing effect
d.
History effect
•
Question 39
2 out of 2 points
Which reason below is the most likely reason why a researcher would select a
quasi-experimental research design?
Answers: a.
The participants are maturing too fast
b.
The dependent variable cannot be measured reliably
c.
It is unethical to manipulate the independent variable
d.
Participants cannot be randomly assigned to groups
•
Question 40
2 out of 2 points
Among the qualitative research approaches below, which focuses on the theory
or explanation that emerges through data collection and analysis?
Answers: a.
Phenomenology
b.
Ethnography
c.
Case study
d.
Grounded theory
•
Question 41
2 out of 2 points
If a researcher cannot provide evidence that the independent variable preceded the effect in the dependent
variable, then we have a threat to internal validity known as:
Answers: a.
Ambiguous temporal precedence
b.
Proper time order
c.
Improper causal precedence
d.
Linear temporal precedence
•
Question 42
2 out of 2 points
If a very affluent, wealthy family earning 6 billion dollars a year moved into your neighborhood, which of the
following measures of central tendency for the income in your neighborhood would become substantially larger?
Answers: a.
Mean
b.
Median
c.
Mode
d.
None of the above
•
Question 43
2 out of 2 points
Which of the following should be avoided if you reject the null hypothesis?
Answers: a.
Tentatively accepting the alternative hypothesis
b.
Claiming that your finding is statistically significant
c.
Claiming that you have proven the alternative hypothesis to be true
d.
Making sure that your result also is practically significant
•
Question 44
0 out of 2 points
The amount of police officers in a city and the number of crimes committed are positively related. This
relationship is:
Answers: a.
A causal relationship
b.
A direct relationship
c.
A probabilistic causal relation
d.
A spurious relationship
•
Question 45
2 out of 2 points
In a normal distribution, 95% of the scores fall between z scores of:
Answers: a.
-1 thru +1
b.
-2 thru +2
c.
-3 thru +3
d.
0 thru + 3
•
Question 46
2 out of 2 points
A human resource team is evaluating professors. In the department, Professor
See has the highest ratings from students. A committee member suggests that
a salary increase should be given to Professor See, and that this raise
should be the highest in the department. Another committee member
disagrees. She states, “Professor See receives high scores in comparison to
other professors, because over 50% of the students drop out of Professor
See’s courses, and only successful students remain enrolled.” What threat to
the validity of the conclusion that Professor See is an excellent professor
persists?
Answers: a.
Maturation effect
b.
History effect
c.
Testing effect
d.
Differential attrition effect
•
Question 47
2 out of 2 points
This threat to validity occurs if the way a variable is measured changes during the course of a study:
Answers: a.
Testing effect
b.
Instrumentation effect
c.
Maturation effect
d.
Multiple-treatment interference
•
Question 48
0 out of 2 points
Dr. Bright is studying schooling in a European culture. He gathers descriptions of instructors from students and
uses their words and terms to describe the insight students have about education in the culture. In using their
words, he is using _____ terms to describe education in the European culture that he is studying.
Answers: a.
Etic
b.
Emic
c.
Naïve
d.
Non technical
•
Question 49
2 out of 2 points
Qualitative data that has been transformed into typed text is:
Answers: a.
Triangulation
b.
Transcription
c.
Speed typing
d.
Memoing
•
Question 50
2 out of 2 points
When using a changing-criterion design, it is best to add changes in the criterion:
Answers: a.
As soon as the prior criterion is met.
b.
When the previous criterion is met and the behavior has stabilized.
c.
Regardless of the previous criteria.
d.
After a fixed number of trials.
Copyright © 2014 by SAGE Publications, Inc.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic
or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without
permission in writing from the publisher.
Printed in the United States of America
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Johnson, R. Burke.
Educational research: Quantitative, qualitative, and mixed approaches /R. Burke Johnson, Larry Christensen. —
Fifth edition.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4522-4440-2 (hardcover: alk. paper) 1. Education—Research. I. Title.
LB1028.J59 2014
370.72—dc23
2013030678
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
13 14 15 16 17 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
FOR INFORMATION:
SAGE Publications, Inc.
2455 Teller Road
Thousand Oaks, California 91320
E-mail: order@sagepub.com
SAGE Publications Ltd.
1 Oliver’s Yard
55 City Road
London EC1Y 1SP
United Kingdom
SAGE Publications India Pvt. Ltd.
B 1/I 1 Mohan Cooperative Industrial Area
Mathura Road, New Delhi 110 044
India
SAGE Publications Asia-Pacific Pte. Ltd.
3 Church Street
#10-04 Samsung Hub
Singapore 049483
Acquisitions Editor: Reid Hester
Associate Editor: Theresa Accomazzo
Digital Content Editor: Rachael LeBlond
Production Editor: Laura Barrett
Copy Editor: Paula L. Fleming
Typesetter: C&M Digitals (P) Ltd.
Proofreader: Stefanie Storholt
Indexer: Wendy Allex
Cover Designer: Edgar Abarca
Marketing Manager: Terra Schultz
Permissions Editor: Jennifer Barron
BRIEF CONTENTS
Preface
Acknowledgments
PART I: INTRODUCTION
1. Introduction to Educational Research
2. Quantitative, Qualitative, and Mixed Research
3. Action Research for Lifelong Learning
PART II: PLANNING THE RESEARCH STUDY
4. How to Review the Literature and Develop Research Questions
5. How to Write a Research Proposal
6. Research Ethics
PART III: FOUNDATIONS OF RESEARCH
7. Standardized Measurement and Assessment
8. How to Construct a Questionnaire
9. Six Major Methods of Data Collection
10. Sampling in Quantitative, Qualitative, and Mixed Research
11. Validity of Research Results in Quantitative, Qualitative, and Mixed
Research
PART IV: SELECTING A RESEARCH METHOD
Section A: Quantitative Research Methods: Five Major Approaches
12. Experimental Research: Weak and Strong Designs
13. Experimental Research: Quasi and Single-Case Designs
14. Nonexperimental Quantitative Research
Section B: Qualitative Research Methods: Five Major Approaches Plus Historical
Research
15. Narrative Inquiry and Case Study Research
D. Jean Clandinin and R. Burke Johnson
16. Phenomenology, Ethnography, and Grounded Theory
17. Historical Research
Section C: Mixed Methods Research: Many Approaches
18. Mixed Research
PART V: ANALYZING THE DATA
19. Descriptive Statistics
20. Inferential Statistics
21. Data Analysis in Qualitative and Mixed Research
PART VI: WRITING THE RESEARCH REPORT
22. How to Prepare a Research Report and Use APA Style Guidelines
Appendix: Citations for Journal Articles Noted in the Margins
Glossary
References
Author Index
Subject Index
About the Authors
DETAILED CONTENTS
Preface
Acknowledgments
PART I: INTRODUCTION
1
Introduction to Educational Research
Why Study Educational Research?
