Complete the assignments from the following pages:
mech_HackerSommers-Rules8-SE-080715
Diana Hacker
Nancy Sommers
E i g h t h E d i t i o n
Rules for
WRITERS
macmillanhighered.com
You’re a writer.
Rules for Writers is here for you.
No one learns everything about writing in a single course or
even two; we all need to consult the rules or seek out advice
sometimes. Having a reliable support system is key. Your
peers, your instructor, and your writing center are part of your
support system — and so is your Rules for Writers. Whatever the
assignment, whatever your purpose for writing, Rules for Writers
has answers and advice you need for papers and projects in
every course. The more you rely on your handbook and learn
from its advice, the more successful you’ll be as a college writer.
More support for you online
If your instructor has assigned this book with LaunchPad Solo
for Rules for Writers, use the activation code to access even
more support. Visit macmillanhighered.com/rules8e to check
out 192 grammar and research exercises, 39 sample student
papers, and 30 LearningCurve adaptive quizzes.
According to a recent survey of 700
students at 50 colleges, 79% of students
feel that their handbook makes them
more effective academic writers.
mech_HackerSommers-Rules8-SE-080715
Brief Menu
The Writing Process 1
1 Exploring, planning, and drafting 3
2 Revising, editing, and reflecting 30
3 Building effective paragraphs 49
Academic Reading, Writing, and Speaking 65
4 Reading and writing critically 66
5 Reading and writing about multimodal texts 80
6 Reading and writing arguments 91
7 Speaking confidently 119
Clarity 125
8 Active verbs 126
9 Parallel ideas 129
10 Needed words 133
11 Mixed constructions 137
12 Misplaced and dangling modifiers 140
13 Shifts 147
14 Emphasis 152
15 Variety 163
16 Wordy sentences 166
17 Appropriate language 170
18 Exact words 180
Grammar 187
19 Sentence fragments 188
20 Run-on sentences 195
21 Subject-verb agreement (is or are etc.) 202
22 Pronoun-antecedent agreement (singular or plural) 213
23 Pronoun reference (clarity) 218
24 Pronoun case (I and me etc.) 222
25 who and whom 227
26 Adjectives and adverbs 230
27 Standard English verb forms, tenses, and moods 237
Multilingual Writers and ESL Challenges 255
28 Verbs 256
29 Articles 270
30 Sentence structure 279
31 Prepositions and idiomatic expressions 288
Rules8_SE_IFC_IBC.indd 2 6/17/15 7:51 AM
f with infinitives
g with gerunds
25 Case of who and
whom case 227
26 Adjectives and
adverbs adj/adv 230
a adjectives
b adverbs
c good, well, bad,
badly
d comparatives and
superlatives
e double negatives
27 Verb forms, tenses,
moods vb 237
a irregular verbs
b lie and lay
c -s (or -es) endings
d -ed endings
e omitted verbs
f tense
g mood
Multilingual/ESL 255
28 Verbs ESL 256
29 Articles; types of
nouns ESL 270
30 Structure ESL 279
31 Prepositions and
idioms ESL 288
Punctuation 293
32 The comma ,̂ 294
a with and, but, etc.
b introductory
elements
c series
d coordinate
adjectives
e nonrestrictive
elements
f transitions
g direct address, yes
and no, etc.
h he said etc.
i dates, addresses,
titles, numbers
j to prevent
confusion
33 Unnecessary
commas no , 308
34 The semicolon ;
313
a independent
clauses
b transitional
expressions
c series
d misuses
35 The colon : 317
a with lists,
appositives,
quotations
b conventional uses
c misuses
36 The apostrophe
^
’
319
a possessive nouns
b indefinite
pronouns
c contractions
d plurals of
numbers, letters,
etc.
e misuses
37 Quotation marks
“ ” 323
a direct quotations
b quotation within a
quotation
c titles of short
works
d words as words
e with other
punctuation
marks
f misuses
38 End
punctuation 330
a period .
b question mark ?
c exclamation
point !
39 Other punctuation
marks 332
a dash —
b parentheses ( )
c brackets [ ]
d ellipsis mark . . .
e slash /
Mechanics 337
40 Abbreviations
abbr 338
41 Numbers num 341
42 Italics ital 343
43 Spelling sp 345
44 The hyphen
hyph 353
45 Capitalization
cap 356
Grammar Basics 361
46 Parts of speech
basic 362
47 Sentence patterns
basic 375
48 Subordinate word
groups basic 383
49 Sentence types
basic 392
Research 395
50 Conducting research
res 396
51 Managing
information; taking
notes res 408
52 Evaluating sources
res 416
MLA Papers 431
53 Thesis MLA 435
54 Avoiding plagiarism
MLA 441
55 Integrating sources
MLA 445
56 Documenting
sources MLA 458
57 Manuscript format
MLA 513
Sample paper 517
APA Papers 527
58 Thesis APA 530
59 Avoiding plagiarism
APA 534
60 Integrating sources
APA 537
61 Documenting
sources APA 546
62 Manuscript format
APA 580
Sample paper 585
Appendixes 597
Document design 597
Glossary of usage 608
Answers to lettered
exercises 622
Index 636
Rules8_SE_IFC_IBC.indd 3 6/17/15 7:51 AM
Punctuation 293
32 The comma 294
33 Unnecessary commas 308
34 The semicolon 313
35 The colon 317
36 The apostrophe 319
37 Quotation marks 323
38 End punctuation 330
39 Other punctuation 332
Mechanics 337
40 Abbreviations 338
41 Numbers 341
42 Italics 343
43 Spelling 345
44 The hyphen 353
45 Capitalization 356
Grammar Basics 361
46 Parts of speech 362
47 Sentence patterns 375
48 Subordinate word groups 383
49 Sentence types 392
Research 395
50 Thinking like a researcher; gathering sources 396
51 Managing information; taking notes responsibly 408
52 Evaluating sources 416
Writing Papers in MLA Style 431
53 Supporting a thesis 435
54 Citing sources; avoiding plagiarism 441
55 Integrating sources 445
56 MLA documentation style 458
57 MLA manuscript format; sample research paper 513
Writing Papers in APA Style 527
58 Supporting a thesis 530
59 Citing sources; avoiding plagiarism 534
60 Integrating sources 537
61 Documenting sources in APA style 546
62 APA manuscript format; sample paper 580
Appendixes 597
A document design gallery 597
Glossary of usage 608
Answers to lettered exercises 622
Index 636
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Eighth Edition
Rules for
WRITERS
Diana Hacker
Nancy Sommers
Harvard University
Contributing ESL Specialist
Kimberli Huster
Robert Morris University
Bedford /St. Martin’s
A Macmillan Education Imprint
Boston • New York
01_HAC_01131_SE_FM_i_xxviii.indd iii01_HAC_01131_SE_FM_i_xxviii.indd iii 01/09/15 5:03 PM01/09/15 5:03 PM
For Bedford/St. Martin’s
Vice President, Editorial, Macmillan Higher Education Humanities: Edwin Hill
Editorial Director, English and Music: Karen S. Henry
Publisher for Composition: Leasa Burton
Executive Editors: Michelle M. Clark and Brendan Baruth
Senior Editor: Mara Weible
Senior Media Editor: Barbara G. Flanagan
Assistant Editor: Stephanie Th omas
Senior Production Editor: Gregory Erb
Senior Production Supervisor: Jennifer Wetzel
Marketing Manager: Emily Rowin
Copy Editor: Hilly van Loon
Indexer: Ellen Kuhl Repetto
Director of Rights and Permissions: Hilary Newman
Permissions Manager: Kalina Ingham
Photo Editor: Martha Friedman
Senior Art Director: Anna Palchik
Text Design: Claire Seng-Niemoeller
Cover Design: William Boardman
Composition: Cenveo Publisher Services
Printing and Binding: RR Donnelley and Sons
Copyright © 2016, 2012, 2008, 2004 by Bedford/St. Martin’s
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except as may be expressly permitted by
the applicable copyright statutes or in writing by the Publisher.
0 9 8 7 6 5
f e d c b a
For information, write: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 75 Arlington Street,
Boston, MA 02116 (617-399-4000)
ISBN 978-1-4576-8304-6 (Student Edition) Manufactured in China
ISBN 978-1-319-01134-5 (Instructor’s Edition) Manufactured in U.S.
ISBN 978-1-319-01131-4 (Student Edition with Writing about Literature)
Manufactured in China
Acknowledgments
Acknowledgments and copyrights appear on the same page as the text and art
selections they cover; these acknowledgments and copyrights constitute an extension
of the copyright page. It is a violation of the law to reproduce these selections by any
means whatsoever without the written permission of the copyright holder.
01_HAC_01131_SE_FM_i_xxviii.indd iv01_HAC_01131_SE_FM_i_xxviii.indd iv 01/09/15 5:03 PM01/09/15 5:03 PM
v
A letter from the author
Dear Students:
Welcome to Rules for Writers — your college writing hand-
book. One of the pleasures of college writing is exploring ideas
and discovering what you think about a subject. You may fi nd
that the writing process leads you in unexpected directions — the
more you read about a topic, the more questions arise for you to
consider; new questions may lead you to challenge your initial
assumptions. It is in the process of writing — of thinking in depth
about ideas — that you learn what’s interesting in a subject and
why you care about it. And it is through this process that you
fi gure out not just what you think, but why you think it. Rules for
Writers will be your companion throughout the writing process,
helping you to develop your authority as a thoughtful and eff ec-
tive writer.
College off ers many opportunities to write and to learn from
the process of writing and revising. In a criminal justice course,
for example, you may be asked to write a policy memo or a legal
brief; in a nursing course, you may be asked to write a case study
or a nursing practice paper. To write in these courses is to learn
how to think like a criminologist or a nurse and to contribute
your ideas to the discipline’s important conversations and de-
bates. As you write college papers, you’ll have questions about
how to engage with other writers who have written about your
topic, how to support your ideas with well-documented evi-
dence, and how to communicate your points eff ectively. Rules for
Writers provides the guidance you’ll need to write successful col-
lege papers in all your courses.
Photo by Mara Weible
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vi
As you fl ip through Rules for Writers, you’ll see that it’s easy
to use and convenient to keep with you as you draft and revise.
You’ll fi nd answers to all your writing questions — forming a the-
sis, developing an argument, evaluating and citing sources, and
managing information to avoid plagiarism. You’ll fi nd documen-
tation models and formatting advice in MLA and APA. You’ll
also fi nd answers to your questions about grammar, punctuation,
and mechanics — how to tighten wordy sentences, for example,
or how to use commas or quotation marks correctly.
Th e more you rely on Rules for Writers and learn from its
advice, the more successful you’ll be as a college writer. For each
assignment, fl ag sections that contain information you need to
write a successful paper. And when you get feedback on a draft ,
fl ag sections to help you address your writing challenges.
Rules for Writers supports your writing in every college
course. Use it. Being a successful college writer starts here.
With all good wishes,
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vii
Making the most of your handbook
Want to be successful with writing assignments in all your college
courses? Using Rules for Writers is a key fi rst step. Make the most of your
handbook by turning to it whenever you’re writing, revising, conducting
research, or documenting sources. You’ll fi nd advice you can use for
nearly every college writing assignment, starting with answers to common
questions like these:
● How can I improve my thesis? 1c
● How should I format a research essay in MLA style? 57a, 57b
● What is critical reading? Why does it matter? 4a–4e, 5a–5e
● How do I write a speech? 7a–7d
● What are multimodal texts, and how do I write
about them? 5a–5e
● I’ve gotten feedback on a draft. What do I do next? 2a–2i
● How can I make my writing fl ow better? 3d
● What is the right way to use an apostrophe? 36a–36e
● How do I know whether a source is reliable and
worth my time? 52a–52e
● How should I introduce a source in
my paper? 55c (MLA) and 60c (APA)
● Are there easy ways to avoid plagiarism? 54 (MLA) and 59 (APA)
● How do I cite online videos and social
media posts? 56 (MLA) and 61 (APA)
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viii
Quick tips for fi nding more help
Whatever writing and research questions you have, fi nding help in Rules
for Writers is easy. The following reference aids offer convenient, reliable
help for writing assignments in any course.
● The brief and detailed contents inside the front and back covers
allow you to quickly spot the help you need.
● The index includes user-friendly terms such as “fl ow” to point to help
with coherence.
● Color-coded MLA and APA sections give discipline-specifi c advice for
working with sources. Directories at the beginning of each section
list documentation models.
● The glossaries in the Appendixes offer useful defi nitions and help
with commonly confused or misused words such as affect and effect.
If your instructor has assigned this book with for
Rules for Writers, use the activation code to access the exercises,
sample student papers, and LearningCurve game-like quizzing. Visit
macmillanhighered.com/rules8e to log in.
● 260 writing, grammar, and research exercises help you improve
your writing and integrate sources.
● 39 sample student papers provide guidance in writing and formatting
your work in any course.
● 30 LearningCurve adaptive quizzes offer game-like sentence-level
practice and let you track your progress.
macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
8 Active verbs
> Exercises: 8–2 to 8–6
> LearningCurve: Active and passive voice
References to additional online support appear throughout Rules
for Writers.
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http://www.macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
http://www.macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
ix
Preface for instructors
Dear Colleagues:
As college teachers, we have an important mission. We pre-
pare students to write for diff erent purposes and for diff erent
audiences. We show students how to read critically and write ef-
fectively, preparing them to join ongoing research conversations
as contributors (not just consumers) of ideas. In college, students
learn to write, and they learn through writing. Eff ective writing is
fundamental to academic success — across the disciplines.
When you adopt Rules for Writers for your students, you
send an important message: Writing is worth studying and learn-
ing. And you give students the resource to answer their questions
and to learn from the answers. College writing is high stakes:
Students learn to become nurses and teachers, biologists and
criminal justice professionals through writing. Th ey might focus
on psychology or economics, but they’ll most likely write in each
college class they take. Rules for Writers is the one text that stu-
dents will need for all their college work.
When students have a trusted handbook to answer their writ-
ing questions, they become more confi dent writers. Confi dent
college writers are more fl exible learners; they’re more willing to
try new approaches, and they feel comfortable thinking critically.
I recently surveyed 700 fi rst-year writers about the relationship
between handbook use and writer confi dence. When students
were asked about this relationship, 79% of survey participants,
many of whom use Rules for Writers, reported that using a hand-
book made them more confi dent academic writers. Students re-
ported that using Rules for Writers helped them become more
effi cient and eff ective writers than if they had simply searched
the Internet for answers to their questions about comma usage,
for example, or about citing and documenting sources. A Google
search might call up 46 million results to their question about
comma usage, but these results are oft en more confusing than
illuminating, and never as straightforward and authoritative as
the confi dence-building instruction they receive from relying on
Rules for Writers.
Each new feature in the eighth edition is designed to answer
students’ writing questions and address specifi c problems stu-
dents face as college writers. And each new feature of Rules for
Writers is designed to support your teaching with the handbook.
One such feature is an emphasis on the relationship between
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x Preface for instructors
reading critically and writing eff ectively. Th e eighth edition
shows students how to read carefully to understand an author’s
ideas, how to read with skepticism to question those ideas, and
how to present their own ideas in response. Th e entire academic
writing section is focused on the important reading and writing
relationship, because the more students learn to take from their
reading, the more they have to give as writers.
My goal in revising Rules for Writers was to create an even
more useful classroom resource to save you time and increase
students’ learning. Th e eighth edition is informed by teachers and
students who use it and who helped me look squarely at the writ-
ing problems students face and the practical solutions they need
to become confi dent academic writers. You’ll fi nd new instruc-
tion on eff ective peer review, successful paraphrasing, accurate
citation of online sources, and meaningful research — turning
topics into questions; fi nding entry points in debates; and eval-
uating, integrating, and citing sources. And you’ll fi nd step-by-
step writing guides to help students write common assignments,
such as an annotated bibliography.
Teaching with Rules for Writers has become easier than
ever. Th e eighth edition is now available with LaunchPad Solo
for Rules for Writers — an online product with assignable exer-
cises, sample student writing, and other resources. I’ve included
“Writing Practice” prompts to help students apply handbook ad-
vice to their own draft s and to off er practice with core academic
skills — thesis statements, research questions, peer review, and
more. You and your students will also fi nd videos; practice exer-
cises for grammar, style, and citation; and LearningCurve, game-
like adaptive quizzing.
As the author of Rules for Writers, I bring to this handbook
the belief that writing is worth studying and learning — that all
students who use this book will learn to read deeply and write
clearly, that they will fi nd in their reading ideas they care about,
and that they will write about these ideas with care and depth.
I am eager to share this handbook with you, knowing that in
the eighth edition you’ll fi nd everything you and your students
trust and value about Rules for Writers.
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xiPreface for instructors
Acknowledgments
I am grateful for the expertise, enthusiasm, and classroom ex-
perience that so many individuals brought to the eighth edition.
Reviewers
I thank those instructors who off ered detailed feedback on various
parts of the handbook and its supplements: Kirk Adams, Tarrant
County College; Kathryn Allen, University of North Carolina–
Pembroke; David Arnold, University of Wisconsin–Stevens Point;
Kevin Burke, University of Delaware; Sherry Clark, Hopkinsville
Community College; Kristen di Gennaro, Pace University;
Marylynne Diggs, Clark College; Kimberly Dozier, College of the
Desert; Candice Floyd, Prince George’s Community College; Ann
Guess, Alvin Community College; Derek Handley, Community Col-
lege of Allegheny County; Peter Harvan, Beachwood High School;
Anne Helms, Alamance Community College; Elizabeth Joseph,
Tarrant County College; Chippy McLain, Walters State Commu-
nity College; L. Adam Mekler, Morgan State University; Matt Miller,
Oxford High School; Candice Rowe, University of Massachusetts–
Boston; Tony Russell, Central Oregon Community College; Jim
Schrantz, Tarrant County College; Art Schuhart, Northern Virginia
Community College; Cynthia Scurria, Alcorn State University; Alex
Tavares, Hillsborough Community College; Janel Mays Th ompson,
Durham Technical Community College; Brandon Wallace, Mont-
gomery College; Sander Zulauf, County College of Morris.
Contributors
I am grateful to the following individuals, fellow teachers of writ-
ing, for their smart revisions of important content: Kimberli
Huster, ESL Specialist at Robert Morris University, updated the
advice for multilingual writers, and Sara McCurry, Instructor
of English at Shasta College, coauthored the second edition of
Teaching with Hacker Handbooks with Jonathan Cullick, Profes-
sor of English and Chair of the Department of English at North-
ern Kentucky University.
Students
I would like to thank the following students who have let us
adapt their papers as models: Ned Bishop, Sophie Harba, Sam
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xii Preface for instructors
Jacobs, Luisa Mirano, Michelle Nguyen, Emilia Sanchez, and Ren
Yoshida. Th anks also to Alyson D’Amato and Marisa Williamson
for permission to use their multimodal projects as models.
Bedford/St. Martin’s
A comprehensive handbook is a collaborative writing project,
and it is my pleasure to acknowledge and thank the enormously
talented Bedford/St. Martin’s editorial team, whose deep commit-
ment to students informs each new feature of Rules for Writers.
Edwin Hill, vice president for the humanities, Leasa Burton,
publisher for composition, and Karen Henry, editorial director
for English, have helped shape the handbook’s identity and have
guided us with their insights about how the college handbook
market is changing and how we can continue to meet the needs
of today’s college writer.
Michelle Clark, executive editor, is a treasured friend and
colleague and an endless source of creativity and clarity. Michelle
combines wisdom with patience and imagination with practi-
cality. Mara Weible, senior editor, brings to the eighth edition
her superb editorial judgment and her teacher’s sensibility. It is
a deep personal and professional pleasure to work with an edi-
tor as thoughtful and talented as Mara. Her creativity has shaped
the eighth edition and made it an even more practical and in-
novative handbook. Barbara Flanagan, senior media editor, has
worked on the Hacker handbooks for more than 25 years and
brings attention to detail, keen insights, and unrivaled exper-
tise in documentation and media. Th anks to Stephanie Th omas,
assistant editor, for help with art and permissions, for managing
the review process, and for developing several ancillaries. Many
thanks to Gregory Erb, senior production editor, for keeping
us on schedule and for producing the book with skill and care.
And I am grateful to the media team — especially media pro-
ducer Allison Hart — for creating engaging media for the writing
course. Practical advice from Bedford colleagues Emily Rowin,
Brendan Baruth, Jimmy Fleming, and Nick Carbone, who, like
me, spend many, many hours on the road and in faculty offi ces, is
always treasured. Th anks to Hilly van Loon, copy editor, for her
thoroughness and attention to detail; to Claire Seng-Niemoeller,
text designer, who craft ed another open and beautifully designed
edition of the book; and to William Boardman, art director, who
has given the book a strikingly beautiful cover.
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xiiiPreface for instructors
Last, but never least, I off er thanks to my own students who,
over many years, have shaped my teaching and helped me under-
stand their challenges in becoming college writers. Th anks to my
friends and colleagues Suzanne Lane, Maxine Rodburg, Laura
Saltz, and Kerry Walk for sustaining conversations about the
teaching of writing. And thanks to my family: to Joshua Alper, an
attentive reader of life and literature, for his steadfastness across
the draft s; to my parents, Walter and Louise Sommers, and my
aunt Elsie Adler, who encouraged me to write and set me forth
on a career of writing and teaching; to my extended family, Ron,
Charles Mary, Alexander, Demian, Devin, Liz, Kate, and Sam for
their good humor and good cheer; and to Rachel and Curran,
to Alexandra and Brian, witty and wise beyond measure, always
generous with their instruction and inspiration in all things that
matter. And to Lailah Dragonfl y, my granddaughter, thanks for
the joy and sweetness you bring to life.
Nancy Sommers
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xiv Preface for instructors
Welcome to the eighth edition
Rules for Writers speaks to everything student writers need.
Many students want to turn to popular search engines for quick
answers, but the real shortcut is right in their hands. Rules for
Writers provides authoritative, trustworthy advice that’s easy
to understand and apply. No guesswork involved. And while
writing-related resources on the Web off er information (some-
times accurate, sometimes not), they don’t off er the instruction
students will fi nd in their handbook. With the eighth edition,
students have access to reference content that has been class-
tested by millions of students, along with the following new con-
tent to meet their evolving needs.
An emphasis on critical reading Th e second section of Rules for
Writers — Academic Reading, Writing, and Speaking — has been
substantially revised to emphasize the importance of reading
to college research and writing. Th e handbook off ers students a
reading process, teaching them to analyze various types of texts,
sources they discover through research, their own writing, and
the work of their peers.
Help with analyzing multimodal texts A new chapter, “Reading
and writing about multimodal texts” (pp. 80–91), introduces new
genres and practical strategies for analysis.
More help for composing in a variety of genres Writing guides
throughout Rules for Writers (see pp. 76–77 for an example) help
students work through college assignments in a variety of genres.
New annotated sample papers provide helpful models.
Practical advice for public speaking A new chapter, “Speaking
confi dently” (pp. 119–23), helps students develop eff ective oral
communication strategies, whether they’re writing a speech from
scratch or turning a paper into a presentation.
More help with peer review and revising with comments A new
chapter, “Revising, editing, and refl ecting” (pp. 30–49), advises
students on giving and receiving comments on assignments and
applying feedback to revisions of their own work.
Research and documentation help for every course Substantially
revised sections teach students to fi nd an entry point in a debate
and develop authority as a researcher. Students will fi nd new
practical advice for writing a research proposal. Rules for Writers
now includes more than 200 documentation models for sources
in MLA and APA styles. And because some sources are especially
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xvPreface for instructors
hard to cite, new how-to boxes address tricky issues such as au-
thorship of reposted online content.
for Rules for Writers — handbook-specifi c online
assignments and exercises
LaunchPad Solo for Rules for Writers, available free when pack-
aged with the print text, includes 36 interactive writing prompts
related to specifi c handbook content; 260 writing, grammar, and
research exercises; 39 additional sample student papers in MLA
and APA styles; and 30 adaptive LearningCurve quizzes. Targeted
cross-references throughout the handbook connect you and your
students to related resources in LaunchPad Solo for Rules for
Writers. ISBN 978-1-319-05719-0
macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
8 Active verbs
> Exercises: 8–2 to 8–6
> LearningCurve: Active and passive voice
Writer’s Help 2.0 for Hacker Handbooks — a complete online hand-
book, and more
For searchable, assignable Hacker handbook content online, you
can package Rules for Writers with Writer’s Help 2.0 for Hacker
Handbooks. Instead of turning to Google for hit-or-miss advice,
students can search Writer’s Help 2.0 for the same straightfor-
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cises, videos, and additional coverage of topics such as writing in
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With Writer’s Help 2.0, you can assign online pages and activities
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lege writers also means useful data for instructors and adminis-
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ISBN 978-1-319-05725-1
LaunchPad Solo for Readers and Writers — prebuilt teaching and
learning units
Rules for Writers can be packaged with LaunchPad Solo for
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assessments — including LearningCurve adaptive quizzing —
organized into prebuilt, curated units for easy assigning and
assessment of student progress. ISBN 978-1-319-05722-0
01_HAC_01131_SE_FM_i_xxviii.indd xv01_HAC_01131_SE_FM_i_xxviii.indd xv 01/09/15 5:03 PM01/09/15 5:03 PM
http://www.macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
xvi
Supplements and media
Visit the catalog page for Rules for Writers to see a complete list
of instructor supplements, including Teaching with Hacker Hand-
books, student supplements, e-books (various formats), and other
media: macmillanhighered.com/rules/catalog.
Custom solutions
Many schools opt for a custom edition of Rules for Writers. Some
programs choose to add a section about course outcomes and
policies; others choose to customize by adding sample writing by
their own students. Custom covers with the school’s name and
school colors or a photo help emphasize that the handbook pro-
vides advice students can count on in all their courses, across the
disciplines and throughout their college careers.
Preface for instructors
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xvii
Contents
PREFACE FOR INSTRUCTORS ix
The Writing Process 1
1 Exploring, planning, and drafting 3
a Assess the writing situation. 3
b Explore your subject. 12
c Draft and revise a working thesis statement. 14
d Draft a plan. 19
e Draft an introduction. 22
f Draft the body. 24
g Draft a conclusion. 25
h Manage your fi les. 29
2 Revising, editing, and refl ecting 30
a See revision as a social process. 30
b Use peer review: Revise with comments. 30
c Use peer review: Give constructive comments. 33
d Highlights of one student’s peer review process 35
SAMPLE ROUGH DRAFT WITH PEER COMMENTS 35
e Approach global revision in cycles. 38
f Revise and edit sentences. 43
g Proofread the fi nal manuscript. 44
h Sample student revision 45
SAMPLE REVISED LITERACY NARRATIVE 45
i Prepare a portfolio; refl ect on your writing. 48
3 Building effective paragraphs 49
a Focus on a main point. 49
b Develop the main point. 52
c Choose a suitable pattern of organization. 52
d Make paragraphs coherent. 59
e If necessary, adjust paragraph length. 63
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Academic Reading, Writing, and Speaking 65
4 Reading and writing critically 66
a Read actively. 66
SAMPLE ANNOTATED ARTICLE 67
b Outline a text to identify main ideas. 71
c Summarize to deepen your understanding. 72
d Analyze to demonstrate your critical reading. 73
WRITING GUIDE: ANALYTICAL ESSAY 76
e Sample student writing: Analysis of an article 77
SAMPLE ANALYSIS PAPER 78
5 Reading and writing about multimodal
texts 80
a Read actively. 81
SAMPLE ANNOTATED ADVERTISEMENT 83
b Outline to identify main ideas. 84
c Summarize to deepen your understanding. 85
d Analyze to demonstrate your critical reading. 86
e Sample student writing: Analysis of an advertisement 88
SAMPLE ANALYSIS OF AN ADVERTISEMENT 88
6 Reading and writing arguments 91
a Distinguish between reasonable and fallacious argumentative
tactics. 92
b Distinguish between legitimate and unfair emotional
appeals. 98
c Judge how fairly a writer handles opposing views. 100
d When writing arguments, consider purpose and
context. 103
e View your audience as a panel of jurors. 103
f In your introduction, establish credibility and state your
position. 105
g Back up your thesis with persuasive lines of
argument. 106
h Support your claims with specifi c evidence. 107
i Anticipate objections; counter opposing
arguments. 109
j Build common ground. 111
k Sample student writing: Argument 111
SAMPLE ARGUMENT PAPER 112
WRITING GUIDE: ARGUMENT ESSAY 118
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7 Speaking confi dently 119
a Identify your purpose, audience, and context. 120
b Prepare a presentation. 120
c Focus on delivery. 122
d Remix an essay for a presentation. 123
Clarity 125
8 Prefer active verbs. 126
a Active versus passive verbs 126
b Active versus be verbs 127
c Subject that names the actor 128
9 Balance parallel ideas. 129
a Parallel ideas in a series 130
b Parallel ideas presented as pairs 130
c Repetition of function words 132
10 Add needed words. 133
a In compound structures 133
b that 134
c In comparisons 134
d a, an, and the 136
11 Untangle mixed constructions. 137
a Mixed grammar 137
b Illogical connections 138
c is when, is where, and reason . . . is because 139
12 Repair misplaced and dangling modifi ers. 140
a Limiting modifi ers 140
b Misplaced phrases and clauses 141
c Awkwardly placed modifi ers 142
d Split infi nitives 142
e Dangling modifi ers 144
13 Eliminate distracting shifts. 147
a Point of view (person, number) 147
b Verb tense 148
c Verb mood, voice 149
d Indirect to direct questions or quotations 150
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14 Emphasize key ideas. 152
a Coordination and subordination 152
b Choppy sentences 157
c Ineffective or excessive coordination 158
d Ineffective subordination 160
e Excessive subordination 160
f Other techniques 162
15 Provide some variety. 163
a Sentence openings 163
b Sentence structures 164
c Inverted order 164
16 Tighten wordy sentences. 166
a Redundancies 166
b Unnecessary repetition 166
c Empty or infl ated phrases 167
d Simplifying the structure 168
e Reducing clauses to phrases, phrases to single
words 169
17 Choose appropriate language. 170
a Jargon 171
b Pretentious language, euphemisms, “doublespeak” 171
c Slang, regional expressions, nonstandard English 174
d Levels of formality 175
e Sexist language 176
f Offensive language 179
18 Find the exact words. 180
a Connotations 180
b Specifi c, concrete nouns 181
c Misused words 181
d Standard idioms 182
e Clichés 184
f Figures of speech 185
Grammar 187
19 Repair sentence fragments. 188
a Subordinate clauses 190
b Phrases 191
c Other fragmented word groups 192
d Acceptable fragments 194
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Contents xxi
20 Revise run-on sentences. 195
a Revision with coordinating conjunction 197
b Revision with semicolon, colon, or dash 198
c Revision by separating sentences 199
d Revision by restructuring 200
21 Make subjects and verbs agree. 202
a Standard subject-verb combinations 202
b Words between subject and verb 202
c Subjects joined with and 203
d Subjects joined with or, nor, either . . . or,
or neither . . . nor 206
e Indefi nite pronouns 206
f Collective nouns 207
g Subject following verb 209
h Subject, not subject complement 209
i who, which, and that 210
j Words with plural form, singular meaning 211
k Titles of works, company names, words mentioned
as words, gerund phrases 211
22 Make pronouns and antecedents agree. 213
a Singular with singular, plural with plural (indefi nite
pronouns, generic nouns) 213
b Collective nouns 215
c Antecedents joined with and 215
d Antecedents joined with or, nor, either . . . or,
or neither . . . nor 216
23 Make pronoun references clear. 218
a Ambiguous or remote reference 218
b Broad reference of this, that, which, and it 219
c Implied antecedents 219
d Indefi nite use of they, it, and you 220
e who for persons, which or that for things 221
24 Distinguish between pronouns such as
I and me. 222
a Subjective case for subjects and subject
complements 223
b Objective case for objects 223
c Appositives 224
d Pronoun following than or as 225
e we or us before a noun 225
f Subjects and objects of infi nitives 225
g Pronoun modifying a gerund 226
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25 Distinguish between who and whom. 227
a In subordinate clauses 228
b In questions 229
c As subjects or objects of infi nitives 229
26 Choose adjectives and adverbs with care. 230
a Adjectives to modify nouns 231
b Adverbs to modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs 232
c good and well, bad and badly 233
d Comparatives and superlatives 234
e Double negatives 235
27 Choose appropriate verb forms, tenses, and moods
in Standard English. 237
a Irregular verbs 237
b lie and lay 241
c -s (or -es) endings 242
d -ed endings 245
e Omitted verbs 246
f Verb tense 247
g Subjunctive mood 252
Multilingual Writers and ESL Challenges 255
28 Verbs 256
a Appropriate form and tense 256
b Passive voice 259
c Base form after a modal 261
d Negative verb forms 264
e Verbs in conditional sentences 265
f Verbs followed by gerunds or infi nitives 267
29 Articles 270
a Articles and other noun markers 270
b When to use the 271
c When to use a or an 274
d When not to use a or an 276
e No articles with general nouns 277
f Articles with proper nouns 277
30 Sentence structure 279
a Linking verb between a subject and its complement 280
b A subject in every sentence 280
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Contents xxiii
c Repeated nouns or pronouns with the same grammatical
function 281
d Repeated subjects, objects, and adverbs in adjective clauses 282
e Mixed constructions with although or because 283
f Placement of adverbs 284
g Present participles and past participles as adjectives 285
h Order of cumulative adjectives 287
31 Prepositions and idiomatic expressions 288
a Prepositions showing time and place 288
b Noun (including -ing form) after a preposition 290
c Common adjective + preposition combinations 291
d Common verb + preposition combinations 291
Punctuation 293
32 The comma 294
a Independent clauses joined with and, but, etc. 294
b Introductory elements 295
c Items in a series 297
d Coordinate adjectives 297
e Nonrestrictive and restrictive elements 299
f Transitions, parenthetical expressions, absolute phrases,
contrasts 303
g Direct address, yes and no, interrogative tags, interjections 305
h he said etc. 305
i Dates, addresses, titles, numbers 306
j To prevent confusion 307
33 Unnecessary commas 308
a Between two words, phrases, or subordinate clauses 308
b Between a verb and its subject or object 309
c Before the fi rst or after the last item in a series 309
d Between cumulative adjectives, an adjective and a noun, or an
adverb and an adjective 309
e Before and after restrictive or parenthetical elements 310
f Before essential concluding adverbial elements 310
g After a phrase beginning an inverted sentence 311
h Other misuses 311
34 The semicolon 313
a Between independent clauses not joined with a coordinating
conjunction 313
b Between independent clauses linked with a transitional
expression 314
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Contentsxxiv
c In a series containing internal punctuation 315
d Misuses 315
35 The colon 317
a Before a list, an appositive, or a quotation 317
b Conventional uses 318
c Misuses 318
36 The apostrophe 319
a Possessive nouns 319
b Possessive indefi nite pronouns 320
c Contractions 321
d Not for plural numbers, letters, abbreviations, words as words 321
e Misuses 322
37 Quotation marks 323
a Direct quotations 324
b Quotation within a quotation 325
c Titles of short works 325
d Words as words 325
e With other punctuation marks 326
f Misuses 328
38 End punctuation 330
a The period 330
b The question mark 331
c The exclamation point 331
39 Other punctuation marks 332
a The dash 332
b Parentheses 333
c Brackets 334
d The ellipsis mark 334
e The slash 335
Mechanics 337
40 Abbreviations 338
a Titles with proper names 338
b Familiar abbreviations 338
c Conventional abbreviations 339
d Units of measurement 339
e Latin abbreviations 340
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Contents xxv
f Plural of abbreviations 340
g Misuses 340
41 Numbers 341
a Spelling out 341
b Using numerals 342
42 Italics 343
a Titles of works 343
b Names of ships, spacecraft, and aircraft 344
c Foreign words 344
d Words as words, letters as letters, numbers as numbers 344
43 Spelling 345
a Spelling rules 345
b The dictionary 347
c Words that sound alike 351
d Commonly misspelled words 351
44 The hyphen 353
a Compound words 353
b Hyphenated adjectives 354
c Fractions and compound numbers 354
d With certain prefi xes and suffi xes 355
e To avoid ambiguity or to separate awkward double or triple
letters 355
f Word division 355
45 Capitalization 356
a Proper vs. common nouns 356
b Titles with proper names 358
c Titles and subtitles of works 358
d First word of a sentence 359
e First word of a quoted sentence 359
f First word after a colon 359
Grammar Basics 361
46 Parts of speech 362
a Nouns 362
b Pronouns 363
c Verbs 365
d Adjectives 367
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Contentsxxvi
e Adverbs 368
f Prepositions 369
g Conjunctions 370
h Interjections 371
47 Sentence patterns 375
a Subjects 375
b Verbs, objects, and complements 378
c Pattern variations 382
48 Subordinate word groups 383
a Prepositional phrases 384
b Verbal phrases 385
c Appositive phrases 388
d Absolute phrases 388
e Subordinate clauses 389
49 Sentence types 392
a Sentence structures 392
b Sentence purposes 394
Research 395
50 Thinking like a researcher; gathering sources 396
a Manage the project. 396
b Pose questions worth exploring. 398
c Map out a search strategy. 401
d Search effi ciently; master a few shortcuts to fi nding good
sources. 402
e Conduct fi eld research, if appropriate. 406
f Write a research proposal. 408
51 Managing information; taking notes
responsibly 408
a Maintain a working bibliography. 409
b Keep track of source materials. 410
c Take notes carefully to avoid unintentional plagiarism. 410
52 Evaluating sources 416
a Think about how sources might contribute to your writing. 416
b Select sources worth your time and attention. 418
c Select appropriate versions of online sources. 421
d Read with an open mind and a critical eye. 422
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Contents xxvii
e Assess Web sources with care. 424
f Construct an annotated bibliography. 427
WRITING GUIDE: ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY 428
Writing Papers in MLA Style 431
53 Supporting a thesis 435
a Form a working thesis. 435
b Organize your ideas. 436
c Use sources to inform and support your argument. 437
d Draft an introduction for your thesis. 439
e Draft the paper in an appropriate voice. 440
54 Citing sources; avoiding plagiarism 441
a Understand how the MLA system works. 441
b Avoid plagiarism when quoting, summarizing, and paraphrasing
sources. 442
55 Integrating sources 445
a Summarize and paraphrase effectively. 446
b Use quotations effectively. 447
c Use signal phrases to integrate sources. 450
d Synthesize sources. 454
56 Documenting sources in MLA style 458
a MLA in-text citations 458
b MLA list of works cited 468
c MLA information notes 512
57 MLA manuscript format; sample research paper 513
a MLA manuscript format 513
b Sample MLA research paper 516
Writing Papers in APA Style 527
58 Supporting a thesis 530
a Form a working thesis. 530
b Organize your ideas. 531
c Use sources to inform and support your argument. 532
59 Citing sources; avoiding plagiarism 534
a Understand how the APA system works. 534
b Avoid plagiarism when quoting, summarizing, and paraphrasing
sources. 535
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Contentsxxviii
60 Integrating sources 537
a Summarize and paraphrase effectively. 538
b Use quotations effectively. 539
c Use signal phrases to integrate sources. 541
d Synthesize sources. 545
61 Documenting sources in APA style 546
a APA in-text citations 547
b APA list of works cited 553
62 APA manuscript format; sample paper 580
a APA manuscript format 581
b Sample APA research paper 584
Appendixes 597
A document design gallery 597
Glossary of usage 608
ANSWERS TO LETTERED EXERCISES 622
INDEX 636
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The Writing
Process
1 Exploring, planning, and drafting, 3
2 Revising, editing, and refl ecting, 30
STUDENT WRITING: HIGHLIGHTS OF ONE STUDENT’S
PEER REVIEW PROCESS, 35
STUDENT WRITING: REVISED LITERACY NARRATIVE, 45
3 Building effective paragraphs, 49
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Exploring, planning, and drafting2 1
College off ers many opportunities to write and learn from the
process of writing and revising.
As you write, you will read and respond to what others have
written, use evidence to support your ideas, and develop your
ability to think carefully and creatively. In a sociology class, you
might be asked to write a fi eld report; in a nursing class, a case
study; and in a literature class, a critical analysis. By writing in
these classes, you contribute your ideas and join thinkers and writ-
ers who share interests, ideas, and ways of communicating with
one another. Developing the following habits of mind — curiosity,
engagement, responsibility, and refl ection — will help you write
successfully in all of your college courses.
Be curious. Good college writing starts with curiosity. What
issues intrigue you? What questions need to be explored? Writing
is more interesting and rewarding when you explore questions
you don’t have answers to, questions that matter to you and to
those in the discipline in which you are writing.
Be engaged. Writing is a social activity that brings you into con-
versations with scholars, instructors, classmates, librarians, and
writing center tutors. Reading actively allows you to consider
and respond to the ideas of other writers. Participating in class-
room or online discussions deepens your thinking and gives you
opportunities to engage with your peers. Eff ective college writers
reach out to readers who can help shape their work in progress.
Be responsible. Engaging with the ideas of other writers and
thinkers requires responsibility — to represent their ideas accu-
rately and honestly and to acknowledge their contributions to
your work. By giving credit to your sources and diff erentiating
your own ideas from those of your sources, you encourage your
readers to trust you and take you seriously.
Be refl ective. Being refl ective in a writing class oft en means
stopping to think about your own writing habits or approaches
to writing assignments. By examining your decisions, successes,
and challenges, you’ll be able to fi gure out what’s working and
what needs more work and to transfer skills from one writing
assignment to the next.
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3
1 Exploring, planning, and drafting
Writing is a process of fi guring out what you think, not a matter
of recording already developed thoughts. Since it’s not possible to
think about everything all at once, you’ll fi nd the process more
manageable if you handle a piece of writing in stages. You will
generally move from planning to draft ing to revising, but as your
ideas develop, you will fi nd yourself circling back and returning
to earlier stages.
Before composing a fi rst draft , spend some time generating
ideas. Mull over your subject while listening to music, taking a
walk, or driving to work; or jot down inspirations or explore your
questions with a willing listener. Consider these questions: What
do you fi nd puzzling, striking, or interesting about your subject?
What would you like to know more about? Be curious and open
to new ideas and diff erent points of view. Explore questions you
don’t have answers to.
1a Assess the writing situation.
Begin by taking a look at your writing situation. Th e key elements
of a writing situation include the following:
• subject
• purpose
• audience
• genre
• sources of information
• constraints (length, document design, reviewers,
deadlines)
It is likely that you will make fi nal decisions about all of
these matters later in the writing process — aft er a fi rst draft , for
example — but you will become a more eff ective writer if you
think about as many of them as possible in advance. For a quick
checklist, see the chart on pages 4–5.
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1a Exploring, planning, and drafting4
Checklist for assessing the writing situation
Subject
● Has the subject (or a range of possible subjects) been assigned to
you, or are you free to choose your own?
● What interests you about your subject? What questions would
you like to explore?
● Why is your subject worth writing about? How might readers
benefi t?
● Do you need to narrow your subject (because of length restric-
tions, for instance)?
Purpose and audience
● Why are you writing: To inform readers? To persuade them? To
call them to action? To off er an interpretation of a text? Do you
have more than one purpose for writing?
● Who are your readers? How well informed are they about the
subject? What do you want them to learn?
● How interested and attentive are your readers likely to be? Will
they resist any of your ideas? What possible objections will you
need to anticipate and counter?
● What is your relationship to your readers: Student to instructor?
Citizen to citizen? Expert to novice? Employee to supervisor?
Genre
● What genre (type of writing) does your assignment require: A
report? A proposal? An analysis of data? An essay?
● If the genre is not assigned, what genre is appropriate for your
subject, purpose, and audience?
● What are the expectations and conventions of your assigned genre?
For instance, what type of evidence is typically used in the genre?
● Does the genre require a specifi c design format or method of
organization?
● Does the genre require or benefi t from visuals, such as photos,
drawings, or graphs?
Sources of information
● Where will your information come from: Reading? Research?
Direct observation? Interviews? Questionnaires?
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Assess the writing situation 5
draft
1a
● What type of evidence suits your subject, purpose, audience,
and genre?
● What documentation style is required: MLA? APA?
Length and format
● Do you have any length specifi cations? If not, what length seems
appropriate, given your subject, purpose, audience, and genre?
● Is a particular format required? If so, do you have guidelines to
follow or examples to consult?
Deadlines
● What are your deadlines? How much time will you need to allow
for the various stages of writing, including proofreading and
printing or posting the fi nal draft ?
Academic English What counts as good writing varies from
culture to culture and even among groups within cultures. In
some situations, you will need to become familiar with the writing
styles — such as direct or indirect, personal or impersonal, plain or
embellished — that are valued by the culture or discipline for which
you are writing.
Subject
Frequently your subject will be given to you. In a psychology class,
for example, you might be asked to discuss Bruno Bettelheim’s
Freudian analysis of fairy tales. In a composition course, assign-
ments oft en ask you to analyze texts and evaluate arguments. In
the business world, you may be assigned to draft a marketing
plan. When you are free to choose your own subject, let your own
curiosity focus your choice. Make connections between yourself
and what you are learning. If you are studying television, radio,
and the Internet in a communications course, for example, you
might ask yourself which of these subjects interests you most.
Perhaps you want to learn more about the role streaming video
can play in activism and social change. Look through your read-
ings and class notes to see if you can identify questions you’d like
to explore further in an essay.
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1a Exploring, planning, and drafting6
Make sure that you can reasonably investigate your subject
in the space you have. If you are limited to a few pages, for exam-
ple, you could not do justice to a broad subject such as “videos as
agents of social change.” You could, however, focus on one aspect
of the subject — perhaps contradictory claims about the eff ective-
ness of creating video content for small, specifi c audiences.
If your interest in a subject stems from your personal expe-
rience, you will want to ask what it is about your experience that
would interest your audience and why. For example, if you have vol-
unteered at a homeless shelter, you might have spent some time talk-
ing to homeless children and learning about their needs. Perhaps
you can use your experience to broaden your readers’ understand-
ing of the issues, to persuade an organization to fund an aft er-school
program for homeless children, or to propose changes in legislation.
Whether or not you choose your own subject, it’s important
to be aware of the expectations of each writing situation. Th e fol-
lowing chart suggests ways to interpret assignments.
Understanding an assignment
Determining the purpose of an assignment
Th e wording of an assignment may suggest its purpose. You might
be expected to do one or more of the following in a college writing
assignment:
● summarize information from course materials or research (See 4c.)
● analyze ideas and concepts (See 4d.)
● take a position on a topic and defend it with evidence (See 6h.)
● synthesize (combine ideas from) several sources and create an
original argument (See 55d and 60d.)
Understanding how to answer an assignment’s question
Many assignments will ask you to answer a how or why question.
You cannot answer such questions using only facts; instead, you
will need to take a position. For example, the question “What are
the survival rates for leukemia patients?” can be answered with
facts. Th e question “Why are the survival rates for leukemia patients
in one state lower than those in a neighboring state?” must be
answered with both a claim and facts.
If a list of questions appears in the assignment, be careful —
instructors rarely expect you to answer all the questions in order. Look
instead for topics or themes that will help you ask your own questions.
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1a
Purpose
Your purpose, or reason for writing, will oft en be dictated by
your writing situation. Perhaps you have been asked to draft a
proposal requesting funding for a student organization, to report
the results of a psychology experiment, or to write about the con-
troversy surrounding genetically modifi ed foods for the school
newspaper. Even though your overall purpose may be fairly obvi-
ous in such situations, a closer look at the assignment can help
you make some necessary decisions. How detailed should the
proposal be? How technical does your psychology professor ex-
pect your report to be? Do you want to inform students about the
controversy surrounding genetically modifi ed foods or to change
their attitudes toward it?
In many writing situations, part of your challenge will be
discovering a purpose. Asking yourself why readers should care
about what you are saying can help you decide what your pur-
pose might be. Perhaps your subject is magnet schools — schools
that draw students from diff erent neighborhoods because of fea-
tures such as advanced science classes or a concentration on the
arts. If you have discussed magnet schools in class, a description
of how these schools work probably will not interest you or your
readers. But maybe you have discovered that your county’s mag-
net schools are not promoting diversity as had been planned, and
you want to call your readers to action.
Although no precise guidelines will lead you to a purpose,
you can begin by asking, “Why am I writing?” and “What is my
goal?” Identify which one or more of the following aims you
hope to accomplish.
Recognizing implied questions
When you are asked to discuss, analyze, agree or disagree with, or
consider a topic, your instructor will oft en expect you to answer a
how or why question.
Discuss the eff ects of the No
Child Left Behind Act on special
education programs.
= How has the No Child Left
Behind Act aff ected special
education programs?
Consider the recent rise of
attention defi cit hyperactivity
disorder diagnoses.
= Why are diagnoses of attention
defi cit hyperactivity disorder
rising?
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1a Exploring, planning, and drafting8
PURPOSES FOR WRITING
to inform to evaluate
to persuade to recommend
to entertain to request
to call readers to action to propose
to change attitudes to provoke thought
to analyze to express feelings
to argue to summarize
to refl ect to synthesize
Writers oft en misjudge their own purposes, summarizing
when they should be analyzing, or expressing feelings about
problems instead of proposing solutions. Before beginning any
writing task, pause to ask, “Why am I communicating with my
readers?” Th is question will lead you to another important ques-
tion: “Just who are my readers?”
Audience
Take time to ask questions about your readers and their expec-
tations. Consider questions such as these: Who will be reading
your draft ? What is your relationship to your readers? What in-
formation will your audience need to understand your ideas? Th e
choices you make as you write will tell readers who you think
they are (novices or experts, for example) and will show respect
for your readers’ perspectives.
Academic audiences In college writing, considerations of audi-
ence can be more complex than they seem at fi rst. Your instruc-
tors will read your essay, of course, but most instructors play
multiple roles while reading. Th eir fi rst and most obvious roles
are as coach and evaluator; but they are also intelligent and objec-
tive readers, the kind of people who might be informed or called
to action by what you have to say and who want to learn from
your insights and ideas.
Business audiences Writers in the business world oft en fi nd
themselves writing for multiple audiences. A letter to a client,
for instance, might be distributed to sales representatives as
well. Readers of a report might include people with and without
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1a
technical expertise, or readers who want details and those who
prefer a quick overview.
Public audiences Writers in communities oft en write to a specifi c
audience — a legislative representative, readers of a local news-
paper, fellow members of a social group. With public writing, it
is more likely that you are familiar with the views your readers
hold and the assumptions they make, so you may be better able
to judge how to engage those readers.
For help with audience when composing e-mail messages,
see the following chart.
Considering audience when writing e-mail messages
In academic, business, and public contexts, you will want to show
readers that you value their time. Here are some strategies for writ-
ing eff ective e-mails:
● Use a concise, meaningful subject line to help readers sort mes-
sages and set priorities.
● State your main point at the beginning so that your reader sees it
without scrolling.
● Write concisely; keep paragraphs short.
● Avoid writing in all capital letters or all lowercase letters.
● Proofread for typos and obvious errors that are likely to slow
down readers.
You will also want to follow conventions of etiquette and aca-
demic integrity. Here are some strategies for writing responsible
e-mails:
● E-mail messages can easily be forwarded to others and repro-
duced. Do not write anything that you would not want attributed
to you.
● Do not forward another person’s message without asking his or
her permission.
● If you write an e-mail message that includes someone else’s
words — opinions, statistics, song lyrics, and so forth — let your
reader know the source for that material and where any bor-
rowed material begins and ends.
● Choose your words carefully because e-mail messages can eas-
ily be misread. Without hearing your voice or seeing your facial
gestures or body language, readers can misunderstand your
message.
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1a Exploring, planning, and drafting10
Genre
When writing for a college course, pay close attention to the
genre, or type of writing, assigned. Each genre is a category of
writing meant for a specifi c purpose and audience, with its own
set of agreed-upon expectations and conventions for style, struc-
ture, and document design. Sometimes an assignment specifi es
the genre — an essay in a writing class, a policy memo in a crim-
inal justice class, or an executive summary in a business class.
Sometimes the genre is yours to choose, and you need to decide if
a particular genre — a poster presentation, an audio essay, a Web
page, or a podcast, for example — will help you communicate
your purpose and reach readers.
If the genre has been assigned, the following questions will
help you fi gure out how to present your ideas:
• Do you have access to sample projects in the genre that has
been assigned?
• Who is the audience? What specialized vocabulary do
readers expect in the genre?
• What type of evidence is usually required in the genre?
• What format, organization, and citation style are
expected?
If you are free to choose the genre, consider the following
questions when deciding which genre to use:
• What is your purpose: To argue a position? To instruct?
To present a process? To inspire? To propose? Do you have
more than one purpose?
• Who is your audience? What do you know about your
readers or viewers?
• What method of presenting information would appeal to
your audience: Reasoned paragraphs? Diagrams? Video?
Slides?
Sources of information
Where will your evidence — facts, details, and examples — come
from? What kind of reading, observation, or research is neces-
sary to meet the expectations of your assignment?
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1a
Reading Reading is an important way to deepen your under-
standing of a topic and expand your perspective. It will
be your primary source of information for many college
assignments.
Read with an open mind to learn from the insights and re-
search of others. Take notes on your thoughts, impressions, and
questions. Your notes can be a way to enter a conversation with
the authors of the texts you read. (See 51c.) And always keep
careful records of any sources you read and consult. (See 51c.)
Observation Observation is an excellent means of collecting
information about a wide range of subjects, such as gender
relationships on a popular television program, the clichéd lan-
guage of sports announcers, or a current exhibit at the local
art museum. For such subjects, do not rely on your memory
alone; your information will be fresher and more detailed
if you actively collect it, with a notebook, laptop, or voice
recorder.
Interviews and questionnaires Interviews and questionnaires can
supply detailed and interesting information on many subjects. A
nursing student interested in the care of terminally ill patients
might interview hospice nurses, for example.
It is a good idea to record interviews to preserve any
vivid quotations that you might want to weave into your essay.
Circulating questionnaires by e-mail or on a Web site will facili-
tate responses. Keep questions simple, and specify a deadline to
ensure that you get a reasonable number of replies.
Length and format
Writers seldom have complete control over length requirements.
Journalists usually write within strict word limits set by their edi-
tors, businesspeople routinely aim for conciseness, and most col-
lege assignments specify an approximate length.
Your writing situation may also require a certain format.
In the academic world, you may need to learn precise disciplin-
ary and genre conventions for formatting lab reports, critiques,
research papers, and so on. For most undergraduate essays, a
standard academic format is acceptable. (See pp. 597–607.)
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1b Exploring, planning, and drafting12
EXERCISE 1–1 Narrow three of the following subjects into topics that
would be manageable for an essay of two to fi ve pages.
1. Treatments for mental illness
2. An experience with racism or sexism
3. Cyberbullying
4. Images of women in video games
5. Public health care
EXERCISE 1–2 Suggest a purpose and an audience for three of the fol-
lowing subjects. More practice:
1. Genetic modifi cation of cash crops
2. Government housing for military veterans
3. Th e future of print magazines
4. Working with special needs children
5. Hybrid cars
1b Explore your subject.
Experiment with one or more techniques for exploring your sub-
ject and discovering your purpose: talking and listening; reading
and annotating texts; asking questions; brainstorming and free-
writing; keeping a journal; blogging.
Whatever technique you turn to, the goal is the same: to gen-
erate ideas that will lead you to a question, a problem, or a topic
that you want to explore further.
Talking and listening
Conversation can help you develop your ideas before you begin
to write them down. By talking and listening to others, you can
also discover what they fi nd interesting, what they are curious
about, and where they disagree with you. If you are planning to
develop an argument, you can try it out on listeners with other
points of view.
macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
1 Exploring, planning, and drafting
> Writing practice: Exploring a subject
> Exercise: 1–3
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Explore your subject 13
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1b
Reading and annotating texts
Reading is an important way to deepen your understanding of a
topic, learn from the insights and research of others, and expand
your perspective. Annotating a text, written or visual, encourages
you to read actively — to highlight key concepts, to note contra-
dictions in an argument, or to raise questions for further research
and investigation.
Asking questions
Whenever you are writing about ideas, events, or people, whether
current or historical, asking questions is one way to get started.
You might try the questions journalists routinely ask themselves:
Who? What? When? Where? Why? and How? If you were writing
about a negative reaction to a fi lm, for instance, you might want
to ask — Who objected to the fi lm and why? What were the objec-
tions and when were they voiced? Such questions will help you
investigate your subject to discover important facts.
In academic writing, scholars oft en generate ideas by posing
questions related to a specifi c discipline. If you are writing in a
particular discipline, try to fi nd out which questions its schol-
ars typically explore. Look for clues in assigned readings, assign-
ments, and class discussions to understand how a discipline’s
questions help you understand its concerns.
Brainstorming and freewriting
Brainstorming and freewriting are good ways to fi gure out what
you know and what questions you have. Write whatever comes to
mind without pausing to think about word choice, spelling, or even
meaning. Th e goal is to write quickly and freely to discover what
questions are on your mind and what directions you might pursue.
Keeping a journal
A journal is a collection of informal, exploratory, sometimes ex-
perimental writing. In a journal, oft en meant for your eyes only,
you can take risks. You might freewrite, pose questions, comment
on an interesting idea from one of your classes, or keep a list of
questions that occur to you while reading. You might imagine a
conversation between yourself and your readers or stage a debate
to understand opposing positions.
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1c Exploring, planning, and drafting14
Blogging
Although a blog is a type of journal, it is a public writing space
rather than a private one. You can explore an idea for a paper by
blogging about it in diff erent ways or from diff erent angles. Since
most blogs have a commenting feature, you can create a conver-
sation by inviting readers to give you feedback — ask questions,
make counterarguments, or suggest other sources on a topic.
1c Draft and revise a working thesis statement.
For many types of writing, you will be able to state your central
idea in a sentence or two. Such a statement, which ordinarily ap-
pears in the opening paragraph of your fi nished essay, is called a
thesis.
Understanding what makes an effective thesis statement
An eff ective thesis statement is a central idea that conveys your
purpose — your reason for writing — and requires support.
Keep the following guidelines in mind to help you develop
an eff ective thesis statement:
• A thesis should take a position that needs to be explained
and supported.
• A thesis should be your answer to a question, your solution
to a problem, or your position on a topic or debate.
• A thesis should be appropriate for the length requirements
of the assignment. It should not be too broad or too narrow.
• A thesis should be sharply focused. Use concrete language
and make sure your thesis lets readers know what you plan
to discuss.
• A thesis should stand up to the “So what?” question. (See
p. 16.)
Drafting a working thesis
As you explore your topic, you will begin to see possible ways
to focus your material. At this point, try to settle on a tenta-
tive central idea, or working thesis statement. Th e more com-
plex your topic, the more your focus may change. Th ink of your
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15
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1cDraft and revise a thesis statement
working thesis as preliminary, open for consideration and revi-
sion, as you clarify your purpose and consider the expectations
of your audience. As your ideas develop, you’ll need to revisit
your working thesis to see if it presents the position you want
to take and if it can be supported by the sources of evidence you
have accumulated.
You’ll fi nd that the process of answering a question you have
posed, resolving a problem you have identifi ed, or taking a posi-
tion on a debatable topic will focus your thinking and lead you
to develop a working thesis. Here, for example, are one student’s
eff orts to pose a question and draft a working thesis for an essay
in his ethics course.
QUESTION
Should athletes who enhance their performance through
biotechnology be banned from athletic competition?
WORKING THESIS
Athletes who boost their performance through biotechnology
should be banned from athletic competition.
Th e working thesis off ers a useful place to start writing — a way
to limit the topic and focus a fi rst draft — but it doesn’t take into
consideration the expectations of readers who will ask “Why?”
and “So what?” Th e student has taken a position — athletes
who boost their performance through biotechnology should be
banned from athletic competition — but he hasn’t answered why
athletes should be banned. To fully answer his own question and
to claim something specifi c in his thesis, he might push his own
thinking with the word because.
STRONGER WORKING THESIS
Athletes who boost their performance through biotechnology
should be banned from athletic competition because
biotechnology gives athletes an unfair advantage and disrupts
the sense of fair play.
Revising a working thesis
As you move to a clearer and more specifi c position you want to
take, you’ll start to see ways to revise your working thesis. You
may fi nd that the evidence you have collected supports a diff er-
ent thesis; or you may fi nd that your position has changed as
you learned more about your topic. Revision is ongoing; as your
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1c Exploring, planning, and drafting16
ideas evolve, your working thesis will evolve, too. One eff ective
way to revise a working thesis is to put it to the “So what?” test
(see the box below). A test like this can help you keep audience
and purpose — and the expectations of your assignment — in
mind as you revise.
Putting your working thesis to the “So what?” test
Use the following questions to help you revise your working thesis.
● Why would readers want to read an essay with this thesis? How
would you respond to a reader who hears your thesis and asks
“So what?” or “Why does it matter?”
● Will any readers disagree with this thesis? If so, how might your
thesis respond to a counter perspective?
● Is the thesis too obvious? If you cannot come up with
interpretations that oppose your own, consider revising your
thesis.
● Can you support your thesis with the evidence available?
Using a problem/strategy approach as you revise
Revising a working thesis is easier if you have a method or an ap-
proach. Th e following problem/strategy approach is an eff ective
way to evaluate and revise a working thesis, especially if you tend
to start out with thesis statements that are too factual, too broad,
too narrow, or too vague.
A thesis should require proof or further development through facts
and details; it cannot itself be a fact or a description.
WORKING
THESIS
Th e fi rst polygraph was developed by Dr. John A.
Larson in 1921.
PROBLEM Th e thesis is too factual. A reader could not
disagree with it or debate it; no further development of
this idea is required.
STRATEGY Enter a debate by posing a question about
your topic that has more than one possible answer.
For example: Should the polygraph be used by private
employers? Your thesis should be your answer to the
question.
REVISED
THESIS
Because the polygraph has not been proved reliable,
even under controlled conditions, its use by private
employers should be banned.
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17
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1cDraft and revise a thesis statement
A thesis should be an answer to a question, not a question itself.
WORKING
THESIS
Would John F. Kennedy have continued to escalate the
war in Vietnam if he had lived?
PROBLEM Th e thesis is a question, not an answer to a
question.
STRATEGY Take a position on your topic by answering
the question you have posed. Your thesis should be
your answer to the question.
REVISED
THESIS
Although John F. Kennedy sent the fi rst American
troops to Vietnam before he died, an analysis of
his foreign policy suggests that he would not have
escalated the war had he lived.
A thesis should be of suffi cient scope for your assignment; it should
not be too broad.
WORKING
THESIS
Mapping the human genome has many implications
for health and science.
PROBLEM Th e thesis is too broad. Even in a very long
research paper, you would not be able to discuss all the
implications of mapping the human genome.
STRATEGY Focus on a subtopic of your original topic. Once
you have chosen a subtopic, take a position in an ongoing
debate and pose a question that has more than one answer.
For example: Should people be tested for genetic diseases?
Your thesis should be your answer to the question.
REVISED
THESIS
Although scientists can now detect genetic
predisposition for specifi c diseases, policymakers
should establish clear guidelines about whom to test
and under what circumstances.
A thesis also should not be too narrow.
WORKING
THESIS
A person who carries a genetic mutation linked to a
particular disease might or might not develop that disease.
PROBLEM Th e thesis is too narrow. It does not suggest
any argument or debate about the topic.
STRATEGY Identify challenging questions that readers
might ask about your topic. Th en pose a question that
has more than one answer. For example: Do the risks
of genetic testing outweigh its usefulness? Your thesis
should be your answer to this question.
REVISED
THESIS
Th ough positive results in a genetic test do not
guarantee that the disease will develop, such results
can cause psychological trauma; genetic testing should
therefore be avoided if possible.
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1c Exploring, planning, and drafting18
A thesis should be sharply focused, not too vague. Avoid fuzzy, hard-
to-defi ne words such as interesting, good, or disgusting.
WORKING
THESIS
Th e Vietnam Veterans Memorial is an interesting
structure.
PROBLEM Th is thesis is too fuzzy and unfocused. It’s
diffi cult to defi ne interesting, and the sentence doesn’t
give readers any cues about where the essay is going.
STRATEGY Focus your thesis with concrete language and
a clear plan. Pose a question about the topic that has
more than one answer. For example: How does the
physical structure of the Vietnam Veterans Memorial
shape the experience of visitors? Your thesis — your
answer to the question — should use specifi c language.
REVISED
THESIS
By inviting visitors to see their own refl ections in the
wall, the Vietnam Veterans Memorial creates a link
between the present and the past.
EXERCISE 1–4 In each of the following pairs, which sentence might
work well as a thesis for a short paper? What is the problem with the
other one? Is it too factual? Too broad? Too vague? Use the problem/
strategy approach from pages 16–18 to evaluate each thesis.
More practice:
1. a. By networking with friends, a single parent can manage to
strike a balance among work, school, a social life, and family.
b. Single parents face many challenges as they try to juggle all of
their responsibilities.
2. a. At the Special Olympics, athletes with disabilities show that,
with hard work and support from others, they can accomplish
anything — that they can indeed be winners.
b. Working with the Special Olympics program is rewarding.
3. a. History 201, taught by Professor Brown, is off ered at 10:00 a.m.
on Tuesdays and Th ursdays.
b. Whoever said that history is nothing but polishing tombstones
must have missed History 201, because in Professor Brown’s
class history is vibrantly alive.
4. a. So far, research suggests that zero-emissions vehicles are not
a sensible solution to the problem of steadily increasing air
pollution.
macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
1 Exploring, planning, and drafting
> Writing practice: Revising a thesis
> Exercises: 1–5 and 1–6
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Draft a plan 19
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1d
b. Because air pollution is of serious concern to many people
today, several US government agencies have implemented
plans to begin solving the problem.
5. a. Anorexia nervosa is a dangerous and sometimes deadly eating
disorder occurring mainly in young, upper-middle-class teens.
b. Th e eating disorder anorexia nervosa is rarely cured by one
treatment alone; only by combining drug therapy with psycho-
therapy and family therapy can the client begin the long jour-
ney to wellness.
1d Draft a plan.
Once you have draft ed a working thesis, listing and organizing
your supporting ideas can help you fl esh out the thesis. Creating
outlines, whether informal or formal, can help you make sure
your writing is focused and logical and can help you identify any
gaps in your support.
When to use an informal outline
You might want to sketch an informal outline to see how you will
support your thesis and to fi gure out a tentative structure for your
ideas. Informal outlines can take many forms. Perhaps the most
common is simply the thesis followed by a list of major ideas.
Working thesis: In the Hunger Games, the games help transform
Katniss Everdeen’s love for her sister into the spark of revolution.
• Pitting the districts against each other in the games helps the
Capitol maintain control by discouraging widespread revolt.
• Before the games, Katniss and Gale think about leaving the
district in search of a better life for their families. Th ey don’t
imagine ways of improving life within their district or across
districts.
• Katniss volunteers for the games to save her sister, Prim, with
whom Katniss shares a close bond.
• In the arena, Katniss acts like a big sister to Rue, who reminds
her of Prim.
• By protecting Rue and mourning her death, Katniss begins
to use the Capitol’s instrument of control — the games — to
undermine the Capitol’s hold on the districts.
• More than a temporary alliance, the sister-like bond between
Katniss and Rue gives Katniss, and the rest of Panem, an
opportunity to imagine a world in which members of one
district might fi ght for the well-being of those in another.
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1d Exploring, planning, and drafting20
If you began by jotting down a list of ideas, you can turn the
list into a rough outline by crossing out some ideas, adding oth-
ers, and putting the ideas in a logical order.
When to use a formal outline
Early in the writing process, rough outlines have certain advan-
tages: Th ey can be produced quickly, they are obviously tenta-
tive, and they can be revised easily. However, a formal outline
may be useful later in the writing process, aft er you have written
a rough draft , especially if your topic is complex. It can help you
see whether the parts of your essay work together and whether
your essay’s structure is logical.
Th e following formal outline brought order to the research
paper that appears in 57b, on regulating healthy eating. Th e stu-
dent’s thesis is an important part of the outline. Everything else in
the outline supports it, directly or indirectly.
FORMAL OUTLINE
Thesis: In the name of public health and safety, state governments
have the responsibility to shape public health policies and to
regulate healthy eating choices, especially since doing so offers a
potentially large social benefit for a relatively small cost.
I. Debates surrounding food regulation have a long history in the
United States.
A. The 1906 Pure Food and Drug Act guarantees inspection of
meat and dairy products.
B. Such regulations are considered reasonable because
consumers are protected from harm with little cost.
C. Consumers consider reasonable regulations to be an
important government function to stop harmful items from
entering the marketplace.
II. Even though food meets safety standards, there is a need for
further regulation.
A. The typical American diet—processed sugars, fats, and
refined flours—is damaging over time.
B. Related health risks are diabetes, cancer, and heart problems.
C. Passing chronic-disease-related legislation is our single
most important public health challenge.
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1d
III. Food legislation is not a popular solution for most Americans.
A. A proposed New York City regulation banning sale of soft
drinks greater than twelve ounces failed in 2012, and in
California, a proposed soda tax failed in 2011.
B. Many consumers find such laws to be unreasonable
restrictions on freedom of choice.
C. Opposition to food and beverage regulation is similar to
the opposition to early tobacco legislation; the public
views the issue as one of personal responsibility.
D. Counterpoint: Freedom of “choice” is a myth; our choices
are heavily influenced by marketing.
IV. The United States has a history of regulations to discourage
unhealthy behaviors.
A. Tobacco-related restrictions faced opposition.
B. Seat belt laws are a useful analogy.
C. The public seems to support laws that have a good cost-
benefit ratio; the cost of food/beverage regulations is low,
and most people agree that the benefits would be high.
V. Americans believe that personal choice is lost when regulations
such as taxes and bans are instituted.
A. Regulations open up the door to excessive control and
interfere with cultural and religious traditions.
B. Counterpoint: Burdens on individual liberty are a
reasonable price to pay for large social health benefits.
VI. Public opposition continues to stand in the way of food
regulation to promote healthier eating. We must consider
whether to allow the costly trend of rising chronic disease to
continue in the name of personal choice, or whether we are
willing to support the legal changes and public health policies
that will reverse that trend.
Planning with headings
When draft ing a research paper or a business document, consider
using headings to guide your planning and to help your readers
follow the organization of your fi nal draft . While draft ing, you
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draft
1e Exploring, planning, and drafting22
can insert your working thesis, experiment with possible head-
ings, and type chunks of text beneath each heading. You may
need to try grouping your ideas in a few diff erent ways to suit
your purpose and audience.
NOTE: Headings help writers plan and readers understand a doc-
ument. See page 41 for help using headings and page 585 for a
sample paper organized with headings.
1e Draft an introduction.
Th e introduction to a piece of writing announces the main point;
the body develops it; and the conclusion drives it home. You can
begin draft ing, however, at any point. If you fi nd it diffi cult to
introduce a paper that you have not yet written, try draft ing the
body fi rst and saving the introduction for later.
Your introduction will usually be a paragraph of 50 to 150
words (in a longer paper, it may be more than one paragraph).
Perhaps the most common strategy is to open with a few sen-
tences that engage, or hook, the reader and that establish your
purpose for writing and your central idea, or thesis. In the fol-
lowing introduction, the thesis is highlighted.
As the United States industrialized in the nineteenth century,
using immigrant labor, social concerns took a backseat to the task
of building a prosperous nation. Th e government did not regulate
industries and did not provide an eff ective safety net for the poor
or for those who became sick or injured on the job. Immigrants
and the poor did have a few advocates, however. Settlement houses
such as Hull-House in Chicago provided information, services,
and a place for reform-minded individuals to gather and work to
improve the conditions of the urban poor. Alice Hamilton was one
of these reformers. Her work at Hull-House spanned twenty-two
years and later expanded throughout the nation. Hamilton’s eff orts
helped to improve the lives of immigrants and drew attention
and respect to the problems and people that until then had been
ignored.
— Laurie McDonough, student
Each sentence leading to your thesis should engage readers
by drawing them into the world of the essay and showing them
why your essay is worth reading.
Whether you are writing for a scholarly audience, a profes-
sional audience, a public audience, or a general audience, you
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Draft an introduction 23
draft
1e
cannot assume your readers’ interest in the topic. Th e hook
should spark readers’ curiosity and off er them a reason to
continue.
Th e chart that follows provides strategies for draft ing an
introduction.
NOTE: Diff erent writing situations call for diff erent introduc-
tions. For more examples of eff ective introductions, see pages 88
(Yoshida), 112 (Jacobs), and 517 (Harba).
Strategies for drafting an introduction
Th e following strategies can provide a hook for your reader, whether
you are composing a traditional essay or a multimodal work such as
a slide show presentation or a video (see p. 80).
● Off er a startling statistic or an unusual fact
● Ask a question
● Introduce a quotation or a bit of dialogue
● Provide historical background
● Defi ne a term or concept
● Propose a problem, contradiction, or dilemma
● Use a vivid example or image
● Develop an analogy
● Relate an anecdote
As you draft your introduction, think about your writing
situation, especially your genre. For some types of writing, it
may be diffi cult or impossible to express the central idea in a
thesis statement; or it may be unwise or unnecessary to put a
thesis statement in the essay itself. A literacy narrative, for ex-
ample, may have a focus too subtle to be distilled in a single
sentence. Strictly informative writing, like that found in many
business memos or nursing reports, may be diffi cult to summa-
rize in a thesis. In such instances, do not try to force the central
idea into a thesis statement. Instead, think in terms of an over-
riding purpose and of the genre’s conventions and expectations.
(See 1a and 1c.)
macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
1 Exploring, planning, and drafting
> Writing practice: Revising an introduction
> Exercise: 1–7
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draft
1f Exploring, planning, and drafting24
Academic English If you come from a culture that prefers an
indirect approach in writing, you may feel that asserting a thesis
early in an essay sounds unrefi ned and even rude. In the United
States, however, readers appreciate a direct approach; when you state
your point as directly as possible, you show that you understand
your topic and value your readers’ time.
1f Draft the body.
Th e body of your essay develops support for your thesis, so it’s
important to have at least a working thesis before you start writ-
ing. What does your thesis promise readers? What question are
you trying to answer? What problem are you trying to solve?
What is your position on the topic? Keep these questions in mind
as you draft the body of your essay.
Asking questions as you draft
You may already have written an introduction that includes your
working thesis. If not, as long as you have a draft thesis, you can
begin developing the body and return later to the introduction. If
your thesis suggests a plan or if you have sketched a preliminary
outline, try to organize your paragraphs accordingly.
Draft the body of your essay by writing at least one para-
graph about each supporting point you listed in the planning
stage. If you do not have a plan, pause for a few moments and
sketch one. As you draft the body, keep asking questions; keep
anticipating what your readers may need to know.
Keep in mind that oft en you might not know what you want
to say until you have written a draft . It is possible to begin without a
plan — assuming you are prepared to treat your fi rst attempt as a “dis-
covery draft ” that may be radically rewritten once you discover what
you really want to say. Whether or not you have a plan when you
begin draft ing, you can oft en fi gure out a workable order for your
ideas by stopping each time you start a new paragraph to think about
what your readers will need to know to follow your train of thought.
For more detailed help with draft ing and developing para-
graphs, see 3.
USING SOURCES RESPONSIBLY: As you draft , keep careful notes
and records of any sources you read and consult (see 51). If you
quote, paraphrase, or summarize a source, include a citation,
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25
draft
1gDraft a conclusion
even in your draft . You will save time and avoid plagiarism if you
follow the rules of citation while draft ing.
Adding visuals as you draft
As you draft , you may decide that some of the support for your
thesis could come from one or more visuals. Visuals can con-
vey information concisely and powerfully. Graphs and tables,
for example, can simplify complex numerical information.
Images — including photographs and diagrams — oft en express
an idea more vividly than words can. Keep in mind that if you
download a visual — or use published information to create your
own visual — you must credit your source.
Always consider how a visual conveys your purpose and how
your audience might respond to it. Choose visuals to support your
writing, not to substitute for it. For an example of an eff ective use
of a visual, see page 46. In writing about the shift from print to on-
line news, student writer Sam Jacobs used a screen shot of a link
embedded in a news article to illustrate his argument (see 6k).
Th e chart on pages 26–27 describes eight types of visuals and
their purposes.
1g Draft a conclusion.
A conclusion should remind readers of the essay’s main idea
without repeating it. Oft en the concluding paragraph can be rela-
tively short. By the end of the essay, readers should already un-
derstand your main point; your conclusion drives it home and,
perhaps, gives readers something more to consider.
Strategies for drafting a conclusion
In addition to echoing your main idea, a conclusion might do any of
the following:
● Briefl y summarize your essay’s key points
● Propose a course of action
● Off er a recommendation
● Discuss the topic’s wider signifi cance or implications
● Redefi ne a key term or concept
● Pose a question for future study
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draft
1g Exploring, planning, and drafting26
Choosing visuals to suit your purpose
Pie chart
Pie charts compare a part or
parts to the whole. Segments
of the pie represent percentages
of the whole (and always total
100 percent).
Bar graph (or line graph)
Bar graphs highlight trends over
a period of time or compare
numerical data. Line graphs
display the same data as bar
graphs; the data are graphed as
points, and the points are
connected with lines.
Infographic
An infographic presents data
in a visually engaging form.
Th e data are usually numerical,
as in bar graphs or line graphs,
but they are represented by a
graphic element instead of by
bars or lines.
Table
Tables display numbers and words
in columns and rows. Th ey can
be used to organize complicated
numerical information into an
easily understood format.
Health insurance coverage in the United States (2007)
Employer-insured 54%
Uninsured 15% Medicaid 13%
Medicare 12%
Individual 5%
Other public
insurance 1%
THE PURSUIT OF PROPERTY
Home ownership rates in the United States
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
Just 8% of kids growing up in
low-income communities graduate
from college by age 24.
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27
draft
1gChoose visuals
Photograph
Photographs vividly depict
people, scenes, or objects
discussed in a text.
Diagram
Diagrams, useful in scientifi c
and technical writing, concisely
illustrate processes, structures,
or interactions.
Flowchart
Flowcharts show structures
(the hierarchy of employees at a
company, for example) or steps
in a process and their relation to
one another. (See also p. 145 for
another example.)
Map
Maps illustrate distances,
historical information, or
demographics and oft en use
symbols for geographic features
and points of interest.
Affect a designated wilderness area?
Prevent fire, insects,
or disease?
Not
applicable
Permissible Follow wilderness guidelines
Proposed action
YES NO
YES NO
Behrouz Mehri/AFP/Getty Images
NIAMS
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draft
1g Exploring, planning, and drafting28
To conclude an essay analyzing the shift ing roles of women
in the military services, one student discusses her topic’s implica-
tions for society as a whole.
As the military continues to train women in jobs formerly
reserved for men, our understanding of women’s roles in
society will no doubt continue to change. And as news reports
of women training for and taking part in combat operations
become commonplace, reports of women becoming CEOs,
police chiefs, and even president of the United States will
cease to surprise us. Or perhaps we have already reached
this point.
— Rosa Broderick, student
To make the conclusion memorable and to give a sense of
completion, you might bring readers full circle by returning to
the thesis or including a detail from the introduction. To con-
clude his argument essay about the shift from print to online
news, student writer Sam Jacobs returns to the phrase “fi t to
print” from his introduction, and echoes his thesis to show the
wider signifi cance of his argument. (See pp. 112–117.)
Th e Internet has enabled consumers to participate in a new
way in reading, questioning, interpreting, and reporting the
news. Decisions about appropriate content and coverage are
no longer exclusively in the hands of news editors. Ordinary
citizens now have a meaningful voice in the conversation — a
hand in deciding what’s “fi t to print.” Some skeptics worry about
the apparent free-for-all and loss of tradition. But the expanding
defi nition of news provides opportunities for consumers to be
more engaged with events in their communities, their nations,
and the world.
To see more examples of eff ective conclusions, see pages 91
(Yoshida), 116 (Jacobs), and 523 (Harba).
Whatever concluding strategy you choose, keep in mind that
an eff ective conclusion is decisive and unapologetic. Avoid intro-
ducing completely new ideas at the end of an essay. And because
the conclusion is so closely tied to the rest of the essay in both
content and tone, be prepared to revise it or rewrite it as you re-
vise your draft .
macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
1 Exploring, planning, and drafting
> Writing practice: Revising a conclusion
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Manage your fi les 29
draft
1h
1h Manage your fi les.
Keeping track of all your notes, outlines, rough draft s, and fi nal
draft s can be challenging. Be sure to give your fi les distinct names
that refl ect the appropriate stage of your writing process, and
store them in a logical place.
Writing online or in a word processing program can make
draft ing and revising easier. You can undo changes or return to
an earlier draft if a revision misfi res. Applying the following steps
can help you explore draft ing and revising possibilities with little
risk.
• Create folders and subfolders for each assignment. Save
notes, outlines, and draft s together.
• Label revised draft s with diff erent fi le names and dates.
• Print hard copies, make backup copies, and press the Save
button oft en (every fi ve to ten minutes).
• Always record complete bibliographic information about
any sources you might use, including visuals.
• Use a comment function to make notes to yourself or to
respond to the draft s of peers.
MANAGING FILES
macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
1 Exploring, planning, and drafting
> Writing practice: Managing your fi les
My English 101 Portfolio
Address
Name ▲
Essay 1 – Literacy narrative
Essay 2 – Argument paper
Essay 3 – Ad analysis
Essay 4 – Research paper Navajo art
C:\My English 101 Portfolio
Address
Name ▲
Ad analysis draft 10.13.15
Ad analysis FINAL 10.28.15
Ad analysis peer response 10.18.15
Ad analysis revised 10.20.15
C:\My English 101 Portfolio\Essay 3 – Ad analysis
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30
2 Revising, editing, and refl ecting
Revising is rarely a one-step process. Global matters — thesis, purpose,
organization, content, and overall strategy — generally receive atten-
tion fi rst because global revisions involve bigger changes, including
rewrites of paragraphs or whole sections of a paper. Improvements
in sentence structure and word choice usually come later; it’s a good
idea to make sure global revisions are complete before you spend
time fi ne-tuning sentences. Revising at the sentence level gives you a
chance to reconsider whether a particular point could be stronger or
clearer or if a certain word or phrase sends the message you intended.
Editing is a step that is best left for the end of the writing
process. It involves identifying errors or patterns of errors, such
as using commas and quotation marks correctly, making subjects
and verbs agree, or using the right form of a pronoun. See 2b for
advice on keeping an editing log.
Writing multiple draft s allows you to write in stages, seek feed-
back, and strengthen your paper through both revising and editing.
2a See revision as a social process.
To revise is to re-see, and the comments you receive from reviewers —
instructors, peers, and writing center tutors — will help you re-see
your draft from your readers’ point of view. When you ask readers
for their comments, revision becomes a social experience, connect-
ing you with the suggestions and insights of readers who help you
shape your work in progress. As you write for college courses, form
a community of readers around you and seek their feedback.
Feedback gives you perspective on what’s working and not
working in your draft and keeps the expectations of your readers
in mind. Simple questions such as “What would you say is my
main idea?” and “Is my draft focused and organized?” will help
you see your draft through readers’ eyes. Th e checklist for global
revision on page 42 may help you and your reviewers get started.
2b Use peer review: Revise with comments.
Peer review gives you an opportunity to see your draft through the
eyes of readers. When peers — classmates and fellow students — read
your work, they off er feedback, pointing out where they are intrigued
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312bRevise with comments
rev
or confused. Th ey off er their insights and suggestions, answer your
questions, and help you strengthen your draft . Th ink of peer review
as an opportunity to talk about your writing with a coach, an advo-
cate, who will help you achieve your purpose for writing.
Th e following guidelines will help you learn from your re-
viewers’ comments and revise successfully.
Be active. Help reviewers understand your purpose for writing
and provide background about why you chose your topic, why it
matters to you, and what you hope to accomplish in your draft .
Let your reviewers know your specifi c questions and concerns so
they can provide focused feedback.
Listen with an open mind. Aft er you’ve worked hard on a draft , you
might be surprised to hear reviewers tell you it still needs more devel-
opment. Don’t take criticism personally. Your readers are respond-
ing to your essay, not you. If comments show that a reviewer doesn’t
understand what you’re trying to do, don’t be defensive. Instead, con-
sider why your reader is confused, and fi gure out how to clarify your
point. Responding to readers’ objections — instead of dismissing
them — may strengthen your ideas and make your essay more per-
suasive. Taking feedback seriously will make you a stronger writer.
Weigh feedback carefully. As you begin revising, you may fi nd
yourself sorting through suggestions from many people, includ-
ing instructors, writing tutors, and peer reviewers. Sometimes
these readers will agree, but oft en their advice will diff er. Your
reviewers will probably make more suggestions than you can use,
so be strategic. It’s important to sort through all the comments
you receive with your original goals in mind and to focus on
global concerns fi rst (see p. 42) — otherwise, you’ll be facing the
impossible task of trying to incorporate everyone’s advice.
Keep a revision and editing log. Make a clear and simple list of the
global and sentence-level concerns that keep coming up in most
of your reviewers’ comments. Th at list can serve as a starting point
each time you revise a paper to help you learn about your strengths
and weaknesses as a writer. When you take charge of your own
writing in this way, comments will become a valuable resource.
NOTE: Some instructors suggest that writers acknowledge their
reviewers in a brief note at the end of their fi nished paper.
macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
2 Revising, editing, and refl ecting
> Writing practice: Using reviewers’ comments
> Exercises: 2–1 and 2–2
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Strategies for revising with comments
Often the comments you’ll receive are written as shorthand com-
mands — “Be specifi c!” — and sometimes as questions — “What is your
main point?” Such comments don’t immediately show you how to revise,
but they do identify where revision might improve your draft. Don’t hesi-
tate to ask your reviewers to explain their comments if you don’t under-
stand them. The following sample comments and revision strategies
will help you think about how to apply reviewer feedback to your own
writing — and where you might look in Rules for Writers for help.
THE COMMENT: Unfocused introduction
Understanding the comment When readers point out that your intro-
duction needs to be “focused,” the comment often signals that the be-
ginning sentences of your essay are vague, unconnected to the rest of
your essay, and don’t establish your purpose for writing.
Strategies for revising
● Reread your introduction and ask questions. Are the sentences lead-
ing to your thesis specifi c enough to engage readers and communi-
cate your purpose? Do these sentences lead logically to your thesis?
Do they spark your readers’ curiosity and offer them a reason to
continue reading? (See 1e.)
● Try engaging readers with a “hook” in your introduction — a question,
a quotation, a vivid example, or a startling statistic. (See the chart on
p. 23.)
THE COMMENT: Consider opposing viewpoints
Understanding the comment When readers suggest that you “con-
sider opposing viewpoints,” the comment often signals that you need to
recognize and respond to possible objections to your argument.
Strategies for revising
● Read more to learn about the debates surrounding the topic. Under-
stand the various sides of your issue so you can anticipate and coun-
ter objections to your argument. (See 50a and 50b.)
● Be open-minded. Although it might seem illogical to introduce oppos-
ing arguments, you’ll show your knowledge of the topic by recognizing
that not everyone draws the same conclusions or holds the same
point of view. (See 6i and p. 438.)
● Introduce and counter objections with phrases like these: “Some
readers might point out that . . .” or “Critics of this view argue
that. . . .” (See p. 110.)
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332cGive constructive comments
rev
2c Use peer review: Give constructive
comments.
Peer review gives you an opportunity to read the work of your
classmates and to learn from each other. As you off er advice
about how to strengthen a peer’s thesis or how to use a visual to
convey concise information, you are thinking about the purpose
of a thesis and the role of visuals. When you propose a strategy
for focusing an introduction or for anticipating a counterargu-
ment, you not only help your classmate, but you also benefi t from
the process of thinking strategically about revision.
As a peer reviewer, your work is to engage with a writer as a
reader. It isn’t your job to rewrite, correct, or proofread the work
of your peers. It is your job, though, to off er thoughtful, positive,
encouraging comments to show peers what they’re doing well
and how they might build upon their strengths as writers.
Th e following guidelines will help you off er constructive
comments to your peers.
Be specifi c. Your comments will be more constructive if you
point to specifi c places in a draft and show your classmate how,
why, and where a draft is eff ective or confusing. Instead of say-
ing “I like your draft ,” be specifi c about what you like: “You do a
great job of using a startling statistic in your introduction to hook
me as a reader.” Or instead of off ering a generality such as “Your
draft doesn’t have much support,” give a specifi c suggestion: “A
bar graph in the third paragraph might support your thesis and
be convincing visual evidence.”
View yourself as a coach, not a judge. Th ink of yourself as asking
questions and proposing possibilities, not dictating solutions. It
is the writer, aft er all, who will have to grapple with revising. Help
the writer identify the strengths of a draft and conceive possible
solutions to address the draft ’s problems. Try phrasing comments
this way: “Have you thought about . . .” “What if you tried . . .” or
“How can you help a reader understand this important point. . . .”
Pay attention to global issues fi rst. Focus on the big picture —
purpose, thesis, organization, and content — before sentence
structure, word choice, and grammar. As a reader, do you
understand the writer’s main idea? Can you follow the train of
thought? Restate the writer’s thesis and main ideas to check your
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2c34 Revising
rev
understanding. Use the checklist for global revision (p. 42) to
guide your comments.
Th e following excerpt from an online peer review session
shows a peer reviewer off ering constructive comments:
EXCERPT FROM AN ONLINE PEER REVIEW SESSION
Juan (Peer Reviewer): Rachel, your essay makes a
great point that credit card companies often hook
students on a cycle of spending. But it sounds as
if you’re blaming students for their spending habits
and credit card companies for their deceptive
actions. Is this what you want to say?
Rachel (Writer): No, I want to keep the
focus on the credit card companies. I didn’t
realize I was blaming students. What could I
change?
Juan (Reviewer): In paragraphs three and four, you
group all students together as if all students have
the same bad spending habits. If students are your
audience, you’ll be insulting them. What reader is
motivated to read something that’s alienating? What
is your purpose for writing this draft?
Rachel (Writer): Well . . . It’s true that students
don’t always have good spending habits, but I
don’t want to blame students. My purpose is to
call students to action about the dangers of credit
card debt. Any suggestions for narrowing the
focus?
Juan (Reviewer): Most students know about the
dangers of credit card debt, but they might not know
about specifi c deceptive practices companies use to
lure them. Maybe ask yourself what would surprise
your audience about these practices?
Rachel (Writer): Juan, that’s a good idea. I’ll try it.
Peer reviewer restates
writer’s main point and
asks a question to help
her clarify her ideas.
Writer takes comment
seriously and asks
reviewer for specifi c
suggestion.
Peer reviewer points
to specifi c places in
the draft and asks
questions to help writer
focus on audience and
purpose.
Writer is actively engaged
with peer reviewer’s
comments and doesn’t
take criticism personally.
Peer reviewer responds
as a reader and acts
as a coach to suggest
possible solutions.
Writer thanks reviewer
for his help and leaves
session with a specifi c
revision strategy.|
POST COMMENT
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Rough Draft
My family used to live in the heart of Hanoi,
Vietnam. The neighborhood was small but swamped
with crime. Drug addicts scoured the alleys and
stole the most mundane things—old clothes, worn
slippers, even license plates of motorbikes. Like
anyone else in Vietnam in the ’90s, we struggled
with poverty. There was no entertainment device
in our house aside from an 11” black-and-white
television. Even then, electricity went off for hours
on a weekly basis.
I was particularly close to a Vietnam War
veteran. My parents were away a lot, so the old man
became like a grandfather to me. He taught me how
to ride a bicycle, how to read, how to take care of
352dPeer review process
rev
2d Highlights of one student’s peer review process.
Student writer Michelle Nguyen wrote a draft in response to the
following assignment:
How have your experiences with writing, positive or negative,
shaped you as a writer? Write a literacy narrative (500–1,000
words) to explore this question. Select one or more key
experiences that you think best illustrate how you became the
writer you are today. In addition to telling a story, your narrative
should make a larger point about learning to write that will be of
interest to your readers.
Below is the draft Nguyen submitted to her three peer re-
viewers. Here are questions she gave her peer reviewers to focus
their feedback.
QUESTIONS FROM NGUYEN TO PEER REVIEWERS
Alex, Brian, and Sameera: Th anks for reading my draft . Here are
three questions I have about my draft : Is my focus clear? Is there
anything that confuses you? What specifi cally should I cut or add
to strengthen my draft ?
ROUGH DRAFT WITH PEER COMMENTS
Alex F: You might want
to add a title to focus
readers.
Sameera K: I really like
your introduction. It’s
so vivid. Think about
adding a photo of your
neighborhood so readers
can relate. What does
Hanoi look like?
Brian S: You have great
details here to set the
scene in Hanoi, but
why does it matter that
you didn’t have an
“entertainment device”?
Maybe choose the most
interesting among all
these details.
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small pets. He worked sporadically from home, fixing
bicycle tires and broken pedals. He was a wrinkly
old man who didn’t talk much. His vocal cords were
damaged during the war, and it caused him pain to
speak. In a neighborhood full of screaming babies
and angry shop owners and slimy criminals, his
home was my quiet haven. I could read and write
and think and bond with someone whose worldliness
came from his wordlessness.
The tiny house he lived in stood at the far
end of our neighborhood. It always smelled of old
clothes and forgotten memories. He was a slight
man, but his piercing black eyes retained their
intensity even after all these years. He must have
made one fierce soldier.
“I almost died once,” he said, dusting a picture
frame. It was one of those rare instances he ever
mentioned his life during the war. As he talked, I
perched myself on the side of an armchair, rested my
head on my tiny hands, and listened intently. I didn’t
understand much. I just liked hearing his low, humming
voice. The concept of war for me was strictly confined
to the classroom, and even then, the details of combat
were always murky. The teachers just needed us to know
that the communist troops enjoyed a glorious victory.
“I was the only survivor of my unit. 20 guys. All
dead within a year. Then they let me go,” he said.
His voice cracked a little and his eyes misted over as
he stared at pictures from his combatant past. “We
didn’t even live long enough to understand what we
were fighting for.”
He finished the sentence with a drawn-out sigh, a
small set of wrinkles gathering at the end of his eyes.
2d36 Revising
rev
Brian S: Worldliness came
from wordlessness —
great phrase! Is this part
of your main idea? What
is your main idea?
Sameera K: You do a
good job of showing
us why this Vietnam
veteran was important
to you, but it seems
like this draft is more
a story about the man
and not about you. What
do you want readers to
understand about you?
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Years later, as I thought about his stories, I started to
wonder why he referred to his deceased comrades by
the collective pronoun “we.” It was as if a little bit of
him died on the battlefield with them too.
Three years after my family left the
neighborhood, I learned that the old man became
stricken with cancer. When I came home the next
summer, I visited his house and sat by his sickbed.
His shoulder-length mop of salt and pepper hair now
dwarfed his rail-thin figure. We barely exchanged a
word. He just held my hands tightly until my mother
called for me to leave, his skeletal fingers leaving
a mark on my pale palms. Perhaps he was trying
to transmit to me some of his worldliness and his
wisdom. Perhaps he was telling me to go out into
the world and live the free life he never had.