Areas of Educational Research
Examples of Educational Research
General Kinds of Research
Basic and Applied Research
Evaluation Research
Action Research
Orientational Research
Sources of Knowledge
Experience
Reasoning
The Scientific Approach to Knowledge Generation
Dynamics of Science
Basic Assumptions of Science
Scientific Methods
Theory
The Principle of Evidence
Objectives of Educational Research
Overview of Book
Summary
Key Terms
Discussion Questions
Research Exercises
Relevant Internet Sites
Recommended Reading
2
Quantitative, Qualitative, and Mixed Research
Characteristics of the Three Research Paradigms
Quantitative Research Methods: Experimental and Nonexperimental
Research
Variables
Experimental Research
Nonexperimental Research
Qualitative Research Methods
Phenomenology
Ethnography
Narrative Inquiry
Case Study Research
Grounded Theory
Historical Research
Mixed Research (or Mixed Methods Research)
The Advantages of Mixed Research
Our Research Typology
Summary
Key Terms
Discussion Questions
Research Exercises
Relevant Internet Sites
Recommended Reading
3
Action Research for Lifelong Learning
Defining Action Research
Origins of Action Research
Basic Scientific Research Versus Action Research
Types of Action Research
The Cycle of Action Research
Strengths and Weaknesses of Action Research
Action Research Journaling
Action Research in the Remaining Chapters of this Book
Summary
Key Terms
Discussion Questions
Research Exercises
Relevant Internet Sites
Recommended Reading
Note
PART II: PLANNING THE RESEARCH STUDY
4
How to Review the Literature and Develop Research Questions
Sources of Research Ideas
Everyday Life
Practical Issues
Past Research
Theory
Ideas That Can’t Be Resolved Through Empirical Research
Review of the Literature
Literature Review for Quantitative Research Studies
Literature Review for Qualitative Research Studies
Sources of Information
Conducting the Literature Search
Using Databases
Using the Public Internet
Feasibility of the Study
Statement of the Research Problem
Stating a Quantitative Research Problem
Stating a Qualitative Research Problem
Statement of the Purpose of the Study
Statement of Purpose in a Quantitative Study
Statement of Purpose in a Qualitative Study
Statement of Research Questions
Statement of a Quantitative Research Question
Statement of a Qualitative Research Question
Formulating Hypotheses
Consumer Use of the Literature
Action Research Reflection
Summary
Key Terms
Discussion Questions
Research Exercises
Relevant Internet Sites
Recommended Reading
5
How to Write a Research Proposal
Framework of the Research Proposal
Strategies for Writing Each Section of the Research Proposal
Introduction
Method
Research Participants
Design
Apparatus and/or Instruments
Procedure
Data Analysis
Abstract
Action Research Reflection
Summary
Key Terms
Discussion Questions
Research Exercise
Relevant Internet Sites
Recommended Reading
6
Research Ethics
What Are Research Ethics?
Ethical Concerns
Relationship Between Society and Science
Professional Issues
Treatment of Research Participants
Ethical Guidelines for Research With Humans
Informed Consent
Informed Consent and Minors as Research Participants
Passive Versus Active Consent
Additional Consent
Deception
Freedom to Withdraw
Protection From Mental and Physical Harm
Confidentiality, Anonymity, and the Concept of Privacy
Institutional Review Board
Ethical Issues in Electronic Research
Informed Consent and Internet Research
Privacy and Internet Research
Debriefing and Internet Research
Ethical Issues in Preparing the Research Report
Authorship
Writing the Research Report
Action Research Reflection
Summary
Key Terms
Discussion Questions
Research Exercises
Relevant Internet Sites
Recommended Reading
PART III: FOUNDATIONS OF RESEARCH
7
Standardized Measurement and Assessment
Defining Measurement
Scales of Measurement
Nominal Scale
Ordinal Scale
Interval Scale
Ratio Scale
Assumptions Underlying Testing and Assessment
Identifying a Good Test or Assessment Procedure
Overview of Reliability and Validity
Reliability
Validity
Using Reliability and Validity Information
Educational and Psychological Tests
Intelligence Tests
Personality Tests
Educational Assessment Tests
Sources of Information About Tests
Action Research Reflection
Summary
Key Terms
Discussion Questions
Research Exercises
Exercise Sheet
Relevant Internet Sites
Recommended Reading
Notes
8
How to Construct a Questionnaire
What Is a Questionnaire?
Principles of Questionnaire Construction
Principle 1. Make sure the questionnaire items match your research
objectives.
Principle 2. Understand your research participants.
Principle 3. Use natural and familiar language.
Principle 4. Write items that are clear, precise, and relatively short.
Principle 5. Do not use “leading” or “loaded” questions.
Principle 6. Avoid double-barreled questions.
Principle 7. Avoid double negatives.
Principle 8. Determine whether an open-ended or a closed-ended
question is needed.
Principle 9. Use mutually exclusive and exhaustive response categories
for closed-ended questions.
Principle 10. Consider the different types of response categories
available for closed-ended questionnaire items.
Principle 11. Use multiple items to measure abstract constructs.
Principle 12. Consider using multiple methods when measuring abstract
constructs.
Principle 13. Use caution if you reverse the wording in some of the items
to prevent response sets in multi-item scales.
Principle 14. Develop a questionnaire that is properly organized and
easy for the participant to use.
Principle 15. Always pilot test your questionnaire.