Some people say that writers are selfish and
vain. The truth is, I learned to write because it gave me
peace in the much too noisy world of my Vietnamese
childhood. In the quiet of the old man’s house, I gazed
out the window, listened to my thoughts, and wrote
them down. It all started with a story about a wrinkly
Vietnam War veteran who didn’t talk much.
372dPeer review process
rev
Sameera K: I’m curious
to hear more about you
and why this man was so
important to you. What
did he teach you about
writing? What did he see
in you?
Alex F: This sentence
is confusing. Your draft
doesn’t seem to be
about the selfi shness or
vanity of writers.
Brian S: What does “it”
refer to? I think you’re
trying to say something
important about silence
and noise and literacy,
but I’m not sure what
it is.
macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
2 Revising, editing, and refl ecting
> Sample student writing: Nguyen, Rough Draft (literacy narrative; peer-reviewed)
Aft er reading her draft and considering the feedback from
her classmates, Nguyen realized that she had chosen a good di-
rection but that she hadn’t focused her draft to meet the expec-
tations of the assignment. Her classmates off ered her valuable
suggestions about adding a photograph of her Hanoi neighbor-
hood and clarifying her main idea. With her classmates’ specifi c
questions and suggestions in mind, and their encouragement to
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http://www.macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
2e38 Revising
rev
see the undeveloped possibilities in her draft , Nguyen developed
some goals for revising.
MICHELLE NGUYEN’S REVISION GOALS
• Add a title.
• Revise introduction to set the scene more dramatically. Use
Sameera’s idea to include a photo of my neighborhood.
• Make the story my story, not the man’s story. Answer Sameera’s
question: What did the man see in me and I in him? Delete
extra material about the old man.
• Answer Brian’s question: What is my main idea?
• Follow Brian’s suggestion about the connection between
wordlessness and worldliness. Make the contrasts sharper
between the neighborhood and the man’s house.
• Figure out what main idea I’m trying to communicate. See if
there is a possible idea in the various contrasts. Th e surprise
was fi nding writing in silence, not in the noisy exchange of
voices in my neighborhood.
See page 45 for Nguyen’s revised draft .
2e Approach global revision in cycles.
Revision is more eff ective when you approach it in cycles, rather
than attempting to change everything all at once. Four common
cycles of global revision are discussed in this section:
• Engaging the audience
• Sharpening the focus
• Improving the organization
• Strengthening the content
Engaging the audience
Sometimes a rough draft needs an overhaul because it is directed
at no particular audience. A good question to ask yourself and
your reviewers is the toughest question a reader might ask: “So
what?” or “Why does it matter?” If your draft can’t pass the “So
what?” test, you may need to rethink your approach.
Once you have made sure that your draft is directed at an
audience — readers who have a stake in the topic — you may
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392eApproach global revision in cycles
rev
still need to refi ne your tone. Th e tone of a piece of writing ex-
presses the writer’s feelings toward the audience and the topic, so
it is important to get it right. When you seek responses to your
draft , ask your readers about your tone. If they respond that your
tone seems self-centered, fl ippant, bossy, patronizing, or hostile,
for example, you’ll want to modify it to show respect for your
readers.
Th e following paragraph was draft ed by a student who hoped
to persuade his audience to buy organic produce.
A PARAGRAPH THAT ALIENATES READERS
If you choose to buy organic produce, you are supporting local
farmers as well as demonstrating your opposition to chemical
pesticides. As more and more supermarkets carry organic fruits
and vegetables, consumers have fewer reasons not to buy organic.
Some consumers do not buy organic produce because they are not
willing to spend the extra money. But if you care at all about the
environment or the small farmer, you should be willing to support
organic farms in your area.
When the student asked a classmate to review his draft , his class-
mate commented that the tone was harsh and alienating. His
peer reviewer questioned why he assumed his readers didn’t care
about the environment.
A PARAGRAPH THAT RESPECTS READERS
By choosing to buy organic produce, you have the opportunity
to support local farmers, to oppose the use of chemical pesticides,
and to taste some of the freshest produce available. Because more
supermarkets carry organic produce than ever, you won’t even
have to miss out on any of your favorite fruits or vegetables.
Although organic produce can be more expensive than conventional
produce, the costs are not prohibitive. For example, a pound of
organic bananas at my local grocery store is eighty-nine cents,
while the conventional bananas are sixty-nine cents a pound.
If you can aff ord this small price diff erence, you will have the
opportunity to make a diff erence for the environment and for the
small farmer. — Leon Nage, student
Sharpening the focus
A clearly focused draft fi xes readers’ attention on one central idea
and does not stray from that idea. You can sharpen the focus of a
draft by clarifying the introduction (especially the thesis) and by
deleting any text that is off point.
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2e40 Revising
rev
Clarifying the introduction Reread your introduction to see if it
clearly states the essay’s main idea. To help you revise, ask your
reviewers questions such as the following:
• Does the introduction let readers know what to expect as
they read on?
• Does it make the signifi cance of the subject clear so that
readers will want to keep reading?
• Can readers tell where the introduction stops and the body
of the essay begins? Have you included material in the
introduction that should appear in the body instead? Is your
introduction too broad or unfocused?
• Does the thesis accurately state the main idea of the essay?
Deleting text that is off the point Compare the introduction,
especially the thesis statement, with the body of the essay. Does
the body fulfi ll the promise of the introduction? If not, you will
need to adjust one or the other. Either rebuild the introduction to
fi t the body or keep the introduction and delete body sentences
or paragraphs that stray from its point.
Improving the organization
A draft is well organized when its major divisions are logical and
easy to follow. To improve the organization of your draft , you may
need to take one or more of the following actions: adding or sharp-
ening topic sentences, moving blocks of text, and inserting headings.
Adding or sharpening topic sentences Topic sentences state the
main ideas of the paragraphs in the body of an essay. (See 3a.)
You can review the organization of a draft by reading only the
topic sentences. Do the topic sentences clearly support the essay’s
main idea? Can you turn them into a reasonable sentence outline
of the paper? (See 1d.) If your draft lacks topic sentences, add
them unless you have a good reason for omitting them.
Moving blocks of text Improving the organization of a draft can
be as simple as moving a few sentences from one paragraph to
another or reordering paragraphs. You may also fi nd that you
can clarify the organization of a draft by combining choppy para-
graphs or by dividing those that are too long for easy reading.
(See 3e.) Oft en, however, the process is more complex. As you
move blocks of text, you may need to supply transitions to make
the text fi t smoothly in the new positions; you may also need to
rework topic sentences to make your new organization clear.
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412eApproach global revision in cycles
rev
Before moving text, consider sketching a revised outline.
Divisions in the outline might become topic sentences in the re-
structured essay. (See 3e.)
Inserting headings In long documents, such as complex research
papers or business reports, headings can help readers follow your
organization. Typically, headings are presented as phrases, declar-
ative or imperative sentences, or questions. To draw attention to
headings, you can center them, put them in boldface, underline
them, use all capital letters, or do some combination of these
techniques. (See also 58b for use of headings in APA papers.)
Strengthening the content
In reviewing the content of a draft , fi rst consider whether your ar-
gument is sound. Second, consider whether you should add or de-
lete any text (sentences or paragraphs). If your purpose is to argue a
point, consider how persuasively you have supported your point. If
your purpose is to inform, be sure that you have presented your ideas
clearly and with enough detail to meet your readers’ expectations.
Rethinking your argument A fi rst draft presents you with an
opportunity to rethink your argument. You can oft en develop
your ideas about a subject by asking yourself some questions:
• Is your claim more sweeping than the evidence supports?
• Have you left out an important step in the argument?
• Have you dealt fairly with opposing arguments?
• Is your draft free of faulty reasoning? (See 6a.)
Adding text If any paragraphs or sections of the essay are too skimpy
to be clear and convincing (a common problem in rough draft s),
add specifi c facts, details, and examples. You may need to go back to
the beginning of the writing process: listing specifi cs, brainstorming
ideas with friends or classmates, perhaps doing more research. As you
revise paragraphs, it’s helpful to ask questions such as Why? and How?
Deleting text Look for sentences and paragraphs that can be cut
without serious loss of meaning. Ask your reviewers if they can
show you sentences where you have repeated yourself or strayed
from your point. Maybe you have given too much emphasis to
minor ideas. Cuts may also be necessitated by word limits, such
as those imposed by a college assignment or by the realities of the
business world, where readers are oft en pressed for time.
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2e42 Revising
rev
Checklist for global revision
Purpose and audience
● Does the draft address a question, a problem, or an issue that
readers care about?
● Is the draft appropriate for its audience? Does it account for
the audience’s knowledge of and possible attitudes toward the
subject?
● Is the tone respectful?
Focus
● Is the thesis clear? Is it prominently placed?
● Does the thesis answer a reader’s “So what?” question?
(See p. 16.)
● If the draft has no thesis, is there a good reason for omitting one?
Organization and paragraphing
● Is each paragraph unifi ed around a main point?
● Does each paragraph support and develop the thesis?
● Have you provided organizational cues for readers such as topic
sentences and headings?
● Have you presented ideas in a logical order?
● Are any paragraphs too long or too short for easy reading?
Content
● Is the supporting material relevant and persuasive?
● Which ideas need further development? Have you left your read-
ers with any unanswered questions?
● Are the parts proportioned sensibly? Do major ideas receive
enough attention?
● Should you delete any material? Look for redundant or irrelevant
information.
Point of view
● Is the dominant point of view — fi rst person (I or we), second
person (you), or third person (he, she, it, one, or they) —
appropriate for your purpose and audience? (See 1a.)
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432fRevise and edit sentences
rev
2f Revise and edit sentences.
When you revise sentences, you focus on clarity and eff ective-
ness; when you edit, you check for correctness. Sentences that are
wordy, vague, or rambling may distract readers and make it hard
for readers to focus on your purpose or grasp your ideas. Read
each sentence slowly to determine if it is as specifi c and clear as
possible. You might fi nd it helpful to read your work aloud and
trust your ears to detect awkwardness, wordiness, or a jarring rep-
etition. Your goal, as you revise your sentences, is to make each
word count to keep the attention and interest of your readers.
Here, for example, is a rough-draft paragraph as one student
made changes to solve a variety of sentence-level problems.
Although some cities have found creative ways to improve access
to public transportation for passengers with physical disabilities, and to
fund other programs, there have been problems in our city has struggled
with due to the need to address budget constraints and competing needs
priorities. This The budget crunch has led citizens to question how
funds are distributed.? For example, last year when city officials voted
to use available funds to support had to choose between allocating
funds for accessible transportation or allocating funds to after-school
programs rather than transportation upgrades., they voted for the after
school programs. It is not clear to some citizens why these after-school
programs are more important.
Th e original paragraph was too wordy, a problem that can be
addressed through any number of revisions to clarify the meaning
of each sentence. Th e following revision would also be acceptable.
Some cities have funded improved access to public
transportation for passengers with physical disabilities. Because of
budget constraints, our city chose to fund aft er-school programs
rather than transportation programs. As a result, citizens have
begun to question how funds are distributed and why certain
programs are more important than others.
Some of the improvements in the fi rst revision do not in-
volve choice and must be edited to avoid confusion and misun-
derstanding. For example, the hyphen in aft er-school programs is
necessary; a noun must be substituted for the pronoun these in
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2g44 Revising
rev
the last sentence; and the question mark in the second sentence
must be changed to a period.
NOTE: You can use an editing log to keep a personal list of your
common errors and learn the rules to correct the errors. To begin
your log, review all the grammar, punctuation, and spelling er-
rors identifi ed in your last piece of writing. For each error, list
the handbook section that provides advice or examples for you to
review as you edit.
2g Proofread the fi nal manuscript.
Proofreading is a special kind of reading: a slow and methodi-
cal search for misspellings, typographical mistakes, and omit-
ted words or word endings. Such errors can be diffi cult to spot
in your own work because you may read what you intended to
write, not what is actually on the page.
Although proofreading may be slow, it is crucial. Errors in an
essay can be distracting and annoying. If the writer doesn’t care
about this piece of writing, the reader might wonder, why should
I? A carefully proofread essay, however, sends a positive message:
It shows that you value your writing and respect your readers.
As you proofread, pay attention to formatting your fi nal
draft and follow your instructor’s directions for formatting docu-
ments. (See the document design gallery [pp. 597–607] for for-
matting guidelines for MLA and APA.)
Proofreading tips
● Remove distractions and allow yourself ten to fi ft een minutes of
pure concentration; turn off the TV and your cell phone and fi nd
a quiet place, away from people who are talking.
● Proofread out loud, articulating each word as it is actually
written.
● Proofread your sentences in reverse order.
● Proofread hard copy pages; mistakes can be diffi cult to catch
on-screen.
● Don’t rely too heavily on spell checkers and grammar checkers.
Before automatically accepting their changes, consider their
accuracy and appropriateness.
● Ask a volunteer (a friend, roommate, or co-worker) to proofread
aft er you. A second reader may catch something you didn’t.
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Sample student revision 452h
rev
2h Sample student revision
On pages 35–37, you’ll fi nd Michelle Nguyen’s fi rst draft , along
with the highlights of her peer review process. Comments from her
peer reviewers helped Nguyen see her draft through her readers’
eyes and to develop a revision plan (see p. 38). One reviewer asked:
“What is your main idea?” Another reviewer asked: “What do you
want readers to understand about you?” As she revised, Nguyen
made both global revisions and sentence-level revisions to clarify
her main idea and to delete extra material that might distract read-
ers from her story. Here is Nguyen’s fi nal draft , “A Place to Begin.”
macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
2 Revising, editing, and refl ecting
> Sample student writing: Nguyen, “A Place to Begin” (literacy narrative)
Nguyen 1
Michelle Nguyen
Professor Wilson
English 101
22 September 2014
A Place to Begin
I grew up in the heart of Hanoi, Vietnam—Nhà Dầu—a
small but busy neighborhood swamped with crime. Houses,
wedged in among cafés and other local businesses (see fig. 1),
measured uniformly about 200 square feet, and the walls were
so thin that we could hear every heated debate and impassioned
disagreement. Drug addicts scoured the vicinity and stole the
most mundane things—old clothes, worn slippers, even license
plates of motorbikes. It was a neighborhood where dogs howled
and kids ran amok and where the earth was always moist and
marked with stains. It was the 1990s Vietnam in miniature, with
all the turmoil and growing pains of a newly reborn nation.
In a city perpetually inundated with screaming
children and slimy criminals, I found my place in the home
Nguyen formats
her fi nal draft
using MLA
guidelines.
Marginal annotations indicate MLA-style formatting and effective writing.
Nguyen revises
her introduction
to engage
readers with
vivid details.
Sentences
revised for clarity
and specifi city.
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http://www.macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
2h46 Revising
rev
Nguyen 2
of a Vietnam War veteran. My parents were away a lot, so
the old man became like a grandfather to me. He was a
slight man who didn’t talk much. His vocal cords had been
damaged during the war, and it caused him pain to speak.
In his quiet home, I could read and write in the presence
of someone whose worldliness grew from his wordlessness.
His tiny house stood at the far end of our
neighborhood and always smelled of old clothes and
forgotten memories. His wall was plastered with pictures
from his combatant past, pictures that told his life story
when his own voice couldn’t. “I almost died once,” he said,
dusting a picture frame. It was one of those rare instances
he ever mentioned his life during the war.
I perched myself on the side of the armchair, rested
my head on my tiny hands, and listened intently. I didn’t
understand much. I just liked hearing his low, raspy voice.
“I was the only survivor of my unit. Twenty guys. All
dead within a year. Then they let me go.”
Nguyen’s
revisions clarify
her main idea.
Nguyen
develops her
narrative with
dialogue.
As her peer
reviewers
suggested,
Nguyen adds
a photograph
to help readers
visualize Hanoi.
Fig. 1 Nhà Dầu neighborhood in Hanoi (personal photograph
by author)
Nguyen focuses
on one key story
in response
to reviewers’
questions.
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Sample student revision 472h
rev
Nguyen 3
He finished the sentence with a drawn-out sigh, a
small set of wrinkles gathering at the corner of his eye.
I wanted to hear the details of that story yet was too
afraid to ask. But the bits and pieces I did hear, I wrote
down in a notebook. I wanted to make sure that there were
not only photos but also written words to bear witness to
the old veteran’s existence.
Once, I caught him looking at the jumbled mess of
sentences I’d written. I ran to the table and snatched my
notebook, my cheeks warmed with a bright tinge of pink. I
was embarrassed. But mostly, I was terrified that he’d hate
me for stealing his life story and turning it into a collection
of words and characters and ambivalent feelings.
“I’m sorry,” I muttered, my gaze drilling a hole into
the tiled floor.
Quietly, he peeled the notebook from my fingers and
placed it back on the table.
In his muted way, with his mouth barely twisted in a
smile, he seemed to be granting me permission and encouraging
me to keep writing. Maybe he saw a storyteller and a writer in
me, a little girl with a pencil and too much free time.
The last time I visited Nhà Dầu was for the veteran’s
funeral two years ago. It was a cold November afternoon, but
the weather didn’t dampen the usual tumultuous spirit of the
neighborhood. I could hear the jumble of shouting voices and
howling dogs, yet it didn’t bother me. For a minute I closed
my eyes, remembering myself as a little girl with a big pencil,
gazing out a window and scribbling words in my first notebook.
Many people think that words emerge from words and
from the exchange of voices. Perhaps this is true. But the
surprising paradox of writing for me is that I started to
Nguyen revises
to keep the
focus on her
story and
not the old
man’s, as her
peer reviewers
suggested.
Nguyen revises
her fi nal two
paragraphs,
circling back to
the scene from
the introduction,
giving the
narrative
coherence.
Nguyen revises
fi nal paragraph
to show readers
the signifi cance
of her narrative.
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2i48 Revising
rev
2i Prepare a portfolio; refl ect on your writing.
At the end of the semester, your instructor may ask you to sub-
mit a portfolio, or collection, of your writing. A writing portfolio
oft en consists of draft s, revisions, and refl ections that demon-
strate a writer’s thinking and learning processes or that showcase
the writer’s best work. Your instructor may give you the choice of
submitting your portfolio on paper or electronically.
As early in the course as possible, be sure you know the an-
swers to the following questions:
• Should the portfolio be a paper collection or an electronic
one? Is it your choice?
• Will the portfolio be checked or assessed before the end of
the term? If so, when or how oft en? By whom?
• Are you free to choose any or all of the pieces to include?
• Are you free to include a variety of items (not just rough
and fi nal draft s of papers), such as outlines and notes,
journal entries, photographs or other visuals, comments
from reviewers, sound fi les, or video clips?
• Will your instructor be the primary or only audience for the
portfolio? Or will the portfolio be shared with peers or with
other instructors?
TIP: Save your notes, draft s, and reviewers’ comments for possible use
in your portfolio. Th e more you have assembled, the more you have
to choose from to represent your best work. Keep your documents
organized in a paper or electronic fi le system for easy access. (See 1h.)
Nguyen 4
write in the presence of silence. It was only in the utter
stillness of a Vietnam War veteran’s house that I could
hear my thoughts for the first time, appreciate language,
and find the confidence to put words on a page. With one
notebook and a pencil, and with the encouragement of a
wordless man to tell his story, I began to write. Sometimes
that’s all a writer needs, a quiet place to begin.
Following a
peer reviewer’s
advice, Nguyen
chooses words
from her fi nal
sentence for
her title.
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Focus on a main point 493a
para
Refl ection — the process of stepping back periodically to ex-
amine your decisions, preferences, strengths, and challenges as a
writer — helps you recognize your growth as a writer and is the
backbone of portfolio keeping.
When you submit your portfolio for a fi nal evaluation or read-
ing, you may be asked to include a refl ective opening statement — a
cover letter, an introduction, a preface, a memo, or an essay.
Refl ective writing allows you to do the following:
• show that you can identify the strengths and weaknesses of
your writing
• comment on the progress you’ve made in the course
• understand your own writing process
• demonstrate that you’ve made good writing decisions
• comment on how you might use skills developed in or
experiences from your writing course in other courses
where writing is assigned
Check with your instructor about the guidelines for your re-
fl ective opening statement.
3 Building effective paragraphs
A paragraph is a group of sentences that focuses on one main
point or example. Except for special-purpose paragraphs, such as
introductions and conclusions (see 1e and 1g), body paragraphs
function to develop and support an essay’s main point or thesis.
Aim for paragraphs that are well developed, organized, coherent,
and neither too long nor too short for easy reading. Note that
there is no ideal length for a paragraph, but your instructor may
have specifi c guidelines.
3a Focus on a main point.
A paragraph should be unifi ed around a main point. Th e point
should be clear to readers, and all sentences in the paragraph
should relate to it.
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3a50 Effective paragraphs
para
Stating the main point in a topic sentence
As readers move into a paragraph, they need to know where they
are — in relation to the whole essay — and what to expect in the
sentences to come. A good topic sentence, a one-sentence sum-
mary of the paragraph’s main point, acts as a signpost pointing
in two directions: backward toward the thesis of the essay and
forward toward the body of the paragraph.
Like a thesis statement (see 1c), a topic sentence is more gen-
eral than the material supporting it. Usually the topic sentence
(highlighted in the following example) comes fi rst in the paragraph.
All living creatures manage some form of communication. Th e
dance patterns of bees in their hive help to point the way to distant
fl ower fi elds or announce successful foraging. Male stickleback
fi sh regularly swim upside-down to indicate outrage in a courtship
contest. Male deer and lemurs mark territorial ownership by
rubbing their own body secretions on boundary stones or trees.
Everyone has seen a frightened dog put his tail between his legs
and run in panic. We, too, use gestures, expressions, postures, and
movement to give our words point.
— Olivia Vlahos, Human Beginnings
In college writing, topic sentences are oft en necessary for ad-
vancing or clarifying lines of an argument and introducing evi-
dence from a source. In the following paragraph on the eff ects of
the 2010 oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico, the writer uses a topic
sentence (highlighted) to state that the extent of the threat is un-
known before quoting three sources that illustrate her point.
To date, the full ramifi cations [of the oil spill] remain a
question mark. An August report from the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration estimated that 75 percent of the oil
had “either evaporated or been burned, skimmed, recovered from
the wellhead, or dispersed.” However, Woods Hole Oceanographic
Institution researchers reported that a 1.2-mile-wide, 650-foot-
high plume caused by the spill “had and will persist for some
time.” And University of Georgia scientists concluded that almost
80 percent of the released oil hadn’t been recovered and “remains a
threat to the ecosystem.”
— Michele Berger, “Volunteer Army”
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3 Building effective paragraphs
> Writing practice: Creating unity
> LearningCurve: Topics and main ideas
> LearningCurve: Topic sentences and supporting details
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Focus on a main point 513a
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Occasionally the topic sentence may be withheld until the end
of the paragraph — but only if the earlier sentences hang together
so well that readers perceive their direction, if not their exact point.
Sticking to the point
Sentences that do not support the topic sentence destroy the
unity of a paragraph. If the paragraph is otherwise focused, such
sentences can simply be deleted or perhaps moved elsewhere. In
the following paragraph describing the inadequate facilities in
a high school, the information about the chemistry instructor
(highlighted) is clearly off the point.
As the result of tax cuts, the educational facilities of Lincoln High
School have reached an all-time low. Some of the books date back
to 1990 and have long since shed their covers. Th e few computers
in working order must share one printer. Th e lack of lab equipment
makes it necessary for four or fi ve students to work at one table,
with most watching rather than performing experiments. Also,
the chemistry instructor left to have a baby at the beginning of the
semester, and most of the students don’t like the substitute. As for
the furniture, many of the upright chairs have become recliners, and
the desk legs are so unbalanced that they play seesaw on the fl oor.
EXERCISE 3–1 Underline the topic sentence in the following para-
graph and cross out any material that does not clarify or develop the
central idea. More practice:
Quilt making has served as an important means of social, political,
and artistic expression for women. In the nineteenth century, quilting
circles provided one of the few opportunities for women to forge
social bonds outside of their families. Once a week or more, they
came together to sew as well as trade small talk, advice, and news.
Th ey used dyed cotton fabrics much like the fabrics quilters use today;
surprisingly, quilters’ basic materials haven’t changed that much over
the years. Sometimes the women joined their eff orts in support of a
political cause, making quilts that would be raffl ed to raise money for
temperance societies, hospitals for sick and wounded soldiers, and
the fi ght against slavery. Quilt making also aff orded women a means
of artistic expression at a time when they had few other creative
outlets. Within their socially acceptable roles as homemakers, many
quilters subtly pushed back at the restrictions placed on them by
experimenting with color, design, and technique.
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3 Building effective paragraphs
> Exercise: 3–2
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3b52 Effective paragraphs
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3b Develop the main point.
Th ough an occasional short paragraph is fi ne, particularly if it func-
tions as a transition or emphasizes a point, a series of brief para-
graphs suggests inadequate development. How much development is
enough? Th at varies, depending on the writer’s purpose and audience.
For example, when health columnist Jane Brody wrote a
paragraph attempting to convince readers that it is impossible to
lose fat quickly, she knew that she would have to present a great
deal of evidence because many dieters want to believe the oppo-
site. She did not write only the following:
When you think about it, it’s impossible to lose — as many diets
suggest — 10 pounds of fat in ten days, even on a total fast. Even
a moderately active person cannot lose so much weight so fast. A
less active person hasn’t a prayer.
Th is three-sentence paragraph is too skimpy to be convincing.
But the paragraph that Brody did write contains enough evidence
to convince even skeptical readers.
When you think about it, it’s impossible to lose — as many . . .
diets suggest — 10 pounds of fat in ten days, even on a total fast.
A pound of body fat represents 3,500 calories. To lose 1 pound of
fat, you must expend 3,500 more calories than you consume. Let’s
say you weigh 170 pounds and, as a moderately active person, you
burn 2,500 calories a day. If your diet contains only 1,500 calories,
you’d have an energy defi cit of 1,000 calories a day. In a week’s time
that would add up to a 7,000-calorie defi cit, or 2 pounds of real
fat. In ten days, the accumulated defi cit would represent nearly 3
pounds of lost body fat. Even if you ate nothing at all for ten days
and maintained your usual level of activity, your caloric defi cit
would add up to 25,000 calories. . . . At 3,500 calories per pound of
fat, that’s still only 7 pounds of lost fat.
— Jane Brody, Jane Brody’s Nutrition Book
3c Choose a suitable pattern of organization.
Although paragraphs (and indeed whole essays) may be patterned
in any number of ways, certain patterns of organization occur fre-
quently, either alone or in combination: examples and illustrations,
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3 Building effective paragraphs
> LearningCurve: Patterns of organization
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533cChoose a suitable pattern of organization
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narration, description, process, comparison and contrast, analogy,
cause and eff ect, classifi cation and division, and defi nition. Th ese
patterns (sometimes called methods of development) have diff erent
uses, depending on the writer’s subject and purpose.
Examples and illustrations
Examples, perhaps the most common pattern of development,
are appropriate whenever the reader might be tempted to ask,
“For example?” Th ough examples are just selected instances, not
a complete catalog, they are enough to suggest the truth of many
topic sentences, as in the following paragraph.
Normally my parents abided scrupulously by “Th e Budget,”
but several times a year Dad would dip into his battered black
strongbox and splurge on some irrational, totally satisfying luxury.
Once he bought over a hundred comic books at a fl ea market,
doled out to us thereaft er at the tantalizing rate of two a week. He
always got a whole fl at of pansies, Mom’s favorite fl ower, for us
to give her on Mother’s Day. One day a boy stopped at our house
selling fi ft y-cent raffl e tickets on a sailboat, and Dad bought every
ticket the boy had left — three books’ worth.
— Connie Hailey, student
Illustrations are extended examples, frequently presented in
story form. Because they require several sentences apiece, they
are used more sparingly than examples. When well selected,
however, they can be a vivid and eff ective means of developing
a point. Th e writer of the following paragraph uses illustrations
to demonstrate that Harriet Tubman, the underground railroad’s
most famous conductor, was a genius at eluding her pursuers.
Part of [Harriet Tubman’s] strategy of conducting was, as in all
battle-fi eld operations, the knowledge of how and when to retreat.
Numerous allusions have been made to her moves when she
suspected that she was in danger. When she feared the party was
closely pursued, she would take it for a time on a train southward
bound. No one seeing Negroes going in this direction would for
an instant suppose them to be fugitives. Once on her return she
was at a railroad station. She saw some men reading a poster and
she heard one of them reading it aloud. It was a description of her,
off ering a reward for her capture. She took a southbound train to
avert suspicion. At another time when Harriet heard men talking
about her, she pretended to read a book which she carried. One
man remarked, “Th is can’t be the woman. Th e one we want can’t
read or write.” Harriet devoutly hoped the book was right side up.
— Earl Conrad, Harriet Tubman
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3c54 Effective paragraphs
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Narration
A paragraph of narration tells a story or part of a story. Narrative
paragraphs are usually arranged in chronological order, but they
may also contain fl ashbacks, interruptions that take the story
back to an earlier time. Th e following paragraph recounts one of
the author’s experiences in the African wild.
One evening when I was wading in the shallows of the lake to
pass a rocky outcrop, I suddenly stopped dead as I saw the sinuous
black body of a snake in the water. It was all of six feet long, and
from the slight hood and the dark stripes at the back of the neck
I knew it to be a Storm’s water cobra — a deadly reptile for the
bite of which there was, at that time, no serum. As I stared at it an
incoming wave gently deposited part of its body on one of my feet.
I remained motionless, not even breathing, until the wave rolled
back into the lake, drawing the snake with it. Th en I leaped out of
the water as fast as I could, my heart hammering.
— Jane Goodall, In the Shadow of Man
Description
A descriptive paragraph sketches a portrait of a person, place, or
thing by using concrete and specifi c details that appeal to one
or more of our senses — sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch.
Consider, for example, the following description of the grasshop-
per invasions that devastated the midwestern landscape in the
United States in the late 1860s.
Th ey came like dive bombers out of the west. Th ey came by the
millions with the rustle of their wings roaring overhead. Th ey came
in waves, like the rolls of the sea, descending with a terrifying speed,
breaking now and again like a mighty surf. Th ey came with the
force of a williwaw and they formed a huge, ominous, dark brown
cloud that eclipsed the sun. Th ey dipped and touched earth, hitting
objects and people like hailstones. But they were not hail. Th ese
were live demons. Th ey popped, snapped, crackled, and roared.
Th ey were dark brown, an inch or longer in length, plump in the
middle and tapered at the ends. Th ey had transparent wings, slender
legs, and two black eyes that fl ashed with a fi erce intelligence.
— Eugene Boe, “Pioneers to Eternity”
Process
A process paragraph is structured in chronological order. A
writer may choose this pattern either to describe how something
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553cChoose a suitable pattern of organization
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is made or done or to explain to readers, step-by-step, how to do
something. Here is a paragraph explaining how to perform a “roll
cast,” a popular fl y-fi shing technique.
Begin by taking up a suitable stance, with one foot slightly
in front of the other and the rod pointing down the line. Th en
begin a smooth, steady draw, raising your rod hand to just above
shoulder height and lift ing the rod to the 10:30 or 11:00 position.
Th is steady draw allows a loop of line to form between the rod top
and the water. While the line is still moving, raise the rod slightly,
then punch it rapidly forward and down. Th e rod is now fl exed
and under maximum compression, and the line follows its path,
bellying out slightly behind you and coming off the water close to
your feet. As you power the rod down through the 3:00 position,
the belly of line will roll forward. Follow through smoothly so that
the line unfolds and straightens above the water.
— Th e Dorling Kindersley Encyclopedia of Fishing
Comparison and contrast
To compare two subjects is to draw attention to their similarities,
although the word compare also has a broader meaning that in-
cludes a consideration of diff erences. To contrast is to focus only
on diff erences.
Whether a paragraph stresses similarities or diff erences, it
may be patterned in one of two ways. Th e two subjects may be
presented one at a time, as in the following paragraph of contrast.
So Grant and Lee were in complete contrast, representing two
diametrically opposed elements in American life. Grant was the
modern man emerging; beyond him, ready to come on the stage,
was the great age of steel and machinery, of crowded cities and a
restless, burgeoning vitality. Lee might have ridden down from the
old age of chivalry, lance in hand, silken banner fl uttering over his
head. Each man was the perfect champion of his cause, drawing
both his strengths and his weaknesses from the people he led.
— Bruce Catton, “Grant and Lee: A Study in Contrasts”
Or a paragraph may proceed point by point, treating the two
subjects together, one aspect at a time. Th e following paragraph
uses the point-by-point method to contrast speeches given by
Abraham Lincoln in 1860 and Barack Obama in 2008.
Two men, two speeches. Th e men, both lawyers, both from
Illinois, were seeking the presidency, despite what seemed their
crippling connection with extremists. Each was young by modern
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3c56 Effective paragraphs
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standards for a president. Abraham Lincoln had turned fi ft y-one
just fi ve days before delivering his speech. Barack Obama was
forty-six when he gave his. Th eir political experience was mainly
provincial, in the Illinois legislature for both of them, and they
had received little exposure at the national level — two years
in the House of Representatives for Lincoln, four years in the
Senate for Obama. Yet each was seeking his party’s nomination
against a New York senator of longer standing and greater prior
reputation — Lincoln against Senator William Seward, Obama
against Senator Hillary Clinton.
— Garry Wills, “Two Speeches on Race”
Analogy
Analogies draw comparisons between items that appear to have
little in common. Writers turn to analogies for a variety of rea-
sons: to make the unfamiliar seem familiar, to provide a concrete
understanding of an abstract topic, to argue a point, or to pro-
voke fresh thoughts or changed feelings about a subject. In the
following paragraph, physician Lewis Th omas draws an analogy
between the behavior of ants and that of humans.
Ants are so much like human beings as to be an embarrassment.
Th ey farm fungi, raise aphids as livestock, launch armies into
wars, use chemical sprays to alarm and confuse enemies, capture
slaves. Th e families of weaver ants engage in child labor, holding
their larvae like shuttles to spin out the thread that sews the leaves
together for their fungus gardens. Th ey exchange information
ceaselessly. Th ey do everything but watch television.
— Lewis Th omas, “On Societies as Organisms”
Although analogies can be a powerful tool for illuminating a
subject, they should be used with caution in arguments. Just be-
cause two things may be alike in one respect, we cannot conclude
that they are alike in all respects. (See “false analogy,” p. 94.)
Cause and effect
When causes and eff ects are a matter of argument, they are too
complex to be reduced to a simple pattern (see p. 95). However,
if a writer wishes merely to describe a cause-and-eff ect relation-
ship that is generally accepted, then the eff ect may be stated
in the topic sentence, with the causes listed in the body of the
paragraph.
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573cChoose a suitable pattern of organization
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Th e fantastic water clarity of the Mount Gambier sinkholes
results from several factors. Th e holes are fed from aquifers
holding rainwater that fell decades — even centuries — ago, and
that has been fi ltered through miles of limestone. Th e high level
of calcium that limestone adds causes the silty detritus from dead
plants and animals to cling together and settle quickly to the
bottom. Abundant bottom vegetation in the shallow sinkholes
also helps bind the silt. And the rapid turnover of water prohibits
stagnation.
— Hillary Hauser, “Exploring a Sunken Realm in Australia”
Or the paragraph may move from cause to eff ects, as in this
paragraph from a student paper on the eff ects of the industrial
revolution on American farms.
Th e rise of rail transport in the nineteenth century forever
changed American farming — for better and for worse. Farmers
who once raised crops and livestock to sustain just their own
families could now make a profi t by selling their goods in towns
and cities miles away. Th ese new markets improved the living
standard of struggling farm families and encouraged them to
seek out innovations that would increase their profi ts. On the
downside, the competition fostered by the new markets sometimes
created hostility among neighboring farm families where there
had once been a spirit of cooperation. Th ose farmers who couldn’t
compete with their neighbors left farming forever, facing poverty
worse than they had ever known.
— Chris Mileski, student
Classifi cation and division
Classifi cation is the grouping of items into categories according
to some consistent principle. For example, an elementary school
teacher might classify children’s books according to their level
of diffi culty, but a librarian might group them by subject mat-
ter. Th e principle of classifi cation that a writer chooses ultimately
depends on the purpose of the classifi cation. Th e following para-
graph classifi es species of electric fi sh.
Scientists sort electric fi shes into three categories. Th e fi rst
comprises the strongly electric species like the marine electric
rays or the freshwater African electric catfi sh and South American
electric eel. Known since the dawn of history, these deliver a
punch strong enough to stun a human. In recent years, biologists
have focused on a second category: weakly electric fi sh in the
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3c58 Effective paragraphs
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South American and African rivers that use tiny voltages for
communication and navigation. Th e third group contains sharks,
nonelectric rays, and catfi sh, which do not emit a fi eld but
possess sensors that enable them to detect the minute amounts of
electricity that leak out of other organisms.
— Anne and Jack Rudloe, “Electric Warfare:
Th e Fish Th at Kill with Th underbolts”
Division takes one item and divides it into parts. As with
classifi cation, division should be made according to some consis-
tent principle. Th e following passage describes the components
that make up a baseball.
Like the game itself, a baseball is composed of many layers.
One of the delicious joys of childhood is to take apart a baseball
and examine the wonders within. You begin by removing the red
cotton thread and peeling off the leather cover — which comes
from the hide of a Holstein cow and has been tanned, cut, printed,
and punched with holes. Beneath the cover is a thin layer of cotton
string, followed by several hundred yards of woolen yarn, which
makes up the bulk of the ball. Finally, in the middle is a rubber
ball, or “pill,” which is a little smaller than a golf ball. Slice into
the rubber and you’ll fi nd the ball’s heart — a cork core. Th e cork
is from Portugal, the rubber from southeast Asia, the covers are
American, and the balls are assembled in Costa Rica.
— Dan Gutman, Th e Way Baseball Works
Defi nition
A defi nition puts a word or concept into a general class and then
provides enough details to distinguish it from others in the same
class. In the following paragraph, the writer defi nes envy as a spe-
cial kind of desire.
Envy is so integral and so painful a part of what animates
behavior in market societies that many people have forgotten the
full meaning of the word, simplifying it into one of the synonyms
of desire. It is that, which may be why it fl ourishes in market
societies: democracies of desire, they might be called, with money
for ballots, stuffi ng permitted. But envy is more or less than desire.
It begins with an almost frantic sense of emptiness inside oneself,
as if the pump of one’s heart were sucking on air. One has to be
blind to perceive the emptiness, of course, but that’s just what
envy is, a selective blindness. Invidia, Latin for envy, translates
as “non-sight,” and Dante has the envious plodding along under
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cloaks of lead, their eyes sewn shut with leaden wire. What they
are blind to is what they have, God-given and humanly nurtured,
in themselves.
— Nelson W. Aldrich Jr., Old Money
3d Make paragraphs coherent.
When sentences and paragraphs fl ow from one to another with-
out discernible bumps, gaps, or shift s, they are said to be co-
herent. Coherence can be improved by strengthening the ties
between old information and new. A number of techniques for
strengthening those ties are detailed in this section.
Linking ideas clearly
Readers expect to learn a paragraph’s main point in a topic sen-
tence early in the paragraph. Th en, as they move into the body
of the paragraph, they expect to encounter specifi c details, facts,
or examples that support the topic sentence — either directly or
indirectly.
If a sentence does not support the topic sentence directly,
readers expect it to support another sentence in the paragraph
and therefore to support the topic sentence indirectly. Th e fol-
lowing paragraph begins with a topic sentence. Th e highlighted
sentences are direct supports, and the rest of the sentences are
indirect supports.
Th ough the open-space classroom works for many children,
it is not practical for my son, David. First, David is hyperactive.
When he was placed in an open-space classroom, he became
distracted and confused. He was tempted to watch the movement
going on around him instead of concentrating on his own work.
Second, David has a tendency to transpose letters and numbers, a
tendency that can be overcome only by individual attention from
the instructor. In the open classroom he was moved from teacher
to teacher, with each one responsible for a diff erent subject. No
single teacher worked with David long enough to diagnose the
problem, let alone help him with it. Finally, David is not a highly
motivated learner. In the open classroom, he was graded “at his
own level,” not by criteria for a certain grade. He could receive a B
in reading and still be a grade level behind, because he was doing
satisfactory work “at his own level.”
— Margaret Smith, student
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3d60 Effective paragraphs
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Repeating key words
Repetition of key words is an important technique for gaining
coherence. To prevent repetitions from becoming dull, you can
use variations of a key word (hike, hiker, hiking), pronouns refer-
ring to the word (gamblers . . . they), and synonyms (run, spring,
race, dash). In the following paragraph describing plots among
indentured servants in the seventeenth century, historian Richard
Hofstadter binds sentences together by repeating the key word plots
and echoing it with a variety of synonyms (which are highlighted).
Plots hatched by several servants to run away together occurred
mostly in the plantation colonies, and the few recorded servant
uprisings were entirely limited to those colonies. Virginia had been
forced from its very earliest years to take stringent steps against
mutinous plots, and severe punishments for such behavior were
recorded. Most servant plots occurred in the seventeenth century:
a contemplated uprising was nipped in the bud in York County
in 1661; apparently led by some left -wing off shoots of the Great
Rebellion, servants plotted an insurrection in Gloucester County
in 1663, and four leaders were condemned and executed; some
discontented servants apparently joined Bacon’s Rebellion in the
1670’s. In the 1680’s the planters became newly apprehensive of
discontent among the servants “owing to their great necessities and
want of clothes,” and it was feared they would rise up and plunder
the storehouses and ships; in 1682 there were plant-cutting riots in
which servants and laborers, as well as some planters, took part.
— Richard Hofstadter, America at 1750
Using parallel structures
Parallel structures are frequently used within sentences to un-
derscore the similarity of ideas (see 9). Th ey may also be used
to bind together a series of sentences expressing similar infor-
mation. In the following passage describing folk beliefs, anthro-
pologist Margaret Mead presents similar information in parallel
grammatical form.
Actually, almost every day, even in the most sophisticated home,
something is likely to happen that evokes the memory of some old
folk belief. Th e salt spills. A knife falls to the fl oor. Your nose tickles.
Th en perhaps, with a slightly embarrassed smile, the person who
spilled the salt tosses a pinch over his left shoulder. Or someone
recites the old rhyme, “Knife falls, gentleman calls.” Or as you rub
your nose you think, Th at means a letter. I wonder who’s writing?
— Margaret Mead, “New Superstitions for Old”
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Maintaining consistency
Coherence suff ers whenever a draft shift s confusingly from one
point of view to another or from one verb tense to another. (See
13.) In addition, coherence can suff er when new information is in-
troduced with the subject of each sentence. As a rule, a sentence’s
subject should echo a subject or an object in the previous sentence.
Providing transitions
Transitions help readers move from sentence to sentence; they
also alert readers to more global connections of ideas — those be-
tween paragraphs or even larger blocks of text.
Sentence-level transitions Certain words and phrases signal con-
nections between (or within) sentences. Frequently used transi-
tions are included in the chart on page 63.
Skilled writers use transitional expressions with care, mak-
ing sure, for example, not to use consequently when also would
be more precise. Th ey are also careful to select transitions with
an appropriate tone, perhaps preferring so to thus in an informal
piece, in summary to in short for a scholarly essay.
In the following paragraph, taken from an argument that
dinosaurs had the “ ‘right-sized’ brains for reptiles of their body
size,” biologist Stephen Jay Gould uses transitions (highlighted)
with skill.
I don’t wish to deny that the fl attened, minuscule head of
large bodied Stegosaurus houses little brain from our subjective,
top-heavy perspective, but I do wish to assert that we should not
expect more of the beast. First of all, large animals have relatively
smaller brains than related, small animals. Th e correlation of
brain size with body size among kindred animals (all reptiles, all
mammals, for example) is remarkably regular. As we move from
small to large animals, from mice to elephants or small lizards to
Komodo dragons, brain size increases, but not so fast as body size.
In other words, bodies grow faster than brains, and large animals
have low ratios of brain weight to body weight. In fact, brains grow
only about two-thirds as fast as bodies. Since we have no reason
to believe that large animals are consistently stupider than their
smaller relatives, we must conclude that large animals require
relatively less brain to do as well as smaller animals. If we do not
recognize this relationship, we are likely to underestimate the
mental power of very large animals, dinosaurs in particular.
— Stephen Jay Gould, “Were Dinosaurs Dumb?”
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3d62 Effective paragraphs
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Academic English Choose transitions carefully and vary them
appropriately. Each transition has a diff erent meaning (see the chart
below). If you do not use a transition with an appropriate meaning,
you might confuse your readers.
▶ Although taking eight o’clock classes may seem unappealing,
coming to school early has its advantages. Moreover,
students who arrive early typically avoid the worst traffi c and
fi nd the best parking spaces.
^
For example,
Paragraph-level transitions Paragraph-level transitions usually
link the fi rst sentence of a new paragraph with the fi rst sentence
of the previous paragraph. In other words, the topic sentences
signal global connections.
Look for opportunities to allude to the subject of a previous
paragraph (as summed up in its topic sentence) in the topic sen-
tence of the next one. In his essay “Little Green Lies,” Jonathan H.
Adler uses this strategy in the following topic sentences, which
appear in a passage describing the benefi ts of plastic packaging.
Consider aseptic packaging, the synthetic packaging for the
“juice boxes” so many children bring to school with their lunch.
One criticism of aseptic packaging is that it is nearly impossible
to recycle, yet on almost every other count, aseptic packaging
is environmentally preferable to the packaging alternatives. Not
only do aseptic containers not require refrigeration to keep their
contents from spoiling, but their manufacture requires less than
one-10th the energy of making glass bottles.
What is true for juice boxes is also true for other forms of
synthetic packaging. Th e use of polystyrene, which is commonly
(and mistakenly) referred to as “Styrofoam,” can reduce food waste
dramatically due to its insulating properties. (Th anks to these
properties, polystyrene cups are much preferred over paper for
that morning cup of coff ee.) Polystyrene also requires signifi cantly
fewer resources to produce than its paper counterpart.
macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
3 Building effective paragraphs
> Writing practice: Using transitions
> Exercise: 3–3
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633eAdjust paragraph length
para
Common transitions
TO SHOW ADDITION and, also, besides, further, furthermore, in
addition, moreover, next, too, fi rst, second
TO GIVE EXAMPLES for example, for instance, to illustrate, in fact,
specifi cally
TO COMPARE also, in the same manner, similarly, likewise
TO CONTRAST but, however, on the other hand, in contrast,
nevertheless, still, even though, on the contrary, yet, although
TO SUMMARIZE OR CONCLUDE in short, in summary, in conclusion, to
sum up, therefore
TO SHOW TIME aft er, as, before, next, during, later, fi nally, meanwhile,
then, when, while, immediately
TO SHOW PLACE OR DIRECTION above, below, beyond, nearby, opposite,
close, to the left
TO INDICATE LOGICAL RELATIONSHIP if, so, therefore, consequently,
thus, as a result, for this reason, because, since
Transitions between blocks of text In long essays, you will need to
alert readers to connections between blocks of text that are more
than one paragraph long. You can do this by inserting transitional
sentences or short paragraphs at key points in the essay. Here, for
example, is a transitional paragraph from a student research paper.
It announces that the fi rst part of the paper (about how apes dem-
onstrate language skills) has come to a close and the second part
(about whether they understand grammar) is about to begin.
Although the great apes have demonstrated signifi cant
language skills, one central question remains: Can they be taught
to use that uniquely human language tool we call grammar, to
learn the diff erence, for instance, between “ape bite human” and
“human bite ape”? In other words, can an ape create a sentence?
Another strategy to help readers move from one block of text
to another is to insert headings in your essay. Headings, which
usually sit above blocks of text, allow you to announce a new
topic boldly, without the need for subtle transitions.
3e If necessary, adjust paragraph length.
Most readers feel comfortable reading paragraphs that range
between one hundred and two hundred words. Shorter para-
graphs require too much starting and stopping, and longer
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3e64 Effective paragraphs
para
ones strain readers’ attention span. Th ere are exceptions to this
guideline, however. Paragraphs longer than two hundred words
frequently appear in scholarly writing, where scholars explore
complex ideas. Paragraphs shorter than one hundred words occur
in newspapers because of narrow columns; in informal essays to
quicken the pace; and in business writing and Web sites, where
readers routinely skim for main ideas.
In an essay, the fi rst and last paragraphs will ordinarily be the
introduction and the conclusion. Th ese special-purpose paragraphs
are likely to be shorter than the paragraphs in the body of the essay.
Typically, the body paragraphs will follow the essay’s outline: one
paragraph per point in short essays, several paragraphs per point in
longer ones. Some ideas require more development than others, how-
ever, so it is best to be fl exible. If an idea stretches to a length unrea-
sonable for a paragraph, you should divide the paragraph, even if you
have presented comparable points in the essay in single paragraphs.
Paragraph breaks are not always made for strictly logical rea-
sons. Writers use them for the following reasons as well.
REASONS FOR BEGINNING A NEW PARAGRAPH
• to mark off the introduction and the conclusion
• to signal a shift to a new idea
• to indicate an important shift in time or place
• to emphasize a point (by placing it at the beginning or the
end, not in the middle, of a paragraph)
• to highlight a contrast
• to signal a change of speakers (in dialogue)
• to provide readers with a needed pause
• to break up text that looks too dense
Beware of using too many short, choppy paragraphs, how-
ever. Readers want to see how your ideas connect, and they be-
come irritated when you break their momentum by forcing them
to pause every few sentences. Here are some reasons you might
have for combining some of the paragraphs in a rough draft .
REASONS FOR COMBINING PARAGRAPHS
• to clarify the essay’s organization
• to connect closely related ideas
• to bind together text that looks too choppy
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Academic
Reading,
Writing, and
Speaking
4 Reading and writing critically, 66
STUDENT WRITING: ANALYSIS OF AN ARTICLE, 78
5 Reading and writing about multimodal texts, 80
STUDENT WRITING: ANALYSIS OF AN ADVERTISEMENT, 88
6 Reading and writing arguments, 91
STUDENT WRITING: ARGUMENT, 112
7 Speaking confi dently, 119
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4 Reading and writing critically
College writing requires you to become a critical reader — question-
ing and conversing with the texts you read. When you read criti-
cally, you read with an open, curious mind to understand both what
is said and why. And when you write critically, you respond to a text,
with thoughtful questions and insights, off ering your judgment of
how the parts of a text contribute to its overall eff ect. Th e texts you’ll
be asked to read and analyze may be written — many books, articles,
and case studies, for example, convey meaning solely through writ-
ten words. Or they may be multimodal, combining one or more
modes — words, images, and sounds — such as videos, podcasts,
advertisements. Whether you’re reading and writing about a writ-
ten text or a multimodal text, many of the same strategies apply.
Th is chapter covers strategies that will help you analyze any text.
Chapter 5 off ers specifi c advice for analyzing multimodal texts.
4a Read actively.
Reading, like writing, is an active process that happens in steps. Most
texts, such as the ones assigned in college, don’t yield their meaning
with one quick reading. Rather, they require you to read and reread to
grasp the main points and to comprehend a text’s layers of meaning.
When you read actively, you pay attention to details you would
miss if you just skimmed a text. First, you read to understand the
main ideas. Th en you pay attention to your own reactions by mak-
ing note of what interests, surprises, or puzzles you. Active readers
preview a text, annotate it, and then converse with it.
Previewing a text
Previewing — looking quickly through a text before you read —
helps you understand its basic features and structure. A text’s title,
for example, may reveal an author’s purpose; a text’s format or
design may reveal what kind of text it is — a book, a report, a pol-
icy memo, a video, and so on. As you preview, you can browse for
images, scan headings, and gain a sense of the text’s subsections
macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
4 Reading and writing critically
> Writing practice: Reading actively
> LearningCurve: Critical reading
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67
crit
4aRead actively
and intended audience. Th e more you know about a text before
you read it, the easier it will be to dig deeper into it.
Annotating a text
Annotating helps you capture and record your responses to a text. As
you annotate, you take notes — jot down questions and reactions in the
margins of the text or on electronic or paper sticky notes. You might
circle or underline the author’s main points. Or you might develop
your own system of annotating by placing question marks, asterisks,
or stars by the text’s thesis, message, or major pieces of evidence.
As you annotate and think about a text, you are starting to
write about it. Responding with notes helps you frame what you
want to say about the author’s ideas or questions you want to ad-
dress in response to the text. On a second or third reading, you
may notice contradictions — statements the author makes that,
put side-by-side, just don’t seem to make sense — or surprising in-
sights that may lead to further investigation. Each rereading will
raise new questions and lead to a better understanding of the text.
Th e following example shows how one student, Emilia
Sanchez, annotated an article from CQ Researcher, a newsletter
about social and political issues.
ANNOTATED ARTICLE
Big Box Stores Are Bad for Main Street
BETSY TAYLOR
Th ere is plenty of reason to be concerned about the
proliferation of Wal-Marts and other so-called “big box”
stores. Th e question, however, is not whether or not
these types of stores create jobs (although several studies
claim they produce a net job loss in local communities)
or whether they ultimately save consumers money. Th e
real concern about having a 25-acre slab of concrete
with a 100,000 square foot box of stuff land on a town is
whether it’s good for a community’s soul.
Th e worst thing about “big boxes” is that they have
a tendency to produce Ross Perot’s famous “big sucking
sound” — sucking the life out of cities and small towns
across the country. On the other hand, small businesses
are great for a community. Th ey off er more personal
service; they won’t threaten to pack up and leave town
if they don’t get tax breaks, free roads and other blan-
dishments; and small-business owners are much
Opening
strategy —
the problem is
not x, it’s y.
Sentimental —
what is a
community’s
soul? I would
think job
security and a
strong economy
are bett er for
a community’s
“soul” than
small stores
that have to lay
people off or
close.
Lumps all big
boxes together.
(Continued )
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4a Reading and writing critically68
Conversing with a text
Conversing with a text — responding to a text and its author — helps
you move beyond your initial notes to draw conclusions about
what you’ve read. Perhaps you ask additional questions, point out
something that doesn’t make sense, or explain how the author’s
points suggest wider implications. As you respond to a text, you
look more closely at how the author works through a topic, and
you evaluate the author’s evidence and conclusions.
Conversing takes your understanding of a text to the next
level. For example, student writer Emilia Sanchez noticed on a
fi rst reading that her assigned text closed with an emotional ap-
peal to the reader. On a second reading, she started to question
whether the emotional appeal was too simplistic.
Many writers use a double-entry notebook to converse with
a text and its author and to generate ideas and insights. To create
one, draw a line down the center of a notebook page or create a
two-column table in your word processing program. On the left
Big Box Stores Are Bad for Main Street
(Continued)
more responsive to a customer’s needs. (Ever try to
complain about bad service or poor quality products
to the president of Home Depot?)
Yet, if big boxes are so bad, why are they so success-
ful? One glaring reason is that we’ve become a nation
of hyper-consumers, and the big-box boys know this.
Downtown shopping districts comprised of small
businesses take some of the effi ciency out of overcon-
sumption. Th ere’s all that hassle of having to travel from
store to store, and having to pull out your credit card so
many times. Occasionally, we even fi nd ourselves chat-
ting with the shopkeeper, wandering into a coff ee shop
to visit with a friend or otherwise wasting precious time
that could be spent on acquiring more stuff .
But let’s face it — bustling, thriving city centers are
fun. Th ey breathe life into a community. Th ey allow
cities and towns to stand out from each other. Th ey
provide an atmosphere for people to interact with each
other that just cannot be found at Target, or Wal-Mart
or Home Depot.
Is it anti-American to be against having a retail giant
set up shop in one’s community? Some people would
say so. On the other hand, if you board up Main Street,
what’s left of America?
Assumes
all small
businesses are
att entive.
Logic problem?
Why couldn’t
customer
complain to
store manager? True?
Taylor wishes
for a time that
is long gone or
never was.
Community vs.
economy. What
about prices?
Author’s
either/or
thinking isn’t
working. Stores
like Home
Depot try to
encourage a
community feel. Emotional
appeal seems
too simplistic.
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69
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4aRead actively
side, record what the author says; include quotations, sentences,
and key terms from the text. On the right side, record your ob-
servations and questions. With each rereading of a text, you can
return to your notebook to add new insights or questions.
A double-entry notebook allows you to begin to see the dif-
ference between what a text says and what it means and to visual-
ize the conversation between you and the author as it develops.
Here is an excerpt from student writer Emilia Sanchez’s
double- entry notebook.
IDEAS FROM THE TEXT MY RESPONSES
“Th e question, however, is
not whether or not these
types of stores create jobs
(although several studies
claim they produce a net job
loss in local communities) or
whether they ultimately save
consumers money” (1011).
Why are big-box stores bad if they
create jobs or save people money?
Taylor dismisses these possibilities
without acknowledging their
importance. My family needs to
save money and needs jobs more
than “chatting with the shopkeeper”
(1011).
“Th e real concern . . . is
whether [big-box stores
are] good for a community’s
soul” (1011).
“[S]mall businesses are great
for a community” (1011).
Taylor is missing something here.
Are all big-box stores bad? Are
all small businesses great? Would
getting rid of big-box stores save the
“soul” of America? Is Main Street
the “soul” of America? Taylor sounds
overly sentimental. She assumes that
people spend more money because
they shop at big-box stores. And she
assumes that small businesses are
always better for consumers.
USING SOURCES RESPONSIBLY: Put quotation marks around words
you have copied from the source and keep an accurate record of
page numbers for quotations and ideas.
Asking the “So what?” question
As you read and annotate a text, make sure you understand its thesis,
or central idea. Ask yourself: “What is the author’s thesis?” Th en put
the author’s thesis to the “So what?” test: “Why does this thesis mat-
ter? Why does it need to be argued?” Perhaps you’ll conclude that
the thesis is too obvious and doesn’t matter at all — or that it matters
so much that you feel the author stopped short and overlooked key
details. Or perhaps you’ll think that a reasonable person might draw
diff erent conclusions about the issue. You’ll be in a stronger position
to analyze a text aft er putting its thesis to the “So what?” test.
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4a Reading and writing critically70
Guidelines for active reading
Preview a written text.
● Who is the author? What are the author’s credentials?
● What is the author’s purpose: To inform? To persuade? To call to
action?
● Who is the expected audience?
● When was the text written? Where was it published?
● What kind of text is it: A book? A report? A scholarly article? A
policy memo?
Annotate a written text.
● What surprises, puzzles, or intrigues you about the text?
● What question does the text attempt to answer? Or what prob-
lem does it attempt to solve?
● What is the author’s thesis, or central claim?
● What type of evidence does the author provide to support the
thesis? How persuasive is this evidence?
Converse with a written text.
● What are the strengths and limitations of the text?
● Has the author drawn conclusions that you want to question? Do
you have a diff erent interpretation of the evidence?
● Does the text raise questions that it does not answer?
● Does the author consider opposing points of view and treat them
fairly?
Ask the “So what?” question.
● Why does the author’s thesis need to be argued, explained, or
explored? What’s at stake?
● What has the author overlooked in presenting this thesis? What’s
missing?
● Could a reasonable person draw diff erent conclusions about the
issue?
● To put an author’s thesis to the “So what?” test, use phrases like
the following: Th e author overlooks this important point: . . . and
Th e author’s argument is convincing because. . . .
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Outline a text to identify main ideas 71
crit
4b
4b Outline a text to identify main ideas.
You are probably familiar with using an outline as a planning
tool to help you organize your ideas. An outline is a useful tool
for reading, too. Outlining a text — identifying its main idea and
major parts — can be an important step in your reading process.
As you outline, look closely for a text’s thesis statement (main
idea) and topic sentences because they serve as important sign-
posts for readers. A thesis statement oft en appears in the intro-
duction, usually in the fi rst or second paragraph. Topic sentences
oft en can be found at the beginning of body paragraphs, where
they announce a shift to a new idea. (See 1e and 3a.)
Put the author’s thesis and key points in your own words. Here,
for example, are the points Emilia Sanchez identifi ed as she prepared
to write her summary and analysis of the text printed on page 67.
Notice that Sanchez does not simply trace the author’s ideas para-
graph by paragraph; instead, she sums up the article’s central points.
OUTLINE OF “BIG BOX STORES ARE BAD FOR MAIN STREET”
Thesis: Whether or not they take jobs away from a community or
offer low prices to consumers, we should be worried about “big-box”
stores like Wal-Mart, Target, and Home Depot because they harm
communities by taking the life out of downtown shopping districts.
I. Small businesses are better for cities and towns than big-box
stores are.
A. Small businesses offer personal service; big-box stores do not.
B. Small businesses don’t make demands on community
resources as big-box stores do.
C. Small businesses respond to customer concerns; big-box
stores do not.
II. Big-box stores are successful because they cater to
consumption at the expense of benefits to the community.
A. Buying everything in one place is convenient.
B. Shopping at small businesses may be inefficient, but it
provides opportunities for socializing.
C. Downtown shopping districts give each city or town a
special identity.
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4c Reading and writing critically72
Conclusion: Although some people say that it’s anti-American to
oppose big-box stores, actually these stores threaten the communities
that make up America by encouraging buying at the expense of the
traditional interactions of Main Street.
Reading online
For many college assignments, you will be asked to read online
sources. It is tempting to skim and browse online texts rather than
read them carefully. When you skim a text, you are less likely to
remember what you have read and less inclined to reread to grasp
layers of meaning.
Th e following strategies will help you read critically online.
Read slowly. Instead of sweeping your eyes across the page,
consciously slow down the pace of your reading to focus on each
sentence.
Avoid multitasking. Close other applications, especially
messaging and social media. If you follow a link for background
or the defi nition of a term, return to the text immediately.
Annotate electronically. Use soft ware tools, such as sticky notes,
highlighting, and commenting features, to record your thoughts
as you read online texts.
Print the text. If you prefer to read and annotate printed texts,
make a copy for close reading and note taking. Be sure to record
information about the online source so that you can fi nd it again,
if needed, and cite it properly.
4c Summarize to deepen your understanding.
Your goal in summarizing a text is to state the work’s main ideas and
key points simply, objectively, and accurately in your own words.
Writing a summary does not require you to judge the author’s ideas;
it requires you to understand the author’s ideas. In summarizing, you
condense information, put an author’s ideas in your own words, and
test your understanding of what a text says. If you have sketched a
brief outline of the text (see 4b), refer to it as you draft your summary.
Following is Emilia Sanchez’s summary of the article that is
printed on page 67.
In her essay “Big Box Stores Are Bad for Main Street,” Betsy Taylor
argues that chain stores harm communities by taking the life out of
downtown shopping districts. Explaining that a community’s “soul” is
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Analyze to demonstrate your critical reading 73
crit
4d
more important than low prices or consumer convenience, she argues
that small businesses are better than stores like Home Depot and Target
because they emphasize personal interactions and don’t place demands
on a community’s resources. Taylor asserts that big-box stores are
successful because “we’ve become a nation of hyper-consumers” (1011),
although the convenience of shopping in these stores comes at the
expense of benefits to the community. She concludes by suggesting that
it’s not “anti-American” to oppose big-box stores because the damage
they inflict on downtown shopping districts extends to America itself.
— Emilia Sanchez, student
Guidelines for writing a summary
● In the fi rst sentence, mention the title of the text, the name of the
author, and the author’s thesis.
● Maintain a neutral tone; be objective.
● As you present the author’s ideas, use the third-person point of
view and the present tense: Taylor argues. . . . (If you are writing
in APA style, see 60c.)
● Keep your focus on the text. Don’t state the author’s ideas as if
they were your own.
● Put all or most of your summary in your own words; if you
borrow a phrase or a sentence from the text, put it in quotation
marks and provide the page number in parentheses.
● Limit yourself to presenting the text’s key points.
● Be concise; make every word count.
4d Analyze to demonstrate your critical reading.
Whereas a summary most oft en answers the question of what a text
says, an analysis looks at how a text conveys its main idea. As you read
and reread a text — previewing, annotating, and conversing — you
are asking questions and generating ideas to form a judgment of it.
When you analyze a text, you say to readers: “Here’s my reading of
this text. Th is is what the text means and why it matters.” Assignments
calling for an analysis of a text vary widely, but they usually ask you to
look at how the text’s parts contribute to its central argument or pur-
pose, oft en with the aim of evaluating its evidence or overall eff ect.
NOTE: Writing about a text oft en requires you to quote directly
from the text. See 55 for guidelines for integrating quotations.
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4d Reading and writing critically74
Balancing summary with analysis
If you have written a summary of a text, you may fi nd it useful to
refer to the main points of the summary as you write your analy-
sis. Your readers may or may not be familiar with the text you are
analyzing, so you need to summarize the text briefl y to help read-
ers understand the basis of your analysis. Th e following strategies
will help you balance summary with analysis.
• Remember that readers are interested in your ideas about a text.
• Pose questions that lead to an interpretation or a judgment of
a text rather than to a summary. Th e questions on page 70 can
help steer you away from summary and toward analysis.
• Focus your analysis on the text’s thesis and main ideas or
some prominent feature of the reading.
• Pay attention to your topic sentences to make sure they
signal analysis.
• Ask peer reviewers to give you feedback: Do you summarize
too much and need to analyze more?
Here is an example of how student writer Emilia Sanchez
balances summary with analysis in her essay about Betsy Taylor’s
article (see p. 67). Before stating her thesis, Sanchez summarizes
the article’s purpose and central idea.
[In her essay “Big Box Stores Are Bad for Main
Street,” Betsy Taylor focuses not on the economic effects
of large chain stores but on the effects these stores have
on the “soul” of America. She argues that stores like Home
Depot, Target, and Wal-Mart are bad for America because
they draw people out of downtown shopping districts
and cause them to focus on consumption. In contrast,
she believes that small businesses are good for America
because they provide personal attention, encourage
community interaction, and make each city and town
unique.] [But Taylor’s argument is unconvincing because
it is based on sentimentality—on idealized images of
a quaint Main Street—rather than on the roles that
businesses play in consumers’ lives and communities.]
Summary
Analysis
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Analyze to demonstrate your critical reading 75
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4d
Drafting an analytical thesis statement
An eff ective thesis statement for analytical writing responds to
a question about a text or tries to resolve a problem in the text.
Remember that your thesis isn’t the same as the text’s thesis
or main idea. Your thesis presents your judgment of the text’s
argument.
If student writer Emilia Sanchez had started her analysis of
“Big Box Stores Are Bad for Main Street” (p. 67) with the follow-
ing thesis statement, she merely would have repeated the main
idea of the article.
INEFFECTIVE THESIS STATEMENT
Big-box stores such as Wal-Mart and Home Depot promote
consumerism by off ering endless goods at low prices, but they do
nothing to promote community.
Instead, Sanchez wrote the following thesis statement, which
off ers her judgment of Taylor’s argument.
EFFECTIVE THESIS STATEMENT
By ignoring the complex economic relationship between large
chain stores and their communities, Taylor incorrectly assumes
that simply getting rid of big-box stores would have a positive
eff ect on America’s communities.
As you draft your thesis, try asking what, why, and how ques-
tions to form a judgment about a text you are reading.
• What has the text’s author overlooked or failed to consider?
Why does this matter?
• Why might a reasonable person draw a diff erent set of
conclusions about the subject matter?
• How does the text clarify or complicate your understanding
of the subject?
NOTE: When you analyze a text, you integrate words and ideas
from the source into your own writing. For advice on quot-
ing, paraphrasing, and using signal phrases, see 55 (MLA) or
60 (APA).
macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
4 Reading and writing critically
> Writing practice: Drafting and revising an analytical thesis
> Writing practice: Analyzing a text
> Writing practice: Developing an analysis
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76
Writing guide | Analytical essay
An analysis of a text allows you to examine the parts of a text to
understand what it means and how it makes its meaning. Your
goal is to off er your judgment of the text and to persuade readers
to see it through your analytical perspective. A sample analytical
essay begins on page 78.
Key features
● A careful and critical reading of a text reveals what the text says, how
it works, and what it means. In an analytical essay, you pay attention to
the details of the text, especially its thesis and evidence.
● A thesis that off ers a clear judgment of a text anchors your analysis.
Your thesis might be the answer to a question you have posed about a
text or the resolution of a problem you have identifi ed in the text.
● Support for the thesis comes from evidence in the text. You
summarize, paraphrase, and quote passages that support the claims
you make about the text.
● A balance of summary and analysis helps readers who may not
be familiar with the text you are analyzing. Summary answers the
question of what a text says; an analysis looks at how a text makes its
point.
Writing your analytical essay
EXPLORE
Explore ideas by asking questions about the text. Let your questions
help you understand what the text says, how it works, and what it
means. Look for patterns among your questions to discover what
interests you about the text’s thesis, evidence, and key passages.
Explore ideas for your analysis by asking questions such as the
following:
● What is the text about?
● What do you fi nd most interesting, surprising, or puzzling about
this text?
● What is the author’s thesis or central idea? Put the author’s thesis
to the “So what?” test. (See p. 69.)
● What do your annotations of the text reveal about your response
to it?
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DRAFT
● Draft a working thesis to focus your analysis. Remember that
your thesis is not the same as the author’s thesis. Your thesis
presents your judgment and interpretation of the text.
● Draft a plan to organize your paragraphs. Your introductory
paragraph will briefly summarize the text and offer your
thesis. Your body paragraphs will support your thesis with
evidence from the text. Your conclusion will pull together
the major points and show the significance of your analysis.
(See 1d.)
● Identify specifi c words, phrases, and sentences as evidence to
support your thesis.
REVISE
Ask your reviewers to give you specifi c comments. You can use the
following questions to guide their feedback.
● Is the introduction eff ective and engaging?
● Is summary balanced with analysis?
● Does the thesis off er a clear judgment of the text?
● What objections might other writers pose to your analysis?
● Is the analysis well organized? Are there clear topic sentences and
transitions?
● Is there suffi cient evidence? Is the evidence analyzed?
● Have you cited words, phrases, or sentences that are summarized
or quoted?
4e Sample student writing: Analysis
of an article
Following is Emilia Sanchez’s analysis of the article by Betsy
Taylor (see p. 67). Sanchez used MLA (Modern Language
Association) style to format her paper and cite the source.
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4 Reading and writing critically
> Sample student writing: Sanchez, “Rethinking Big-Box Stores” (analysis of an article)
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crit
4e Reading and writing critically78
Sanchez 1
Emilia Sanchez
Professor Goodwin
English 10
23 October 2014
Rethinking Big-Box Stores
In her essay “Big Box Stores Are Bad for Main Street,”
Betsy Taylor focuses not on the economic effects of large
chain stores but on the effects these stores have on
the “soul” of America. She argues that stores like Home
Depot, Target, and Wal-Mart are bad for America because
they draw people out of downtown shopping districts and
cause them to focus on consumption. In contrast, she
believes that small businesses are good for America because
they provide personal attention, encourage community
interaction, and make each city and town unique. But
Taylor’s argument is unconvincing because it is based
on sentimentality—on idealized images of a quaint Main
Street—rather than on the roles that businesses play in
consumers’ lives and communities. By ignoring the complex
economic relationship between large chain stores and
their communities, Taylor incorrectly assumes that simply
getting rid of big-box stores would have a positive effect on
America’s communities.
Taylor’s use of colorful language reveals that she
has a sentimental view of American society and does not
understand economic realities. In her first paragraph, Taylor
refers to a big-box store as a “25-acre slab of concrete with
a 100,000 square foot box of stuff” that “land[s] on a
town,” evoking images of a powerful monster crushing the
American way of life (1011). But she oversimplifies
a complex issue. Taylor does not consider that many
Marginal annotations indicate MLA-style formatting and effective writing.
Opening briefl y
summarizes
the article’s
purpose and
thesis.
Sanchez
begins to
analyze Taylor’s
argument.
Thesis
expresses
Sanchez’s
judgment of
Taylor’s article.
Signal phrase
introduces
quotations from
the source;
Sanchez uses
an MLA in-text
citation.
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79
crit
4eSample analysis of an article
Sanchez 2
downtown business districts failed long before chain stores
moved in, when factories and mills closed and workers lost
their jobs. In cities with struggling economies, big-box stores
can actually provide much-needed jobs. Similarly, while
Taylor blames big-box stores for harming local economies by
asking for tax breaks, free roads, and other perks, she doesn’t
acknowledge that these stores also enter into economic
partnerships with the surrounding communities by offering
financial benefits to schools and hospitals.
Taylor’s assumption that shopping in small businesses
is always better for the customer also seems driven by
nostalgia for an old-fashioned Main Street rather than
by the facts. While she may be right that many small
businesses offer personal service and are responsive to
customer complaints, she does not consider that many
customers appreciate the service at big-box stores. Just as
customer service is better at some small businesses than
at others, it is impossible to generalize about service at
all big-box stores. For example, customers depend on the
lenient return policies and the wide variety of products at
stores like Target and Home Depot.
Taylor blames big-box stores for encouraging American
“hyper-consumerism,” but she oversimplifies by equating
big-box stores with bad values and small businesses with
good values. Like her other points, this claim ignores the
economic and social realities of American society today.
Big-box stores do not force Americans to buy more. By
offering lower prices in a convenient setting, however,
they allow consumers to save time and purchase goods
they might not be able to afford from small businesses. The
existence of more small businesses would not change what
Clear topic
sentence
announces a
shift to a new
topic.
Sanchez refutes
Taylor’s claim.
Sanchez
identifi es and
challenges
Taylor’s
assumptions.
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Reading and writing about multimodal texts80 5
mm
5 Reading and writing about multimodal texts
In many of your college classes, you’ll have the opportunity to read
and write about multimodal texts, such as advertisements, maps,
videos, and Web sites. Th ese texts are called multimodal because
they use written words and images or moving images and sound or
some other combination of modes to convey meaning. You might
be asked to analyze an advertisement for a composition course,
a map for a geology course, or a YouTube video for a sociology
course. All texts can be approached in a critical way. You can en-
gage with them by studying how they work to communicate their
Sanchez 3
most Americans can afford, nor would it reduce their desire
to buy affordable merchandise.
Taylor may be right that some big-box stores have a
negative impact on communities and that small businesses
offer certain advantages. But she ignores the economic
conditions that support big-box stores as well as the fact
that Main Street was in decline before the big-box store
arrived. Getting rid of big-box stores will not bring back a
simpler America populated by thriving, unique Main Streets;
in reality, Main Street will not survive if consumers cannot
afford to shop there.
Sanchez 4
Work Cited
Taylor, Betsy. “Big Box Stores Are Bad for Main Street.”
CQ Researcher 9.44 (1999): 1011. Print.
Sanchez treats
the author
fairly.
Conclusion
returns to the
thesis and
shows the wider
signifi cance
of Sanchez’s
analysis.
Work cited page
is in MLA style.
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Read actively 815a
mm
message and by discovering within them something that is sur-
prising, interesting, and worthy of interpretation. Th e strategies
and advice off ered in Chapter 4 for critically reading and writing
about texts apply to multimodal texts. In this chapter, you’ll fi nd
additional advice specifi c to analyzing multimodal texts.
5a Read actively.
Any multimodal text can be read — that is, examined to under-
stand what it says and how it communicates its purpose and
reaches its audience. As you read, think about the words, images,
and sounds separately, and then analyze how they work together.
When you read a multimodal text, you’ll fi nd it helpful to
preview, annotate, and converse with the text.
Previewing a multimodal text
Previewing starts when you look at the basic details of a multi-
modal text and pay attention to fi rst impressions. You ask ques-
tions about the text’s subject matter and design, its context and
composer or creator, and its purpose and intended audience. Th e
more you can gather from a fi rst look, the easier it will be to dig
deeper into the meaning of a text. Th e following questions will
help you preview a multimodal text:
• What kind of text is it: Advertisement? Video? Slide show?
• What is your fi rst reaction to the text? Does it elicit an
emotional response?
• What strikes you right away about the various modes —
words, images (moving or static), or sound? Does one mode
seem to stand out more than the others?
• What does the subject matter and design suggest about the
intended audience?
Annotating a multimodal text
Annotating a text — jotting down observations, reactions, and
questions — helps you read actively to answer the basic question
“What is this text about?” In annotating, you generate ideas by
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5 Reading and writing about multimodal texts
> Writing practice: Reading visual texts actively
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5a Reading and writing about multimodal texts82
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paying close attention to each mode. You notice what surprises
and intrigues you about the text, and you observe what is present
and absent. For example, you might question the choice of classi-
cal music in an audio essay and wonder what this choice implies
about the intended audience. Or in viewing a public service
video, you might notice the presence of black-and-white photo-
graphs and the absence of words, spoken or written, and question
how these design choices serve the video’s message.
Th e following guidelines will help you annotate a multi-
modal text:
• Identify the diff erent modes used and examine them
separately. Th inking about each mode on its own is a
helpful fi rst step to evaluating the text as a whole. What
modes are present — written words, static images, moving
images, or sound?
• Identify the role of each mode within the text. For
example, do written words convey information? Does audio
evoke an emotional response?
• Identify the features of each mode. How do various
features help convey the text’s meaning and serve its
purpose? For example, if written words are the mode being
used, are they boldface or italic, large or small, black or in
color? What diff erences do these features make?
• Keep track of details. For example, if you are making notes
about an audio or a video fi le, include a time stamp with
each observation so that you can easily fi nd that moment
again to check your notes or to include a clip in your
analysis: 04:21 Th e music stops abruptly, and a single word,
“Care,” appears on-screen.
Th e example on page 83 shows how one student, Ren Yoshida,
annotated an advertisement.
Conversing with a multimodal text
Conversing with a text — or responding to a text and its
author — helps you move beyond your early notes to form judg-
ments about the text you’re examining. You might choose to
examine the choice of mode — why the message is conveyed
in moving images rather than printed words, for example — or
the features of a mode — why the background music becomes
much louder at one point. You might point out something that
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Read actively 835a
mm
What is being exchanged?
Why is “fairly traded” so difficult to
read?
“Farmers” in all capital letters —
shows strength?
Straightforward design and not much
text.
Outstretched hands. Is she giving a
gift? Inviting a partnership?
Hands: heart-shaped, foregrounded.
Raw coffee is earthy, natural.
Positive verbs: consumers choose,
join, empower; farmers stay, care,
farm, support, plan.
What does it mean to join a network?
How do consumers know their money
helps farmers stay on their land?
ANNOTATED ADVERTISEMENT
“Empowering” — why in an elegant
font? Who is empowering farmers?
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5b Reading and writing about multimodal texts84
mm
is puzzling, contradictory, or provocative about the interplay
between modes or their features. In his annotations to the Equal
Exchange ad, Ren Yoshida asks why two words, empowering and
farmers, are in diff erent fonts (see p. 83) and why the farmer’s
hands are outstretched. As Yoshida moves beyond his annota-
tions to form judgments about the text, he focuses his attention
on the contradictions between the ad’s emotional and logical
appeals. He notices that the ad appeals to consumers’ emotions,
and yet such appeals raise logical questions about what is being
exchanged and who is becoming empowered.
Many writers use a double-entry notebook to converse with
a text and generate ideas for writing (see pp. 68–69 for guidelines
on creating a double-entry notebook and sample entries). As you
record details and features of a multimodal text on the left side of
the notebook page and your own responses on the right side, you
can visualize the conversation as it develops.
5b Outline to identify main ideas.
When you outline a text, you identify its main idea or purpose
and its major parts. One approach for outlining a multimodal
text is to defi ne its main idea or purpose and sketch a list of its
key elements. Because ads, Web sites, and videos may not include
an explicit statement of purpose, such as a thesis statement, you
may have to puzzle it out from the details in the work.
Here is the informal outline Ren Yoshida developed as he
prepared to write an analysis of the advertisement on page 83.
Notice that Yoshida makes an attempt to state the ad’s purpose
and sum up its message.
INFORMAL OUTLINE OF EQUAL EXCHANGE ADVERTISEMENT
Purpose: To persuade consumers that they can improve the lives of
organic farmers and their families by purchasing Equal Exchange
coffee.
Key features:
• The farmer’s heart-shaped hands are outstretched, offering the
viewer partnership and the product of her hard work.
• The raw coffee is surprisingly fruitlike and fresh—natural and
healthy looking.
• A variety of fonts are used for emphasis, such as the elegant font
for “empowering.”
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Summarize to deepen your understanding 855c
mm
• Consumer support leads to a higher quality of life for the farmers
and for all people, since these farmers care for the environment
and plan for the future.
• The simplicity of the design reflects the simplicity of the exchange.
The consumer only has to buy a cup of coffee to make a difference.
Conclusion: Equal Exchange is selling more than a product—coffee.
It is selling the message that together farmers and consumers hold
the future of land, environment, farms, and families in their hands.
5c Summarize to deepen your understanding.
Your goal in summarizing a multimodal text is to state the work’s
central idea and key points simply, objectively, and accurately, in
your own words, and usually in paragraph form. As you present
the central idea, use the third-person point of view and the pres-
ent tense. If you have sketched a brief outline of the text (see 5b),
refer to it as you draft your summary.
To summarize a multimodal text, begin with essential informa-
tion, such as who composed the text and why, who the intended
audience is, and when and where the work appeared. Briefl y explain
the text’s main idea and identify its key features. Divide the summary
into a few major and minor ideas. Since a summary must be fairly
short, you must make judgments about what is most important.
Here is the summary Ren Yoshida developed as he prepared
to write an analysis of the advertisement on page 83. Notice
how Yoshida composes the summary in his own words, uses the
third-person point of view (“Th e Equal Exchange advertisement
is . . .”), and uses present tense (“Th e ad suggests . . .”).
The Equal Exchange advertisement is selling the message that
together farmers and consumers hold the future of the planet in
their hands. At the center of the ad is a farmer whose outstretched
hands, full of raw coffee, offer the fruit of her labor and a
partnership with consumers. The ad suggests that in a global world
producers and consumers are bound together. A cup of coffee is
more than just a morning ritual; a cup of coffee is part of an equal
exchange that empowers farmers to stay on their land and empowers
consumers to do the right thing.
— Ren Yoshida, student
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5d Reading and writing about multimodal texts86
mm
5d Analyze to demonstrate your critical reading.
A summary most oft en answers the question of what a text
says, whereas an analysis looks at how a text conveys its main
idea or message. As you read a multimodal text — previewing,
annotating, and conversing — you are forming a judgment of
it. Your analysis says to readers: “Here’s my reading of this text.
Th is is what the text means and why it matters.” When you
are assigned to analyze a multimodal text, you will usually be
expected to look at how the diff erent modes (sound, words,
moving or static images) and their features (loud or quiet, bold
or italic, fast or slow) contribute to its central purpose, oft en
with the aim of judging how eff ective the text is in achieving
its purpose.
Balancing summary with analysis
If you have written a summary of a text, you may fi nd it useful to
refer to the main points of the summary as you write your analy-
sis. Your readers may or may not be familiar with the multimodal
text you are analyzing and will need at least some summary to
ground your analysis. For example, student writer Ren Yoshida
summarizes the Equal Exchange advertisement on page 83 by
describing part of the text fi rst, allowing readers to get their
bearings, and then moving to an analytical statement about that
particular part of the text.
[A farmer, her hardworking hands full of
raw coffee, reaches out from an Equal Exchange
advertisement. The hands, in the shape of a heart,
offer to consumers the fruit of the farmer’s labor. The
ad’s message is straightforward: in choosing Equal
Exchange, consumers become global citizens, partnering
with farmers to help save the planet.] [Suddenly, a cup
of coffee is more than just a morning ritual; a cup of
coffee is a moral choice that empowers both consumers
and farmers.]
Summary
Analysis
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5 Reading and writing about multimodal texts
> Writing practice: Analyzing an image or a multimodal text
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Analyze to demonstrate your critical reading 875d
mm
Th ese strategies will help you balance summary with analysis.
• Remember that readers are interested in your ideas about a text.
• Pose questions that lead to an interpretation or a judgment
of a text rather than to a summary. Go beyond describing
what you see or hear to ask “why” and “how” questions.
• Focus on a few signifi cant features rather than listing every detail.
For example, evaluate the size and arrangement of written words
or the pitch (high or low) or pace (fast or slow) of the audio.
• Pay attention to the role of each mode within the text. For
example, how do images convey information or emotion?
• Ask peer reviewers to give you feedback: Do you summarize
too much and need to analyze more?
Drafting an analytical thesis statement
An eff ective thesis statement for analytical writing about a multi-
modal text responds to a question about the text or tries to resolve
a problem in the text. Remember that your thesis isn’t the same as
the text’s main idea. Your thesis presents your judgment of the text’s
argument. If your draft thesis restates the text’s message, return to
the questions you asked earlier in the process as you revise.
INEFFECTIVE THESIS STATEMENT
Consumers who purchase coff ee from farmers in the Equal
Exchange network are helping farmers stay on their land.
Th e thesis is ineff ective because it summarizes the ad; it doesn’t
present an analysis. Ren Yoshida focused the thesis by question-
ing a single detail in the work.
QUESTIONS
Th e ad promises an equal exchange, but is the exchange equal
between consumers and farmers? Do the words equal exchange
and empowering farmers appeal to consumers’ emotions?
EFFECTIVE THESIS STATEMENT
Although the ad works successfully on an emotional level, it is less
successful on a logical level because of its promise for an equal
exchange between consumers and farmers.
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5 Reading and writing about multimodal texts
> Writing practice: Drafting and revising an analytical thesis (multimodal)
> Writing practice: Learning from other writers
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5e Reading and writing about multimodal texts88
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5e Sample student writing: Analysis
of an advertisement
On the following pages is Ren Yoshida’s analysis of the Equal
Exchange advertisement that appears on page 83.
Yoshida 1
Ren Yoshida
Professor Marcotte
English 101
4 November 2014
Sometimes a Cup of Coffee Is Just a Cup of Coffee
A farmer, her hardworking hands full of coffee beans,
reaches out from an Equal Exchange advertisement (Equal
Exchange). The hands, in the shape of a heart, offer to
consumers the fruit of the farmer’s labor. The ad’s message
is straightforward: in choosing Equal Exchange, consumers
become global citizens, partnering with farmers to help
save the planet. Suddenly, a cup of coffee is more than
just a morning ritual; a cup of coffee is a moral choice
that empowers both consumers and farmers. This simple
exchange appeals to a consumer’s desire to be a good
person—to protect the environment and do the right
thing. Yet the ad is more complicated than it first seems,
and its design raises some logical questions about such
an exchange. Although the ad works successfully on an
emotional level, it is less successful on a logical level
because of its promise for an equal exchange between
consumers and farmers.
Yoshida
summarizes
the content of
the ad.
The source is
cited in the
text. No page
number is
available for the
online source.
Marginal annotations indicate MLA-style formatting and effective writing.
Thesis
expresses
Yoshida’s
analysis of
the ad.
macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
5 Reading and writing about multimodal texts
> Sample student writing: Yoshida, “Sometimes a Cup of Coffee Is Just a Cup of
Coffee” (analysis of an advertisement)
> Sample student writing: D’Amato, “Loose Leaf Teas” (Web site); Williamson, “To the
Children of America” (video essay)
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895eSample analysis of an advertisement
mm
Yoshida 2
The focus of the ad is a farmer, Jesus Choqueheranca
de Quevero, and, more specifically, her outstretched, cupped
hands. Her hands are full of red, raw coffee, her life’s
work. The ad successfully appeals to consumers’ emotions,
assuming they will find the farmer’s welcoming face and
hands, caked with dirt, more appealing than startling
statistics about the state of the environment or the number
of farmers who lose their land each year. It seems almost
rude not to accept the farmer’s generous offering since we
know her name and, as the ad implies, have the choice to
“empower” her. In fact, how can a consumer resist helping
the farmer “[c]are for the environment” and “[p]lan for the
future,” when it is a simple matter of choosing the right
coffee? The ad sends the message that our future is a global
future in which producers and consumers are bound together.
First impressions play a major role in the success of an
advertisement. Consumers are pulled toward a product, or
pushed away, by an ad’s initial visual and emotional appeal.
Here, the intended audience is busy people, so the ad tries
to catch viewers’ attention and make a strong impression
immediately. Yet with a second or third viewing, consumers
might start to ask some logical questions about Equal
Exchange before buying their morning coffee. Although the
farmer extends her heart-shaped hands to consumers, they
are not actually buying a cup of coffee or the raw coffee
directly from her. In reality, consumers are buying from
Equal Exchange, even if the ad substitutes the more positive
word choose for buy. Furthermore, consumers aren’t actually
empowering the farmer; they are joining “a network that
empowers farmers.” The idea of a network makes a simple
transaction more complicated. How do consumers know their
Yoshida
interprets
details such
as the farmer’s
hands.
Details show
how the ad
appeals to
consumers’
emotions.
Yoshida begins
to challenge the
logic of the ad.
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5e Reading and writing about multimodal texts90
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Yoshida 3
money helps farmers “[s]tay on their land” and “[p]lan for
the future” as the ad promises? They don’t.
The ad’s design elements raise questions about the use
of the key terms equal exchange and empowering farmers. The
Equal Exchange logo suggests symmetry and equality, with two
red arrows facing each other, but the words of the logo appear
almost like an eye exam poster, with each line decreasing in font
size and clarity. The words fairly traded are tiny. Below the logo,
the words empowering farmers are presented in contradictory
fonts. Empowering is written in a flowing, cursive font, almost
the opposite of what might be considered empowering, whereas
farmers is written in a plain, sturdy font. The ad’s varying fonts
communicate differently and make it hard to know exactly what
is being exchanged and who is becoming empowered.
What is being exchanged? The logic of the ad suggests
that consumers will improve the future by choosing Equal
Exchange. The first exchange is economic: consumers give one
thing—dollars—and receive something in return—a cup of
coffee—and the farmer stays on her land. The second exchange
is more complicated because it involves a moral exchange. The ad
suggests that if consumers don’t choose “fairly traded” products,
farmers will be forced off their land and the environment
destroyed. This exchange, when put into motion by consumers
choosing to purchase products not “fairly traded,” has negative
consequences for both consumers and farmers. The message of
the ad is that the actual exchange taking place is not economic
but moral; after all, nothing is being bought, only chosen. Yet
the logic of this exchange quickly falls apart. Consumers aren’t
empowered to become global citizens simply by choosing Equal
Exchange, and farmers aren’t empowered to plan for the future by
Words from the
ad serve as
evidence.
Summary of
the ad’s key
features serves
Yoshida’s
analysis.
Clear topic
sentence
announces a
shift.
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916Reading and writing arguments
arg
6 Reading and writing arguments
Many of your college assignments will ask you to read and write
arguments about debatable issues. Th e questions being debated
might be matters of public policy (Should corporations be allowed
to advertise on public school property? or What is the least danger-
ous way to dispose of hazardous waste?), or they might be schol-
arly issues (What role do genes play in determining behavior? or
What were the causes of the Vietnam War?). On such questions,
reasonable people may disagree.
Yoshida 4
consumers’ choices. And even if all this empowerment magically
happened, there is nothing equal about such an exchange.
Advertisements are themselves about empowerment—
encouraging viewers to believe they can become someone
or do something by identifying, emotionally or logically,
with a product. In the Equal Exchange ad, consumers are
emotionally persuaded to identify with a farmer whose face
is not easily forgotten and whose heart-shaped hands hold
a collective future. On a logical level, though, the ad raises
questions because empowerment, although a good concept
to choose, is not easily or equally exchanged. Sometimes a
cup of coffee is just a cup of coffee.
Conclusion
includes a
detail from the
introduction.
Conclusion
returns to
Yoshida’s
thesis.
Yoshida shows
why his thesis
matters.
Yoshida 5
Work Cited
Equal Exchange. Advertisement. Equal Exchange. Equal
Exchange, n.d. Web. 14 Oct. 2014.
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6a Reading and writing arguments92
arg
As you read arguments across the disciplines and enter into
academic or public policy debates, pay attention to the questions
being asked, the evidence being presented, and the various positions
being argued. It’s helpful to approach all arguments with an open,
curious mind. Reasonable people disagree on topics worth debating,
so dive into the center of these disagreements to understand what’s
at stake in the arguments being debated. You’ll fi nd the critical read-
ing strategies introduced in chapter 4 — previewing, annotating, and
conversing with texts — to be useful as you ask questions about an
argument’s logic, evidence, and use of appeals. Many arguments can
stand up to critical scrutiny. Sometimes, however, a line of argument
that at fi rst seems reasonable turns out to be illogical, unfair, or both.
As you write for various college courses, you’ll be asked to take
positions in academic debates, propose solutions to problems, and
persuade readers to accept your arguments. Just as you evaluate ar-
guments with openness, you’ll want to construct arguments with
the same openness — acknowledging disagreements and opposing
views and presenting your arguments fully and fairly to your readers.
See sections 6a–6c for advice about reading arguments.
Sections 6d–6k address writing arguments.
6a Distinguish between reasonable and
fallacious argumentative tactics.
When you evaluate an argument, look closely at the reasoning and
evidence behind it. A number of unreasonable argumentative tac-
tics are known as logical fallacies. Most of the fallacies — such as
hasty generalizations and false analogies — are misguided or dis-
honest uses of legitimate strategies. Th e examples in this section
suggest when such strategies are reasonable and when they are not.
Generalizing (inductive reasoning)
Writers and thinkers generalize all the time. We look at a sample
of data and conclude that data we have not observed will most
likely conform to what we have seen. From a spoonful of soup,
we conclude just how salty the whole bowl will be. Aft er numer-
ous unpleasant experiences with an airline, we decide to book
future fl ights with a competitor.
When we draw a conclusion from an array of facts, we are
engaged in inductive reasoning. Such reasoning deals in prob-
ability, not certainty. For a conclusion to be highly probable, it
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936aRecognize argumentative tactics
arg
must be based on evidence that is suffi cient, representative, and
relevant. (See the chart on p. 94.)
Academic English Many hasty generalizations contain words such
as all, ever, always, and never, when qualifi ers such as most, many,
usually, and seldom would be more accurate.
Th e fallacy known as hasty generalization is a conclusion
based on insuffi cient or unrepresentative evidence.
HASTY GENERALIZATION
In a single year, scores on standardized tests in California’s public
schools rose by ten points. Th erefore, more children than ever are
succeeding in America’s public school systems.
Data from one state do not justify a conclusion about the whole
United States.
A stereotype is a hasty generalization about a group. Here are
a few examples.
STEREOTYPES
Women are bad bosses.
Politicians are corrupt.
Children are always curious.
Stereotyping is common because of our tendency to perceive selec-
tively. We tend to see what we want to see; we notice evidence con-
fi rming our already formed opinions and fail to notice evidence to
the contrary. For example, if you have concluded that politicians are
corrupt, your stereotype will be confi rmed by news reports of leg-
islators being indicted — even though every day the media describe
conscientious offi cials serving the public honestly and well.
Drawing analogies
An analogy points out a similarity between two things that
are otherwise diff erent. Analogies can be an eff ective means of
arguing a point. It is not always easy to draw the line between a
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6 Reading and writing arguments
> Writing practice: Evaluating ads for logic and fairness
> LearningCurve: Reading and writing arguments
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6a Reading and writing arguments94
reasonable and an unreasonable analogy. At times, however, an
analogy is clearly off base, in which case it is called a false analogy.
FALSE ANALOGY
If we can send a spacecraft to Pluto, we should be able to fi nd a
cure for the common cold.