Putting It All Together
Action Research Reflection
Summary
Key Terms
Research Exercises
Relevant Internet Sites
Recommended Reading
Notes
9
Six Major Methods of Data Collection
Tests
Questionnaires
Interviews
Quantitative Interviews
Qualitative Interviews
Focus Groups
Observation
Quantitative Observation
Qualitative Observation
Visual Data
Constructed and Secondary or Existing Data
Action Research Reflection
Summary
Key Terms
Discussion Questions
Research Exercises
Relevant Internet Site
Recommended Reading
10
Sampling in Quantitative, Qualitative, and Mixed Research
Terminology Used in Sampling
Random Sampling Techniques
Simple Random Sampling
Systematic Sampling
Stratified Random Sampling
Cluster Random Sampling
Nonrandom Sampling Techniques
Convenience Sampling
Quota Sampling
Purposive Sampling
Snowball Sampling
Random Selection and Random Assignment
Determining the Sample Size When Random Sampling Is Used
Sampling in Qualitative Research
Sampling in Mixed Research
Action Research Reflection
Summary
Key Terms
Discussion Questions
Research Exercises
Relevant Internet Sites
Recommended Reading
Notes
11
Validity of Research Results in Quantitative, Qualitative, and Mixed
Research
Validity Issues in the Design of Quantitative Research
Internal Validity (or Causal Validity)
Two Major Types of Causal Relationships
Criteria for Inferring Causation
Threats to Internal Validity in Single-Group Designs
Threats to Internal Validity in Multigroup Designs
External Validity (or Generalizing Validity)
Population Validity
Ecological Validity
Temporal Validity
Treatment Variation Validity
Outcome Validity
Construct Validity
Operationalism
Treatment Diffusion
Statistical Conclusion Validity
Research Validity (or “Trustworthiness”\) in Qualitative Research
Descriptive Validity
Interpretive Validity
Theoretical Validity
Internal Validity
External Validity
Research Validity (or “Legitimation”) in Mixed Research
Action Research Reflection
Summary
Key Terms
Discussion Questions
Research Exercises
Relevant Internet Sites
Recommended Reading
Notes
PART IV: SELECTING A RESEARCH METHOD
Section A: Quantitative Research Methods: Five Major Approaches
12
Experimental Research: Weak and Strong Designs
The Experiment
Experimental Research Settings
Field Experiment
Laboratory Experiment
Internet Experiment
Independent Variable Manipulation
Ways to Manipulate an Independent Variable
Control of Confounding Variables
Random Assignment
Matching
Holding the Extraneous Variable Constant
Building the Extraneous Variable Into the Research Design
Analysis of Covariance
Counterbalancing
Experimental Research Designs
Weak Experimental Research Designs
Strong Experimental Research Designs
Factorial Designs
Repeated-Measures Designs
Factorial Designs Based on a Mixed Model
Action Research Reflection
Summary
Key Terms
Discussion Questions
Research Exercises
Relevant Internet Sites
Recommended Reading
Notes
13
Experimental Research: Quasi and Single-Case Designs
Quasi-Experimental Research Designs
Nonequivalent Comparison-Group Design
Interrupted Time-Series Design
Regression-Discontinuity Design
Single-Case Experimental Designs
A-B-A and A-B-A-B Designs
Multiple-Baseline Design
Changing-Criterion Design
Methodological Considerations in Using Single-Case Designs
Action Research Reflection
Summary
Key Terms
Discussion Questions
Research Exercises
Relevant Internet Sites
Recommended Reading
Note
14
Nonexperimental Quantitative Research
Steps in Nonexperimental Research
Independent Variables in Nonexperimental Research
Simple Cases of Nonexperimental Quantitative Research
Three Required Conditions for Cause-and-Effect Relationships
Applying the Three Required Conditions for Causation in Nonexperimental
Research
Techniques of Control in Nonexperimental Research (i.e., How to Design
Strong Nonexperimental Research)
Matching
Holding the Extraneous Variable Constant
Statistical Control
Interlude (The Study of Causal Relationships in Epidemiology)
Classifying Nonexperimental Research by Time and Research Objective
The Time Dimension in Nonexperimental Research
Cross-Sectional Research
Longitudinal Research
Retrospective Research
The Research Objective Dimension in Nonexperimental Research
Descriptive Nonexperimental Research
Predictive Nonexperimental Research
Explanatory Nonexperimental Research
Action Research Reflection
Summary
Key Terms
Discussion Questions
Research Exercises
Relevant Internet Sites
Recommended Reading
Notes
Section B: Qualitative Research Methods: Five Major Approaches Plus Historical
Research
15
Narrative Inquiry and Case Study Research
Narrative Inquiry
I. Introduction: The Importance of Coming to Terms and Definitions
II. Designing a Narrative Study
1. Four Key Terms to Structure a Narrative Inquiry
2. Inquiry Starting Points
3. Attending to Justifications at the Inquiry Outset and Throughout the
Inquiry
4. Research Puzzles Rather Than Research Questions
5. Entering Into the Midst
6. From Field to Field Texts
7. From Field Texts to Interim and Final Research Texts
8. Relational Ethics at the Heart of Narrative Inquiry—Relational
Responsibilities
III. Narrative Inquiry: So Much More Than Telling Stories
Case Study Research
What Is a Case?
Types of Case Study Research Designs
Data Collection, Analysis, and Report Writing
Action Research Reflection
Summary
Key Terms
Discussion Questions
Research Exercises
Exercise Sheet
Relevant Internet Sites
Recommended Reading
Note
16
Phenomenology, Ethnography, and Grounded Theory
Phenomenology
Examples of Phenomenology
Types of Phenomenology
Data Collection, Analysis, and Report Writing
Ethnography
The Idea of Culture
Examples of Ethnographic Research
Types of Ethnographic Research
Data Collection, Analysis, and Report Writing
Grounded Theory
Characteristics of a Grounded Theory
Example of a Grounded Theory
Data Collection, Analysis, and Report Writing
Action Research Reflection
Summary
Key Terms
Discussion Questions
Research Exercises
Exercise Sheet
Relevant Internet Sites
Recommended Reading
Note
17
Historical Research
What Is Historical Research?
Significance of Historical Research
Historical Research Methodology
Identification of the Research Topic and Formulation of the Research
Problem or Question
Data Collection or Literature Review
Documents and Other Written Records
Photographs
Relics
Oral Histories
How to Locate Historical Information
Primary Versus Secondary Sources
Evaluation of Historical Sources
External Criticism
Internal Criticism
Data Synthesis and Report Preparation
Action Research Reflection
Summary
Key Terms
Discussion Questions
Research Exercises
Relevant Internet Sites
Recommended Reading
Section C: Mixed Methods Research: Many Approaches
18
Mixed Research
The Research Continuum
Types of Mixed Research Designs
Examples of Qualitatively Driven, Quantitatively Driven, and EqualEmphasis or Interactive Studies
Stages of the Mixed Research Process
Step 1. Determine Whether a Mixed Design Is Appropriate
Step 2. Determine the Rationale for Using a Mixed Design
Step 3. Select or Construct the Mixed Research Design and Mixed
Sampling Design
Step 4. Collect Data
Step 5. Analyze the Data
Step 6. Continually Validate the Data
Step 7. Continually Interpret the Data and Findings
Step 8. Write the Research Report
Limitations of Mixed Research
Action Research Reflection
Summary
Key Terms
Discussion Questions
Research Exercises
Relevant Internet Sites
Recommended Reading
PART V: ANALYZING THE DATA
19
Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive Statistics
Frequency Distributions
Graphic Representations of Data
Bar Graphs
Histograms
Line Graphs
Scatter Plots
Measures of Central Tendency
Mode
Median
Mean
A Comparison of the Mean, Median, and Mode
Measures of Variability
Range
Variance and Standard Deviation
Standard Deviation and the Normal Distribution
Measures of Relative Standing
Percentile Ranks
z Scores
Examining Relationships Among Variables
Contingency Tables
Regression Analysis
Action Research Reflection
Summary
Key Terms
Discussion Questions
Research Exercises
Relevant Internet Sites
Recommended Reading
Notes
20
Inferential Statistics
Sampling Distributions
Sampling Distribution of the Mean
Estimation
Point Estimation
Interval Estimation
Hypothesis Testing
Null and Alternative Hypotheses
Directional Alternative Hypotheses
Examining the Probability Value and Making a Decision
The Hypothesis-Testing Decision Matrix
Controlling the Risk of Errors
Hypothesis Testing in Practice
t Test for Independent Samples
One-Way Analysis of Variance
Post Hoc Tests in Analysis of Variance
t Test for Correlation Coefficients
t Test for Regression Coefficients
Chi-Square Test for Contingency Tables