Th e writer has falsely assumed that because two things are alike
in one respect, they must be alike in others. Exploring the outer
reaches of the solar system and fi nding a cure for the common cold
are both scientifi c challenges, but the problems confronting medical
researchers are quite diff erent from those solved by space scientists.
arg
Testing inductive reasoning
Th ough inductive reasoning leads to probable and not absolute
truth, you can assess a conclusion’s likely probability by asking
three questions. Th is chart shows how to apply those questions to a
sample conclusion based on a survey.
CONCLUSION Th e majority of students on our campus
would volunteer at least fi ve hours a week in a
community organization if the school provided a
placement service for volunteers.
EVIDENCE In a recent survey, 723 of 1,215 students questioned
said they would volunteer at least fi ve hours a
week in a community organization if the school
provided a placement service for volunteers.
1. Is the evidence suffi cient? Th at depends. On a small campus (say,
3,000 students), the pool of students surveyed would be suffi cient
for market research, but on a large campus (say, 30,000), 1,215 stu-
dents are only 4 percent of the population. If that 4 percent were
known to be truly representative of the other 96 percent, however,
even such a small sample would be suffi cient (see question 2).
2. Is the evidence representative? Th e evidence is representative if
those responding to the survey refl ect the characteristics of the
entire student population: age, sex, race, fi eld of study, number
of extracurricular commitments, and so on. If most of those
surveyed are majors in a fi eld like social work, the researchers
should question the survey’s conclusion.
3. Is the evidence relevant? Yes. Th e survey results are directly
linked to the conclusion. Evidence based on a survey about the
number of hours students work for pay would not be relevant
because it would not be about choosing to volunteer.
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956aRecognize argumentative tactics
arg
Tracing causes and effects
Demonstrating a connection between causes and eff ects is rarely
simple. For example, to explain why a chemistry course has
a high failure rate, you would begin by listing possible causes:
inadequate preparation of students, poor teaching, lack of quali-
fi ed tutors, and so on. Next you would investigate each possible
cause. Only aft er investigating the possible causes would you be
able to weigh the relative impact of each cause and suggest appro-
priate remedies.
Because cause-and-eff ect reasoning is so complex, it is not
surprising that writers frequently oversimplify it. In particular,
writers sometimes assume that because one event follows an-
other, the fi rst is the cause of the second. Th is common fallacy
is known as post hoc, from the Latin post hoc, ergo propter hoc,
meaning “aft er this, therefore because of this.”
POST HOC FALLACY
Since Governor Cho took offi ce, unemployment among
minorities in the state has decreased by 7 percent. Governor
Cho should be applauded for reducing unemployment among
minorities.
Is the governor solely responsible for the decrease? Are there
other reasons? Th e writer must show that Governor Cho’s poli-
cies are responsible for the decrease in unemployment; it is not
enough to show that the decrease followed the governor’s taking
offi ce.
Weighing options
Especially when reasoning about problems and solutions, writers
must weigh options. To be fair, a writer should mention the full
range of options, showing why one is superior to the others or
might work well in combination with others.
It is unfair to suggest that only two alternatives exist when
in fact there are more. Writers who set up a false choice between
their preferred option and one that is clearly unsatisfactory are
guilty of the either . . . or fallacy.
EITHER . . . OR FALLACY
Our current war against drugs has not worked. Either we should
legalize drugs or we should turn the drug war over to our armed
forces and let them fi ght it.
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6a Reading and writing arguments96
arg
Are these the only solutions — legalizing drugs and calling out
the army? Other options, such as funding for drug abuse preven-
tion programs, are possible.
Making assumptions
An assumption is a claim that is taken to be true — without the need
of proof. Most arguments are based to some extent on assumptions,
since writers rarely have the time and space to prove all the conceiv-
able claims on which their argument is based. For example, some-
one arguing about the best means of limiting population growth in
developing countries might assume that the goal of limiting popu-
lation growth is worthwhile. For most audiences, there would be no
need to articulate this assumption or to defend it.
Th ere is a danger, however, in failing to spell out and prove
a claim that is clearly controversial. Consider the following short
argument, in which a key claim is missing.
ARGUMENT WITH MISSING CLAIM
Violent crime is increasing. Th erefore, we should vigorously
enforce the death penalty.
Th e writer seems to be assuming that the death penalty deters
violent criminals and that it is a fair punishment — and that most
audiences will agree. Th ese are not reasonable assumptions; the
writer will need to state and support both claims.
When a missing claim is an assertion that few would agree
with, we say that a writer is guilty of a non sequitur (Latin for
“does not follow”).
NON SEQUITUR
Christopher gets plenty of sleep; therefore, he will be a successful
student in the university’s pre-med program.
Does it take more than sleep to be a successful student? Few peo-
ple would agree with the missing claim — that people with good
sleep habits always make successful students.
Deducing conclusions (deductive reasoning)
When we deduce a conclusion, we put things together, like any
good detective. We establish that a general principle is true, that
a specifi c case is an example of that principle, and that therefore a
particular conclusion about that case is a certainty.
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976aRecognize argumentative tactics
arg
Deductive reasoning can oft en be structured in a three-step
argument called a syllogism. Th e three steps are the major prem-
ise, the minor premise, and the conclusion.
1. Anything that increases radiation in the environment is
dangerous to public health. (Major premise)
2. Nuclear reactors increase radiation in the environment.
(Minor premise)
3. Th erefore, nuclear reactors are dangerous to public health.
(Conclusion)
Th e major premise is a generalization. Th e minor premise is a
specifi c case. Th e conclusion follows from applying the general-
ization to the specifi c case.
Deductive arguments break down if one of the premises is
not true or if the conclusion does not follow logically from the
premises. In the following argument, the major premise is very
likely untrue.
UNTRUE PREMISE
Th e police do not give speeding tickets to people driving less than
fi ve miles per hour over the limit. Dominic is driving fi ft y-nine
miles per hour in a fi ft y-fi ve-mile-per-hour zone. Th erefore, the
police will not give Dominic a speeding ticket.
Th e conclusion is true only if the premises are true. If the police
sometimes give tickets for driving less than fi ve miles per hour over
the limit, Dominic cannot safely conclude that he will avoid a ticket.
In the following argument, both premises might be true, but
the conclusion does not follow logically from them.
CONCLUSION DOES NOT FOLLOW
All members of our club ran in this year’s Boston Marathon. Jay
ran in this year’s Boston Marathon. Th erefore, Jay is a member of
our club.
Th e fact that Jay ran the race is no guarantee that he is a member
of the club. Presumably, many runners are nonmembers.
Assuming that both premises are true, the following argu-
ment holds up.
CONCLUSION FOLLOWS
All members of our club ran in this year’s Boston Marathon. Jay
is a member of our club. Th erefore, Jay ran in this year’s Boston
Marathon.
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6b Reading and writing arguments98
arg
6b Distinguish between legitimate and unfair
emotional appeals.
Th ere is nothing wrong with appealing to readers’ emotions. Aft er
all, many issues worth arguing about have an emotional as well as
a logical dimension. Even the Greek logician Aristotle lists pathos
(emotion) as a legitimate argumentative tactic. For example, in
an essay criticizing big-box stores (see p. 67), writer Betsy Taylor
has a good reason for tugging at readers’ emotions: Her subject is
the decline of city and town life. In her conclusion, Taylor appeals
to readers’ emotions by invoking their national pride.
LEGITIMATE EMOTIONAL APPEAL
Is it anti-American to be against having a retail giant set up shop
in one’s community? Some people would say so. On the other
hand, if you board up Main Street, what’s left of America?
Emotional appeals, however, are frequently misused. Many
of the arguments we see in the media, for instance, strive to win
our sympathy rather than our intelligent agreement. A TV com-
mercial suggesting that you will be thin and attractive if you
drink a certain diet beverage is making a pitch to emotions. So is
a political speech that recommends electing a candidate because
he is a devoted husband and father who serves as a volunteer
fi refi ghter.
Th e following passage illustrates several types of unfair emo-
tional appeals.
UNFAIR EMOTIONAL APPEALS
Th is progressive proposal to build a ski resort in the state park
has been carefully researched by Western Trust, the largest bank
in the state; furthermore, it is favored by a majority of the local
merchants. Th e only opposition comes from tree huggers who care
more about trees than they do about people. One of their leaders
was actually arrested for disturbing the peace several years ago.
Words with strong positive or negative connotations, such
as progressive and tree hugger, are examples of biased lan-
guage. Attacking the people who hold a belief (environmental-
ists) rather than refuting their argument is called ad hominem,
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6 Reading and writing arguments
> Writing practice: Identifying appeals
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996bRecognize emotional appeals
arg
Evaluating ethical, logical, and emotional appeals
as a reader
Ancient Greek rhetoricians distinguished among three kinds of
appeals used to infl uence readers — ethical, logical, emotional. As
you evaluate arguments, identify these appeals and question their
eff ectiveness. Are they appropriate for the audience and the argu-
ment? Are they balanced and legitimate or lopsided and misleading?
Ethical appeals (ethos)
Ethical arguments call upon a writer’s character, knowledge, and
authority. Ask questions such as the following when you evaluate the
ethical appeal of an argument.
● Is the writer informed and trustworthy? How does the writer
establish authority and credibility?
● Is the writer fair-minded and unbiased? How does the writer
establish reasonableness?
● Does the writer use sources knowledgeably and responsibly?
● How does the writer describe the views of others and deal with
opposing views?
Logical appeals (logos)
Reasonable arguments appeal to readers’ sense of logic, rely on evi-
dence, and use inductive and deductive reasoning. Ask questions
such as the following to evaluate the logical appeal of an argument.
● Is the evidence suffi cient, representative, and relevant?
● Is the reasoning sound?
● Does the argument contain any logical fallacies or unwarranted
assumptions?
● Are there any missing or mistaken premises?
Emotional appeals (pathos)
Emotional arguments appeal to readers’ beliefs and values. Ask
questions such as the following to evaluate the emotional appeal of
an argument.
● What values or beliefs does the writer address, either directly or
indirectly?
● Are the emotional appeals legitimate and fair?
● Does the writer oversimplify or dramatize an issue?
● Do the emotional arguments highlight or shift attention away
from the evidence?
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6c Reading and writing arguments100
arg
6c Judge how fairly a writer handles opposing
views.
Th e way in which a writer deals with opposing views is reveal-
ing. Some writers address the arguments of the opposition fairly,
conceding points when necessary and countering others, all in a
civil spirit. Other writers will do almost anything to win an argu-
ment: either ignoring opposing views altogether or misrepresent-
ing such views and attacking their proponents.
Writers build credibility — ethos — by addressing opposing
arguments fairly. As you read arguments, assess the credibility of
your sources by looking at how they deal with views not in agree-
ment with their own.
Advertising makes use of ethical, logical, and emotional appeals to persuade
consumers to buy a product or embrace a brand. This Patagonia ad makes an
ethical appeal with its copy that invites customers to rethink their purchasing
practices.
a Latin term meaning “to the man.” Associating a prestigious
name (Western Trust) with the writer’s side is called transfer.
Claiming that an idea should be accepted because a large number
of people (the majority of merchants) are in favor is called the
bandwagon appeal. Bringing in irrelevant issues (the arrest) is a
red herring, named aft er a trick used in fox hunts to mislead the
dogs by dragging a smelly fi sh across the trail.
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Judge how fairly a writer handles opposing views 1016c
arg
Describing the views of others
Some writers and speakers deliberately misrepresent the views
of others. One way they do this is by setting up a “straw man,”
a character so weak that he is easily knocked down. Th e straw
man fallacy consists of an oversimplifi cation or outright dis-
tortion of opposing views. For example, in a California debate
over attempts to control the mountain lion population, pro-lion
groups characterized their opponents as trophy hunters bent on
shooting harmless animals. In truth, hunters were only one fac-
tion of those who saw a need to control the lion population.
During the District of Columbia’s struggle for voting repre-
sentation, some politicians set up a straw man, as shown in the
following example.
STRAW MAN FALLACY
Washington, DC, residents are lobbying for statehood. Giving a
city such as the District of Columbia the status of a state would be
unfair.
Th e straw man wanted statehood. In fact, most DC citizens
lobbied for voting representation in any form, not necessarily
through statehood.
Quoting opposing views
Writers oft en quote the words of writers who hold opposing
views. In general, this is a good idea, for it assures some level of
fairness and accuracy. At times, though, both the fairness and the
accuracy are an illusion.
A source may be misrepresented when it is quoted out of
context. All quotations are to some extent taken out of context,
but a fair writer will explain the context to readers. To select a
provocative sentence from a source and to ignore the more mod-
erate sentences surrounding it is both unfair and misleading.
Sometimes a writer deliberately distorts a source through the
device of ellipsis dots. Ellipsis dots tell readers that words have
been omitted from the original source. When those words are
crucial to an author’s meaning, omitting them is obviously un-
fair. (See also 39d.)
ORIGINAL SOURCE
Johnson’s History of the American West is riddled with inaccuracies
and astonishing in its blatantly racist description of the Indian wars.
— B. R., reviewer
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6c Reading and writing arguments102
arg
Checklist for reading and evaluating arguments
● What is the writer’s thesis, or central claim?
● Are there any gaps in reasoning? Does the argument contain any
logical fallacies (see 6a)?
● What assumptions does the argument rest on? Are there any
unstated assumptions?
● What appeals — ethical, logical, or emotional — does the writer
make? Are these appeals eff ective?
● What evidence does the writer use? Could there be alternative
interpretations of the evidence?
● How does the writer handle opposing views?
● If you are not persuaded by the writer’s argument, what counter-
arguments could you make to the writer?
EXERCISE 6–1 Explain what is illogical in the following brief argu-
ments. It may be helpful to identify the logical fallacy or fallacies by
name. Answers appear in the back of the book.
More practice:
a. My roommate, who is an engineering major, is taking a course
called Structures of Tall Buildings. All engineers have to know
how to design tall buildings.
b. If you’re old enough to vote, you’re old enough to drink. Th erefore,
the drinking age should be lowered to eighteen.
c. If you’re not part of the solution, you’re part of the problem.
d. American students could be outperforming students in schools
around the globe if it weren’t for the outmoded, behind-the-times
thinking of many statewide education departments.
e. Charging a fee for curbside trash pickup will encourage everyone
to recycle more because no one in my town likes to spend extra
money.
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6 Reading and writing arguments
> Writing practice: Evaluating an argument
> Exercise: 6–2
MISLEADING QUOTATION
Johnson’s History of the American West is “astonishing in
its . . . description of the Indian wars.”
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View your audience as a panel of jurors 1036e
arg
6d When writing arguments, consider purpose
and context.
Evaluating the arguments of other writers prepares you to construct
your own. When you ask questions about the logic and evidence of the
arguments you read, you become more aware of such needs in your
own writing. And when you pose objections to arguments, you more
readily anticipate and counter objections to your own arguments.
In constructing an argument, you take a stand on a debatable
issue. Your purpose is to explain your understanding of the truth
about a subject or to propose the best solution to a problem, rea-
sonably and logically, without being combative. Your aim is to
persuade your readers to reconsider their positions by off ering
new reasons to question existing viewpoints.
It’s best to start by informing yourself about the debate or con-
versation around a subject — sometimes called its context. If you
are planning to write about the subject of off shore drilling, you
might want to read sources that shed light on the social context (the
concerns of consumers, the ideas of lawmakers, the proposals of
environmentalists) and sources that may inform you about the in-
tellectual context (scientifi c or theoretical responses by geologists,
oceanographers, or economists) in which the debate is played out.
Because your readers may be aware of the social and intellectual
contexts in which your issue is grounded, you will be at a disadvan-
tage if you are not informed. Conduct some research before pre-
paring your argument. Consulting even a few sources can help to
deepen your understanding of the conversation around the issue.
6e View your audience as a panel of jurors.
Do not assume that your audience already agrees with you. Instead,
envision skeptical readers who, like a panel of jurors, will make up
their minds aft er listening to all sides of the argument. If you are argu-
ing a public policy issue, aim your paper at readers who represent a
variety of positions. In the case of a debate over off shore drilling, for
example, imagine a jury that represents those who have a stake in
the matter: consumers, policymakers, and environmentalists.
At times, you can deliberately narrow your audience. If you
are working within a word limit, for example, you might not
have the space in which to address the concerns of all interested
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6 Reading and writing arguments
> Writing practice: Joining a conversation
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6e Reading and writing arguments104
arg
parties. Or you might be primarily interested in reaching just a
segment of a larger audience, such as consumers. Once you iden-
tify a specifi c audience, it’s helpful to think about what kinds of
arguments and evidence will appeal to that audience.
NOTE: Your assignment may require a specifi c audience, or you
may be free to identify a broader group of readers. Check with
your instructor before you make your case.
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6 Reading and writing arguments
> Writing practice: Appealing to your readers
Using ethical, logical, and emotional appeals as a writer
To construct a convincing argument, you must establish your credibil-
ity (ethos) and appeal to your readers’ sense of logic and reason (logos)
as well as to their values and beliefs (pathos). When using these appeals,
make sure they are appropriate for your audience and your argument.
Ethical appeals (ethos)
To accept your argument, a reader must perceive you as trustworthy,
fair, and reasonable. When you acknowledge alternative positions,
you build common ground with readers and gain their trust by show-
ing that you are knowledgeable. And when you use sources respon-
sibly (summarizing, paraphrasing, or quoting the views of others
respectfully), you inspire readers’ confi dence in your judgment.
Logical appeals (logos)
To persuade readers, you need to appeal to their sense of logic and
sound reasoning. When you provide suffi cient evidence, you off er
readers logical support for your argument. And when you clarify the
assumptions that underlie your arguments and avoid logical falla-
cies, you appeal to readers’ desire for reason.
Emotional appeals (pathos)
To establish common ground with readers, you need to appeal to
their beliefs and values as well as to their minds. When you off er
readers vivid examples and illustrations, startling statistics, or com-
pelling visuals, you engage readers and deepen their interest in your
argument. And when you balance emotional appeals with logical
appeals, you highlight the human dimension of an issue to show
readers why they should care about your argument.
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1056fEstablish credibility and state your position
arg
Academic English Some cultures value writers who argue
with force; other cultures value writers who argue subtly
or indirectly. Academic audiences in the United States will
expect your writing to be assertive and confident — neither
aggressive nor passive. You can create an assertive tone by
acknowledging different positions and supporting your ideas
with specific evidence.
TOO AGGRESSIVE Of course only registered organ donors
should be eligible for organ transplants.
It’s selfi sh and shortsighted to think
otherwise.
TOO PASSIVE I might be wrong, but I think that maybe
people should have to register as organ
donors if they want to be considered for a
transplant.
ASSERTIVE TONE If only registered organ donors are eligible
for transplants, more people will register
as donors.
If you are uncertain about the tone of your work, ask for help at your
school’s writing center.
6f In your introduction, establish credibility and
state your position.
When you are constructing an argument, make sure your intro-
duction includes a thesis statement that establishes your position
on the issue you have chosen to debate. In the sentences leading
up to the thesis, establish your credibility (ethos) with readers by
showing that you are knowledgeable and fair-minded. If possible,
build common ground (pathos) with readers who may not at fi rst
agree with your views, and show them why they should consider
your thesis. For advice about writing eff ective thesis statements,
see 1c.
In the following introduction, student writer Kevin Smith
presents himself as someone worth listening to. Because Smith
introduces both sides of the debate, readers are likely to approach
his essay with an open mind.
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6g Reading and writing arguments106
arg
Although the Supreme Court has ruled against
prayer in public schools on First Amendment
grounds, many people still feel that prayer should
be allowed. Such people value prayer as a practice
central to their faith and believe that prayer is a
way for schools to reinforce moral principles. Th ey
also compellingly point out a paradox in the First
Amendment itself: at what point does the separation
of church and state restrict the freedom of those who
wish to practice their religion? What proponents
of school prayer fail to realize, however, is that the
Supreme Court’s decision, although it was made on
legal grounds, makes sense on religious grounds as
well. Prayer is too important to be trusted to our
public schools.
— Kevin Smith, student
TIP: A good way to test a thesis while draft ing and revising is to
imagine a counterargument to your argument (see 6i). If you can’t
think of an opposing point of view, rethink your thesis and ask a
classmate or writing center tutor to respond to your argument.
6g Back up your thesis with persuasive lines
of argument.
Arguments of any complexity contain lines of argument that,
when taken together, might reasonably persuade readers that the
thesis has merit. Th e following, for example, are the main lines of
argument that student writer Sam Jacobs used in his paper about
the shift from print to online news (see pp. 112–17).
CENTRAL CLAIM
Thesis: The shift from print to online news provides unprecedented
opportunities for readers to become more engaged with the news,
to hold journalists accountable, and to participate as producers, not
simply as consumers.
SUPPORTING CLAIMS
• Print news has traditionally had a one-sided relationship with its
readers, delivering information for passive consumption.
• Online news invites readers to participate in a collaborative
process—to question and even contribute to the content.
Smith shows
that he is
familiar with
the legal issues
surrounding
school prayer.
Smith is
fair-minded,
presenting the
views of both
sides.
Thesis builds
common ground.
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Support your claims with specifi c evidence 1076h
arg
• Links within news stories provide transparency, allowing readers
to move easily from the main story to original sources, related
articles, or background materials.
• Technology has made it possible for readers to become news
producers—posting text, audio, images, and video of news events.
• Citizen journalists can provide valuable information, sometimes
more quickly than traditional journalists can.
If you sum up your main lines of argument, as Jacobs did,
you will have a rough outline of your essay. In your paper, you
will provide evidence for each of these claims.
6h Support your claims with specifi c evidence.
You will need to support your central claim and any subordinate
claims with evidence: facts, statistics, examples and illustrations,
visuals (such as graphs or photos), expert opinion, and so on.
Debatable topics require that you consult some written sources to
establish your ethos and to persuade your audience. As you read
through or view the sources, you will learn more about the argu-
ments and counterarguments at the center of your debate.
USING SOURCES RESPONSIBLY: Whether your sources provide facts
or statistics, examples or illustrations, visuals, or expert opinion,
remember that you must cite them. Documenting sources gives
credit to authors and shows readers how to locate a source in case
they want to assess its credibility or explore the issue further. For
help citing sources, see 56a and 56b (MLA) and 61a and 61b (APA).
Using facts and statistics
A fact is something that is known with certainty because it has
been objectively verifi ed: Th e capital of Wyoming is Cheyenne.
Carbon has an atomic weight of 12. John F. Kennedy was assassi-
nated on November 22, 1963. Statistics are collections of numeri-
cal facts: Alcohol abuse is a factor in nearly 40 percent of traffi c
fatalities. More than four in ten businesses in the United States
are owned by women.
macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
6 Reading and writing arguments
> Writing practice: Drafting your central claim and supporting claims
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6h Reading and writing arguments108
arg
Most arguments are supported, at least to some extent, by
facts and statistics. For example, in the following passage the
writer uses statistics to show that college students carry unrea-
sonably high credit card debt.
A 2009 study by Sallie Mae revealed that undergraduates are
carrying record-high credit card balances and are relying on credit
cards more than ever, especially in the economic downturn. Th e
average credit card debt per college undergraduate is more than
three thousand dollars, and three-quarters of undergraduates
carry balances and incur fi nance charges each month (Hunter).
Writers oft en use statistics in selective ways to bolster their
own positions. If you suspect that a writer’s handling of statistics
is not quite fair, track down the original sources for those statis-
tics or read authors with opposing views, who may give you a
fuller understanding of the numbers.
Using examples and illustrations
Examples and illustrations (extended examples, oft en in story
form) rarely prove a point by themselves, but when used in com-
bination with other forms of evidence, they fl esh out an argu-
ment with details and bring it to life. Because examples are oft en
concrete and sometimes vivid, they can reach readers in ways
that statistics and abstract ideas cannot.
In a paper arguing that online news provides opportunities
for readers that print does not, Sam Jacobs describes how regular
citizens using only cell phones and laptops helped save lives dur-
ing Hurricane Katrina by sending important updates to the rest
of the world.
Citizen reporting made a difference in the wake of Hurricane Katrina
in 2005. Armed with cell phones and laptops, regular citizens
relayed critical news updates in a rapidly developing crisis, often
before traditional journalists were even on the scene.
Using visuals
Visuals — charts, graphs, diagrams, photographs — can support
your argument by providing vivid and detailed evidence and by
capturing your readers’ attention. Bar or line graphs, for instance,
describe and organize complex statistical data; photographs can
immediately and evocatively convey abstract ideas. (See pp. 26–27.)
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Anticipate objections; counter opposing arguments 1096i
arg
As you consider using visual evidence, ask yourself the fol-
lowing questions:
• Is the visual accurate, credible, and relevant?
• How will the visual appeal to readers: Logically? Ethically?
Emotionally?
• How will the visual evidence function? Will it provide
background information? Present complex numerical
information or convey an abstract idea? Lend authority?
Refute counterarguments?
Citing expert opinion
Although they are no substitute for careful reasoning of your
own, the views of an expert can contribute to the force of your
argument. For example, to help make the case that print journal-
ism has a one-sided relationship with its readers, student writer
Sam Jacobs integrates an expert’s key description.
With the rise of the Internet, however, this model has been criticized
by journalists such as Dan Gillmor, founder of the Center for Citizen
Media, who argues that traditional print journalism treats “news as a
lecture,” whereas online news is “more of a conversation” (xxiv).
When you rely on expert opinion, make sure that your
source is an expert in the fi eld you are writing about. In some
cases, you may need to provide credentials showing why your
source is worth listening to, such as listing the person’s position
or title alongside his or her name. When including expert testi-
mony in your paper, you can summarize or paraphrase the ex-
pert’s opinion or you can quote the expert’s exact words. You will,
of course, need to document the source, as Jacobs did.
6i Anticipate objections; counter opposing
arguments.
Readers who already agree with you need no convincing, but
skeptical readers may resist your arguments. To be willing to
give up a position that seems reasonable, readers need to see that
macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
6 Reading and writing arguments
> Writing practice: Practicing counterargument
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6i Reading and writing arguments110
arg
another position is even more reasonable. In addition to present-
ing your own case, therefore, you should consider the opposing
arguments and attempt to counter them.
Anticipating and countering objections
To anticipate a possible objection to your argument, consider the
following questions.
● Could a reasonable person draw a diff erent conclusion from your
facts or examples?
● Might a reader question any of your assumptions or off er an
alternative explanation?
● Is there any evidence that might weaken your position?
Th e following questions may help you respond to a reader’s
potential objection.
● Can you concede the point to the opposition but challenge the
point’s importance or usefulness?
● Can you explain why readers should consider a new perspective
or question a piece of evidence?
● Should you explain how your position responds to contradictory
evidence?
● Can you suggest a diff erent interpretation of the evidence?
When you write, use phrasing to signal to readers that you’re
about to present an objection. Oft en the signal phrase can go in the
lead sentence of a paragraph.
Critics of this view argue that . . .
Some readers might point out that . . .
Researchers challenge these claims by . . .
It might seem at fi rst that drawing attention to an oppos-
ing point of view or contradictory evidence would weaken your
argument. But by anticipating and countering objections, you
show yourself as a reasonable and well-informed writer who has
a thorough understanding of the signifi cance of the issue.
Th ere is no best place in an essay to deal with opposing
views. Oft en it is useful to summarize the opposing position early
in your essay. Aft er stating your thesis, but before developing
your own arguments, you might have a paragraph that addresses
the most important counterargument. Or you can anticipate
objections paragraph by paragraph as you develop your case.
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1116kSample argument paper
arg
Wherever you decide to address opposing arguments, you will
enhance your credibility if you explain the arguments of others
accurately and fairly.
6j Build common ground.
As you counter opposing arguments, try to seek out one or two
assumptions you might share with readers who do not initially
agree with your views. If you can show that you share their
concerns, your readers will be more likely to accept that your
argument is valid. For example, to persuade people opposed to
controlling the deer population with a regulated hunting season,
a state wildlife commission would have to show that it too cares
about preserving deer and does not want them to die needlessly.
Having established these values in common, the commission
might be able to persuade critics that reducing the total number
of deer prevents starvation caused by overpopulation.
People believe that intelligence and decency support their side
of an argument. To be persuaded, they must see these qualities in
your argument. Otherwise, they will persist in their opposition.
6k Sample student writing: Argument
In the paper that begins on the next page, student writer Sam
Jacobs argues that the shift from print to online news benefi ts
readers by providing them with opportunities to produce news
and to think more critically as consumers of news. Notice how he
appeals to his readers by presenting opposing views fairly before
providing his own arguments.
In writing the paper, Jacobs consulted both print and online
sources. When he quotes, summarizes, or paraphrases informa-
tion from a source, he cites the source with an MLA (Modern
Language Association) in-text citation. Citations in the paper
refer readers to the list of works cited at the end of the paper. (For
more details about citing sources, see 54.)
A guide to writing an argument essay appears on pages
118–19.
macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
6 Reading and writing arguments
> Sample student writing: Jacobs, “From Lecture to Conversation: Redefi ning What’s
‘Fit to Print’” (argument)
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6k Reading and writing arguments112
arg
Jacobs 1
Sam Jacobs
Professor Alperini
English 101
5 November 2013
From Lecture to Conversation:
Redefining What ’s “Fit to Print”
“All the news that ’s fit to print,” the motto of
the New York Times since 1896, plays with the word fit,
asserting that a news story must be newsworthy and must
not exceed the limits of the printed page. The increase
in online news consumption, however, challenges both
meanings of the word fit, allowing producers and consumers
alike to rethink who decides which topics are worth
covering and how extensive that coverage should be. Any
cultural shift usually means that something is lost, but
in this case there are clear gains. The shift from print to
online news provides unprecedented opportunities for
readers to become more engaged with the news, to hold
journalists accountable, and to participate as producers, not
simply as consumers.
Guided by journalism’s code of ethics—accuracy,
objectivity, and fairness—print news reporters have
gathered and delivered stories according to what editors
decide is fit for their readers. Except for op-ed pages and
letters to the editor, print news has traditionally had a one-
sided relationship with its readers. The print news media’s
reputation for objective reporting has been held up as “a
stop sign” for readers, sending a clear message that no
further inquiry is necessary (Weinberger). With the rise of
the Internet, however, this model has been criticized by
journalists such as Dan Gillmor, founder of the Center for
Marginal annotations indicate MLA-style formatting and effective writing.
In his opening
sentences,
Jacobs provides
background for
his thesis.
Thesis states
the main point.
Jacobs does
not need a
citation for
common
knowledge.
Source is cited
in MLA style.
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1136kSample argument paper
arg
Jacobs 2
Citizen Media, who argues that traditional print journalism
treats “news as a lecture,” whereas online news is “more of
a conversation” (xxiv). Print news arrives on the doorstep
every morning as a fully formed lecture, a product created
without participation from its readership. By contrast,
online news invites readers to participate in a collaborative
process—to question and even help produce the content.
One of the most important advantages online news
offers over print news is the presence of built-in hyperlinks,
which carry readers from one electronic document to
another. If readers are curious about the definition of a
term, the roots of a story, or other perspectives on a topic,
links provide a path. Links help readers become more critical
consumers of information by engaging them in a totally new
way. For instance, the link embedded in the story “Credit-
Shy: Younger Generation Is More Likely to Stick to a Cash-
Only Policy” (Sapin) allows readers to find out more about
the financial trends of young adults and provides statistics
that confirm the article’s accuracy (see fig. 1). Other
links in the article widen the conversation. These kinds of
links give readers the opportunity to conduct their own
evaluation of the evidence and verify the journalist’s claims.
Links provide a kind of transparency impossible in
print because they allow readers to see through online
news to the “sources, disagreements, and the personal
assumptions and values” that may have influenced a news
story (Weinberger). The International Center for Media and
the Public Agenda underscores the importance of news
organizations letting “customers in on the often tightly
held little secrets of journalism.” To do so, they suggest,
will lead to “accountability and accountability leads to
Jacobs clarifi es
key terms
(transparency
and
accountability).
Transition
moves from
Jacobs’s main
argument
to specifi c
examples.
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6k Reading and writing arguments114
arg
Jacobs 3
credibility” (“Openness”). These tools alone don’t guarantee
that news producers will be responsible and trustworthy, but
they encourage an open and transparent environment that
benefits news consumers.
Not only has technology allowed readers to become
more critical news consumers, but it also has helped some
to become news producers. The Web gives ordinary people
the power to report on the day’s events. Anyone with an
Internet connection can publish on blogs and Web sites,
engage in online discussion forums, and contribute video
and audio recordings. Citizen journalists with laptops, cell
phones, and digital camcorders have become news producers
alongside large news organizations.
Not everyone embraces the spread of unregulated
news reporting online. Critics point out that citizen
journalists are not necessarily trained to be fair or ethical,
for example, nor are they subject to editorial oversight.
Acknowledging that citizen reporting is more immediate
and experimental, critics also question its accuracy and
accountability: “While it has its place . . . it really isn’t
journalism at all, and it opens up information flow to the
strong probability of fraud and abuse. . . . Information
without journalistic standards is called gossip,” writes
David Hazinski in the Atlanta Journal-Constitution (23A).
In his book Losing the News, media specialist Alex S.
Jones argues that what passes for news today is in fact
“pseudo news” and is “far less reliable” than traditional
print news (27). Even a supporter like Gillmor is willing
to agree that citizen journalists are “nonexperts,” but
he argues that they are “using technology to make a
profound contribution, and a real difference” (140).
Jacobs
develops the
thesis.
Opposing views
are presented
fairly.
Jacobs counters
opposing
arguments.
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1156kSample argument paper
arg
Jacobs 4
Citizen reporting made a difference in the wake
of Hurricane Katrina in 2005. Armed with cell phones
and laptops, regular citizens relayed critical news updates
in a rapidly developing crisis, often before traditional
journalists were even on the scene. In 2006, the enormous
A vivid example
helps Jacobs
make his point.
$15,473
$30,070
$21,912
$32,543
Younger than 35
35 and older
2010 2007
29%
decline
8%
decline
Percent
change
Young Adults After the Recession:
Fewer Homes, Fewer Cars, Less Debt
By Richard Fry
OVERVIEW
After running up record
debt-to-income ratios during
the bubble economy of the
2000s, young adults shed
substantially more debt than
older adults did during the
Great Recession and its
immediate aftermath—
mainly by virtue of owning
fewer houses and cars,
according to a new Pew
Research Center analysis of
Median Total Debt of Households, by Age of
Head, 2007 and 2010
in 2011 dollars
Note: The median is calculated among all households, including those without any
debt.
Source: Pew Research Center tabulations of Survey of Consumer Finances data
PEW RESEARCH CENTER
Fig. 1. Links embedded in online news articles allow readers
to move from the main story to original sources, related
articles, or background materials. The link in this online
article (Sapin) points to a statistical report by the Pew
Research Center, the original source of the author’s data on
young adults’ spending practices.
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arg
Jacobs 5
contributions of citizen journalists were recognized when
the New Orleans Times-Picayune received the Pulitzer
Prize in public service for its online coverage—largely
citizen-generated—of Hurricane Katrina. In recognizing
the paper’s “meritorious public service,” the Pulitzer
Prize board credited the newspaper’s blog for “heroic,
multi-faceted coverage of [the storm] and its aftermath”
(“2006 Pulitzer”). Writing for the Online Journalism
Review, Mark Glaser emphasizes the role that blog
updates played in saving storm victims’ lives. Further,
he calls the Times-Picayune’s partnership with citizen
journalists a “watershed for online journalism.”
The Internet has enabled consumers to participate
in a new way in reading, questioning, interpreting, and
reporting the news. Decisions about appropriate content
and coverage are no longer exclusively in the hands of
news editors. Ordinary citizens now have a meaningful
voice in the conversation—a hand in deciding what’s “fit
to print.” Some skeptics worry about the apparent free-
for-all and loss of tradition. But the expanding definition
of news provides opportunities for consumers to be more
engaged with events in their communities, their nations,
and the world.
Jacobs uses
specifi c
evidence for
support.
Conclusion
echoes the
thesis without
repeating it.
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1176kSample argument paper
arg
Jacobs 6
Works Cited
Gillmor, Dan. We the Media: Grassroots Journalism by the
People, for the People. Sebastopol: O’Reilly, 2006.
Print.
Glaser, Mark. “NOLA.com Blogs and Forums Help Save Lives
after Katrina.” OJR: The Online Journalism Review.
Knight Digital Media Center, 13 Sept. 2005. Web. 23
Oct. 2013.
Hazinski, David. “Unfettered ‘Citizen Journalism’ Too Risky.”
Atlanta Journal-Constitution 13 Dec. 2007: 23A.
General OneFile. Web. 21 Oct. 2013.
Jones, Alex S. Losing the News: The Future of the News That
Feeds Democracy. New York: Oxford UP, 2009. Print.
“Openness and Accountability: A Study of Transparency in
Global Media Outlets.” ICMPA: International Center for
Media and the Public Agenda. Intl. Center for Media
and the Public Agenda, 2006. Web. 21 Oct. 2013.
Sapin, Rachel. “Credit-Shy: Younger Generation Is More
Likely to Stick to a Cash-Only Policy.” Denverpost.com.
Denver Post, 26 Aug. 2013. Web. 23 Oct. 2013.
“The 2006 Pulitzer Prize Winners: Public Service.” The
Pulitzer Prizes. Columbia U, n.d. Web. 21 Oct. 2013.
Weinberger, David. “Transparency Is the New Objectivity.”
Joho the Blog. David Weinberger, 19 July 2009. Web.
22 Oct. 2013.
Works cited
page uses MLA
style.
List is
alphabetized
by authors’ last
names (or by
title when a
work has no
author).
Abbreviation
“n.d.” indicates
that the online
source has no
update date.
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http://www.NOLA.com
http://www.Denverpost.com
118
Writing guide | Argument essay
Composing an argument gives you the opportunity to take a
position on a debatable issue. You say to your readers: “Here is
my position, here is the evidence that supports the position, and
here is my response to other positions on the issue.” A sample
argument essay begins on page 112.
Key features
● A thesis, stated as a clear position on a debatable issue, frames an
argument essay. Th e issue is debatable because reasonable people
disagree about it.
● An examination of the issue’s context indicates why the issue is
important, why readers should care about it, or how your position fi ts
into the debates surrounding the topic.
● Suffi cient, representative, and relevant evidence supports the
argument’s claims. Evidence needs to be specifi c and persuasive;
quoted, summarized, or paraphrased fairly and accurately; and cited
correctly.
● Opposing positions are summarized and countered. By anticipating
and countering objections to your position, you establish common
ground with readers and show yourself as a reasonable and well-
informed writer.
Writing your argument
EXPLORE
Generate ideas by brainstorming responses to questions such as the
following.
● What is the debate around your issue? What sources will help you
learn more about your issue?
● What position will you take? Why does your position need to be
argued?
● What evidence supports your position? What evidence makes you
question your position?
● What types of appeals — ethos, logos, pathos — might you use to
persuade readers? How will you build common ground with your
readers?
● Might a reader question any of your assumptions or off er an
alternative perspective? If so, how might you anticipate and
counter objections to your position?
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119
DRAFT
Try to fi gure out the best way to structure your argument. A typical
outline might include the following steps: Capture readers’ attention;
state your position; give background information; outline your
major claims with specifi c evidence; recognize and respond to
opposing points of view; and end by reinforcing your point and why
it matters.
As you draft , think about the best order for your claims. You
could organize by strength, building to your strongest argument
(instead of starting with your strongest), or by concerns your
audience might have.
REVISE
Ask your reviewers for specifi c feedback. Here are some questions to
guide their comments.
● Is the thesis clear? Is the issue debatable?
● Is the evidence persuasive? Is more needed?
● Is your argument organized logically?
● Are there any fl aws in your reasoning or assumptions that weaken
the argument?
● Have you presented yourself as a knowledgeable, trustworthy
writer?
● Does the conclusion pull together your entire argument? How
might the conclusion be more eff ective?
7 Speaking confi dently
Speaking and writing draw on many of the same skills. Eff ective
speakers, like eff ective writers, identify their purpose, audience,
and context. Th ey project themselves as informed and reason-
able, establish common ground with listeners, and use specifi c,
memorable language and techniques to capture their audience’s
attention.
In many college classes, you’ll be assigned to give oral presen-
tations. Th e more comfortable you become speaking in diff erent
settings, the easier it will be when you give a formal presentation.
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7a Speaking confi dently120
sp
You can develop informal speaking skills by contributing to class
discussions, responding to the comments of fellow students, and
playing an active role in team-based learning.
7a Identify your purpose, audience, and context.
In planning your presentation, strategize a bit: Identify your pur-
pose (reason) for speaking; your audience (listeners); and the
context (situation) in which you will speak.
PURPOSE Begin by asking: Why am I speaking? What is my goal?
Possible goals might include the following: to inform,
persuade, evaluate, recommend, and call to action.
AUDIENCE Eff ective speakers identify the expectations of
their audience and shape their material to these
expectations. Assess what your audience may already
know and believe, what objections you might need
to anticipate, and how you might interact with your
listeners.
CONTEXT Ask: What is the situation for my speech? An
assignment for a course? Th e presentation of a group
project? A community meeting? And how much time
do I have to speak? Th e answers to these questions will
help you shape the presentation for your particular
speaking situation.
7b Prepare a presentation.
Knowing your subject
You need to know your subject well in order to talk about it
confi dently. Although you can’t pack too much material into a
short speech, you need to speak knowledgeably to engage your
audience. In preparing your speech, do some research to collect
evidence — facts, statistics, visuals, expert testimony — that will
support your points.
Developing a clear structure
A good presentation is easily followed because it has a clear
beginning, middle, and end. In your introduction, forecast the
purpose and structure of your presentation and the question
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Prepare a presentation 1217b
sp
or problem you are addressing so your audience can anticipate
where you are going. Organize the body of an informative speech
to help your audience remember key points of information, and
conclude your presentation by giving listeners a sense of comple-
tion. Restate the key points, and borrow an image or phrasing
from your opening to make the speech come full circle.
Using signposts and repetition
As you speak, use signpost language to remind the audience of your
purpose and key points. Signposts guide listeners — “Th e shift to
online news has three important benefi ts for consumers” — and help
them to understand the transition from one point to the next — “Th e
second benefi t is. . . .” By repeating phrases, you emphasize the
importance of key points and help listeners remember them.
Writing for the ear, not the eye
Use an engaging, lively style so that the audience will enjoy lis-
tening to you. Be sure to use straightforward spoken language
that’s easy on the ear, not too complicated or too abstract. Keep
your sentences short and direct so that listeners can easily follow
your presentation.
Integrating sources with signal language
If you are using sources, do so responsibly. As you speak, be sure
to acknowledge your sources with signal phrases (“According to
New York Times columnist David Brooks . . .”). If you have slides,
signal phrases or citations can be included on the slides.
Using multimedia purposefully
Well-chosen visuals or audio can enhance your presentation and
add variety. A photograph might highlight an environmental
problem, a line graph can quickly show a trend over time, and
a brief video clip can off er visual evidence to capture listeners’
attention. Multimedia elements can convey information power-
fully, but always consider how they support your purpose and
how your audience will respond.
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7 Speaking confi dently
> Writing practice: Preparing a presentation
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7c Speaking confi dently122
sp
7c Focus on delivery.
Establishing a relationship
If you give an audience your full attention, they will return it.
Before delivering your speech, make steady eye contact with your
listeners, introduce yourself, and help your audience connect
with you.
Starting strong and ending strong
Beginnings and endings of speeches are critical to gain and hold
an audience’s attention. Plan your opening strategy: Will you
pose a question and ask for a show of hands? Will you tell a brief
personal story? End strong by looking directly at your audience
as you review your key points. Finish by thanking your audience
and inviting questions.
Boosting your confi dence
Eff ective speaking starts with a good script and a clear message.
However, pay attention to additional details that will boost your
confi dence and strengthen your presentation:
• Dress for the occasion.
• Make eye contact; use body language and hand gestures to
emphasize points.
• Practice, practice, practice. Speak out loud in front of a
mirror or a friend, and practice using visual aids.
• Time your rehearsal.
• Know the setting in which you’ll deliver your talk.
NOTE: Speakers have the main role in presentations, but audience
members have important roles, too. Speakers need encourage-
ment, so look at the speaker, make eye contact, and be ready with
a question about an interesting or surprising point.
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7 Speaking confi dently
> Writing practice: Focusing on your delivery
> Writing practice: Learning from another speaker (persuasive speech)
> Writing practice: Learning from another speaker (informative speech)
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Remix an essay for a presentation 1237d
sp
7d Remix an essay for a presentation.
You may be assigned to adapt an essay that you have already writ-
ten for delivery to a listening audience. Student writer Sam Jacobs
revised his essay as he prepared a speaking script. Compare the
fi rst paragraph of Jacob’s essay (p. 112) with the opening lines for
his presentation below.
Good afternoon, everyone. I’m Sam Jacobs.
Today I want to explore this question: How do
consumers benefit from reading news online?
But first let me have a quick show of hands:
How many of you read news online? If you
answered yes, you are part of the 71% of young
Americans, ages 18 to 29, who read their news
online, according to the Pew Center. We’ve grown
up in a digital generation, consuming news on
every possible mobile device, especially our cell
phones. Most of us don’t miss the newspaper
arriving on the doorstep every morning. And
because we expect to read news online, we take
it for granted. But if we take it for granted,
we might miss the benefits of participating as
producers of news, not simply as consumers. The
three benefits I want to explore are . . .
Friendly
opening
establishes a
relationship
with the
audience.
Jacobs starts
with his key
question and
engages the
audience
immediately.
Jacobs uses
a source
responsibly
and integrates
it well.
Establishes
common
ground with
the audience.
Jacobs repeats
words and
phrases for
emphasis and
uses signposts
to make it
easier for
his listeners
to follow his
ideas.
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7 Speaking confi dently
> Writing practice: Remixing an essay for an oral presentation
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Clarity
8 Prefer active verbs. 126
9 Balance parallel ideas. 129
10 Add needed words. 133
11 Untangle mixed constructions. 137
12 Repair misplaced and dangling modifi ers. 140
13 Eliminate distracting shifts. 147
14 Emphasize key ideas. 152
15 Provide some variety. 163
16 Tighten wordy sentences. 166
17 Choose appropriate language. 170
18 Find the exact words. 180
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126
8 Prefer active verbs.
As a rule, choose an active verb and pair it with a subject that
names the person or thing doing the action. Active verbs express
meaning more emphatically and vigorously than their weaker
counterparts — verbs in the passive voice or forms of the verb be.
PASSIVE Th e pumps were destroyed by a surge of power.
BE VERB A surge of power was responsible for the destruction of
the pumps.
ACTIVE A surge of power destroyed the pumps.
Verbs in the passive voice lack strength because their subjects
receive the action instead of doing it. Forms of the verb be (be,
am, is, are, was, were, being, been) lack vigor because they convey
no action.
Although passive verbs and the forms of be have legitimate
uses, choose an active verb whenever possible. Even among ac-
tive verbs, some are more vigorous and colorful than others.
Carefully selected verbs can energize a piece of writing.
▶ Th e goalie crouched low, reached out his stick, and sent the
rebound away from the mouth of the net.
Academic English Although you may be tempted to avoid the
passive voice completely, keep in mind that some writing situations
call for it, especially scientifi c writing. For appropriate uses of the
passive voice, see page 127; for advice about forming the passive
voice, see 28b and 47c.
8a Use the active voice unless you have a good
reason for choosing the passive.
In the active voice, the subject does the action; in the passive
voice, the subject receives the action (see also 47c). Although
both voices are grammatically correct, the active voice is usually
more eff ective because it is clearer and more direct.
̂
swept
̂
hooked
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127
active
8bActive vs. be verbs
ACTIVE Hernando caught the fl y ball.
PASSIVE Th e fl y ball was caught by Hernando.