Other Significance Tests
Action Research Reflection
Summary
Key Terms
Discussion Questions
Research Exercises
Exercise Sheet
Relevant Internet Sites
Recommended Reading
Notes
21
Data Analysis in Qualitative and Mixed Research
Interim Analysis
Memoing
Analysis of Visual Data
Data Entry and Storage
Segmenting, Coding, and Developing Category Systems
Inductive and A Priori Codes
Co-Occurring and Facesheet Codes
Enumeration
Creating Hierarchical Category Systems
Identifying Relationships Among Categories
Drawing Diagrams
Corroborating and Validating Results
Computer Programs for Qualitative Data Analysis
Data Analysis in Mixed Research
Mixed Analysis Matrix
Analytical Procedures in Mixed Data Analysis
Action Research Reflection
Summary
Key Terms
Discussion Questions
Research Exercise
Exercise Sheet
Relevant Internet Sites
Recommended Reading
Notes
PART VI: WRITING THE RESEARCH REPORT
22
How to Prepare a Research Report and Use APA Style Guidelines
General Principles Related to Writing the Research Report (I)
Language (I.1)
Editorial Style (I.2)
Reference List (I.3)
Typing (I.4)
Writing an APA-Style Quantitative Research Report (II)
Title Page (II.1)
Abstract (II.2)
Introduction (II.3)
Method (II.4)
Results (II.5)
Discussion (II.6)
References (II.7)
Footnotes (II.8)
Tables (II.9)
Figures (II.10)
Example of an APA-Style Manuscript
Writing Qualitative Research Reports
Writing Mixed Research Reports
Action Research Reflection
Summary
Key Term
Discussion Questions
Research Exercises
Relevant Internet Sites
Recommended Reading
Appendix: Citations for Journal Articles Noted in the Margins
Glossary
References
Author Index
Subject Index
About the Authors
PREFACE
W
elcome to the fifth edition of Educational Research: Quantitative,
Qualitative, and Mixed Approaches. This text is written for the
introductory research methods course that is required in most colleges
in the United States. We assume no prior knowledge of research methods on the part
of our readers. Our book can be used as a first text for undergraduate- or graduatelevel courses. Instructors should be able to cover the material in one semester.
Instructors also can choose to emphasize some material over the other.
P URPOSE
We had several purposes in writing this textbook. The first was a desire to write an
introductory research methods book that was accurate and up-to-date. We come
from interdisciplinary backgrounds and have attempted to incorporate our
respective insights into this book. Dr. Johnson is an educational research
methodologist and program evaluator, with additional graduate training in
psychology, public policy, and sociology; Dr. Christensen is a psychological
research methodologist and the author of a highly successful book entitled
Experimental Methodology (now in its 12th edition under the title Research
Methods, Design, and Analysis). We have kept up with the changes taking place in
the field of research methods in our disciplines, and we continue to incorporate the
latest information in this textbook, including references that allow interested
readers to further examine original sources.
Second, we have tried to write a research methods textbook that takes an
evenhanded approach to the different types of educational research. Whereas many
texts emphasize one method at the expense of others, we believe that all major
approaches to research discussed in this text have merit when they are employed
carefully and properly. We show the strengths and appropriateness of each method
and demonstrate how the experts in each area conduct high-quality research and
how they view their approach to research.
Third, we have tried to make our textbook highly readable and to make learning
about research fun. Believe it or not, learning about research methods can be
exciting. We are excited about research methods, and we share our enthusiasm with
you without losing the necessary rigor.
Finally, we have tried to enable readers to become critical consumers of
research and users of research. We suspect that most readers of this text will be
called on at some point in their careers to summarize research literature, write a
research proposal, construct a questionnaire, or test an idea empirically.
Educational Research, fifth edition, will help prepare you for these activities and
will help you become adept at reading, understanding, critiquing, and building on
published empirical research articles.
ORGANIZATION OF THE B OOK
We have organized the fifth edition of Educational Research to follow the major
components or steps involved in the research process.
Part I. Introduction
In this section we introduce you to the field of educational research. We begin
by defining science in an inclusive way and explaining the general research
process. We discuss inductive and deductive reasoning, and we describe the
exploratory (knowledge-generation) and confirmatory (knowledge-testing)
components of the research wheel. We outline some general areas of research, such
as basic research, applied research, action research, evaluation research, and
orientational research. We examine the three major research paradigms: (1)
quantitative research, (2) qualitative research, and (3) mixed research. Last, we
include a new chapter on action research to engage students in thinking about and
applying the ideas discussed in this book. Each of the remaining 19 chapters ends
with a section entitled “Action Research Reflection” —the purpose of this section
is to help students reflect on the chapter material and relate it to their lives and
places of work.
Part II. Planning the Research Study
In this section we carefully explain how to come up with a research idea,
conduct a review of the research literature, write research questions and
hypotheses, and organize and write a research proposal. We also explain the
importance of ethics in educational research and how to write an informed consent
form. Upon completion of this section, students will be ready to begin writing a
research proposal.
Part III. Foundations of Research
In Part III we cover concepts that researchers must master before fully
understanding or conducting a research study. We begin with an introduction to
measurement. Without reliable and valid measurement, nothing else really matters
because poor data quality cannot be fixed. Next we discuss the six major methods
of data collection: tests, questionnaires, interviews, focus groups, observations,
and constructed and secondary or existing data. We then explain the procedures for
selecting samples of people to participate in a research study. Finally, we discuss
the importance of research validity (or trustworthiness or legitimation) in
quantitative, qualitative, and mixed research, showing the primary threats to good
research and providing specific techniques used to prevent mistakes.
Part IV. Selecting a Research Method
In Part IV we provide extensive discussion of the major methods of research or
“research methods” and demonstrate how to match the appropriate research design
with various research questions. We divide Part IV into three sections. In Section A
we explain the five major approaches to quantitative research—strong
experimental research, quasi-experimental research, weak experimental research,
single-case research, and nonexperimental quantitative research. In Section B we
explain the five major approaches to qualitative research—narrative inquiry, case
study research, phenomenology, ethnography, and grounded theory. In this section,
we also explain historical research. In Section C we explain mixed methods
research, which includes many approaches and possibilities.
Part V. Analyzing the Data
In this section we provide two chapters on quantitative data analysis
(descriptive and inferential statistics) and one chapter on how to analyze
qualitative and mixed research data.
Part VI. Writing the Research Report
In this final part, we explain how to prepare research manuscripts in a format
that can be submitted to an academic journal for publication. We explain how to use
the guidelines from the 6th edition of the Publication Manual of the American
Psychological Association (2010), the guidelines required by the vast majority of
journals in education and psychology.
F EATURES OF THE TEXT
We have included several features in the fifth edition of Educational Research to
make the task of learning about research easier for students.
In addition to opening vignettes that connect research with current events, each
chapter begins with a list of objectives to get students thinking about what they are
going to learn.
Within the chapters, several learning aids assist with reviewing key concepts.
These include margin definitions of all the key terms, multiple examples of
concepts from published research studies, review questions at the end of major
sections, and margin icons to connect the reader to journal articles and tools and
tips provided at the book’s companion website.
Each chapter ends with a full chapter summary, a list of the key terms used in
the chapter, discussion questions, research exercises, relevant Internet sites, and
recommended reading.
NEW TO THE F IFTH EDITION
We have made multiple changes in the fifth edition to better reflect the latest
advances in educational research and to improve the student learning experience.
The following are of particular note:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Added a new chapter early in the book (Chapter 3) entitled “Action
Research for Lifelong Learning.” The purpose of this chapter is to make
learning about research relevant to students and emphasize how to think
about conducting regular scientific research and action research (which is
more locally focused).
Added a section in Chapters 4 through 22 directly before the chapter
summary entitled “Action Research Reflection.” This is designed to engage
students in thinking about the material in each chapter and applying it in
their lives and work.
In Chapter 6, updated the AERA ethical code to the most recent version
(i.e., 2011) and added definitions of nonmaleficence and beneficence.
In Chapter 9, the last of the six major methods of data collection is now
labeled “Constructed and Secondary or Existing Data.”
In Chapter 11, updated material on triangulation and added a validity
strategy for qualitative research called “critical friend.”
Divided “Part IV: Selecting a Research Method” into three sections.
Section A is entitled “Quantitative Research Methods: Five Major
Approaches”; Section B is “Qualitative Research Methods: Five Major
Approaches Plus Historical Research”; and Section C is “Mixed Methods
Research: Many Approaches.”
Added a chapter titled “Narrative Inquiry and Case Study Research.”
Chapter 15 is cowritten by one of the leading narrative inquiry experts in
the world, D. Jean Clandinin, along with R. Burke Johnson.
In Chapter 18, added an explanation of how to construct a mixed design in
addition to selecting one of the basic designs.
ANCILLARIES FOR INSTRUCTORS AND STUDENTS
Additional ancillary materials further support and enhance the learning goals of the
fifth edition of Educational Research: Quantitative, Qualitative, and Mixed
Approaches. These ancillary materials include the following:
Password-Protected Instructor Teaching Site
www.sagepub.com/bjohnson5e/
This password-protected site offers instructors a variety of resources that
supplement the book material, including the following:
• An electronic test bank, available to PCs through Respondus software,
offers a large and diverse set of test questions and answers for each chapter
of the book (the total number is more than 1,500!). Multiple-choice and
true/false questions are included for every chapter to aid instructors in
assessing students’ progress and understanding.
• PowerPoint presentations are designed to assist with lecture and review,
highlighting essential content, features, and artwork from the book.
• Carefully selected, web-based video resources feature relevant content for
use in independent and classroom-based exploration of key topics.
• Teaching tips are designed to help instructors conceptualize their overall
teaching plan for each chapter.
• Lecture notes summarize key concepts on a chapter-by-chapter basis to
assist in preparing for lecture and class discussion.
• Lively and stimulating ideas for class activities in and out of the classroom
are provided. These are designed to reinforce active learning.
• Links to relevant web resources direct instructors to additional tools for
further research on important chapter topics.
• Downloadable versions of the tables, figures, and worksheets are provided.
• The authors have provided suggested answers to the review questions
that are found throughout each chapter.
• Sample syllabi for quarter, semester, and online courses are provided.
Open-Access Student Study Site
www.sagepub.com/bjohnson5e/
This web-based student study site provides a variety of additional resources to
enhance students’ understanding of the book’s content and take their learning one
step further. The site includes the following:
• Lecture notes are here for students to print out and bring to class.
• Self-quizzes allow students to independently assess their progress in
learning course material.
• eFlashcards are study tools that reinforce student understanding and
learning of the key terms and concepts outlined in the chapters.
• Carefully selected, web-based video links feature relevant content for use
in independent and classroom-based exploration of key topics.
• Links to relevant web resources direct students to additional tools for
further research on important chapter topics.
• A downloadable PDF version of the full glossary is a convenient reference
for students.
Book Icons
Below are several icons you will find throughout the text, which will guide you
to additional materials found on the student study site.
Interactive and expandable concept maps for each chapter. These clickable,
downward-branching maps present each chapter’s content in a hierarchical
structure so that students can visualize the relationships among different
concepts.
Full-text SAGE research articles are presented for each chapter so that
students can identify the key topics covered.
Author-created tools and tips provide information on a variety of subjects and
include helpful web resources, writing tips, and an SPSS data set.
NOTE TO STUDENTS
You are probably wondering how best to study research methods. Note that in
addition to reading the book, you can now also listen to the book, for example,
while you drive to work and school, jog, do laundry, or whatever. When studying,
first and foremost, use the book’s companion website, which has been developed
to help you learn the material. As you read the book, we suggest that you begin each
chapter by reading the learning objectives and the chapter summary. This will give
you an overview of the material. Then look at the chapter concept map included at
the book’s companion website. Next, read the chapter carefully. After finishing the
chapter, answer the study questions and make sure you understand each concept
shown in the concept map. Also, read the lecture provided at the companion
website, where we touch on most of the major points of each chapter; this will be
quick reading after having read the chapter. To get practice doing research and to
learn by doing, complete at least one of the research exercises at the end of each
chapter and consider completing the action research activities. As you prepare for
tests, make sure that you know the definitions of all the key terms because these are
the building blocks and the vocabulary of the research “language.” Don’t get lost in
the details. Continue to use the concept maps to remind yourself of the big picture.
Finally, read as many of the empirical research articles as you can, because one of
the best ways to learn how to understand, design, and conduct educational research
is to read many high-quality, published research articles in your research area. If
you do these things, you can become an expert consumer and producer of research,
as well as get an A in your class!
NOTE TO INSTRUCTORS
To help keep the length and price of the textbook low for students, we have placed
the many supporting empirical research articles on the companion website (rather
than including them in the textbook). Your students can easily print out these
articles. Also, you will find many helpful teaching tips and materials at the
Instructor Teaching Site described above. You also will find the student companion
website useful, especially the lectures and the concept maps. One effective in-class
teaching strategy would be to connect to the concept maps (via the Internet) during
class and discuss these in class. Another strategy is to have your students print out
the lectures and then discuss the lectures in class. Yet another strategy is to use the
PowerPoint presentations provided at the Instructor Teaching Site. This text also
works very well online; the lectures on the companion website were developed by
Burke Johnson specifically for his online research course. Our goal is to provide
you with the most up-to-date and useful book and the best set of supplements
available. Please contact us if you have any questions or suggestions.
COMMENTS
We hope that you (students and instructors) will send your comments to us so that
we can continually improve our textbook and the companion website. You can
contact us at the following email address: bjohnson@southalabama.edu (Burke
Johnson).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
F
irst and foremost, Burke Johnson would like to thank his wife, Dr. Lisa A.