Passive sentences oft en identify the actor in a by phrase, as in the
preceding example. Sometimes, however, that phrase is omitted,
and who or what is responsible for the action becomes unclear:
Th e fl y ball was caught.
Most of the time, you will want to emphasize the actor, so
you should use the active voice. To replace a passive verb with an
active one, make the actor the subject of the sentence.
▶ Th e land was stripped of timber before the settlers realized the
consequences of their actions.
Th e revision emphasizes the actors (settlers) by naming them in
the subject.
Appropriate uses of the passive
Th e passive voice is appropriate if you want to emphasize the
receiver of the action or to minimize the importance of the actor.
APPROPRIATE
PASSIVE
Many Hawaiians were forced to leave their homes
aft er the earthquake.
APPROPRIATE
PASSIVE
Near harvest time, the tobacco plants are sprayed
with a chemical to slow the growth of suckers.
Th e writer of the fi rst sentence wished to emphasize the receiver of
the action, Hawaiians. Th e writer of the second sentence wished
to focus on the tobacco plants, not on the people spraying them.
In much scientifi c writing, the passive voice properly empha-
sizes the experiment or process being described, not the researcher.
Check with your instructor for the preference in your discipline.
8b Replace be verbs that result in dull or wordy
sentences.
Not every be verb needs replacing. Th e forms of be (be, am, is,
are, was, were, being, been) work well when you want to link a
subject to a noun that clearly renames it or to an adjective that
describes it: Orchard House was the home of Louisa May Alcott.
Th e harvest will be bountiful aft er the summer rains.
^
The sett lers stripped the land of timber before realizing
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active
8c128 Active verbs
Be verbs also are essential as helping verbs before present
participles (is fl ying, are disappearing) to express ongoing action:
Derrick was fi ghting the fi re when his wife went into labor. (See 27f.)
If using a be verb makes a sentence needlessly dull and wordy,
however, consider replacing it. Oft en a phrase following the verb
contains a noun or an adjective (such as violation, resistant) that
suggests a more vigorous, active verb (violate, resist).
▶ Burying nuclear waste in Antarctica would be in violation of an
international treaty.
Violate is less wordy and more vigorous than be in violation of.
▶ When Rosa Parks was resistant to giving up her seat on the bus,
she became a civil rights hero.
Resisted is stronger than was resistant to.
8c As a rule, choose a subject that names
the person or thing doing the action.
In weak, unemphatic prose, both the actor and the action may be
buried in sentence elements other than the subject and the verb.
In the following weak sentence, for example, both the actor and
the action appear in prepositional phrases, word groups that do
not receive much attention from readers.
WEAK Th e institution of the New Deal had the eff ect of
reversing some of the economic inequalities of the
Great Depression.
EMPHATIC Th e New Deal reversed some of the economic
inequalities of the Great Depression.
Consider the subjects and verbs of the two versions — institution
had versus New Deal reversed. Th e second version expresses the
writer’s point more emphatically.
▶ Th e use of pure oxygen can cause healing in wounds that are
otherwise untreatable.
In the original sentence, the subject and verb — use can cause — express
the point blandly. Pure oxygen can heal makes the point more emphatically
and directly.
^
violate
^
resisted
̂
P
/
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1299Parallelism
//
EXERCISE 8–1 Revise unemphatic sentences by replacing passive verbs or
be verbs with active alternatives. You may need to name in the subject the
person or thing doing the action. If a sentence is emphatic, do not change it.
Possible revisions appear in the back of the book. More practice:
Th e campfi re was doused by the ranger before we were given a
ticket for unauthorized use of a campsite.
a. Th e Prussians were victorious over the Saxons in 1745.
b. Th e entire operation is managed by Ahmed, the producer.
c. Th e sea kayaks were expertly paddled by the tour guides.
d. At the crack of rocket and mortar blasts, I jumped from the top
bunk and landed on my buddy below, who was crawling on the
fl oor looking for his boots.
e. Th ere were shouting protesters on the courthouse steps.
9 Balance parallel ideas.
If two or more ideas are parallel, they are easier to grasp when ex-
pressed in parallel grammatical form. Single words should be bal-
anced with single words, phrases with phrases, clauses with clauses.
A kiss can be a comma, a question mark, or an exclamation
point. — Mistinguett
Th is novel is not to be tossed lightly aside, but to be hurled
with great force. — Dorothy Parker
In matters of principle, stand like a rock; in matters of taste,
swim with the current. — Th omas Jeff erson
Writers oft en use parallelism to create emphasis. (See 14f.)
^
The ranger doused the campfi re before giving us
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8 Active verbs
> Exercises: 8–2 to 8–6
> LearningCurve: Active and passive voice
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9a130
//
Parallelism
9a Balance parallel ideas in a series.
Readers expect items in a series to appear in parallel grammatical
form. When one or more of the items violate readers’ expecta-
tions, a sentence will be needlessly awkward.
▶ Children who study music also learn confi dence, discipline,
and they are creative.
Th e revision presents all the items in the series as nouns: confi dence,
discipline, and creativity.
▶ Impressionist painters believed in focusing on ordinary subjects,
capturing the eff ects of light on those subjects, and to use short
brushstrokes.
Th e revision uses -ing forms for all the items in the series: focusing,
capturing, and using.
▶ Racing to get to work on time, Sam drove down the middle
of the road, ran one red light, and two stop signs.
Th e revision adds a verb to make the three items parallel: drove, ran,
and ignored.
In headings and lists, aim for as much parallelism as the con-
tent allows.
9b Balance parallel ideas presented as pairs.
When pairing ideas, underscore their connection by expressing
them in similar grammatical form. Paired ideas are usually con-
nected in one of these ways:
• with a coordinating conjunction such as and, but,
or or
• with a pair of correlative conjunctions such as either . . . or
or not only . . . but also
• with a word introducing a comparison, usually than
or as
^
creativity.
^
using
^
ignored
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1319bParallel ideas as pairs
//
Parallel ideas linked with coordinating conjunctions
Coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or, nor, for, so, and yet) link
ideas of equal importance. When those ideas are closely parallel in
content, they should be expressed in parallel grammatical form.
▶ Emily Dickinson’s poetry features the use of dashes and
capitalizing common words.
Th e revision balances the nouns use and capitalization.
▶ Many states are reducing property taxes for home owners and
extend tax credits to renters.
Th e revision balances the verb reducing with the verb extending.
Parallel ideas linked with correlative conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions come in pairs: either . . . or, neither . . .
nor, not only . . . but also, both . . . and, whether . . . or. Make sure
that the grammatical structure following the second half of the
pair is the same as that following the fi rst half.
▶ Th omas Edison was not only a prolifi c inventor but also was a
successful entrepreneur.
Th e words a prolifi c inventor follow not only, so a successful entrepreneur
should follow but also. Repeating was creates an unbalanced eff ect.
▶ Th e clerk told me either to change my fl ight or take the train.
To change my fl ight, which follows either, should be balanced with to
take the train, which follows or.
Comparisons linked with than or as
In comparisons linked with than or as, the elements being com-
pared should be expressed in parallel grammatical structure.
▶ It is easier to speak in abstractions than grounding one’s
thoughts in reality.
To speak is balanced with to ground.
^
the capitalization of
^
extending
^
to
^
to ground
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9c132
//
Parallelism
Comparisons should also be logical and complete. (See 10c.)
▶ In Pueblo culture, according to Silko, to write down the stories of
a tribe is not the same as “keeping track of all the stories” (290).
When you are quoting from a source, parallel grammatical structure —
such as writing . . . keeping — helps create continuity between your
sentence and the words from the source. (See 56a on citing sources in
MLA style.)
9c Repeat function words to clarify parallels.
Function words such as prepositions (by, to) and subordinating
conjunctions (that, because) signal the grammatical nature of the
word groups to follow. Although you can sometimes omit them,
be sure to include them whenever they signal parallel structures
that readers might otherwise miss.
▶ Our study revealed that left -handed students were more likely
to have trouble with classroom desks and rearranging desks for
exam periods was useful.
A second subordinating conjunction helps readers sort out the two
parallel ideas: that left -handed students have trouble with classroom
desks and that rearranging desks was useful.
EXERCISE 9–1 Edit the following sentences to correct faulty parallel-
ism. Possible revisions appear in the back of the book.
More practice:
Rowena began her workday by pouring a cup of coff ee and
checked her e-mail.
a. Police dogs are used for fi nding lost children, tracking criminals,
and the detection of bombs and illegal drugs.
^
writing
^
that
^
checking
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9 Parallel ideas
> Exercises: 9–2 to 9–6
> LearningCurve: Parallelism
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13310aCompound structures
add
b. Hannah told her rock-climbing partner that she bought a new
harness and of her desire to climb Otter Cliff s.
c. It is more diffi cult to sustain an exercise program than starting one.
d. During basic training, I was not only told what to do but also what
to think.
e. Jan wanted to drive to the wine country or at least Sausalito.
10 Add needed words.
Sometimes writers leave out words intentionally, and the mean-
ing of the sentence is not aff ected. But leaving out words can
occasionally cause confusion for readers or make the sentence
ungrammatical. Readers need to see at a glance how the parts of
a sentence are connected.
Languages sometimes diff er in the need for certain words. In par-
ticular, be alert for missing articles, verbs, subjects, or expletives. See
29, 30a, and 30b.
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10a Add words needed to complete compound
structures.
In compound structures, words are oft en left out for economy:
Tom is a man who means what he says and [who] says what he
means. Such omissions are acceptable as long as the omitted
words are common to both parts of the compound structure.
If a sentence defi es grammar or idiom because an omitted
word is not common to both parts of the compound structure,
the simplest solution is to put the word back in.
▶ Advertisers target customers whom they identify through
demographic research or have purchased their product in the past.
Th e word who must be included because whom . . . have purchased is not
grammatically correct.
^
who
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10b134
add
Needed words
▶ Mayor Davis never has and never will accept a bribe.
Has . . . accept is not grammatically correct.
▶ Many South Pacifi c islanders still believe and live by ancient laws.
Believe . . . by is not idiomatic in English. (For a list of common idioms,
see 18d.)
NOTE: Even when the omitted word is common to both parts
of the compound structure, occasionally it must be inserted to
avoid ambiguity.
My favorite professor and mentor infl uenced my choice of a career.
[Professor and mentor are the same person.]
My favorite professor and my mentor infl uenced my choice of a
career. [Professor and mentor are two diff erent people; my must be
repeated.]
10b Add the word that if there is any danger
of misreading without it.
If there is no danger of misreading, the word that may be omitted
when it introduces a subordinate clause. Th e value of a principle is
the number of things [that] it will explain. When a sentence might
be misread without that, however, include the word.
▶ In his famous obedience experiments, psychologist Stanley
Milgram discovered ordinary people were willing to infl ict
physical pain on strangers.
Milgram didn’t discover ordinary people; he discovered that ordinary
people were willing to infl ict pain on strangers. Th e word that tells readers
to expect a clause, not just ordinary people, as the direct object of discovered.
10c Add words needed to make comparisons
logical and complete.
Comparisons should be made between items that are alike. To
compare unlike items is illogical and distracting.
^
accepted
^
in
^
that
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13510cComparisons
add
▶ Th e forests of North America are much more extensive than
Europe.
Forests must be compared with forests, not with all of Europe.
▶ Some say that Ella Fitzgerald’s renditions of Cole Porter’s
songs are better than any other singer.
Ella Fitzgerald’s renditions cannot logically be compared with a singer.
Th e revision uses the possessive form singer’s, with the word renditions
being implied.
Sometimes the word other must be inserted to make a com-
parison logical.
▶ Jupiter is larger than any planet in our solar system.
Jupiter is a planet, and it cannot be larger than itself.
Sometimes the word as must be inserted to make a compari-
son grammatically complete.
▶ Th e city of Lowell is as old, if not older than, the neighboring
city of Lawrence.
Th e construction as old is not complete without a second as: as old as . . .
the neighboring city of Lawrence.
Comparisons should be complete enough to ensure clarity.
Th e reader should understand what is being compared.
INCOMPLETE Brand X is less salty.
COMPLETE Brand X is less salty than Brand Y.
Finally, comparisons should leave no ambiguity for readers.
If more than one interpretation is possible, revise the sentence
to state clearly which interpretation you intend. In the following
ambiguous sentence, two interpretations are possible.
AMBIGUOUS Ken helped me more than my roommate.
CLEAR Ken helped me more than he helped my roommate.
CLEAR Ken helped me more than my roommate did.
^
those of
^
singer’s.
^
other
^
as
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10d136
add
Needed words
10d Add the articles a, an, and the where
necessary for grammatical completeness.
It is not always necessary to repeat articles with paired items:
We bought a computer and printer. However, if one of the items
requires a and the other requires an, both articles must be
included.
▶ We bought a computer and antivirus program.
Articles are sometimes omitted in recipes and other instruc-
tions that are meant to be followed while they are being read.
In nearly all other forms of writing, whether formal or informal,
such omissions are inappropriate.
Choosing and using articles can be challenging for multi lingual
writers. See 29.
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EXERCISE 10–1 Add any words needed for grammatical or logical
completeness in the following sentences. Possible revisions appear in the
back of the book. More practice:
Th e offi cer feared the prisoner would escape.
a. A grapefruit or orange is a good source of vitamin C.
b. Th e women entering the military academy can expect haircuts
as short as the male cadets.
c. Looking out the family room window, Sarah saw her favorite tree,
which she had climbed as a child, was gone.
d. Th e graphic designers are interested and knowledgeable about
producing posters for the balloon race.
e. Th e Great Barrier Reef is larger than any coral reef in the
world.
^
an
^
that
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10 Needed words
> Exercises: 10–2 to 10–5
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137
11 Untangle mixed constructions.
A mixed construction contains sentence parts that do not sensi-
bly fi t together. Th e mismatch may be a matter of grammar or of
logic.
11a Untangle the grammatical structure.
Once you begin a sentence, your choices are limited by the range
of grammatical patterns in English. (See 47 and 48.) You cannot
begin with one grammatical plan and switch without warning to
another. Oft en you must rethink the purpose of the sentence and
revise.
MIXED For most drivers who have a blood alcohol content of
.05 percent double their risk of causing an accident.
Th e writer begins the sentence with a long prepositional phrase
and makes it the subject of the verb double. But a prepositional
phrase can serve only as a modifi er; it cannot be the subject of a
sentence.
REVISED For most drivers who have a blood alcohol content of
.05 percent, the risk of causing an accident is doubled.
REVISED Most drivers who have a blood alcohol content of .05
percent double their risk of causing an accident.
In the fi rst revision, the writer begins with the prepositional
phrase and fi nishes the sentence with a proper subject and verb
(risk . . . is doubled). In the second revision, the writer stays with
the original verb (double) and heads into the sentence another
way, making drivers the subject of double.
▶ When the country elects a president is the most important
responsibility in a democracy.
Th e adverb clause When the country elects a president cannot serve as
the subject of the verb is. Th e revision replaces the adverb clause with a
gerund phrase, a word group that can function as a subject. (See 48b
and 48e.)
^
Electing
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11b138
mix
Mixed constructions
▶ Although the United States is a wealthy nation, but more than
20 percent of our children live in poverty.
Th e coordinating conjunction but cannot link a subordinate clause
(Although the United States . . .) with an independent clause (more than
20 percent of our children live in poverty).
Occasionally a mixed construction is so tangled that it de-
fi es grammatical analysis. When this happens, back away from
the sentence, rethink what you want to say, and then rewrite the
sentence.
MIXED In the whole-word method, children learn to recognize
entire words rather than by the phonics method in
which they learn to sound out letters and groups of
letters.
REVISED Th e whole-word method teaches children to recognize
entire words; the phonics method teaches them to
sound out letters and groups of letters.
English does not allow double subjects, nor does it allow an object
or an adverb to be repeated in an adjective clause. Unlike some
other languages, English does not allow a noun and a pronoun to be
repeated in a sentence if they have the same grammatical function.
See 30c and 30d.
▶ My father he moved to Peru before he met my mother.
▶ Th e fi nal exam I should really study for it to pass the course.
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^
the fi nal exam
11b Straighten out the logical connections.
Th e subject and the predicate (the verb and its modifi ers) should
make sense together; when they don’t, the error is known as
faulty predication.
▶ Th e court decided that Tiff any’s welfare would not be safe living
with her abusive parents.
Tiff any, not her welfare, may not be safe.
^
Tiff any
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13911cis when, is where, reason . . . is because
mix
▶ Under the revised plan, the elderly, who now receive a double
personal exemption, will be abolished.
Th e exemption, not the elderly, will be abolished.
An appositive is a noun that renames a nearby noun. When
an appositive and the noun it renames are not logically equiva-
lent, the error is known as faulty apposition. (See 48c.)
▶ Th e tax accountant, a very lucrative profession, requires
intelligence, patience, and attention to mathematical detail.
Th e tax accountant is a person, not a profession.
11c Avoid is when, is where, and reason . . .
is because constructions.
In formal English, many readers object to is when, is where, and
reason . . . is because constructions on either grammatical or logi-
cal grounds.
Grammatically, the verb is (as well as are, was, and were)
should be followed by a noun that renames the subject or by
an adjective that describes the subject, not by an adverb clause
beginning with when, where, or because. (See 48b and 48e.)
Logically, the words when, where, or because suggest relations of
time, place, and cause—relations that do not always make sense
with is, are, was, or were.
▶ Th e reason the experiment failed is because conditions in the lab
were not sterile.
Th e writer might have changed because to that (Th e reason the
experiment failed is that conditions in the lab were not sterile), but the
preceding revision is more concise.
▶ Anorexia nervosa is where people think they are too fat and diet
to the point of starvation.
Where refers to places. Anorexia nervosa is a disorder, not a place.
^
double personal exemption for the
/
^
Tax accounting,
^
a disorder suff ered by people who
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140 12
mm/dm
Misplaced and dangling modifi ers
EXERCISE 11–1 Edit the following sentences to untangle mixed con-
structions. Possible revisions appear in the back of the book.
More practice:
By taking the oath of allegiance made Ling a US citizen.
a. Using surgical gloves is a precaution now worn by dentists to
prevent contact with patients’ blood and saliva.
b. A physician, the career my brother is pursuing, requires at least
ten years of challenging work.
c. Th e reason the pharaohs had bad teeth was because tiny particles
of sand found their way into Egyptian bread.
d. Recurring bouts of fl u among team members set a record for num-
ber of games forfeited.
e. In this box contains the key to your future.
12 Repair misplaced and dangling modifi ers.
Modifi ers, whether they are single words, phrases, or clauses,
should point clearly to the words they modify. As a rule, related
words should be kept together.
12a Put limiting modifi ers in front of the words
they modify.
Limiting modifi ers such as only, even, almost, nearly, and just
should appear in front of a verb only if they modify the verb:
At fi rst, I couldn’t even touch my toes, much less grasp them. If
they limit the meaning of some other word in the sentence, they
should be placed in front of that word.
▶ Th e literature reveals that students only learn new vocabulary
words when they are encouraged to read.
Only limits the meaning of the when clause.
^
Taking
^
only
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11 Mixed constructions
> Exercises: 11–2 to 11–5
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14112bMisplaced phrases and clauses
mm/dm
▶ If you just interview chemistry majors, your picture of the student
body’s response to the new grading policies will be incomplete.
Th e adverb just limits the meaning of chemistry majors, not interview.
When the limiting modifi er not is misplaced, the sentence
usually suggests a meaning the writer did not intend.
▶ In the United States in 1860, all black southerners were not slaves.
Th e original sentence says that no black southerners were slaves. Th e
revision makes the writer’s real meaning clear: Some (but not all) black
southerners were slaves.
12b Place phrases and clauses so that readers
can see at a glance what they modify.
Although phrases and clauses can appear at some distance from
the words they modify, make sure your meaning is clear. When
phrases or clauses are oddly placed, absurd misreadings can result.
MISPLACED Th e soccer player returned to the clinic where he
had undergone emergency surgery in 2004 in a
limousine sent by Adidas.
REVISED Traveling in a limousine sent by Adidas, the
soccer player returned to the clinic where he had
undergone emergency surgery in 2004.
Th e revision corrects the false impression that the soccer player
underwent emergency surgery in a limousine.
▶ Th ere are many pictures of comedians who have performed at
Gavin’s on the walls.
Th e comedians weren’t performing on the walls; the pictures were on
the walls.
▶ Th e robber was described as a six-foot-tall man with a heavy
mustache weighing 170 pounds.
Th e robber, not the mustache, weighed 170 pounds.
^
just
^
not
^
On the walls
̂
.
^
170-pound,
̂
.
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12c142
mm/dm
Misplaced and dangling modifi ers
Occasionally the placement of a modifi er leads to an
ambiguity — a squinting modifi er. In such a case, two revisions
will be possible, depending on the writer’s intended meaning.
AMBIGUOUS Th e exchange students we met for coff ee
occasionally questioned us about our latest slang.
CLEAR Th e exchange students we occasionally met for
coff ee questioned us about our latest slang.
CLEAR Th e exchange students we met for coff ee questioned
us occasionally about our latest slang.
In the original version, it was not clear whether the meeting or
the questioning happened occasionally. Both revisions eliminate
the ambiguity.
12c Move awkwardly placed modifi ers.
As a rule, a sentence should fl ow from subject to verb to object,
without lengthy detours along the way. When a long adverbial
word group separates a subject from its verb, a verb from its object,
or a helping verb from its main verb, the result is oft en awkward.
▶ Hong Kong, aft er more than 150 years of British rule, was
transferred back to Chinese control in 1997.
Th ere is no reason to separate the subject, Hong Kong, from the verb,
was transferred, with a long phrase.
English does not allow an adverb to appear between a verb and its
object. See 30f.
▶ Yolanda lift ed easily the fi ft y-pound weight.
M
u
lt
ili
n
gu
a
l
^
easily
12d Avoid split infi nitives when they are awkward.
An infi nitive consists of to plus the base form of a verb: to think,
to breathe, to dance. When a modifi er appears between to and
^
/
A Hong
^
Kong
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14312dSplit infi nitives
mm/dm
the verb, an infi nitive is said to be “split”: to carefully balance, to
completely understand.
When a long word or a phrase appears between the parts of
the infi nitive, the result is usually awkward.
▶ Th e patient should try to if possible avoid going up and down
stairs.
Attempts to avoid split infi nitives can result in equally awk-
ward sentences. When alternative phrasing sounds unnatu-
ral, most experts allow — and even encourage — splitting the
infi nitive.
AWKWARD We decided actually to enforce the law.
BETTER We decided to actually enforce the law.
At times, neither the split infi nitive nor its alternative sounds
particularly awkward. In such situations, it is usually better not to
split the infi nitive, especially in formal writing.
▶ Nursing students learn to accurately record a patient’s vital
signs.
EXERCISE 12–1 Edit the following sentences to correct misplaced or
awkwardly placed modifi ers. Possible revisions appear in the back of the
book. More practice:
Answering questions can be annoying in a telephone survey.
a. More research is needed to eff ectively evaluate the risks posed by
volcanoes in the Pacifi c Northwest.
b. Many students graduate with debt from college totaling more than
fi ft y thousand dollars.
c. It is a myth that humans only use 10 percent of their brains.
d. A coolhunter is a person who can fi nd in the unnoticed corners of
modern society the next wave of fashion.
e. All geese do not fl y beyond Narragansett for the winter.
^
If possible, the
^
/
accurately.
^
in a telephone survey
̂
.
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12 Modifi ers
> Exercises: 12–2 to 12–5
> LearningCurve: Modifi ers
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12e144
mm/dm
Misplaced and dangling modifi ers
12e Repair dangling modifi ers.
A dangling modifi er fails to refer logically to any word in the sen-
tence. Dangling modifi ers are easy to repair, but they can be hard
to recognize, especially in your own writing.
Recognizing dangling modifi ers
Dangling modifi ers are usually word groups (such as verbal
phrases) that suggest but do not name an actor. When a sentence
opens with such a modifi er, readers expect the subject of the next
clause to name the actor. If it doesn’t, the modifi er dangles.
▶ Understanding the need to create checks and balances on power,
the Constitution divided the government into three branches.
Th e framers of the Constitution (not the document itself ) understood
the need for checks and balances.
▶ Aft er completing seminary training, women’s access to the
priesthood has oft en been denied.
Women (not their access to the priesthood) complete the training.
Th e following sentences illustrate four common kinds of
dangling modifi ers.
DANGLING Deciding to join the navy, the recruiter enthusiastically
pumped Joe’s hand. [Participial phrase]
DANGLING Upon entering the doctor’s offi ce, a skeleton caught my
attention. [Preposition followed by a gerund phrase]
DANGLING To satisfy her mother, the piano had to be practiced
every day. [Infi nitive phrase]
DANGLING Th ough not eligible for the clinical trial, the doctor
prescribed the drug for Ethan on compassionate grounds.
[Elliptical clause with an understood subject and verb]
Th ese dangling modifi ers falsely suggest that the recruiter
decided to join the navy, that the skeleton entered the doctor’s
offi ce, that the piano intended to satisfy the mother, and that the
doctor was not eligible for the clinical trial.
^
the framers of
women
^
were often denied
̂
.
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14512eDangling modifi ers
mm/dm
Although most readers will understand the writer’s in-
tended meaning in such sentences, the inadvertent humor can
be distracting.
Repairing dangling modifi ers
To repair a dangling modifi er, you can revise the sentence in one
of two ways:
• Name the actor in the subject of the sentence.
• Name the actor in the modifi er.
Depending on your sentence, one of these revision strategies may
be more appropriate than the other.
ACTOR NAMED IN SUBJECT
▶ Upon entering the doctor’s offi ce, a skeleton. caught my
attention.
▶ To satisfy her mother, the piano had to be practiced every day.
^
I noticed
^
^
Jing-mei had to practice
Checking for dangling modifi ers
Does an opening phrase
suggest an action without
naming the actor?
No
problem
No
problem
Does the subject of
the sentence name
the actor?
Revise the
dangling modifi er.
NO
YES
YES
NO
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12e146 Misplaced and dangling modifi ers
mm/dm
ACTOR NAMED IN MODIFIER
▶ Deciding to join the navy, the recruiter enthusiastically
pumped Joe’s hand.
▶ Th ough not eligible for the clinical trial, the doctor prescribed
the drug for Ethan on compassionate grounds.
NOTE: You cannot repair a dangling modifi er just by moving it.
Consider, for example, the sentence about the skeleton. If you put
the modifi er at the end of the sentence (A skeleton caught my at-
tention upon entering the doctor’s offi ce), you are still suggesting —
absurdly, of course — that the skeleton entered the offi ce. Th e only
way to avoid the problem is to put the word I in the sentence, either
as the subject or in the modifi er.
▶ Upon entering the doctor’s offi ce, a skeleton. caught my attention.
▶ Upon entering the doctor’s offi ce, a skeleton caught my attention.
EXERCISE 12–6 Edit the following sentences to correct dangling
modifi ers. Most sentences can be revised in more than one way. Possible
revisions appear in the back of the book. More practice:
To graduate, two science courses. must be completed.
a. To complete an online purchase with a credit card, the expiration
date and the security code must be entered.
b. Th ough only sixteen, UCLA accepted Martha’s application.
c. Settled in the cockpit, the pounding of the engine was muffl ed
only slightly by my helmet.
d. Aft er studying polymer chemistry, computer games seemed less
complex to Phuong.
e. When a young man, my mother enrolled me in tap dance classes.
^
When Joe decided
^
his
^
Ethan was
^
him
^
I noticed
^
^
As I entered
^
a student must com
^
plete
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12 Modifi ers
> Exercises: 12–7 to 12–10
> LearningCurve: Modifi ers
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147
13 Eliminate distracting shifts.
Th e following sections can help you avoid unnecessary shift s that
might distract or confuse your readers: shift s in point of view, in
verb tense, in mood or voice, or from indirect to direct questions
or quotations.
13a Make the point of view consistent in person
and number.
Th e point of view of a piece of writing is the perspective from
which it is written: fi rst person (I or we), second person ( you), or
third person (he, she, it, one, they, or any noun).
Th e I (or we) point of view, which emphasizes the writer, is a
good choice for informal letters and writing based primarily on
personal experience. Th e you point of view, which emphasizes the
reader, works well for giving advice or explaining how to do some-
thing. Th e third-person point of view, which emphasizes the sub-
ject, is appropriate in formal academic and professional writing.
Writers who have trouble settling on an appropriate point of
view sometimes shift confusingly from one to another. Th e solu-
tion is to choose a suitable perspective and stay with it.
▶ Our class practiced rescuing a victim trapped in a wrecked
car. We learned to dismantle the car with the essential tools.
You were graded on your speed and your skill in freeing the
victim.
Th e writer should have stayed with the we point of view. You is
inappropriate because the writer is not addressing readers directly. You
should not be used in a vague sense meaning “anyone.” (See 23d.)
▶ One needs a password and a credit card number to access the
database. You will be billed at an hourly rate.
You is an appropriate choice because the writer is giving advice directly
to readers.
^
We
^
our
^
our
^
You need
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13b148
shift
Shifts
EXERCISE 13–1 Edit the following paragraph to eliminate distracting
shift s in point of view (person and number).
More practice:
When online dating fi rst became available, many people thought
that it would simplify romance. We believed that you could type
in a list of criteria — sense of humor, college education, green
eyes, good job — and a database would select the perfect mate.
Th ousands of people signed up for services and fi lled out their
profi les, confi dent that true love was only a few mouse clicks away.
As it turns out, however, virtual dating is no easier than traditional
dating. I still have to contact the people I fi nd, exchange e-mails and
phone calls, and meet him in the real world. Although a database
might produce a list of possibilities and screen out obviously
undesirable people, you can’t predict chemistry. More oft en than
not, people who seem perfect online just don’t click in person.
Electronic services do help a single person expand their pool of
potential dates, but it’s no substitute for the hard work of romance.
13b Maintain consistent verb tenses.
Consistent verb tenses clearly establish the time of the actions
being described. When a passage begins in one tense and then
shift s without warning and for no reason to another, readers are
distracted and confused.
▶ Th ere was no way I could fi ght the current and win. Just as
I was losing hope, a stranger jumps off a passing boat and
swims toward me.
Th e writer thought that the present tense ( jumps, swims) would convey
immediacy and drama. But having begun in the past tense (could fi ght,
was losing), the writer should follow through in the past tense.
Writers oft en encounter diffi culty with verb tenses when
writing about literature. Because fi ctional events occur outside the
time frames of real life, the past tense and the present tense may
seem equally appropriate. Th e literary convention is to describe
fi ctional events consistently in the present tense. (See pp. 249–50.)
^
jumped
^
swam
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13 Shifts
> Exercises: 13–2, 13–9 to 13–11
> LearningCurve: Shifts
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14913cVerb mood, voice
shift
▶ Th e scarlet letter is a punishment sternly placed on Hester’s
breast by the community, and yet it was a fanciful and
imaginative product of Hester’s own needlework.
EXERCISE 13–3 Edit the following paragraphs to eliminate distracting
shift s in tense. More practice:
Th e English colonists who settled in Massachusetts received
assistance at fi rst from the local Indian tribes, but by 1675 there had
been friction between the English and the Indians for many years.
On June 20 of that year, Metacomet, whom the colonists called
Philip, leads the Wampanoag tribe in the fi rst of a series of attacks
on the colonial settlements. Th e war, known today as King Philip’s
War, rages on for more than a year and leaves three thousand
Indians and six hundred colonists dead. Metacomet’s attempt to
retain power in his native land failed. Finally he too is killed, and
the victorious colonists sell his wife and children into slavery.
Th e Indians did not leave records of their encounters with the
English settlers, but the settlers recorded some of their experiences
at the hands of the Indians. One of the few accounts to survive was
written by a captured colonist, Mrs. Mary Rowlandson. She is a
minister’s wife who is kidnapped by an Indian war party and held
captive for eleven weeks in 1676. Her history, A Narrative of the
Captivity and Restoration of Mrs. Mary Rowlandson, tells the story
of her experiences with the Wampanoags. Although it did not
paint a completely balanced picture of the Indians, Rowlandson’s
narrative, which is considered a classic early American text,
showed its author to be a keen observer of life in an Indian camp.
13c Make verbs consistent in mood and voice.
Unnecessary shift s in the mood of a verb can be distracting and
confusing to readers. Th ere are three moods in English: the indic-
ative, used for facts, opinions, and questions; the imperative, used
for orders or advice; and the subjunctive, used in certain contexts
to express wishes or conditions contrary to fact (see 27g).
Th e following passage shift s confusingly from the indicative
to the imperative mood.
^
is
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13 Shifts
> Exercises: 13–4, 13–9 to 13–11
> LearningCurve: Shifts
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13d150
shift
Shifts
▶ Th e counselor advised us to spread out our core requirements
over two or three semesters. Also, pay attention to prerequisites
for elective courses.
Th e writer began by reporting the counselor’s advice in the indicative
mood (counselor advised ) and switched to the imperative mood ( pay
attention); the revision puts both sentences in the indicative.
A verb may be in either the active voice (with the subject
doing the action) or the passive voice (with the subject receiving
the action). (See 8a.) If a writer shift s without warning from one
to the other, readers may be left wondering why.
▶ Each student completes a self-assessment. Th e self-
assessment is then given to the teacher and a copy is exchanged
with a classmate.
Because the passage began in the active voice (student completes) and
then switched to the passive (self-assessment is given, copy is exchanged ),
readers are left wondering who gives the self-assessment to the teacher
and the classmate. Th e active voice, which is clearer and more direct,
leaves no ambiguity.
13d Avoid sudden shifts from indirect to direct
questions or quotations.
An indirect question reports a question without asking it: We
asked whether we could visit Miriam. A direct question asks
directly: Can we visit Miriam? Sudden shift s from indirect to
direct questions are awkward. In addition, sentences containing
such shift s are impossible to punctuate because indirect ques-
tions must end with a period and direct questions must end with
a question mark. (See 38b.)
▶ I wonder whether Karla knew of the theft and, if so, did
she report it to the police/?
Th e revision poses both questions indirectly. Th e writer could also ask
both questions directly: Did Karla know of the theft , and, if so, did she
report it to the police?
^
She also suggested that we
^
/
,
gives it
^
,
^
exchanges
^
whether she reported
.
^
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15113dIndirect to direct questions or quotations
shift
An indirect quotation reports someone’s words without
quoting word for word: Annabelle said that she is a Virgo. A
direct quotation presents the exact words of a speaker or
writer, set off with quotation marks: Annabelle said, “I am a
Virgo.” Unannounced shift s from indirect to direct quotations
are distracting and confusing, especially when the writer fails
to insert the necessary quotation marks, as in the following
example.
▶ Th e patient said she had been experiencing heart palpitations
and please run as many tests as possible to identify the problem.
Th e revision reports the patient’s words indirectly. Th e writer also could
quote the words directly: Th e patient said, “I have been experiencing
heart palpitations. Please run as many tests as possible to identify the
problem.”
EXERCISE 13–5 Edit the following sentences to make the verbs consis-
tent in mood and voice and to eliminate distracting shift s from indirect
to direct questions or quotations. Possible revisions appear in the back
of the book. More practice:
As a public relations intern, I wrote press releases, managed the
Web site, and all phone calls were fi elded by me.
a. An incredibly talented musician, Ray Charles mastered R&B,
soul, and gospel styles. Even country music was performed well
by him.
b. Environmentalists point out that shrimp farming in Southeast
Asia is polluting water and making farmlands useless. Th ey warn
that action must be taken by governments before it is too late.
c. Th e samples were observed for fi ve days before we detected any
growth.
d. In his famous soliloquy, Hamlet contemplates whether death
would be preferable to his diffi cult life and, if so, is he capable of
committing suicide?
e. Th e lawyer told the judge that Miranda Hale was innocent and
allow her to prove the allegations false.
^
asked me to
^
fi elded all phone calls.
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13 Shifts
> Exercises: 13–7, 13–9 to 13–11
> LearningCurve: Shifts
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152 14
emph
Emphasis
EXERCISE 13–6 Edit the following sentences to eliminate distracting
shift s. Possible revisions appear in the back of the book.
More practice:
For many fi rst-year engineering students, adjusting to a rigorous
course load can be so challenging that you sometimes feel
overwhelmed.
a. A courtroom lawyer has more than a touch of theater in their blood.
b. Th e interviewer asked if we had brought our proof of citizenship
and did we bring our passports?
c. Th e experienced reconnaissance scout knows how to make fast
decisions and use sophisticated equipment to keep their team
from being detected.
d. Aft er the animators fi nish their scenes, the production
designer arranges the clips according to the storyboard.
Synchronization notes must also be made for the sound editor
and the composer.
e. Madame Defarge is a sinister fi gure in Dickens’s A Tale of Two
Cities. On a symbolic level, she represents fate; like the Greek
Fates, she knitted the fabric of individual destiny.
14 Emphasize key ideas.
Within each sentence, emphasize your point by expressing it in
the subject and verb of an independent clause, the words that
receive the most attention from readers (see 14a–14e).
Within longer stretches of prose, you can draw attention to ideas
deserving special emphasis by using a variety of techniques, oft en
involving an unusual twist or some element of surprise (see 14f).
14a Coordinate equal ideas; subordinate
minor ideas.
When combining two or more ideas in one sentence, you have
two choices: coordination or subordination. Choose coor-
dination to indicate that the ideas are equal or nearly equal in
^
they
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15314aCoordination and subordination
emph
importance. Choose subordination to indicate that one idea is
less important than another.
Coordination
Coordination draws attention equally to two or more ideas. To
coordinate single words or phrases, join them with a coordi-
nating conjunction or with a pair of correlative conjunctions:
bananas and strawberries; not only a lackluster plot but also infe-
rior acting (see 46g).
To coordinate independent clauses — word groups that
express a complete thought and that can stand alone as a sen-
tence — join them with a comma and a coordinating conjunction
or with a semicolon:
, and , but , or , nor
, for , so , yet ;
Th e semicolon is oft en accompanied by a conjunctive adverb
such as moreover, furthermore, therefore, or however or by a tran-
sitional phrase such as for example, in other words, or as a matter
of fact. (For a longer list, see p. 154.)
Assume, for example, that your intention is to draw equal
attention to the following two ideas.
Social networking Web sites off er ways for people to connect in
the virtual world. Th ey do not replace face-to-face forms of social
interaction.
To coordinate these ideas, you can join them with a comma and
the coordinating conjunction but or with a semicolon and the
conjunctive adverb however.
Social networking Web sites off er ways for people to connect in
the virtual world, but they do not replace face-to-face forms of
social interaction.
Social networking Web sites off er ways for people to connect in
the virtual world; however, they do not replace face-to-face forms
of social interaction.
It is important to choose a coordinating conjunction or con-
junctive adverb appropriate to your meaning. In the preceding
example, the two ideas contrast with each other, calling for but
or however. (For specifi c coordination strategies, see the chart on
p. 154.)
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14a154
emph
Emphasis
Subordination
To give unequal emphasis to two or more ideas, express the
major idea in an independent clause and place any minor ideas in
subordinate clauses or phrases. (For specifi c subordination strat-
egies, see the chart on p. 156.)
Let your intended meaning determine which idea you
emphasize. Consider the two ideas about social networking Web
sites.
Social networking Web sites off er ways for people to connect in
the virtual world. Th ey do not replace face-to-face forms of social
interaction.
Using coordination to combine sentences
of equal importance
1. Consider using a comma and a coordinating conjunction.
(See 32a.)
, and , but , or , nor
, for , so , yet
▶ In Orthodox Jewish funeral ceremonies, the shroud is a simple linen
vestment/., Th e coffi n is plain wood.
2. Consider using a semicolon with a conjunctive adverb or
transitional phrase. (See 34b.)
also however next
as a result in addition now
besides in fact of course
consequently in other words otherwise
fi nally in the fi rst place still
for example meanwhile then
for instance moreover therefore
furthermore nevertheless thus
▶ Alicia scored well on the SAT/. ; She also had excellent grades and a
record of community service.
3. Consider using a semicolon alone. (See 34a.)
▶ In youth we learn/. ; In age we understand.
^
and the
^
in addition, she
̂
in
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15514aCoordination and subordination
emph
If your purpose is to stress the ways that people can connect in
the virtual world rather than the limitations of these connections,
subordinate the idea about the limitations.
Although they do not replace face-to-face forms of social
interaction, social networking Web sites off er ways for people to
connect in the virtual world.
To focus on the limitations of the virtual world, subordinate the
idea about the ways people connect on these Web sites.
Although social networking Web sites off er ways for people to
connect in the virtual world, they do not replace face-to-face
forms of social interaction.
EXERCISE 14–1 Use the coordination or subordination technique in
brackets to combine each pair of independent clauses. Possible revisions
appear in the back of the book. More practice:
Ted Williams was one of the best hitters in the history of
baseball. He never won a World Series ring. [Use a comma
and a coordinating conjunction.]
a. Williams played for the Boston Red Sox from 1939 to 1960. He
managed the Washington Senators and the Texas Rangers for sev-
eral years aft er retiring as a player. [Use a comma and a coordinat-
ing conjunction.]
b. In 1941, Williams fi nished the season with a batting average of .406.
No player has hit over .400 for a season since then. [Use a semicolon.]
c. Williams acknowledged that Joe DiMaggio was a better all-around
player. Williams felt that he was a better hitter than DiMaggio.
[Use the subordinating conjunction although.]
d. Williams was a stubborn man. He always refused to tip his
cap to the crowd aft er a home run because he claimed that
fans were fi ckle. [Use a semicolon and the transitional phrase
for example.]
e. Williams’s relationship with the media was unfriendly at best.
He sarcastically called baseball writers the “knights of the
keyboard” in his memoir. [Use a semicolon.]
^
baseball, but he
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14 Emphasis
> Exercises: 14–3 to 14–7
> LearningCurve: Coordination and subordination
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14a156
emph
Emphasis
Using subordination to combine sentences
of unequal importance
1. Consider putting the less important idea in a subordinate clause
beginning with one of the following words. (See 48e.)
aft er before that which
although even though unless while
as if until who
as if since when whom
because so that where whose
▶ Elizabeth Cady Stanton proposed a convention to discuss the
status of women in America/. Lucretia Mott agreed.
▶ My sister owes much of her recovery to a yoga program. She began
the program three years ago.
2. Consider putting the less important idea in an appositive phrase.
(See 48c.)
▶ Karate is a discipline based on the philosophy of nonviolence/.
It teaches the art of self-defense.
3. Consider putting the less important idea in a participial phrase.
(See 48b.)
▶ American essayist Cheryl Peck was encouraged by friends to write
about her life. She began combining humor and irony in her essays
about being overweight.
^
When
^
,
/
^
that she
^
,
^
,
^
E
/
/
^
, American essayist Cheryl Peck
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15714bChoppy sentences
emph
14b Combine choppy sentences.
Short sentences demand attention, so you should use them pri-
marily for emphasis. Too many short sentences, one aft er the
other, make for a choppy style.
If an idea is not important enough to deserve its own sen-
tence, try combining it with a sentence close by. Put any minor
ideas in subordinate structures such as phrases or subordinate
clauses. (See 48.)
▶ Th e Parks Department keeps the use of insecticides to a
minimum/. Th e city is concerned about the environment.
Th e writer wanted to emphasize that the Parks Department minimizes
its use of chemicals, so she put the reason in a subordinate clause
beginning with because.
▶ Th e Chesapeake and Ohio Canal is a 184-mile waterway
constructed in the 1800s/. It was a major source of
transportation for goods during the Civil War.
A minor idea is now expressed in an appositive phrase (a 184-mile
waterway constructed in the 1800s).
Although subordination is ordinarily the most eff ective
technique for combining short, choppy sentences, coordination
is appropriate when the ideas are equal in importance.
▶ At 3:30 p.m., Forrest displayed a fl ag of truce/. Forrest sent
in a demand for unconditional surrender.
Combining two short sentences by joining their predicates (displayed . . .
sent) is an eff ective coordination technique.
Unlike some other languages, English does not repeat objects or
adverbs in adjective clauses. Th e relative pronoun (that, which,
whom) or relative adverb (where) in the adjective clause represents
the object or adverb. See 30d.
▶ Th e apartment that we rented it needed repairs.
Th e pronoun it cannot repeat the relative pronoun that. M
u
lt
ili
n
gu
a
l
^
because the
^
,
^
,
^
and
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14c158
emph
Emphasis
EXERCISE 14–2 Combine the following sentences by subordinating
minor ideas or by coordinating ideas of equal importance. You must de-
cide which ideas are minor because the sentences are given out of con-
text. Possible revisions appear in the back of the book.
More practice:
Agnes was another girl I worked with/. She was a hyperactive
child.
a. Th e X-Men comic books and Japanese woodcuts of kabuki
dancers were part of Marlena’s research project on popular
culture. Th ey covered the tabletop and the chairs.
b. Our waitress was costumed in a kimono. She had painted her face
white. She had arranged her hair in a lacquered beehive.
c. Students can apply for a spot in the leadership program. Th e
program teaches thinking and communication skills.
d. Shore houses were fl ooded up to the fi rst fl oor. Beaches were
washed away. Brant’s Lighthouse was swallowed by the sea.
e. Laura Th ackray is an engineer at Volvo Car Corporation. She
addressed women’s safety needs. She designed a pregnant
crash-test dummy.
14c Avoid ineffective or excessive coordination.
Coordinate structures are appropriate only when you intend to
draw readers’ attention equally to two or more ideas: Professor
Sakellarios praises loudly, and she criticizes soft ly. If one idea is
more important than another — or if a coordinating conjunction
does not clearly signal the relationship between the ideas — you
should subordinate the less important idea.
INEFFECTIVE
COORDINATION
Closets were taxed as rooms, and most colonists
stored their clothes in chests or clothespresses.
IMPROVED WITH
SUBORDINATION
Because closets were taxed as rooms, most colonists
stored their clothes in chests or clothespresses.
Th e revision subordinates the less important idea (closets were
taxed as rooms) by putting it in a subordinate clause. Notice that
^
,
^
,
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14 Emphasis
> Exercises: 14–3 to 14–7
> LearningCurve: Coordination and subordination
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15914cIneffective or excessive coordination
emph
the subordinating conjunction Because signals the relation between
the ideas more clearly than the coordinating conjunction and.
Because it is so easy to string ideas together with and, writers
oft en rely too heavily on coordination in their rough draft s. Th e
cure for excessive coordination is simple: Look for opportunities
to tuck minor ideas into subordinate clauses or phrases.
▶ Shareholders exchanged investment tips at the company’s annual
meeting, and they learned that diff erent approaches can yield
similar results.
Th e minor idea has become a subordinate clause beginning with When.
▶ Four hours went by, and a rescue truck fi nally arrived, but
by that time we had been evacuated in a helicopter.
Th ree independent clauses were excessive. Th e least important idea has
become a prepositional phrase.
EXERCISE 14–8 Th e following sentences show coordinated ideas (ideas
joined with a coordinating conjunction or a semicolon). Restructure the
sentences by subordinating minor ideas. You must decide which ideas
are minor because the sentences are given out of context. Possible revi-
sions appear in the back of the book. More practice:
Th e rowers returned to shore, and had a party on the beach
and celebrated the start of the season.
a. Th ese particles are known as “stealth liposomes,” and they can hide
in the body for a long time without detection.
b. Irena is a competitive gymnast and majors in biology; her goal is
to apply her athletic experience and her science degree to a career
in sports medicine.
c. Students, textile workers, and labor unions have loudly protested
sweatshop abuses, so apparel makers have been forced to examine
their labor practices.