Turner, for putting up with the long days and for being the first reviewer of
everything he wrote. Second, we offer our sincere and special thanks to
Diane McDaniel (associate director), Reid Hester (senior editor), Terri
Accomazzo (associate editor), Sarita Sarak (editorial assistant), and Rachael
Leblond (digital content editor). Thanks also go to our outstanding copy editor,
Paula L. Fleming, and our production editor, Laura Barrett, who meticulously
worked with us to get the manuscript into its “perfect” final form. In short, we thank
the entire SAGE team for their professionalism, friendliness, emphasis on highquality work, and openness to innovation—everyone at SAGE was always ready to
provide ideas and help when it was needed. We repeat our previous thanks to John
Hitchcock, of Ohio University, for contributing a table to the last edition (and
continued in the present edition) on Applying Qualitative Research Validity
Strategies (Table 11.3). We also repeat our thanks to our colleagues for working
with Burke on several sections in past editions, including Tony Onwuegbuzie (Sam
Houston State University), who was the original coauthor of the chapter on mixed
methods research; Jack Dempsey (University of South Alabama); and Teresa
Wagner (Case Western Reserve University). Most importantly, we thank our
students for their very important thoughts on how to improve the book from their
perspectives.
Finally, we offer our gratitude and thanks to our expert reviewers for their many
insights and useful comments. Our reviewers are as follows:
First edition reviewers:
Amy Gillet, University of Wisconsin–Stout
Bill Gilley, University of South Alabama
Bryan Griffin, Georgia Southern University
Beverly A. Joyce, Dowling College
Robert W. Lissitz, University of Maryland at College Park
Joe Newman, University of South Alabama
Doris L. Prater, University of Houston–Clear Lake
Joan Quilling, University of Missouri–Columbia
Thomas A. Romberg, University of Wisconsin
Bikas Sinha, Indian Statistical Institute, Calcutta, India
Paul Westmeyer, The University of Texas at San Antonio
Second edition reviewers:
Kathy Green, University of Denver
Tony Onwuegbuzie, University of South Florida
Shaireen Rasheed, Long Island University
Vemelle Tyler, University of South Carolina–Aiken
Daniel Weigel, Southern Oklahoma State University
Third edition reviewers:
Don Dillman, Washington State University
Jim Van Haneghan, University of South Alabama
Jason D. Baker, Regent University
Ronald S. Beebe, Cleveland State University
Dorinda J. Gallant, The Ohio State University
John Hanes, Regent University
John A. Huss, Northern Kentucky University
David R. Kovach, The University of Toledo
Vincent Rinaldo, Niagara University
Sandra L. Stein, Rider University
Wilford A. Weber, University of Houston
Fourth edition reviewers:
Jeff Lorentz, University of Houston–Clear Lake
Rebecca S. Lake, National Louis University
E. Lea Witta, University of Central Florida
David R. Kovach, University of Toledo
Jamie Branam Kridler, East Tennessee State University
Fifth edition reviewers:
Diane Bagwell, University of West Florida
Denetta Dowler, West Virginia University
Cynthia L. Jew, California Lutheran University
Shlomo S. Sawilowsky, Wayne State University
Jennifer Veltsos, Minnesota State University
Lihshing Leigh Wang, University of Cincinnati
Timothy G. Ford, University of Louisiana–Monroe
Misty M. Ginicola, Southern Connecticut State University
John Huss, Northern Kentucky University
Sara C. Lawrence, Texas A&M University–Texarkana
S. Kim MacGregor, Louisiana State University
Patrice D. Petroff, Queens University of Charlotte
Elizabeth Ann Rivet, Bay Path College
PART I
Introduction
Chapter 1
Introduction to Educational Research
Chapter 2
Quantitative, Qualitative, and Mixed Research
Chapter 3
Action Research for Lifelong Learning
Chapter 1
Introduction to Educational Research
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you should be able to
Explain the importance of educational research.
List at least five areas of educational research.
Explain the difference between basic and applied research.
Describe evaluation research, action research, and orientational research.
Discuss the different sources of knowledge.
Explain the scientific approach to knowledge generation.
Explain how to determine the quality of a theory or explanation.
List the five objectives of educational research and provide an example of
each.
Visit the Student Study Site for an interactive concept map.
RESEARCH IN REAL LIFE Research Aids Decision Making
In June 2002, New York governor George Pataki signed a state law
giving New York City mayor Michael Bloomberg control of that city’s
public school system. Most observers agree that this is a school
system desperately in need of reform. The 1,100 schools within this
system educate 1.1 million kids. However, using the word educate
would seem to be somewhat of a misnomer because only about half
of the city’s public school students finish high school in 4 years. Only
40 percent of third- through eighth-grade students score at an
acceptable level in reading, and only 34 percent do so in math. About
100 of the 1,100 schools are classified by the state as failing, and
another 300 are almost as bad. Clearly, something needs to be done.
While campaigning for mayor, Michael Bloomberg had many
ideas, one of which was to establish an unpaid board of education that
functioned like a corporate board, providing fiscal oversight and
expertise. This idea was approved by new legislation and was a
radical departure from the old board of education, which was
responsible for day-to-day management decisions, including even
routine contracting and procurement decisions.
Bloomberg needs to do a lot more than just reconstitute the board of education because no single
panacea will fix all of the problems facing the New York City school system. There is no shortage of
ideas to assist Bloomberg in this process. Coles (2002) wrote an article in the City Journal giving his
opinion as to what should be done. He stated that Bloomberg should choose a chancellor from outside
the system so that he or she would not be constrained by existing relationships or vested interests. A
uniform core curriculum should be established that would focus on basic skills, particularly in the
elementary and middle schools. Social promotion should end. Finally, the best teachers should be
rewarded, contended Coles, because fully 40% of the city’s teachers had failed the basic teacher
certification test.
Given differing opinions about what should be done with a school system such as New York City’s,
which ideas do you think should be implemented? Which ones would provide the best return on capital
expenditures and best help students? Obviously, there are many differing philosophies and many
differing opinions. However, we contend that policymakers will benefit if they examine the findings of
educational research studies that compare the outcomes resulting from implementing different ideas and
approaches. This will help eliminate personal bias and vested interests in particular approaches by
providing strong evidence of what really works best. In short, research provides an effective and
evidentiary way to sort out and resolve differing ideas and opinions on educational issues. Perhaps our
most important goal in writing this book is to convince you that it is important and helpful to add the
examination and conduct of research to your list of ingredients to use when making decisions about
education.
W
elcome to the world of educational research! Research has been
conducted in virtually every area in the field of education. In fact, the
research techniques described in this book are used all over the world
to help people in many fields advance their knowledge and solve problems. The
search for better and better answers to important questions will probably always
continue. In this book, we discuss the way in which research is conducted in an
attempt to provide answers to important questions. We hope you will enjoy learning
about research, and we hope it opens up new ways of thinking for you.
As you read this book, you will learn how to think about research, how to
evaluate the quality of published research reports, and how to conduct research on
your own. In a sense, you will also be learning a new language, the language of
researchers, because researchers use a specialized language or jargon. But
remember, don’t be afraid of new words. The words used in this book have
definitions that represent ideas you can understand, and you have been learning new
words and ideas all of your life. On the lighter side, perhaps you can use some of
the new words to impress your friends. In sum, we welcome you to the world of
research and hope that you will enjoy it. Because this is likely to be a required
course for you, we begin by discussing a few reasons for taking a course on
educational research methods.
WHY STUDY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH?
You might have asked, “Why do I have to take a class on educational research?”
First of all, research can be more interesting than you might think, and we hope that
in time you will find the material and the ways of thinking not only interesting but
also beneficial. Second, throughout this book, you will be learning critical thinking
skills. Rather than assuming that what is written in a book or what someone says is
“fact” or undeniable “truth,” you can use the techniques that you will learn for
evaluating arguments. In all cases, the question is one of evidence. As a start, we
suggest that you take the word proof and eliminate it from your vocabulary this
semester or quarter when you talk about research results. Proof exists in the realms
of mathematics and deductive logic, but in science and research, the best we can do
is to provide evidence. Sometimes the evidence is very convincing; at other times,
it might not be. You must use your critical thinking skills to judge the available
evidence on any given topic. These critical thinking skills will be helpful in your
studies and professional work as long as you live. Learning about research methods
should help sharpen your critical thinking skills.
Another important reason to study research is to help you better understand
discussions of research you hear and see in the media, such as on television and
radio, on the Internet, or at professional meetings. Examples of research in our
society abound. For example, when you watch a television program, what comes
between those short segments of actual programming? Commercials! Do you ever
wonder about those “research studies” that claim to “prove” that one laundry
detergent is better than another? As you know, the purpose of commercials is to
influence what you buy. Advertisers spend millions of dollars each year on
marketing research to understand your thinking and behavior. If you watch a
sporting event, you will likely see commercials for beer, cars, trucks, food, and
tennis shoes. If you watch soap operas in the afternoon, you are likely to see very
different commercials. The reason for this variation is that advertisers generally
know who is watching what programs at which times. The commercials are
developed to appeal to viewers’ ways of thinking about what is fun, exciting, and
important. And did you know that every major presidential candidate has a research
consultant who tries to identify the most effective ways to get your vote and win the
election? The point is that other people study you all the time and, in this book, you
will learn about the techniques they use. Understanding these techniques should
help you be more aware of their efforts.
You will learn here that not all research is created equal. That is, some research
studies are more defensible than others. You will learn how to ask the right
questions about research studies, and you will find out when to put confidence in a
set of research findings. You will learn to ask questions such as these: Was the
study an experiment, or was it nonexperimental? Were control groups included in
the design? Did the researcher randomly assign participants to the different
comparison groups? How did the researchers control for the influence of
extraneous variables? How were the participants in the research selected? Did the
researcher use techniques that help reduce the effects of human bias?
One day you might need to examine the research on a topic and make an
informed judgment about what course of action to take or to recommend to someone
else. Therefore, it is important that you understand how to review and evaluate
research. Understanding research terminology, the characteristics of the different
types of research, and how research can be designed to provide solid evidence will
allow you to evaluate research results critically and make informed decisions
based on research literatures. A research literature is the set of published
research studies on a particular topic. A fundamental point to remember is that you
should always place more confidence in a research finding when several different
researchers in different places and settings have found the same result. You should
never treat a single research study as the final word on any topic.
Research literature Set of published research studies on a particular topic
On a practical level, understanding research techniques might even help you in
your career as a student and as a professional teacher, counselor, or coach. Perhaps
one day you will be asked to write a proposal to obtain a grant or conduct a
research study on your own. If you study the contents of this book, you will learn
how to design and conduct a defensible study, and you will learn about the different
sections in a research grant proposal. You will learn how to construct a
questionnaire and how to write a proposal. Furthermore, if you look at the
bibliographies in the books you use in your other education courses, you will see
that many of these references are research studies. After learning about research,
you will be able to go back and evaluate the research studies on which your
textbooks are based. In other words, you will not have to accept something as true
just because someone said it was true. You might find that an article with what you
believe to be a questionable finding is based on highly questionable research
strategies.
RE VIE W
1.1 Why should we study educational research?
QUESTION
AREAS OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
To give you a feel for educational research, let’s look at some of the areas of
research in education. In Table 1.1 you will find a list of the major divisions and
the special interest areas in the American Educational Research Association
(AERA). (The AERA website is at http://aera.net.) The AERA is the largest and
most prestigious research association in the field of education, and it has
approximately 25,000 members. It is composed of university professors from all
areas of education; governmental employees; teachers; and professionals from
educational think tanks, consulting firms, and testing companies. Each year,
approximately 11,000 of these members and many nonmembers attend a national
conference sponsored by the AERA, where many attendees present the results of
their latest research.
You can see in Table 1.1 that education is a broad field that includes many
research areas. Do you see any areas of research in Table 1.1 that seem especially
interesting? If you are writing a research paper, you might pick one of these as your
starting point. The areas of research listed in Table 1.1 are still fairly general,
however. To see the specific areas and topics of current interest to educational
researchers, go to the library and browse through the education journals.
TABLE 1.1 Divisions and Special Interest Groups in the American Educational
Research Association, 2012–2013*
*For more information about any of these divisions or special interest groups, go to the AERA website at
http://aera.net.
EXAMPLES OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
The majority of journal articles in education include an abstract on the front page of
the article. An abstract is a brief summary of what is included in the article. We
have reproduced the abstracts of several research articles here so that you can get a
feel for what is done in an actual research study. Abstracts are helpful because they
are short and include the main ideas of the study. You can often decide whether you
want to read a journal article by first reading its abstract. We recommend that you
read some full-length research articles as soon as possible to see some full
examples of educational research. Throughout this book, we will be putting an icon
in the margin telling you to go to the companion website to examine a relevant
journal article. You can see the journal article icon right now in the margin. The
next time you see it, it will be referring you to a full-length article to download at
your convenience.
Abstract Brief summary of what is in an article
For the moment, just examine the following three abstracts and see if you can
determine (a) the purpose of the study, (b) how the researchers studied the
phenomenon, and (c) what the major results were.
See Student Study Site for journal articles.
I. The Development of a Goal to Become a Teacher, by Paul A. Schutz
(University of Georgia), Kristen C. Croder (University of Georgia), and
Victoria E. White (University of North Carolina at Greensboro), 2001, from
Journal of Educational Psychology, 93(2), pp. 299–308.
The purpose of this project was to investigate how the goal of becoming a
teacher emerges. The study used interviews to develop goal histories for 8
preservice teachers. There tended to be 4 sources of influence for their goal
to become a teacher: (a) family influences, (b) teacher influences, (c) peer
influences, and (d) teaching experiences. The categories developed from the
interviews to describe the types of influences those sources provided were
(a) suggesting that the person become a teacher, (b) encouraging the person
to become a teacher, (c) modeling teacher behavior, (d) exposing the person
to teaching experiences, and (e) discouraging the person from becoming a
teacher. In addition, influences such as critical incidents, emotions, and
social-historical factors, such as the status and pay of teachers, were
prominent in the goal histories of the participants. Finally, the results of the
study are discussed within the context of goals and self-directed behavior.