^
When shareholders
^
After four hours,
^
where they
^
to celebrate
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14 Emphasis
> Exercises: 14–9
> LearningCurve: Coordination and subordination
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14d160
emph
Emphasis
d. IRC (Internet relay chat) was developed in a European university;
it was created as a way for a group of graduate students to talk
about projects from their dorm rooms.
e. Th e cafeteria’s new menu has an international fl avor, and it
includes everything from enchiladas and pizza to pad thai and
sauerbraten.
14d Do not subordinate major ideas.
If a sentence buries its major idea in a subordinate construction,
readers may not give the idea enough attention. Make sure to
express your major idea in an independent clause and to subor-
dinate any minor ideas.
▶ Harry S. Truman, who was the unexpected winner of the 1948
presidential election/, defeated Th omas E. Dewey.
Th e writer wanted to focus on Truman’s unexpected victory, but the
original sentence buried this information in an adjective clause. Th e
revision puts the more important idea in an independent clause and
tucks the less important idea into an adjective clause (who defeated
Th omas E. Dewey).
▶ I was driving home from my new job, heading down
Ranchitos Road, when my car suddenly overheated.
Th e writer wanted to emphasize that the car overheated, not the fact of
driving home. Th e revision expresses the major idea in an independent
clause and places the less important idea in an adverb clause (As I was
driving home from my new job).
14e Do not subordinate excessively.
In attempting to avoid short, choppy sentences, writers some-
times go to the opposite extreme, putting more subordinate ideas
into a sentence than its structure can bear. If a sentence collapses
under its own weight, occasionally it can be restructured. More
oft en, however, such sentences must be divided.
^
defeated Thomas E. Dewey,
^
.
^
As
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16114eExcessive subordination
emph
▶ In Animal Liberation, Peter Singer argues that animals possess
nervous systems and can feel pain and that /he believes that “the
ethical principle on which human equality rests requires us to
extend equal consideration to animals” (1).
Excessive subordination makes it diffi cult for the reader to focus on
the quoted passage. By splitting the original sentence into two separate
sentences, the writer draws attention to Peter Singer’s main claim, that
humans should give “equal consideration to animals.” (See 56a on citing
sources in MLA style.)
EXERCISE 14–10 In each of the following sentences, the idea that the
writer wished to emphasize is buried in a subordinate construction.
Restructure each sentence so that the independent clause expresses the
major idea, as indicated in brackets, and lesser ideas are subordinated.
Possible revisions appear in the back of the book.
More practice:
Catherine has weathered many hardships, although she has
rarely become discouraged. [Emphasize that Catherine has
rarely become discouraged.]
a. Gina helped the relief eff ort, distributing food and medical sup-
plies. [Emphasize distributing food and medical supplies.]
b. Janbir spent every Saturday learning tabla drumming, noticing
with each hour of practice that his memory for complex patterns
was growing stronger. [Emphasize Janbir’s memory.]
c. Th e rotor hit, gouging a hole about an eighth of an inch deep in
my helmet. [Emphasize that the rotor gouged a hole in the helmet.]
d. My grandfather, who raised his daughters the old-fashioned way,
was born eighty years ago in Puerto Rico. [Emphasize how the
grandfather raised his daughters.]
e. Th e Narcan reversed the depressive eff ect of the drug, saving the
patient’s life. [Emphasize that the patient’s life was saved.]
^
.
^
H
^
Although
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14 Emphasis
> Exercises: 14–11 and 14–12
> LearningCurve: Coordination and subordination
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162 14f
emph
Emphasis
14f Experiment with techniques for gaining
special emphasis.
By experimenting with certain techniques, usually involving
some element of surprise, you can draw attention to ideas that
deserve special emphasis. Use such techniques sparingly, how-
ever, or they will lose their punch. Th e writer who tries to empha-
size everything ends up emphasizing nothing.
Using sentence endings for emphasis
You can highlight an idea simply by withholding it until the end
of a sentence. Th e technique works something like a punch line.
In the following example, the sentence’s meaning is not revealed
until its very last word.
Th e only completely consistent people are the dead.
— Aldous Huxley
Using parallel structure for emphasis
Parallel grammatical structure draws special attention to paired
ideas or to items in a series. (See 9.) When parallel ideas are
paired, the emphasis falls on words that underscore comparisons
or contrasts, especially when they occur at the end of a phrase or
clause.
We must stop talking about the American dream and start listening
to the dreams of Americans. — Reubin Askew
In a parallel series, the emphasis falls at the end, so it is gen-
erally best to end with the most dramatic or climactic item in the
series.
Sister Charity enjoyed passing out writing punishments:
translate the Ten Commandments into Latin, type a thousand-
word essay on good manners, copy the New Testament with a
quill pen. — Marie Visosky, student
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163
15 Provide some variety.
When a rough draft is fi lled with too many sentences that begin the
same way or have the same structure, try injecting some variety — as
long as you can do so without sacrifi cing clarity or ease of reading.
15a Vary your sentence openings.
Most sentences in English begin with the subject, move to the verb,
and continue to the object, with modifi ers tucked in along the way
or put at the end. For the most part, such sentences are fi ne. Put too
many of them in a row, however, and they become monotonous.
Adverbial modifi ers are easily movable when they modify
verbs; they can oft en be inserted ahead of the subject. Such modi-
fi ers might be single words, phrases, or clauses.
▶ A few drops of sap eventually began to trickle into the bucket.
Like most adverbs, eventually does not need to appear close to the verb
it modifi es (began).
▶ A pair of black ducks fl ew over the pond just as the sun was
coming up.
Th e adverb clause, which modifi es the verb fl ew, is as clear at the
beginning of the sentence as it is at the end.
Adjectives and participial phrases can frequently be moved
to the beginning of a sentence without loss of clarity.
▶ Edward/, dejected and withdrawn, nearly gave up his search for
a job.
▶ John and I, /anticipating a peaceful evening, sat down at the
campfi re to brew a cup of coff ee.
TIP: When beginning a sentence with an adjective or a parti-
cipial phrase, make sure that the subject of the sentence names
^
/
Eventually a
^
/
Just as the sun was coming up, a
^
.
^
Dejected and withdrawn,
^
A
^
John and I
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15b164 Variety
var
the person or thing described in the introductory phrase. If it
doesn’t, the phrase will dangle. (See 12e.)
15b Use a variety of sentence structures.
A writer should not rely too heavily on simple sentences and
compound sentences, for the eff ect tends to be both monoto-
nous and choppy. (See 14b and 14c.) Too many complex or
compound-complex sentences, however, can be equally monot-
onous. If your style tends to one or the other extreme, try to
achieve a better mix of sentence types.
Th e major sentence types are illustrated in the following
sentences, all taken from Flannery O’Connor’s “Th e King of the
Birds,” an essay describing the author’s pet peafowl.
SIMPLE Frequently the cock combines the lift ing of his tail
with the raising of his voice.
COMPOUND Any chicken’s dusting hole is out of place in a fl ower
bed, but the peafowl’s hole, being the size of a small
crater, is more so.
COMPLEX Th e peacock does most of his serious strutting in the
spring and summer when he has a full tail to do it with.
COMPOUND-
COMPLEX
Th e cock’s plumage requires two years to attain its
pattern, and for the rest of his life, this chicken will
act as though he designed it himself.
For a fuller discussion of sentence types, see 49a.
15c Try inverting sentences occasionally.
A sentence is inverted if it does not follow the normal subject-
verb-object pattern (see 47c). Many inversions sound artifi cial and
should be avoided, except in the most formal contexts. But if an
inversion sounds natural, it can provide a welcome touch of variety.
▶ Huge lavender hearts outlined in bright white lights were set
at the top two corners of the stage.
In the revision, the subject, hearts, appears aft er the verb, were set. Notice
that the two parts of the verb are also inverted — and separated from
each other (Set . . . were) — without any awkwardness or loss of meaning.
Inverted sentences are used for emphasis as well as for vari-
ety (see 14f ).
^
Set at the top two corners of the stage were huge
^
.
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16515cInverted order
var
EXERCISE 15–1 Improve sentence variety in each of the following sen-
tences by using the technique suggested in brackets. Possible revisions
appear in the back of the book. More practice:
Fishing crews place turtle excluder devices in fi shing nets
to protect endangered marine turtles. [Begin the sentence with
the adverbial infi nitive phrase.]
a. Th e exhibits for insects and spiders are across the hall from the
fossils exhibit. [Invert the sentence.]
b. Sayuri becomes a successful geisha aft er growing up desperately
poor. [Move the adverb clause to the beginning of the sentence.]
c. Researchers have been studying Mount St. Helens for years. Th ey
believe that earthquakes may have caused the 1980 eruption.
[Combine the two sentences into a complex sentence.]
d. Ice cream typically contains 10 percent milk fat. Premium
ice cream may contain up to 16 percent milk fat and has
less air in it. [Combine the two sentences as a compound sentence.]
e. Th e economy may recover quickly if home values climb. [Move the
adverb clause to the beginning of the sentence.]
EXERCISE 15–2 Edit the following paragraph to increase sentence
variety.
Making architectural models is a skill that requires patience
and precision. It is an art that illuminates a design. Architects
come up with a grand and intricate vision. Draft spersons
convert that vision into blueprints. Th e model maker follows
the blueprints. Th e model maker builds a miniature version of
the structure. Modelers can work in traditional materials like
wood and clay and paint. Modelers can work in newer materials
like Styrofoam and liquid polymers. Some modelers still use
cardboard, paper, and glue. Other modelers prefer glue guns,
deformable plastic, and thin aluminum and brass wire. Th e
modeler may seem to be making a small mess in the early stages
of model building. In the end the modeler has completed a small-
scale structure. Architect Rem Koolhaas has insisted that plans
reveal the logic of a design. He has argued that models expose the
architect’s vision. Th e model maker’s art makes this vision real.
^
To protect endangered marine turtles, fi shing
^
.
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15 Variety
> Exercise: 15–3
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166
16 Tighten wordy sentences.
Long sentences are not necessarily wordy, nor are short sentences
always concise. A sentence is wordy if it can be tightened without
loss of meaning.
16a Eliminate redundancies.
Writers oft en repeat themselves unnecessarily, thinking that expres-
sions such as cooperate together, yellow in color, or basic essentials
add emphasis to their writing. Such redundancies, though, do just
the opposite. Th ere is no need to say the same thing twice.
▶ Daniel is now employed at a private rehabilitation center
working as a registered physical therapist.
Th ough modifi ers ordinarily add meaning to the words they
modify, occasionally they are redundant.
▶ Sylvia very hurriedly scribbled her name, address, and phone
number on a greasy napkin.
Th e word scribbled already suggests that Sylvia wrote very hurriedly.
▶ Gabriele Muccino’s fi lm Th e Pursuit of Happyness tells the story
of a single father determined in his mind to pull himself and his
son out of homelessness.
Th e word determined contains the idea that his resolution formed
in his mind.
16b Avoid unnecessary repetition of words.
Th ough words may be repeated deliberately for eff ect, repetitions
will seem awkward if they are clearly unnecessary. When a more
concise version is possible, choose it.
^
works
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16716cEmpty or infl ated phrases
w
▶ Our fi ft h patient, in room six, is /a mentally ill patient.
▶ Th e best teachers help each student become a better student both
academically and emotionally.
16c Cut empty or infl ated phrases.
An empty phrase can be cut with little or no loss of meaning.
Common examples are introductory word groups that weaken
the writer’s authority by apologizing or hedging: in my opinion, I
think that, it seems that, one must admit that, and so on.
▶ In my opinion, /our current immigration policy is misguided.
Readers understand without being told that they are hearing the
writer’s opinion.
Infl ated phrases can be reduced to a word or two without
loss of meaning.
INFLATED CONCISE
along the lines of like
as a matter of fact in fact
at all times always
at the present time now, currently
at this point in time now, currently
because of the fact that because
by means of by
by virtue of the fact that because
due to the fact that because
for the purpose of for
for the reason that because
have the ability to be able to, can
in light of the fact that because
in order to to
in spite of the fact that although, though
in the event that if
^
.
^
grow
^
O
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16d168 Wordy sentences
w
INFLATED CONCISE
in the fi nal analysis fi nally
in the nature of like
in the neighborhood of about
until such time as until
16d Simplify the structure.
If the structure of a sentence is needlessly indirect, try simplify-
ing it. Look for opportunities to strengthen the verb.
▶ Th e fi nancial analyst claimed that because of volatile market
conditions she could not make an estimate of the company’s
future profi ts.
Th e verb estimate is more vigorous and concise than make an estimate of.
Th e colorless verbs is, are, was, and were frequently generate
excess words.
▶ Investigators were involved in studying the eff ect of classical
music on unborn babies.
Th e revision is more direct and concise. Th e action (studying), originally
appearing in a subordinate structure, has become a strong verb, studied.
Th e expletive constructions there is and there are (or there
was and there were) can also lead to wordy sentences. Th e same is
true of expletive constructions beginning with it. (See 47c.)
▶ Th ere is /another module that tells the story of Charles Darwin
and introduces the theory of evolution.
Finally, verbs in the passive voice may be needlessly indirect.
When the active voice expresses your meaning as eff ectively, use
it. (See 8a.)
▶ All too oft en, athletes with marginal academic skills have been
recruited by our coaches.
^
studied
^
A
^
our coaches have recruited
^
.
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16916eReducing clauses and phrases
w
16e Reduce clauses to phrases, phrases
to single words.
Word groups functioning as modifi ers can oft en be made more
compact. Look for any opportunities to reduce clauses to phrases
or phrases to single words.
▶ We took a side trip to Monticello, which was the home of
Th omas Jeff erson.
▶ In the essay that follows, I argue against Immanuel Kant’s
claim that we should not lie under any circumstances/,
which is a problematic claim.
EXERCISE 16–1 Edit the following sentences to reduce wordiness.
Possible revisions appear in the back of the book.
More practice:
Th e Wilsons moved into the house in spite of the fact that the
back door was only ten yards from the train tracks.
a. Martin Luther King Jr. was a man who set a high standard for
future leaders to meet.
b. Alice has been deeply in love with cooking since she was little and
could fi rst peek over the edge of a big kitchen tabletop.
c. In my opinion, Bloom’s race for the governorship is a futile
exercise.
d. It is pretty important in being a successful graphic designer to
have technical knowledge and at the same time an eye for color
and balance.
e. Your task will be the delivery of correspondence to all employees
in the company.
^
this
^
,
^
problematic
^
.
^
even though
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16 Wordy sentences
> Exercises: 16–3 to 16–7
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170 17 Appropriate language
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EXERCISE 16–2 Edit the following business memo to reduce wordiness.
To: District managers
From: Margaret Davenport, Vice President
Subject: Customer database
It has recently been brought to my attention that a percentage
of our sales representatives have been failing to log reports of
their client calls in our customer database each and every day. I
have also learned that some representatives are not checking the
database on a routine basis.
Our clients sometimes receive a multiple number of sales calls
from us when a sales representative is not cognizant of the fact
that the client has been contacted at a previous time. Repeated
telephone calls from our representatives annoy our customers.
Th ese repeated telephone calls also portray our company as one
that is lacking in organization.
Eff ective as of immediately, direct your representatives to do the
following:
• Record each and every customer contact in the customer
database at the end of each day, without fail.
• Check the database at the very beginning of each day to
ensure that telephone communications will not be initiated
with clients who have already been called.
Let me extend my appreciation to you for cooperating in this
important matter.
17 Choose appropriate language.
Language is appropriate when it suits your subject, engages your
audience, and blends naturally with your own voice.
To some extent, your choice of language will be governed by
the conventions of the genre in which you are writing. When in
doubt about the conventions of a particular genre — lab reports,
informal essays, business memos, and so on — consult your
instructor or look at models written by experts in the fi eld.
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17117bPretentious language, euphemisms, “doublespeak”
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17a Stay away from jargon.
Jargon is specialized language used among members of a trade,
profession, or group. Use jargon only when readers will be famil-
iar with it and only when plain English will not do as well.
JARGON We outsourced the work to an outfi t in Ohio because we
didn’t have the bandwidth to tackle it in-house.
REVISED We hired a company in Ohio because we had too few
employees to do the work.
Broadly defi ned, jargon includes puff ed-up language de-
signed more to impress readers than to inform them. Th e follow-
ing are common examples from business, government, higher
education, and the military, with plain English alternatives in
parentheses.
ameliorate (improve) indicator (sign)
commence (begin) optimal (best, most favorable)
components (parts) parameters (boundaries, limits)
endeavor (try) peruse (read, look over)
exit (leave) prior to (before)
facilitate (help) utilize (use)
impact (v.) (aff ect) viable (workable)
Sentences fi lled with jargon are hard to read, and they are
oft en wordy as well.
▶ Th e CEO should dialogue with investors about partnering with
clients to purchase land in economically deprived zones.
17b Avoid pretentious language, most
euphemisms, and “doublespeak.”
Hoping to sound profound or poetic, some writers embroider
their thoughts with large words and fl owery phrases. Such pre-
tentious language is so ornate and wordy that it obscures the
writer’s meaning.
^
talk
^
working
^
buy
^
poor neighborhoods.
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17b172 Appropriate language
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▶ Taylor’s employment of multihued means of expression draws
back the curtains and lets slip the nostalgic vantage point
from which she observes American society as well as her lack
of comprehension of economic realities.
Euphemisms — nice-sounding words or phrases substituted
for words thought to sound harsh or ugly — are sometimes ap-
propriate. Many cultures, for example, accept euphemisms when
speaking or writing about excretion (I have to go to the bath-
room), sexual intercourse (Th ey did not sleep together), and the
like. Most euphemisms, however, are needlessly evasive or even
deceitful. Like pretentious language, they obscure the intended
meaning.
EUPHEMISM PLAIN ENGLISH
adult entertainment pornography
preowned automobile used car
economically deprived poor
negative savings debts
strategic withdrawal retreat or defeat
revenue enhancers taxes
chemical dependency drug addiction
downsize lay off , fi re
correctional facility prison
Th e term doublespeak applies to any deliberately evasive or
deceptive language, including euphemisms. Doublespeak is es-
pecially common in politics and business. A military retreat is
described as tactical redeployment; enhanced interrogation is a
euphemism for “torture”; and downsizing really means “fi ring
employees.”
^
use of colorful language reveals that she has a
^
view of
^
and does not
^
understand
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17 Appropriate language
> Exercises: 17–3 and 17–4
> LearningCurve: Word choice and appropriate language
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17317bPretentious language, euphemisms, “doublespeak”
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EXERCISE 17–1 Edit the following sentences to eliminate jargon, pre-
tentious or fl owery language, euphemisms, and doublespeak. You may
need to make substantial changes in some sentences. Possible revisions
appear in the back of the book. More practice:
Aft er two weeks in the legal department, Sue has worked into
the routine of the offi ce, and her functional and self-
management skills have exceeded all expectations.
a. In my youth, my family was under the constraints of diffi cult
fi nancial circumstances.
b. In order that I may increase my expertise in the area of delivery of
services to clients, I feel that participation in this conference will
be benefi cial.
c. Th e prophetic meteorologist cautioned the general populace regard-
ing the possible deleterious eff ects of the impending tempest.
d. Government-sanctioned investigations into the continued value
of aft er-school programs indicate a perceived need in the public
realm at large.
e. Passengers should endeavor to fi nalize the customs declaration
form prior to exiting the aircraft .
EXERCISE 17–2 Edit the following e-mail message to eliminate jargon.
Dear Ms. Jackson:
We members of the Nakamura Reyes team value our external
partnering arrangements with Creative Soft ware, and I look
forward to seeing you next week at the trade show in Fresno. Per
Mr. Reyes, please let me know when you’ll have some downtime
there so that he and I can conduct a strategizing session with you
concerning our production schedule. It’s crucial that we all be on
the same page re our 2015–2016 product release dates.
Before we have some face time, however, I have some fi ndings to share.
Our customer-centric approach to the new products will necessitate
that user testing periods trend upward. Th e enclosed data should help
you eff ectuate any adjustments to your timeline; let me know ASAP if
you require any additional information to facilitate the above.
Before we convene in Fresno, Mr. Reyes and I will agendize any
further talking points. Th anks for your help.
Sincerely,
Sylvia Nakamura
^
mastered
^
offi ce
^
,
^
performance has
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17c174 Appropriate language
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17c In most contexts, avoid slang, regional
expressions, and nonstandard English.
Slang is an informal and sometimes private vocabulary that
expresses the solidarity of a group such as teenagers, rock musi-
cians, or sports fans; it is subject to more rapid change than
Standard English. For example, the slang teenagers use to express
approval changes every few years; cool, groovy, neat, awesome,
sick, and crunk have replaced one another within the last sev-
eral decades. Sometimes slang becomes so widespread that it is
accepted as standard vocabulary. Jazz, for example, started out as
slang but is now a standard term for a style of music.
Although slang has a certain vitality, it is a code that not
everyone understands, and it is very informal. Th erefore, it is
inappropriate in most written work.
▶ When the server crashed unexpectedly, three hours of unsaved
data went down the tubes.
▶ Th e government’s “fi lth” guidelines for food will gross you out.
Regional expressions are common to a group in a geographic
area. Let’s talk with the bark off (for Let’s speak frankly) is an ex-
pression in the southern United States, for example. Regional
expressions have the same limitations as slang and are therefore
inappropriate in most writing.
▶ John was four blocks from the house before he remembered to
cut the headlights off .
▶ Seamus wasn’t for sure, but he thought the whales might be
migrating during his visit to Oregon.
Standard English is the language used in all academic, busi-
ness, and professional fi elds. Nonstandard English is spoken by
people with a common regional or social heritage. Although
nonstandard English may be appropriate when spoken within
a close group, it is out of place in most formal and informal
writing.
^
we lost
^
.
^
disgust you.
^
turn off
^
.
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17517dLevels of formality
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▶ Th e governor said he don’t know if he will approve the budget
without the clean air provision.
If you speak a nonstandard dialect, try to identify the ways in
which your dialect diff ers from Standard English. Look especially
for the following features of nonstandard English, which com-
monly cause problems in writing.
Misusing verb forms such as began and begun (See 27a.)
Leaving -s endings off verbs (See 27c.)
Leaving -ed endings off verbs (See 27d.)
Leaving out necessary verbs (See 27e.)
Using double negatives (See 26e.)
17d Choose an appropriate level of formality.
In deciding on a level of formality, consider both your subject
and your audience. Does the subject demand a dignifi ed treat-
ment, or is a relaxed tone more suitable? Will readers be put off
if you assume too close a relationship with them, or might you
alienate them by seeming too distant?
For most college and professional writing, some degree of
formality is appropriate. In a job application letter, for example, it
is a mistake to sound too breezy and informal.
TOO INFORMAL I’d like to get that sales job you’ve got in the
paper.
MORE FORMAL I would like to apply for the position of
sales associate advertised in the Peoria Journal
Star.
Informal writing is appropriate for private letters, per-
sonal e-mail and text messages, and business correspondence
between close associates. Like spoken conversation, informal
writing allows contractions (don’t, I’ll ) and colloquial words
(kids, kinda). Vocabulary and sentence structure are rarely
complex.
In choosing a level of formality, above all be consistent.
When a writer’s voice shift s from one level of formality to an-
other, readers receive mixed messages.
^
doesn’t
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17e176 Appropriate language
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▶ Once a pitcher for the Blue Jays, Jorge shared with me the secrets
of his trade. His lesson commenced with his famous curveball,
implemented by tucking the little fi nger behind the ball. Next
he elucidated the mysteries of the sucker pitch, a slow ball
coming behind a fast windup.
Words such as commenced and elucidated are inappropriate for the
subject matter, and they clash with informal terms such as sucker pitch
and fast windup.
EXERCISE 17–5 Revise the following passage so that the level of for-
mality is appropriate for a letter to the editor of a major newspaper.
In pop culture, college grads who return home to live with the
folks are seen as good-for-nothing losers who mooch off their
families. And many older adults seem to feel that the trend of moving
back home aft er school, which was rare in their day, is becoming
too commonplace today. But society must realize that times have
changed. Most young adults want to live on their own ASAP, but they
graduate with heaps of debt and need some time to get back on their
feet. College tuition and the cost of housing have increased way more
than salary increases in the past fi ft y years. Also, the job market is
tighter and more jobs require advanced degrees than in the past. So
before people go off on college graduates who move back into their
parents’ house for a spell, they’d better consider all the facts.
17e Avoid sexist language.
Sexist language is language that stereotypes or demeans women
or men. Using nonsexist language is a matter of courtesy — of
respect for and sensitivity to the feelings of others.
Recognizing sexist language
Some sexist language is easy to recognize because it refl ects gen-
uine disdain for women: referring to a woman as a “chick,” for
example, or calling a lawyer a “lady lawyer.”
Other forms of sexist language are less blatant. Th e follow-
ing practices, while they may not result from conscious sex-
ism, refl ect stereotypical thinking: referring to members of one
^
began
^
thrown
^
revealed
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17717eSexist language
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profession as exclusively male or exclusively female (teachers as
women or computer engineers as men, for instance), using diff er-
ent conventions when naming or identifying women and men, or
assuming an exclusively male or female audience.
STEREOTYPICAL LANGUAGE
Aft er a nursing student graduates, she must face a diffi cult state
board examination. [Not all nursing students are women.]
Running for city council are Boris Stotsky, an attorney, and Mrs.
Cynthia Jones, a professor of English and mother of three. [Th e title
Mrs. and the phrase mother of three are irrelevant.]
Still other forms of sexist language result from outdated
traditions. Th e pronouns he, him, and his, for instance, were
traditionally used to refer generically to persons of either sex.
Nowadays, to avoid that sexist usage, some writers use she, her,
and hers generically or substitute the female pronouns alternately
with the male pronouns.
GENERIC PRONOUNS
A journalist is motivated by his deadline.
A good interior designer treats her clients’ ideas respectfully.
But both forms are sexist — for excluding one sex entirely
and for making assumptions about the members of particular
professions.
Similarly, the nouns man and men were once used to refer
generically to persons of either sex. Current usage demands
gender- neutral terms for references to both men and women.
INAPPROPRIATE APPROPRIATE
chairman chairperson, moderator, chair, head
congressman member of Congress, representative, legislator
fi reman fi refi ghter
foreman supervisor
mailman mail carrier, postal worker, letter carrier
to man to operate, to staff
mankind people, humans
manpower personnel, staff
policeman police offi cer
weatherman forecaster, meteorologist
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17e178 Appropriate language
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Revising sexist language
When revising sexist language, you may be tempted to substi-
tute he or she and his or her. Th ese terms are inclusive but wordy;
fi ne in small doses, they can become awkward when repeated
throughout an essay. A better revision strategy is to write in the
plural; yet another strategy is to recast the sentence so that the
problem does not arise.
SEXIST
A journalist is motivated by his deadline.
A good interior designer treats her clients’ ideas respectfully.
ACCEPTABLE BUT WORDY
A journalist is motivated by his or her deadline.
A good interior designer treats his or her clients’ ideas respectfully.
BETTER: USING THE PLURAL
Journalists are motivated by their deadlines.
Good interior designers treat their clients’ ideas respectfully.
BETTER: RECASTING THE SENTENCE
A journalist is motivated by a deadline.
A good interior designer treats clients’ ideas respectfully.
For more examples of these revision strategies, see 22.
EXERCISE 17–6 Edit the following sentences to eliminate sexist lan-
guage or sexist assumptions. Possible revisions appear in the back of the
book. More practice:
A scholarship athlete must be as concerned about his
academic performance as he is about his athletic performance.
a. Mrs. Geralyn Farmer, who is the mayor’s wife, is the chief surgeon
at University Hospital. Dr. Paul Green is her assistant.
b. Every applicant wants to know how much he will earn.
c. An elementary school teacher should understand the concept of
nurturing if she intends to be eff ective.
^
Scholarship athletes
^
their
^
they are
^
their
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17 Appropriate language
> Exercises: 17–8 to 17–10
> LearningCurve: Word choice and appropriate language
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17917fSexist language
appr
d. An obstetrician needs to be available to his patients at all hours.
e. If man does not stop polluting his environment, mankind will perish.
EXERCISE 17–7 Eliminate sexist language or sexist assumptions in the
following job posting for an elementary school teacher.
We are looking for qualifi ed women for the position of
elementary school teacher. Th e ideal candidate should have a
bachelor’s degree, a state teaching certifi cate, and one year of student
teaching. She should be knowledgeable in all elementary subject
areas, including science and math. While we want our new teacher to
have a commanding presence in the classroom, we are also looking
for motherly characteristics such as patience and trustworthiness.
She must be able to both motivate an entire classroom and work with
each student one-on-one to assess his individual needs. She must
also be comfortable communicating with the parents of her students.
For salary and benefi ts information, including maternity leave policy,
please contact the Martin County School Board. Any qualifi ed
applicant should submit her résumé by March 15.
17f Revise language that may offend groups
of people.
Your writing should be respectful and free of stereotypical, biased,
or other off ensive language. Be especially careful when describing
or labeling people. Labels can become dated, and it is important
to recognize when their continued use is not acceptable. When
naming groups of people, choose labels that the groups currently
use themselves. For example, instead of Eskimos, use Inuit.
▶ North Dakota takes its name from the Indian word meaning
“friend” or “ally.”
▶ Many Oriental immigrants have recently settled in our town.
Negative stereotypes (such as “drives like a teenager” or
“sour as a spinster”) are of course off ensive. But you should avoid
stereotyping a person or a group even if you believe your gener-
alization to be positive.
▶ It was no surprise that Greer, a Chinese American, was selected
for the honors chemistry program.
^
Lakota
^
Asian
an excell
^
ent math and science student,
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180
18 Find the exact words.
Two reference works (or their online equivalents) will help you
fi nd words to express your meaning exactly: a good dictionary,
such as Th e American Heritage Dictionary or Merriam-Webster
online, and a collection of synonyms and antonyms, such as
Roget’s International Th esaurus.
TIP: Do not turn to a thesaurus in search of fl owery or impres-
sive words. Look instead for words that exactly express your
meaning.
18a Select words with appropriate connotations.
In addition to their strict dictionary meanings (or denotations),
words have connotations, emotional colorings that aff ect how read-
ers respond to them. Th e word steel denotes “commercial iron that
contains carbon,” but it also calls up a cluster of images associated
with steel. Th ese associations give the word its connotations —
cold, hard, smooth, unbending.
If the connotation of a word does not seem appropriate for
your purpose, your audience, or your subject matter, you should
change the word. When a more appropriate synonym does not
come quickly to mind, consult a dictionary or a thesaurus.
▶ As I covered the boats with marsh grass, the perspiration I had
worked up evaporated in the wind, and the cold morning air
seemed even colder.
Th e word perspiration is too dainty for the context, which suggests
vigorous exercise.
EXERCISE 18–1 Use a dictionary and a thesaurus to fi nd at least four
synonyms for each of the following words. Be prepared to explain any
slight diff erences in meaning.
1. decay (verb) 3. hurry (verb) 5. secret (adjective)
2. diffi cult (adjective) 4. pleasure (noun) 6. talent (noun)
^
sweat
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18118cMisused words
exact
18b Prefer specifi c, concrete nouns.
Unlike general nouns, which refer to broad classes of things,
specifi c nouns point to particular items. Film, for example,
names a general class, fantasy fi lm names a narrower class, and
Th e Golden Compass is more specifi c still. Other examples: team,
football team, Denver Broncos; music, symphony, Beethoven’s
Ninth.
Unlike abstract nouns, which refer to qualities and ideas
( justice, beauty, realism, dignity), concrete nouns point to imme-
diate, oft en sensory experience and to physical objects (steeple,
asphalt, lilac, stone, garlic).
Specifi c, concrete nouns express meaning more vividly than
general or abstract ones. Although general and abstract language
is sometimes necessary to convey your meaning, use specifi c,
concrete words whenever possible.
▶ Th e senator spoke about the challenges of the future:
the environment and world peace.
Nouns such as thing, area, aspect, factor, and individual are
especially dull and imprecise.
▶ Toni Morrison’s Beloved is about slavery, among other things.
18c Do not misuse words.
If a word is not in your active vocabulary, you may fi nd yourself
misusing it, sometimes with embarrassing consequences. When
in doubt, check the dictionary.
▶ Th e fans were migrating up the bleachers in search of seats.
▶ Th e Internet has so diff used our culture that it touches all
segments of society.
Be especially alert for misused word forms — using a noun
such as absence or signifi cance, for example, when your meaning
requires the adjective absent or signifi cant.
^
pollution, dwindling resources, and terrorism.
mot
^
herhood, and memory.
^
climbing
^
permeated
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18d182 Exact words
exact
▶ Most dieters are not persistence enough to make a permanent
change in their eating habits.
EXERCISE 18–2 Edit the following sentences to correct misused words.
Possible revisions appear in the back of the book.
More practice:
Th ese days the training required for a ballet dancer is
all-absorbent.
a. We regret this delay; thank you for your patients.
b. Ada’s plan is to require education and experience to prepare her-
self for a position as property manager.
c. Serena Williams, the penultimate competitor, has earned millions
of dollars just in endorsements.
d. Many people take for granite that public libraries have up-to-date
computer systems.
e. Th e aff ect of Gao Xinjian’s novels on Chinese exiles is hard to gauge.
18d Use standard idioms.
Idioms are speech forms that follow no easily specifi ed rules.
Th e English say “Bernice went to hospital,” an idiom strange to
American ears, which are accustomed to hearing the in front of
hospital. Native speakers of a language seldom have problems
with idioms, but prepositions (such as with, to, at, and of ) some-
times cause trouble, especially when they follow certain verbs
and adjectives. When in doubt, consult a dictionary.
UNIDIOMATIC IDIOMATIC
abide with (a decision) abide by (a decision)
according with according to
agree to (an idea) agree with (an idea)
angry at (a person) angry with (a person)
capable to capable of
^
persistent
^
all-absorbing.
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18 Exact words
> Exercises: 18–3 and 18–4
> LearningCurve: Word choice and appropriate language
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18318dStandard idioms
exact
comply to comply with
desirous to desirous of
diff erent than (a person
or thing)
diff erent from (a person
or thing)
intend on doing intend to do
off of off
plan on doing plan to do
preferable than preferable to
prior than prior to
similar than similar to
superior than superior to
sure and sure to
think on think of, about
try and try to
type of a type of
Because idioms follow no particular rules, you must learn them
individually. You may fi nd it helpful to keep a list of idioms that you
frequently encounter in conversation and in reading.
M
u
lt
ili
n
gu
a
l
EXERCISE 18–5 Edit the following sentences to eliminate errors in the
use of idiomatic expressions. If a sentence is correct, write “correct” aft er it.
Revisions appear in the back of the book. More practice:
We agreed to abide with the decision of the judge.
a. Queen Anne was so angry at Sarah Churchill that she refused to
see her again.
b. Jean-Pierre’s ambitious travel plans made it impossible for him to
comply with the residency requirement for in-state tuition.
^
by
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18 Exact words
> Exercises: 18–6 and 18–7
> LearningCurve: Word choice and appropriate language
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18e184 Exact words
exact
c. Th e parade moved off of the street and onto the beach.
d. Th e frightened refugees intend on making the dangerous trek
across the mountains.
e. What type of a wedding are you planning?
18e Do not rely heavily on clichés.
Th e pioneer who fi rst announced that he had “slept like a log” no
doubt amused his companions with a fresh and unlikely compar-
ison. Today, however, that comparison is a cliché, a saying that
can no longer add emphasis or surprise.
To see just how predictable clichés are, put your hand over
the right-hand column in the following list and then fi nish the
phrases on the left .
cool as a cucumber
beat around the bush
blind as a bat
busy as a bee, beaver
crystal clear
dead as a doornail
out of the frying pan and into the fi re
light as a feather
like a bull in a china shop
playing with fi re
nutty as a fruitcake
selling like hotcakes
starting out at the bottom of the ladder
water under the bridge
white as a sheet, ghost
avoid clichés like the plague
Th e solution for clichés is simple: Just delete them or rewrite
them.
▶ When I received a full scholarship from my second-choice
school, I found myself between a rock and a hard place.
^
felt pressured to sett le for second best.
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18518fFigures of speech
exact
Sometimes you can write around a cliché by adding an ele-
ment of surprise. One student, for example, who had written that
she had butterfl ies in her stomach, revised her cliché like this:
If all of the action in my stomach is caused by butterfl ies, there
must be a horde of them, with horseshoes on.
Th e image of butterfl ies wearing horseshoes is fresh and unlikely,
not predictable like the original cliché.
18f Use fi gures of speech with care.
A fi gure of speech is an expression that uses words imaginatively
(rather than literally) to make abstract ideas concrete. Most oft en,
fi gures of speech compare two seemingly unlike things to reveal
surprising similarities.
In a simile, the writer makes the comparison explicitly, usu-
ally by introducing it with like or as: By the time cotton had to
be picked, Grandfather’s neck was as red as the clay he plowed.
In a metaphor, the like or as is omitted, and the comparison is
implied. For example, in the Old Testament Song of Solomon, a
young woman compares the man she loves to a fruit tree: With
great delight I sat in his shadow, and his fruit was sweet to my taste.
Although fi gures of speech are useful devices, writers some-
times use them without thinking through the images they evoke.
Th e result is sometimes a mixed metaphor, the combination of
two or more images that don’t make sense together.
▶ Our manager decided to put all controversial issues
in a holding pattern on a back burner until aft er the
annual meeting.
Here the writer is mixing airplanes and stoves. Simply deleting one of
the images corrects the problem.
▶ Crossing Utah’s salt fl ats in a new convertible, my cousin
fl ew under a full head of steam.
Flew suggests an airplane, whereas under a full head of steam suggests a
steamboat or train. To clarify the image, the writer should stick with one
comparison or the other.
^
at jet speed.
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18f186 Exact words
exact
EXERCISE 18–8 Edit the following sentences to replace worn-out ex-
pressions and clarify mixed fi gures of speech. Possible revisions appear
in the back of the book. More practice:
When he heard about the accident, he turned white as a sheet.
a. John stormed into the room like a bull in a china shop.
b. Some people insist that they’ll always be there for you, even when
they haven’t been before.
c. Th e Cubs easily beat the Mets, who were in the soup early in the
game today at Wrigley Field.
d. We ironed out the sticky spots in our relationship.
e. My mother accused me of beating around the bush when in fact I
was just talking off the top of my head.
the co
^
lor drained from his face.
macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
18 Exact words
> Exercises: 18–9 and 18–10
> LearningCurve: Word choice and appropriate language
07_HAC_01131_PT3_125_186.indd 18607_HAC_01131_PT3_125_186.indd 186 01/09/15 5:48 PM01/09/15 5:48 PM
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Grammar
19 Repair sentence fragments. 188
20 Revise run-on sentences. 195
21 Make subjects and verbs agree. 202
22 Make pronouns and antecedents agree. 213
23 Make pronoun references clear. 218
24 Distinguish between pronouns such as I and me. 222
25 Distinguish between who and whom. 227
26 Choose adjectives and adverbs with care. 230
27 Choose appropriate verb forms, tenses,
and moods. 237
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188
19 Repair sentence fragments.
A sentence fragment is a word group that pretends to be a sen-
tence. Sentence fragments are easy to recognize when they appear
out of context, like these:
When the cat leaped onto the table.
Running for the bus.
When fragments appear next to related sentences, however, they
are harder to spot.
We had just sat down to dinner. When the cat leaped onto
the table.
I tripped and twisted my ankle. Running for the bus.
Recognizing sentence fragments
To be a sentence, a word group must consist of at least one inde-
pendent clause. An independent clause includes a subject and a
verb, and it either stands alone or could stand alone.
To test whether a word group is a complete sentence or a
fragment, use the fl owchart on page 189. By using the fl owchart,
you can see exactly why When the cat leaped onto the table is a
fragment: It has a subject (cat) and a verb (leaped ), but it begins
with a subordinating word (When), which makes the word group
a dependent clause. Running for the bus is a fragment because it
lacks a subject and a verb (Running is a verbal, not a verb). (See
also 48b and 48e.)
Repairing sentence fragments
You can repair most fragments in one of two ways:
• Pull the fragment into a nearby sentence.
• Rewrite the fragment as a complete sentence.
▶ We had just sat down to dinner/. When the cat leaped onto the table.
▶ I tripped and twisted my ankle. Running for the bus.
^
when
^
Running for the bus,
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189 19
frag
Sentence fragments
Test for fragments
*Do not mistake verbals for verbs. A verbal is a verb form (such
as walking, to act ) that does not function as a verb of a clause. (See
48b.)
**Th e subject of a sentence may be you, understood but not present
in the sentence. (See 47a.)
***A sentence may open with a subordinate clause, but the sentence
must also include an independent clause. (See 19a and 49a.)
If you fi nd any fragments, try one of these methods of revision
(see 19a–19c):
1. Attach the fragment to a nearby sentence.
2. Rewrite the fragment as a complete sentence.
Is there a verb?*
It is a
fragment.
It is a
fragment.
It is a
fragment.
Is there a subject?**
It is a sentence.
NO
NO
YES
YES
YES
NO
Is the word group merely a
subordinate clause (because
it begins with a word such as
because or when)?***
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19a190 Sentence fragments
frag
Unlike some other languages, English requires a subject and a verb
in every sentence (except in commands, where the subject you is
understood but not present: Sit down). See 30a and 30b.
▶ Is oft en hot and humid during the summer.
▶ Students usually very busy at the end of the semester writing papers
and taking exams.
M
u
lt
ili
n
gu
a
l
^
It is
^
are
19a Attach fragmented subordinate clauses
or turn them into sentences.
A subordinate clause is patterned like a sentence, with both a
subject and a verb, but it begins with a word that marks it as sub-
ordinate. Th e following words commonly introduce subordinate
clauses.
aft er how unless who
although if until whom
as since when whose
as if so that where why
because than whether
before that which
even though though while
Subordinate clauses function within sentences as adjectives, as
adverbs, or as nouns. Th ey cannot stand alone. (See 48e.)
Most fragmented clauses beg to be pulled into a sentence
nearby.
▶ Americans have come to fear the West Nile virus/. Because it is
transmitted by the common mosquito.
Because introduces a subordinate clause, so it cannot stand alone. (For
punctuation of subordinate clauses appearing at the end of a sentence,
see 33f.)
^
because
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19119bPhrases
frag
▶ Although psychiatrist Peter Kramer expresses concerns
about Prozac/. Many other doctors believe that the
benefi ts of antidepressants outweigh the risks.
Although introduces a subordinate clause, which cannot stand alone.
(For punctuation of subordinate clauses at the beginning of a sentence,
see 32b.)
If a fragmented clause cannot be attached to a nearby sen-
tence or if you feel that attaching it would be awkward, try turning
the clause into a sentence. Th e simplest way to do this is to delete
the opening word or words that mark the clause as subordinate.
▶ Population increases and uncontrolled development are
taking a deadly toll on the environment. So that across the
globe, fragile ecosystems are collapsing.
19b Attach fragmented phrases or turn them
into sentences.
Like subordinate clauses, phrases function within sentences as
adjectives, as adverbs, or as nouns. Th ey cannot stand alone.
Fragmented phrases are oft en prepositional or verbal phrases;
sometimes they are appositives, words or word groups that rename
nouns or pronouns. (See 48a, 48b, and 48c.)
Oft en a fragmented phrase may simply be pulled into a
nearby sentence.
▶ Th e archaeologists worked slowly/., Examining and labeling
every pottery shard they uncovered.
Th e word group beginning with Examining is a verbal phrase, so it
cannot stand alone.
▶ Th e patient displayed symptoms of ALS/., /A neurodegenerative
disease.
A neurodegenerative disease is an appositive renaming the noun ALS.
(For punctuation of appositives, see 32e.)
^
,
many
^
Across
̂
examining
̂
a
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19c192 Sentence fragments
frag
If a fragmented phrase cannot be pulled into a nearby sen-
tence eff ectively, turn the phrase into a sentence. You may need to
add a subject, a verb, or both.
▶ In the training session, Jamie explained how to access our new
database. Also how to submit expense reports and request
vendor payments.
Th e revision turns the fragmented phrase into a sentence by adding a
subject and a verb.
19c Attach other fragmented word groups or
turn them into sentences.
Other word groups that are commonly fragmented include parts
of compound predicates, lists, and examples introduced by for
example, in addition, or similar expressions.
Parts of compound predicates
A predicate consists of a verb and its objects, complements, and
modifi ers (see 47b). A compound predicate includes two or more
predicates joined with a coordinating conjunction such as and,
but, or or. Because the parts of a compound predicate have the
same subject, they should appear in the same sentence.
▶ Th e woodpecker fi nch of the Galápagos Islands carefully selects
a twig of a certain size and shape/. And then uses this tool to pry
out grubs from trees.
Th e subject is fi nch, and the compound predicate is selects . . . and . . .
uses. (For punctuation of compound predicates, see 33a.)
Lists
To correct a fragmented list, oft en you can attach it to a nearby
sentence with a colon or a dash. (See 35a and 39a.)
▶ It has been said that there are only three indigenous American
art forms/. : Musical comedy, jazz, and soap opera.
^
She also taught us
^
and
^
musical
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19319cOther fragmented word groups
frag
Sometimes terms like especially, namely, like, and such as in-
troduce fragmented lists. Such fragments can usually be attached
to the preceding sentence.
▶ In the twentieth century, the South produced some great
American writers/., Such as Flannery O’Connor, William
Faulkner, Alice Walker, and Tennessee Williams.
Examples introduced by for example, in addition,
or similar expressions
Other expressions that introduce examples or explanations can
lead to unintentional fragments. Although you may begin a sen-
tence with some of the following words or phrases, make sure
that what follows has a subject and a verb.
also for example mainly
and for instance or
but in addition that is
Oft en the easiest solution is to turn the fragment into a sentence.
▶ In his memoir, Primo Levi describes the horrors of living in a
concentration camp. For example, working without food and
suff ering emotional abuse.
Th e writer corrected this fragment by adding a subject — he — and
substituting verbs for the verbals working and suff ering.
▶ Deborah Tannen’s research reveals that men and women have
diff erent ideas about communication. For example, that a woman
“expects her husband to be a new and improved version of her
best friend” (441).
A quotation must be part of a complete sentence. Th at a woman “expects
her husband to be a new and improved version of her best friend” is a
fragment — a subordinate clause. In this case, adding a signal phrase that
includes a subject and a verb (Tannen explains) corrects the fragment
and clarifi es that the quotation is from Tannen.
^
such
^
he worked
^
suff ered
^
Tannen explains
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19d194 Sentence fragments
frag
19d Exception: A fragment may be used for effect.
Writers occasionally use sentence fragments for special purposes.
FOR EMPHASIS Following the dramatic Americanization of their
children, even my parents grew more publicly
confi dent. Especially my mother.
— Richard Rodriguez
TO ANSWER
A QUESTION
Are these new drug tests 100 percent reliable?
Not in the opinion of most experts.
TRANSITIONS And now the opposing arguments.
EXCLAMATIONS Not again!
IN ADVERTISING Fewer carbs. Improved taste.
Although fragments are sometimes appropriate, writers and
readers do not always agree on when they are appropriate. Th at’s
why you will fi nd it safer to write in complete sentences.
EXERCISE 19–1 Repair any fragment by attaching it to a nearby sen-
tence or by rewriting it as a complete sentence. If a word group is cor-
rect, write “correct” aft er it. Possible revisions appear in the back of the
book. More practice:
One Greek island that should not be missed is Mykonos/., /A vacation
spot for Europeans and a playground for the rich and famous.
a. Listening to the CD her sister had sent, Mia was overcome with a
mix of emotions. Happiness, homesickness, and nostalgia.
b. Cortés and his soldiers were astonished when they looked down
from the mountains and saw Tenochtitlán. Th e magnifi cent capital
of the Aztecs.
c. Although my spoken Spanish is not very good. I can read the lan-
guage with ease.
d. Th ere are several reasons for not eating meat. One reason being
that dangerous chemicals are used throughout the various stages
of meat production.
e. To learn how to sculpt beauty from everyday life. Th is is my inten-
tion in studying art and archaeology.