II. Getting Tough? The Impact of High School Graduation Exams, by Brian A.
Jacob at John F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University, 2001,
from Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 23(3), pp. 99–121.
The impact of high school graduation exams on student achievement and
dropout rates is examined. Using data from the National Educational
Longitudinal Survey (NELS), this analysis is able to control for prior student
achievement and a variety of other student, school, and state characteristics.
It was found that graduation tests have no significant impact on 12th-grade
math or reading achievement. These results are robust with a variety of
specification checks. Although graduation tests have no appreciable effect
on the probability of dropping out for the average student, they increase the
probability of dropping out among the lowest ability students. These results
suggest that policymakers would be well advised to rethink current test
policies.
III. Giving Voice to High School Students: Pressure and Boredom, Ya Know
What I’m Saying? by Edwin Farrell, George Peguero, Rashed Lindsey, and
Ronald White, 1988, from American Education Research Journal, 25(4),
pp. 489–502.
The concerns of students identified as at-risk of dropping out of school in
an urban setting were studied using innovative ethnographic methods.
Students from the subject population were hired to act as collaborators
rather than informants and to collect taped dialogues between themselves
and their peers. As collaborators, they also participated in the analysis of
data and contributed to identifying the research questions of the inquiry. Data
indicated that pressure and boredom were most often mentioned as negative
factors in the lives of the students, with pressure emanating from social
forces outside of school but contributing to boredom inside.
GENERAL K INDS OF RESEARCH
In this section we introduce you to some of the general kinds of research conducted
by educational researchers (see Table 1.2). Although these general research types
can overlap at times, they have different purposes and are intended for different
audiences.
TABLE 1.2 Summary of General Kinds of Research
Basic and Applied Research
Research studies can be placed along a continuum with the words basic
research at one end and the words applied research at the other end. The word
mixed can be placed in the center to represent research that has characteristics of
both basic and applied research. Basic research and applied research are typically
conducted by researchers at universities. Basic research and applied research are
also conducted by researchers working for think tanks, corporations, government
agencies, and foundations. The primary outlet for basic and applied research is
academic and professional research journals.
Basic research is aimed at generating fundamental knowledge and theoretical
understanding about basic human and other natural processes. An example of basic
research is a study examining the effect of priming in memory. Priming is “an
enhancement of the processing of a stimulus as a function of prior exposure”
(Anderson, 1995, p. 459). Assume that a researcher asks you to name a fruit and
you say, “Pineapple.” Then on the second trial, the researcher either asks you to
name another type of fruit or asks you to name a type of dog. Which response do
you think you could provide more quickly? It turns out that research participants
could name another type of fruit faster than they could name a type of dog when they
were asked to name a type of fruit first (Loftus, cited in Anderson). The naming of
the fruit on the first trial primed the research participants’ mental processing to
name another fruit. It is believed that priming operates because the first exposure
activates the complex of neurons in long-term memory, where the concept is being
stored. Basic research is usually conducted by using the most rigorous research
methods (e.g., experimental) under tightly controlled laboratory conditions. The
primary audience includes the other researchers in the research area. The key
purpose of basic research is to develop a solid foundation of reliable and
fundamental knowledge and theory on which future research can be built.
Basic research Research aimed at generating fundamental knowledge and
theoretical understanding about basic human and other natural processes
At the other end of the continuum is applied research. Applied research
focuses on answering real-world, practical questions to provide relatively
immediate solutions. Topics for applied research are often driven by current
problems in education and by policymakers’ concerns. Applied research is often
conducted in more natural settings (i.e., more realistic or real-world settings) than
basic research. An applied research study might focus on the effects of retaining
low-performing elementary school students in their present grade level or on the
relative effectiveness of two approaches to counseling (e.g., behavior therapy
versus cognitive therapy). In the former, the results would potentially have practical
implications for education policy; in the latter, the results would potentially have
implications for practicing counselors. The primary audiences for applied research
are other applied researchers (who read the results in educational research
journals) as well as policymakers, directors, and managers of programs who also
read research journals. Applied research often leads to the development of
interventions and programs aimed at improving societal conditions, which leads us
to the next type of research.
Applied research Research focused on answering practical questions to
provide relatively immediate solutions
See Journal Article 1.1 on the Student Study Site.
Evaluation Research
When interventions and social or educational programs aimed at improving
various conditions are implemented, evaluation research is often carried out to
determine how well the programs work in real-world settings and to show how
they might be improved. Evaluation research, or, more simply, evaluation,
specifically involves determining the worth, merit, or quality of an evaluation
object, such as an educational program. Evaluation requires evaluators to make
value judgments about evaluation objects (e.g., Program XYZ is a good program,
and it should be continued; Program ABC is a bad program, and it should be
discontinued). An evaluation object (also called the evaluand) is the thing being
evaluated: a program, a person, or a product (Guba & Lincoln, 1981; Scriven,
1967; Worthen, Sanders, & Fitzpatrick, 1997). An educational program might be an
afterschool program for students with behavioral problems or a new curriculum at
school. A person might be your new school district superintendent. A product might
be a new textbook or a new piece of equipment that a school is considering
purchasing.
Evaluation Determining the worth, merit, or quality of an evaluation object
Evaluation traditionally is subdivided into two types according to the purpose
of the evaluation. When the primary purpose of an evaluation is to lead to
judgments about how a program can be improved, it is called a formative
evaluation. Formative evaluation information helps program developers and
support staff design, implement, and improve their program so that it works well.
When the primary purpose of an evaluation is to lead to judgments about whether a
program is effective and whether it should be continued, it is called a summative
evaluation. Summative evaluation information is important for policymakers and
others who commission programs when they make funding decisions and when they
have to make choices about which competing programs will be supported and
which will be eliminated.
Formative evaluation Evaluation focused on improving the evaluation
object
Summative evaluation Evaluation focused on determining the overall
effectiveness and usefulness of the evaluation object
It is currently popular to divide evaluation into five areas or types (e.g., Rossi,
Lipsey, & Freeman, 2004), each of which is based on a fundamental evaluation
question:
1. Needs assessment: Is there a need for this type of program?
2. Theory assessment: Is this program conceptualized in a way that it should
work?
3. Implementation assessment: Was this program implemented properly and
according to the program plan?
4. Impact assessment: Did this program have an impact on its intended targets?
5. Efficiency assessment: Is this program cost-effective?
As you can see, evaluation can provide important information to educators. On
the basis of the evidence collected and the recommendations made, program
evaluators provide an important voice in decision making about educational and
other social programs.
Action Research
In Chapter 3, we devote an entire chapter to action research. Therefore, for the
moment, we just want to get the basic idea and a definition into your thinking.
Action research is focused on solving specific problems that local practitioners
face in their schools and communities (Lewin, 1946; Stringer, 2013). It views your
classroom or other work environment as the place to conduct research. Action
research is based on the idea that having a “researcher attitude”…