̂
a
macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
19 Sentence fragments
> Exercises: 19–3 to 19–7
> LearningCurve: Sentence fragments
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19520Run-on sentences
run-on
EXERCISE 19–2 Repair each fragment in the following passage by
attaching it to a sentence nearby or by rewriting it as a complete sentence.
Digital technology has revolutionized information delivery.
Forever blurring the lines between information and entertainment.
Yesterday’s readers of books and newspapers are today’s readers of
e-books and news blogs. Countless readers have moved on from
print information entirely. Choosing instead to scroll their way
through a text on their Amazon Kindle or in an online forum. Once
a nation of people spoon-fed television commercials and the six
o’clock evening news. We are now seemingly addicted to YouTube.
Remember the family trip when Dad or Mom wrestled with a road
map? On the way to St. Louis or Seattle? No wrestling is required
with a GPS navigator by the driver’s side. Unless it’s Mom and
Dad wrestling over who gets to program the address. Accessing
information now seems to be America’s favorite pastime. John
Horrigan, associate director for research at the Pew Internet and
American Life Project, reports that 31 percent of American adults
are “elite” users of technology. Who are “highly engaged” with digital
content. As a country, we embrace information and communication
technologies. Which include iPads, smartphones, and other
handheld devices. Children rely on such devices and the Internet
from an early age. For activities like reading, socializing, gaming, and
information gathering.
20 Revise run-on sentences.
Run-on sentences are independent clauses that have not been
joined correctly. An independent clause is a word group that can
stand alone as a sentence. (See 49a.) When two independent clauses
appear in one sentence, they must be joined in one of these ways:
• with a comma and a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or,
nor, for, so, yet)
• with a semicolon (or occasionally with a colon or a dash)
Recognizing run-on sentences
Th ere are two types of run-on sentences. When a writer puts no
mark of punctuation and no coordinating conjunction between
independent clauses, the result is called a fused sentence.
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196 20 Run-on sentences
run-on
FUSED Air pollution poses risks to all humans it can be
deadly
INDEPENDENT CLAUSE
for asthma suff erers.
A far more common type of run-on sentence is the comma
splice — two or more independent clauses joined with a comma
but without a coordinating conjunction. In some comma splices,
the comma appears alone.
COMMA
SPLICE
Air pollution poses risks to all humans, it can be deadly
for asthma suff erers.
In other comma splices, the comma is accompanied by a joining word
that is not a coordinating conjunction. Th ere are only seven coordi-
nating conjunctions in English: and, but, or, nor, for, so, and yet.
COMMA
SPLICE
Air pollution poses risks to all humans, however, it can
be deadly for asthma suff erers.
However is a transitional expression and cannot be used with
only a comma to join two independent clauses (see 20b).
INDEPENDENT CLAUSE
Recognizing run-on sentences
If you fi nd an error, choose an eff ective method of revision. See
20a–20d for revision strategies.
Revise.
It is a run-on sentence.
Does the sentence contain
two independent clauses
(word groups that can stand
alone as sentences)?
No
problem
No
problem
No
problem
Are the clauses joined with
a comma and a coordinating
conjunction (and, but, or,
nor, for, so, or yet)?
Are the clauses joined with
a semicolon?
NO
YES
YES
YES
NO
NO
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19720aRevision with coordinating conjunction
run-on
Revising run-on sentences
To revise a run-on sentence, you have four choices.
1. Use a comma and a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or,
nor, for, so, yet).
▶ Air pollution poses risks to all humans, it can be deadly for
people with asthma.
2. Use a semicolon (or, if appropriate, a colon or a dash). A
semicolon may be used alone or with a transitional expression.
▶ Air pollution poses risks to all humans/, ; it can be deadly for
people with asthma.
▶ Air pollution poses risks to all humans/, ; it can be deadly for
people with asthma.
3. Make the clauses into separate sentences.
▶ Air pollution poses risks to all humans/, . it can be deadly for
people with asthma.
4. Restructure the sentence, perhaps by subordinating one of
the clauses.
▶ Air pollution poses risks to all humans, it can be deadly for
people with asthma.
One of these revision techniques usually works better than the
others for a particular sentence. Th e fourth technique, the one
requiring the most extensive revision, is oft en the most eff ective.
20a Consider separating the clauses with
a comma and a coordinating conjunction.
Th ere are seven coordinating conjunctions in English: and, but,
or, nor, for, so, and yet. When a coordinating conjunction joins
independent clauses, it is usually preceded by a comma. (See 32a.)
̂
but
^
̂
however,
̂
It
̂
Although air
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20b198 Run-on sentences
run-on
▶ Some lesson plans include exercises, completing them should not
be the focus of all class periods.
▶ Many government offi cials privately admit that the polygraph is
unreliable, however, they continue to use it as a security measure.
However is a transitional expression, not a coordinating conjunc-
tion, so it cannot be used with only a comma to join independent
clauses. (See also 20b.)
20b Consider separating the clauses with a
semicolon (or, if appropriate, with a colon or a dash).
When the independent clauses are closely related and their rela-
tion is clear without a coordinating conjunction, a semicolon is
an acceptable method of revision. (See 34a.)
▶ Tragedy depicts the individual confronted with the fact of
death/, ; comedy depicts the adaptability of human society.
A semicolon is required between independent clauses that
have been linked with a transitional expression (such as however,
therefore, moreover, in fact, or for example). For a longer list, see 34b.
▶ In his fi lm adaptation of the short story “Killings,” director Todd
Field changed key details of the plot/, ; in fact, he added whole
scenes that do not appear in the story.
A colon or a dash may be more appropriate if the fi rst in-
dependent clause introduces the second or if the second clause
summarizes or explains the fi rst. (See 35a and 39a.) In formal
writing, the colon is usually preferred to the dash.
▶ Nuclear waste is hazardous: this is an indisputable fact.
▶ Th e female black widow spider is oft en a widow of her own
making/, she has been known to eat her partner aft er mating.
^
but
^
yet
^
^
̂
This
^
—
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19920cRevision by separating sentences
run-on
A colon is an appropriate method of revision if the fi rst inde-
pendent clause introduces a quoted sentence.
▶ Nobel Peace Prize winner Al Gore had this to say about climate
change/, : “Th e truth is that our circumstances are not only new;
they are completely diff erent than they have ever been in all of
human history.”
20c Consider making the clauses into separate
sentences.
▶ Why should we spend money on expensive space
exploration/, ? we have enough underfunded programs here
on Earth.
A question and a statement should be separate sentences.
▶ Some studies have suggested that the sexual relationships
of bonobos set them apart from common chimpanzees/, .
according to Stanford (1998), these diff erences have been
exaggerated.
Using a comma to join two independent clauses creates a comma splice.
In this example, an eff ective revision is to separate the fi rst independent
clause (Some studies . . .) from the second independent clause (these
diff erences . . .) and to keep the signal phrase with the second clause. (See
also 61a on citing sources in APA style.)
NOTE: When two quoted independent clauses are divided by
explanatory words, make each clause its own sentence.
▶ “It’s always smart to learn from your mistakes,” quipped my
supervisor/, . “it’s even smarter to learn from the mistakes of
others.”
^
̂
We
^
^
According
̂
“It’s
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20d200 Run-on sentences
run-on
20d Consider restructuring the sentence,
perhaps by subordinating one of the clauses.
If one of the independent clauses is less important than the other,
turn the less important clause into a subordinate clause or phrase.
(For more about subordination, see 14, especially the chart on p. 156.)
▶ One of the most famous advertising slogans is Wheaties cereal’s
“Breakfast of Champions,” it was penned in 1933.
▶ Mary McLeod Bethune was the seventeenth child of former
slaves, she founded the National Council of Negro Women in
1935.
Minor ideas in these sentences are now expressed in subordinate clauses
or phrases.
EXERCISE 20–1 Revise the following run-on sentences using the
method of revision suggested in brackets. Possible revisions appear in
the back of the book. More practice:
Daniel had been obsessed with his weight as a teenager, he
rarely ate anything sweet. [Restructure the sentence.]
a. Th e city had one public swimming pool, it stayed packed with
children all summer long. [Restructure the sentence.]
b. Th e building is being renovated, therefore at times we have no heat,
water, or electricity. [Use a comma and a coordinating conjunction.]
c. Th e view was not what the travel agent had described, where were
the rolling hills and the shimmering rivers? [Make two sentences.]
d. Walker’s coming-of-age novel is set against a gloomy scientifi c
backdrop, the earth’s rotation has begun to slow down. [Use a
semicolon.]
e. City offi cials had good reason to fear a major earthquake, most of
the business district was built on landfi ll. [Use a colon.]
̂
which
^
,
^
Because
macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
20 Run-on sentences
> Exercises: 20–4 to 20–9
> LearningCurve: Run-on sentences
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20120dRevision by restructuring
run-on
EXERCISE 20–2 Revise any run-on sentences using a technique that
you fi nd eff ective. If a sentence is correct, write “correct” aft er it. Possible
revisions appear in the back of the book.
Crossing so many time zones on an eight-hour fl ight, I knew
I would be tired when I arrived, however, I was too excited to
sleep on the plane.
a. Wind power for the home is a supplementary source of energy, it
can be combined with electricity, gas, or solar energy.
b. Aidan viewed Sofi a Coppola’s Lost in Translation three times and
then wrote a paper describing the fi lm as the work of a mysterious
modern painter.
c. In the Middle Ages, the streets of London were dangerous places,
it was safer to travel by boat along the Th ames.
d. “He’s not drunk,” I said, “he’s in a state of diabetic shock.”
e. Are you able to endure extreme angle turns, high speeds, frequent
jumps, and occasional crashes, then supermoto racing may be a
sport for you.
EXERCISE 20–3 In the following rough draft , revise any run-on sentences.
Some parents and educators argue that requiring uniforms
in public schools would improve student behavior and perfor-
mance. Th ey think that uniforms give students a more profes sional
attitude toward school, moreover, they believe that uniforms
help create a sense of community among students from diverse
backgrounds. But parents and educators should consider the
drawbacks to requiring uniforms in public schools.
Uniforms do create a sense of community, they do this,
however, by stamping out individuality. Youth is a time to express
originality, it is a time to develop a sense of self. One important
way young people express their identities is through the clothes
they wear. Th e self-patrolled dress code of high school students
may be stricter than any school-imposed code, nevertheless,
trying to control dress habits from above will only lead to
resentment or to mindless conformity.
If children are going to act like adults, they need to be treated
like adults, they need to be allowed to make their own choices.
Telling young people what to wear to school merely prolongs
their childhood. Requiring uniforms undermines the educational
purpose of public schools, which is not just to teach facts and
fi gures but to help young people grow into adults who are
responsible for making their own choices.
^
but
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202
21 Make subjects and verbs agree.
In the present tense, verbs agree with their subjects in number
(singular or plural) and in person (fi rst, second, third): I sing,
you sing, he sings, she sings, we sing, they sing. Even if your ear
recognizes the standard subject-verb combinations presented in
21a, you will no doubt encounter tricky situations such as those
described in 21b–21k.
21a Learn to recognize the standard
subject-verb combinations.
Th is section describes the basic guidelines for making present-
tense verbs agree with their subjects. Th e present-tense ending -s
(or -es) is used on a verb if its subject is third-person singular (he,
she, it, and singular nouns); otherwise, the verb takes no ending.
Consider, for example, the present-tense forms of the verbs love
and try, given at the beginning of the chart on page 204.
Th e verb be varies from this pattern; it has special forms in
both the present and the past tense. Th ese forms appear at the
end of the chart.
If you aren’t sure of the standard forms, use the charts on
pages 204 and 205 as you proofread your work for subject-verb
agreement. You may also want to look at 27c on -s endings of
regular and irregular verbs.
21b Make the verb agree with its subject, not
with a word that comes between.
Word groups oft en come between the subject and the verb. Such
word groups, usually modifying the subject, may contain a noun
that at fi rst appears to be the subject. By mentally stripping
away such modifi ers, you can isolate the noun that is in fact the
subject.
Th e samples on the tray in the lab need testing.
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20321cSubjects joined with and
sv agr
▶ High levels of air pollution cause/s damage to the respiratory
tract.
Th e subject is levels, not pollution. Strip away the phrase of air pollution
to hear the correct verb: levels cause.
▶ Th e slaughter of pandas for their pelts have caused the panda
population to decline drastically.
Th e subject is slaughter, not pandas or pelts.
NOTE: Phrases beginning with the prepositions as well as, in ad-
dition to, accompanied by, together with, and along with do not
make a singular subject plural.
▶ Th e governor as well as his press secretary were on the plane.
To emphasize that two people were on the plane, the writer
could use and instead: Th e governor and his press secretary were
on the plane.
21c Treat most subjects joined with and
as plural.
A subject with two or more parts is said to be compound. If
the parts are connected with and, the subject is almost always
plural.
Leon and Jan oft en jog together.
▶ Th e Supreme Court’s willingness to hear the case and its
affi rmation of the original decision has set a new precedent.
EXCEPTION 1: When the parts of the subject form a single unit or
when they refer to the same person or thing, treat the subject as
singular.
Fish and chips was a last-minute addition to the menu.
Sue’s friend and adviser was surprised by her decision.
^
has
^
was
^
have
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21c204 Subject-verb agreement
sv agr
Subject-verb agreement at a glance
Present-tense forms of love and try (typical verbs)
SINGULAR PLURAL
FIRST PERSON I love we love
SECOND PERSON you love you love
THIRD PERSON he/she/it* loves they** love
SINGULAR PLURAL
FIRST PERSON I try we try
SECOND PERSON you try you try
THIRD PERSON he/she/it* tries they** try
Present-tense forms of have
SINGULAR PLURAL
FIRST PERSON I have we have
SECOND PERSON you have you have
THIRD PERSON he/she/it* has they** have
Present-tense forms of do (including negative forms)
SINGULAR PLURAL
FIRST PERSON I do/don’t we do/don’t
SECOND PERSON you do/don’t you do/don’t
THIRD PERSON he/she/it* does/doesn’t they** do/don’t
Present-tense and past-tense forms of be
SINGULAR PLURAL
FIRST PERSON I am/was we are/were
SECOND PERSON you are/were you are/were
THIRD PERSON he/she/it* is/was they** are/were
*And singular nouns (child, Roger )
**And plural nouns (children, the Mannings)
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20521cSubjects joined with and
sv agr
When to use the -s (or -es ) form of a present-tense verb
EXCEPTION: Choosing the correct present-tense form of be (am, is,
or are ) is not quite so simple. See the chart on the previous page for
both present- and past-tense forms of be.
TIP: Do not use the -s form of a verb if it follows a modal verb such
as can, must, or should or another helping verb. (See 28c.)
Is the verb’s subject he,
she, it, or one?
Use the
-s form.
Use the
-s form.
Use the
-s form
(loves, tries,
has, does).
Is the subject a singular
noun (such as parent)?
Use
the base form of
the verb (such as love,
try, have, do).
Is the subject a singular
indefi nite pronoun —
anybody, anyone, each,
either, everybody, everyone,
everything, neither, no one,
someone, or something?
YES
YES
YES
NO
NO
NO
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21d206 Subject-verb agreement
sv agr
EXCEPTION 2: When a compound subject is preceded by each or
every, treat it as singular.
Every car, truck, and van is required to pass inspection.
Th is exception does not apply when a compound subject is fol-
lowed by each: Alan and Marcia each have diff erent ideas.
21d With subjects joined with or or nor
(or with either . . . or or neither . . . nor), make
the verb agree with the part of the subject
nearer to the verb.
A driver’s license or credit card is required.
A driver’s license or two credit cards are required.
▶ If an infant or a child have a high fever, call a doctor.
▶ Neither the chief fi nancial offi cer nor the marketing managers
was able to convince the client to reconsider.
Th e verb must be matched with the part of the subject closer to it: child
has in the fi rst sentence, managers were in the second.
NOTE: If one part of the subject is singular and the other is plural,
put the plural one last to avoid awkwardness.
21e Treat most indefi nite pronouns
as singular.
Indefi nite pronouns are pronouns that do not refer to specifi c
persons or things. Th e following commonly used indefi nite pro-
nouns are singular.
anybody each everyone nobody somebody
anyone either everything no one someone
anything everybody neither nothing something
^
has
^
were
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20721fCollective nouns
sv agr
Many of these words appear to have plural meanings, and they
are oft en treated as such in casual speech. In formal written
En glish, however, they are nearly always treated as singular.
Everyone on the team supports the coach.
▶ Each of the essays have been graded.
▶ Nobody who participated in the clinical trials were given a
placebo.
Th e subjects of these sentences are Each and Nobody. Th ese
indefi nite pronouns are third-person singular, so the verbs
must be has and was.
A few indefi nite pronouns (all, any, none, some) may be
singular or plural depending on the noun or pronoun they
refer to.
SINGULAR Some of our luggage was lost.
None of his advice makes sense.
PLURAL Some of the rocks are slippery.
None of the eggs were broken.
NOTE: When the meaning of none is emphatically “not one,” none
may be treated as singular: None [meaning “Not one”] of the eggs
was broken. Using not one instead is sometimes clearer: Not one
of the eggs was broken.
21f Treat collective nouns as singular unless
the meaning is clearly plural.
Collective nouns such as jury, committee, audience, crowd,
troop, family, and couple name a class or a group. In American
English, collective nouns are nearly always treated as singular:
They emphasize the group as a unit. Occasionally, when there
^
has
^
was
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21f208 Subject-verb agreement
sv agr
is some reason to draw attention to the individual members
of the group, a collective noun may be treated as plural. (See
also 22b.)
SINGULAR Th e class respects the teacher.
PLURAL Th e class are debating among themselves.
To underscore the notion of individuality in the second sentence,
many writers would add a clearly plural noun.
PLURAL Th e class members are debating among themselves.
▶ Th e board of trustees meet in Denver twice a year.
Th e board as a whole meets; there is no reason to draw attention to its
individual members.
▶ A young couple was arguing about politics while holding hands.
Th e meaning is clearly plural. Only separate individuals can argue and
hold hands.
NOTE: Th e phrase the number is treated as singular, a number as
plural.
SINGULAR Th e number of school-age children is declining.
PLURAL A number of children are attending the wedding.
NOTE: In general, when fractions or units of measurement are
used with a singular noun, treat them as singular; when they are
used with a plural noun, treat them as plural.
SINGULAR Th ree-fourths of the salad has been eaten.
Twenty inches of wallboard was covered with mud.
PLURAL One-fourth of the drivers were texting.
Two pounds of blueberries were used to make
the pie.
^
meets
^
were
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20921hSubject, not subject complement
sv agr
21g Make the verb agree with its
subject even when the subject follows
the verb.
Verbs ordinarily follow subjects. When this normal order is
reversed, it is easy to become confused. Sentences beginning with
there is or there are (or there was or there were) are inverted; the
subject follows the verb.
Th ere are surprisingly few honeybees left in southern China.
▶ Th ere was a social worker and a journalist at the meeting.
Th e subject, worker and journalist, is plural, so the verb must be were.
Occasionally, you may decide to invert a sentence for variety
or eff ect. When you do so, check to make sure that your subject
and verb agree.
▶ Of particular concern is penicillin and tetracycline, antibiotics
used to make animals more resistant to disease.
Th e subject, penicillin and tetracycline, is plural, so the verb must
be are.
21h Make the verb agree with its subject,
not with a subject complement.
One basic sentence pattern in English consists of a subject, a
linking verb, and a subject complement: Jack is a lawyer. Because
the subject complement (lawyer) names or describes the subject
(Jack), it is sometimes mistaken for the subject. (See 47b on sub-
ject complements.)
Th ese exercises are a way to test your ability to perform under
pressure.
▶ A tent and a sleeping bag is the required equipment.
Tent and bag is the subject, not equipment.
^
were
^
are
^
are
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21i210 Subject-verb agreement
sv agr
▶ A major force in today’s economy are children — as consumers,
decision makers, and trend spotters.
Force is the subject, not children. If the corrected version seems too
awkward, make children the subject: Children are a major force in today’s
economy — as consumers, decision makers, and trend spotters.
21i Who, which, and that take verbs that agree
with their antecedents.
Like most pronouns, the relative pronouns who, which, and
that have antecedents, nouns or pronouns to which they refer.
Relative pronouns used as subjects of subordinate clauses take
verbs that agree with their antecedents.
Take a course that prepares you for classroom management.
One of the
Constructions such as one of the students who [or one of the
things that] cause problems for writers. Do not assume that
the antecedent must be one. Instead, consider the logic of the
sentence.
▶ Our ability to use language is one of the things that set/s us
apart from animals.
Th e antecedent of that is things, not one. Several things set us apart from
animals.
Only one of the
When the phrase the only comes before one, you are safe in
assuming that one is the antecedent of the relative pronoun.
▶ Veronica was the only one of the fi rst-year Spanish students
who were fl uent enough to apply for the exchange program.
Th e antecedent of who is one, not students. Only one student was fl uent
enough.
^
is
ANT PN V
^
was
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21121kTitles, company names, etc.
sv agr
21j Words such as athletics, economics,
mathematics, physics, politics, statistics,
measles, and news are usually singular, despite
their plural form.
▶ Politics are among my mother’s favorite pastimes.
EXCEPTION: Occasionally some of these words, especially eco-
nomics, mathematics, politics, and statistics, have plural meanings:
Offi ce politics oft en sway decisions about hiring and promotion.
Th e economics of the building plan are prohibitive.
21k Titles of works, company names, words
mentioned as words, and gerund phrases are
singular.
▶ Lost Cities describe the discoveries of fi ft y ancient civilizations.
▶ Delmonico Brothers specialize in organic produce.
▶ Controlled substances are a euphemism for illegal drugs.
A gerund phrase consists of an -ing verb form followed by
any objects, complements, or modifi ers (see 48b). Treat gerund
phrases as singular.
▶ Encountering long hold times make customers impatient with
telephone tech support.
EXERCISE 21–1 Edit the following sentences to eliminate problems
with subject-verb agreement. If a sentence is correct, write “correct”
aft er it. Answers appear in the back of the book.
More practice:
Jack’s fi rst days in the infantry was grueling.
a. One of the main reasons for elephant poaching are the profi ts
received from selling the ivory tusks.
^
is
^
describes
^
specializes
^
is
^
makes
^
were
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21k212 Subject-verb agreement
sv agr
b. Not until my interview with Dr. Hwang were other possibilities
opened to me.
c. A number of students in the seminar was aware of the importance
of joining the discussion.
d. Batik cloth from Bali, blue and white ceramics from Delft , and
a bocce ball from Turin has made Angelie’s room the talk of the
dorm.
e. Th e board of directors, ignoring the wishes of the neighborhood,
has voted to allow further development.
EXERCISE 21–2 For each sentence in the following passage, underline
the subject (or compound subject) and then select the verb that agrees
with it. (If you have trouble identifying the subject, consult 47a.)
More practice:
Loggerhead sea turtles (migrate / migrates) thousands of miles
before returning to their nesting location every two to three
years. Th e nesting season for loggerhead turtles (span / spans) the
hottest months of the summer. Although the habitat of Atlantic
loggerheads (range / ranges) from Newfoundland to Argentina,
nesting for these turtles (take / takes) place primarily along the
southeastern coast of the United States. Female turtles that have
reached sexual maturity (crawl / crawls) ashore at night to lay their
eggs. Th e cavity that serves as a nest for the eggs (is / are) dug out
with the female’s strong fl ippers. Deposited into each nest (is / are)
anywhere from fi ft y to two hundred spherical eggs, also known
as a clutch. Aft er a two-month incubation period, all eggs in the
clutch (begin / begins) to hatch, and within a few days the young
turtles attempt to make their way into the ocean. A major cause
of the loggerhead’s decreasing numbers (is / are) natural predators
such as raccoons, birds, and crabs. Beach erosion and coastal
development also (threaten / threatens) the turtles’ survival. For
example, a crowd of curious humans or lights from beachfront
residences (is / are) enough to make the female abandon her
nesting plans and return to the ocean. Since only one in one
thousand loggerheads survives to adulthood, special care should
be taken to protect this threatened species.
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21 Subject–verb agreement
> Exercises: 21–3 to 21–6
> LearningCurve: Subject–verb agreement
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213
22 Make pronouns and antecedents agree.
A pronoun is a word that substitutes for a noun. (See 46b.) Many
pronouns have antecedents, nouns or pronouns to which they
refer. A pronoun and its antecedent agree when they are both sin-
gular or both plural.
SINGULAR Dr. Ava Berto fi nished her rounds.
PLURAL Th e hospital interns fi nished their rounds.
Th e pronouns he, his, she, her, it, and its must agree in gender
(masculine, feminine, or neuter) with their antecedents, not with
the words they modify.
Steve visited his [not her] sister in Seattle.
M
u
lt
ili
n
gu
a
l
22a Do not use plural pronouns to refer to
singular antecedents.
Writers are frequently tempted to use plural pronouns to refer
to two kinds of singular antecedents: indefi nite pronouns and
generic nouns.
Indefi nite pronouns
Indefi nite pronouns refer to nonspecifi c persons or things. Even
though some of the following indefi nite pronouns may seem to
have plural meanings, treat them as singular in formal English.
anybody each everyone nobody somebody
anyone either everything no one someone
anything everybody neither nothing something
Everyone performs at his or her [not their] own fi tness level.
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22a214 Pronoun-antecedent agreement
pn agr
When a plural pronoun refers mistakenly to a singular in-
defi nite pronoun, you can usually choose one of three options
for revision:
1. Replace the plural pronoun with he or she (or his or her).
2. Make the antecedent plural.
3. Rewrite the sentence so that no problem of agreement exists.
▶ When someone travels outside the United States for the
fi rst time, they need to apply for a passport.
▶ When someone travels outside the United States for the
fi rst time, they need to apply for a passport.
▶ When someone travels outside the United States for the
fi rst time/, they need to apply for a passport.
Because the he or she construction is wordy, oft en the second or third
revision strategy is more eff ective. Using he (or his) to refer to per-
sons of either sex, while less wordy, is considered sexist, as is using
she (or her) for all persons. Some writers alternate male and female
pronouns throughout a text, but the result is oft en awkward. See 17e
and the chart on page 216 for strategies that avoid sexist language.
NOTE: If you change a pronoun from singular to plural (or vice
versa), check to be sure that the verb agrees with the new pro-
noun (see 21e).
Generic nouns
A generic noun represents a typical member of a group, such as a typ-
ical student, or any member of a group, such as any lawyer. Although
generic nouns may seem to have plural meanings, they are singular.
Every runner must train rigorously if he or she wants [not they
want] to excel.
When a plural pronoun refers mistakenly to a generic noun,
you will usually have the same three revision options as men-
tioned at the top of this page for indefi nite pronouns.
^
he or she needs
^
people travel
^
Anyone who
^
needs
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21522cAntecedents joined with and
pn agr
▶ A medical student must study hard if they want to succeed.
▶ A medical student must study hard if they want to succeed.
▶ A medical student must study hard if they want to succeed.
22b Treat collective nouns as singular unless
the meaning is clearly plural.
Collective nouns such as jury, committee, audience, crowd, class,
troop, family, team, and couple name a group. Ordinarily the
group functions as a unit, so the noun should be treated as singu-
lar; if the members of the group function as individuals, however,
the noun should be treated as plural. (See also 21f.)
AS A UNIT Th e committee granted its permission to build.
AS INDIVIDUALS Th e committee put their signatures on the
document.
When treating a collective noun as plural, many writers pre-
fer to add a clearly plural antecedent such as members to the
sentence: Th e members of the committee put their signatures on
the document.
▶ Defense attorney Clarence Darrow surprisingly urged the jury
to fi nd his client, John Scopes, guilty so that he could appeal the
case to a higher court. Th e jury complied, returning their verdict
in only nine minutes.
Th ere is no reason to draw attention to the individual members of the
jury, so jury should be treated as singular.
22c Treat most compound antecedents joined
with and as plural.
In 1987, Reagan and Gorbachev held a summit where they signed
the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty.
^
he or she wants
^
Medical students
^
its
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22d216 Pronoun-antecedent agreement
pn agr
22d With compound antecedents joined with or
or nor (or with either . . . or or neither . . . nor), make
the pronoun agree with the nearer antecedent.
Either Bruce or Tom should receive fi rst prize for his poem.
Neither the mouse nor the rats could fi nd their way through the maze.
NOTE: If one of the antecedents is singular and the other plural, as in
the second example, put the plural one last to avoid awkwardness.
Choosing a revision strategy that avoids sexist language
Because many readers object to sexist language, avoid using he, him,
and his (or she, her, and hers) to refer to both men and women. Also
try to avoid the wordy expressions he or she and his or her. More
graceful alternatives are usually possible.
Use an occasional he or she (or his or her ).
▶ In our offi ce, everyone works at their own pace.
Make the antecedent plural.
▶ An employee on extended disability leave may continue their life
insurance.
Recast the sentence.
▶ Th e amount of vacation time a federal worker may accrue depends on
their length of service.
▶ If a child is born to parents who are both tall/, they have a high chance
of being tall.
▶ In his autobiography, Benjamin Franklin suggests that anyone
can achieve success as long as they live a virtuous life and work hard.
^
his or her
^
Employees
^
A
^
has
^
by living
^
working
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21722dAntecedents joined with or, nor, either . . . or, neither . . . nor
pn agr
EXCEPTION: If one antecedent is male and the other female, do
not follow the traditional rule. Th e sentence Either Bruce or
Elizabeth should receive fi rst prize for her short story makes no
sense. Th e best solution is to recast the sentence: Th e prize for best
short story should go to either Bruce or Elizabeth.
EXERCISE 22–1 Edit the following sentences to eliminate problems
with pronoun-antecedent agreement. Most of the sentences can be
revised in more than one way, so experiment before choosing a solution.
If a sentence is correct, write “correct” aft er it. Possible revisions appear
in the back of the book. More practice:
Th e recruiter may tell the truth, but there is much that they
choose not to tell.
a. Every presidential candidate must appeal to a wide variety of
ethnic and social groups if they want to win the election.
b. David lent his motorcycle to someone who allowed their friend to
use it.
c. Th e aerobics teacher motioned for everyone to move their arms in
wide, slow circles.
d. Th e parade committee was unanimous in its decision to allow all
groups and organizations to join the festivities.
e. Th e applicant should be bilingual if they want to qualify for this
position.
EXERCISE 22–2 Edit the following paragraph to eliminate problems
with pronoun-antecedent agreement or sexist language.
A common practice in businesses is to put each employee
in their own cubicle. A typical cubicle resembles an office,
but their walls don’t reach the ceiling. Many office managers
feel that a cubicle floor plan has its advantages. Cubicles make
a large area feel spacious. In addition, they can be moved
around so that each new employee can be accommodated
in his own work area. Of course, the cubicle model also has
problems. The typical employee is not as happy with a cubicle
^
Recruiters
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22 Pronoun-antecedent agreement
> Exercises: 22–3 to 22–6
> LearningCurve: Pronoun agreement and pronoun reference
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218 23 Pronoun reference
ref
as they would be with a traditional office. Also, productivity
can suffer. Neither a manager nor a frontline worker can
ordinarily do their best work in a cubicle because of noise and
lack of privacy. Each worker can hear his neighbors tapping on
computer keyboards, making telephone calls, and muttering
under their breath.
23 Make pronoun references clear.
Pronouns substitute for nouns; they are a kind of shorthand.
In a sentence like Aft er Andrew intercepted the ball, he kicked
it as hard as he could, the pronouns he and it substitute for the
nouns Andrew and ball. Th e word a pronoun refers to is called its
antecedent.
23a Avoid ambiguous or remote pronoun
reference.
Ambiguous pronoun reference occurs when a pronoun could
refer to two possible antecedents.
▶ When Gloria set the pitcher on the glass-topped table/,. it broke.
▶ Tom told James, that he had won the lottery.”
What broke — the pitcher or the table? Who won the lottery — Tom or
James? Th e revisions eliminate the ambiguity.
Remote pronoun reference occurs when a pronoun is too far
away from its antecedent for easy reading.
▶ Aft er the court ordered my ex-husband to pay child support,
he refused. Eight months later, the judge ordered him to make
payments directly to the court, which would in turn pay me.
^
The pitcher broke when Gloria set it
^
̂
“You have
^
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21923cImplied antecedents
ref
Aft er six months, payments stopped. Again he was summoned to
appear in court; he did not respond.
Th e pronoun he was too distant from its antecedent, ex-husband, which
appeared several sentences earlier.
23b Generally, avoid broad reference of this,
that, which, and it.
For clarity, the pronouns this, that, which, and it should ordi-
narily refer to specifi c antecedents rather than to whole ideas or
sentences. When a pronoun’s reference is needlessly broad, either
replace the pronoun with a noun or supply an antecedent to
which the pronoun clearly refers.
▶ By advertising on television, pharmaceutical companies gain
exposure for their prescription drugs. Patients respond to this by
requesting drugs they might not need.
For clarity, the writer substituted the noun ads for the pronoun this,
which referred broadly to the idea expressed in the preceding sentence.
▶ Romeo and Juliet were both too young to have acquired much
wisdom, and that accounts for their rash actions.
Th e writer added an antecedent ( fact) that the pronoun that clearly
refers to.
23c Do not use a pronoun to refer to an implied
antecedent.
A pronoun should refer to a specifi c antecedent, not to a word
that is implied but not present in the sentence.
▶ Aft er braiding Ann’s hair, Sue decorated them with ribbons.
Th e pronoun them referred to Ann’s braids (implied by the term
braiding), but the word braids did not appear in the sentence.
^
my ex-husband
^
the ads
^
a fact
^
the braids
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23d220 Pronoun reference
ref
Modifi ers, such as possessives, cannot serve as antecedents.
A modifi er may strongly imply the noun that a pronoun might
logically refer to, but it is not itself that noun.
▶ In Jamaica Kincaid’s “Girl,” she describes the advice a mother
gives her daughter, including the mysterious warning not to be
“the kind of woman who the baker won’t let near the bread” (454).
Using the possessive form of an author’s name to introduce a source
leads to a problem later in this sentence: Th e pronoun she cannot refer
logically to a possessive modifi er (Jamaica Kincaid’s). Th e revision
substitutes the noun Jamaica Kincaid for the pronoun she, thereby
eliminating the problem. (For more on writing with sources in MLA
style, see 55.)
23d Avoid the indefi nite use of they, it, and you.
Do not use the pronoun they to refer indefi nitely to persons who
have not been specifi cally mentioned. Th ey should always refer to
a specifi c antecedent.
▶ In June, they voted to charge a fee for students to participate in
sports and music programs.
Th e word it should not be used indefi nitely in constructions
such as It is said on television . . . or In the article, it says that. . . .
▶ In the encyclopedia it states that male moths can smell female
moths from several miles away.
Th e pronoun you is appropriate only when the writer is ad-
dressing the reader directly: Once you have kneaded the dough,
let it rise in a warm place. Except in informal contexts, however,
you should not be used to mean “anyone in general.” Use a noun
instead.
▶ Ms. Pickersgill’s Guide to Etiquette stipulates that you should not
arrive at a party too early or leave too late.
^
Jamaica Kincaid
^
the board
^
The
^
a guest
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22123ewho for persons, which or that for things
ref
23e To refer to persons, use who, whom,
or whose, not which or that.
In most contexts, use who, whom, or whose to refer to persons,
which or that to refer to animals or things. Which is reserved only
for animals or things; it is impolite to use it to refer to persons.
▶ All thirty-two women in the study, half of which were
unemployed for more than six months, reported higher
self-esteem aft er job training.
Although that is sometimes used to refer to persons, many
readers will fi nd such references dehumanizing. It is more polite
to use a form of who — a word reserved only for people.
▶ During the two-day festival El Día de los Muertos (Day of the
Dead), Mexican families celebrate loved ones that have died.
EXERCISE 23–1 Edit the following sentences to correct errors in pro-
noun reference. In some cases, you will need to decide on an antecedent
that the pronoun might logically refer to. Possible revisions appear in
the back of the book. More practice:
Although Apple makes the most widely recognized
smartphone, other companies have gained a share of the
market. Th is has kept prices from skyrocketing.
a. Th ey say that engineering students should have hands-on
experience with dismantling and reassembling machines.
b. She had decorated her living room with posters from chamber
music festivals. Th is led her date to believe that she was interested
in classical music. Actually, she preferred rock.
c. In my high school, you didn’t need to get all A’s to be considered a
success; you just needed to work to your ability.
^
whom
^
who
^
The competition
macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
23 Pronoun reference
> Exercises: 23–3 to 23–6
> LearningCurve: Pronoun agreement and pronoun reference
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222 24 Case of personal pronouns
case
d. Marianne told Jenny that she was worried about her mother’s
illness.
e. Th ough Lewis cried for several minutes aft er scraping his knee,
eventually it subsided.
EXERCISE 23–2 Edit the following passage to correct errors in pro-
noun reference. In some cases, you will need to decide on an antecedent
that the pronoun might logically refer to.
Since its launch in the 1980s, the Internet has grown to be one of
the largest communications forums in the world. Th e Internet was
created by a team of academics who were building on a platform
that government scientists had started developing in the 1950s. Th ey
initially viewed it as a noncommercial enterprise that would serve
only the needs of the academic and technical communities. But
with the introduction of user-friendly browser technology in the
1990s, it expanded tremendously. By the late 1990s, many businesses
were connecting to the Internet with high-speed broadband and
fi ber-optic connections, which is also true of many home users
today. Accessing information, shopping, and communicating
are easier than ever before. Th is, however, can lead to some
possible drawbacks. You forfeit privacy when you search, shop,
and communicate. Th ey say that avoiding disclosure of personal
information and routinely adjusting your privacy settings on social
media sites are the best ways to protect yourself on the Internet.
24 Distinguish between pronouns such as I and me.
Th e personal pronouns in the following chart change what is
known as case form according to their grammatical function in
a sentence. Pronouns functioning as subjects or subject comple-
ments appear in the subjective case; those functioning as objects
appear in the objective case; and those showing ownership appear
in the possessive case.
SUBJECTIVE
CASE
OBJECTIVE
CASE
POSSESSIVE
CASE
SINGULAR I me my
you you your
he/she/it him/her/it his/her/its
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22324bObjects
case
SUBJECTIVE
CASE
OBJECTIVE
CASE
POSSESSIVE
CASE
PLURAL we us our
you you your
they them their
Pronouns in the subjective and objective cases are frequently
confused. Most of the rules in this section specify when to use
one or the other of these cases. Section 24g explains a special use
of pronouns and nouns in the possessive case.
24a Use the subjective case (I, you, he, she, it,
we, they) for subjects and subject complements.
When personal pronouns are used as subjects, ordinarily your
ear will tell you the correct pronoun. Problems sometimes arise,
however, with compound word groups containing a pronoun, so
it is not always safe to trust your ear.
▶ Joel ran away because his stepfather and him had quarreled.
His stepfather and he is the subject of the verb had quarreled. If we strip
away the words his stepfather and, the correct pronoun becomes clear: he
had quarreled (not him had quarreled).
When a pronoun is used as a subject complement (a word
following a linking verb), your ear may mislead you, since the
incorrect form is frequently heard in casual speech. (See “subject
complements,” 47b.)
▶ During the Lindbergh trial, Bruno Hauptmann repeatedly
denied that the kidnapper was him.
If kidnapper was he seems too stilted, rewrite the sentence: . . . Bruno
Hauptmann repeatedly denied that he was the kidnapper.
24b Use the objective case (me, you, him, her, it,
us, them) for all objects.
When a personal pronoun is used as a direct object, an indirect
object, or the object of a preposition, ordinarily your ear will lead
^
he
^
he.
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24c224 Case of personal pronouns
case
you to the correct pronoun. When an object is compound, how-
ever, you may occasionally become confused.
▶ Janice was indignant when she realized that the salesclerk was
insulting her mother and she.
Her mother and her is the direct object of the verb was insulting. Strip
away the words her mother and to hear the correct pronoun: was
insulting her (not was insulting she).
▶ Th e most traumatic experience for her father and I occurred long
aft er her operation.
Her father and me is the object of the preposition for. Strip away the
words her father and to test for the correct pronoun: for me (not for I).
When in doubt about the correct pronoun, some writers try
to avoid making the choice by using a refl exive pronoun such as
myself. Using a refl exive pronoun in such situations is nonstandard.
▶ Nidra gave my cousin and myself some good tips on traveling in
New Delhi.
My cousin and me is the indirect object of the verb gave. For correct uses
of myself, see the glossary of usage in the appendixes.
24c Put an appositive and the word to which it
refers in the same case.
Appositives are noun phrases that rename nouns or pronouns.
A pronoun used as an appositive has the same function (usually
subject or object) as the word(s) it renames.
▶ Th e managers, Dr. Bell and me, could not agree on a plan.
Th e appositive Dr. Bell and I renames the subject, managers. Test: I could
not agree (not me could not agree).
▶ Th e reporter interviewed only two witnesses, the bicyclist and I.
Th e appositive the bicyclist and me renames the direct object, witnesses.
Test: interviewed me (not interviewed I).
^
her.
^
me
^
me
^
I,
^
me.
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22524fSubjects and objects of infi nitives
case
24d Following than or as, choose the pronoun
that expresses your meaning.
When a comparison begins with than or as, your choice of a
pronoun will depend on your intended meaning. To test for the
correct pronoun, mentally complete the sentence: My roommate
likes football more than I [do].
▶ In our report on nationalized health care in the United States,
we argued that Canadians are much better off than us.
We is the subject of the verb are, which is understood: Canadians are
much better off than we [are]. If the correct English seems too formal,
you can always add the verb.
▶ We respected no other candidate for the city council as much
as she.
Th is sentence means that we respected no other candidate as much as we
respected her. Her is the direct object of the understood verb respected.
24e For we or us before a noun, choose the
pronoun that would be appropriate if the noun
were omitted.
▶ Us tenants would rather fi ght than move.
▶ Management is shortchanging we tenants.
No one would say Us would rather fi ght than move or Management is
shortchanging we.
24f Use the objective case for subjects and
objects of infi nitives.
An infi nitive is the word to followed by the base form of a verb.
(See 48b.) Subjects of infi nitives are an exception to the rule that
subjects must be in the subjective case. Whenever an infi nitive
^
we.
^
her.
^
We
^
us
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24g226 Case of personal pronouns
case
has a subject, it must be in the objective case. Objects of infi ni-
tives also are in the objective case.
▶ Sue asked John and I to drive the senator and she to the airport.
John and me is the subject of the infi nitive to drive; senator and her is the
direct object of the infi nitive.
24g Use the possessive case to modify a
gerund.
A pronoun that modifi es a gerund or a gerund phrase should be
in the possessive case (my, our, your, his, her, its, their). A gerund
is a verb form ending in -ing that functions as a noun. Gerunds
frequently appear in phrases; when they do, the whole gerund
phrase functions as a noun. (See 48b.)
▶ Th e chances of you being hit by lightning are about two million
to one.
Your modifi es the gerund phrase being hit by lightning.
Nouns as well as pronouns may modify gerunds. To form the
possessive case of a noun, use an apostrophe and an -s (victim’s)
or just an apostrophe (victims’). (See 36a.)
▶ Th e old order in France paid a high price for the aristocracy
exploiting the lower classes.
Th e possessive noun aristocracy’s modifi es the gerund phrase exploiting
the lower classes.
EXERCISE 24–1 Edit the following sentences to eliminate errors in
pronoun case. If a sentence is correct, write “correct” aft er it. Answers
appear in the back of the book. More practice:
Papa chops wood for neighbors much younger than him.
^
me
^
her
^
your
^
aristocracy’s
^
he.
macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
24 Pronoun case
> Exercises: 24–3 to 24–5
> Exercises: 24/25–6 and 24/25–7 (pronoun review)
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22725who vs. whom
case
a. Rick applied for the job even though he heard that other
candidates were more experienced than he.
b. Th e volleyball team could not believe that the coach was she.
c. She appreciated him telling the truth in such a diffi cult situation.
d. Th e director has asked you and I to draft a proposal for a new
recycling plan.
e. Five close friends and myself rented a station wagon, packed it
with food, and drove two hundred miles to Mardi Gras.
EXERCISE 24–2 In the following paragraph, choose the correct pro-
noun in each set of parentheses.
We may blame television for the number of products based
on characters in children’s TV shows — from Big Bird to
SpongeBob — but in fact merchandising that capitalizes on a
character’s popularity started long before television. Raggedy
Ann began as a child’s rag doll, and a few years later books about
(she / her) and her brother, Raggedy Andy, were published.
A cartoonist named Johnny Gruelle painted a cloth face on a
family doll and applied for a patent in 1915. Later Gruelle began
writing and illustrating stories about Raggedy Ann, and in 1918
(he / him) and a publisher teamed up to publish the books and sell
the dolls. He was not the only one to try to sell products linked
to children’s stories. Beatrix Potter published the fi rst of many
Peter Rabbit picture books in 1902, and no one was better than
(she / her) at making a living from spin-off s. Aft er Peter Rabbit and
Benjamin Bunny became popular, Potter began putting pictures of
(they / them) and their little animal friends on merchandise. Potter
had fans all over the world, and she understood (them / their)
wanting to see Peter Rabbit not only in books but also on teapots
and plates and lamps and other furnishings for the nursery. Potter
and Gruelle, like countless others before and since, knew that
entertaining children could be a profi table business.
25 Distinguish between who and whom.
Th e choice between who and whom (or whoever and whomever)
occurs primarily in subordinate clauses and in questions. Who
and whoever, subjective-case pronouns, are used for subjects and
subject complements. Whom and whomever, objective-case pro-
nouns, are used for objects. (See 25a and 25b.)
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25a228 Case of who and whom
case
An exception to this general rule occurs when the pronoun
functions as the subject of an infi nitive (see 25c). See also 24f.
25a Use who and whom correctly in subordinate
clauses.
When who and whom (or whoever and whomever) introduce sub-
ordinate clauses, their case is determined by their function within
the clause they introduce.
In the following two examples, the pronouns who and who-
ever function as the subjects of the clauses they introduce.
▶ First prize goes to the runner whom earns the most points.
Th e subordinate clause is who earns the most points. Th e verb of the
clause is earns, and its subject is who.
▶ Maya Angelou’s I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings should be read by
whomever is interested in the eff ects of racial prejudice on children.
Th e writer selected the pronoun whomever, thinking that it was the object
of the preposition by. However, the object of the preposition is the entire
subordinate clause whoever is interested in the eff ects of racial prejudice on
children. Th e verb of the clause is is, and the subject of the verb is whoever.
When functioning as an object in a subordinate clause, whom
(or whomever) also appears out of order, before the subject and
verb. To choose the correct pronoun, you can mentally restruc-
ture the clause.
▶ You will work with our senior traders, who you will meet later.
Th e subordinate clause is whom you will meet later. Th e subject of the
clause is you, and the verb is will meet. Whom is the direct object of the
verb. Th e correct choice becomes clear if you mentally restructure the
clause: you will meet whom.
When functioning as the object of a preposition in a subor-
dinate clause, whom is oft en separated from its preposition.
▶ Th e tutor who I was assigned to was very supportive.
Whom is the object of the preposition to. In this sentence, the writer might
choose to drop whom: Th e tutor I was assigned to was very supportive.
^
who
^
whoever
^
whom
^
whom
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22925cAs subjects or objects of infi nitives
case
NOTE: Inserted expressions such as they know, I think, and she says
should be ignored in determining whether to use who or whom.
▶ Th e speech pathologist reported a particularly diffi cult session
with a stroke patient whom she knew was suff ering from aphasia.
Who is the subject of was suff ering, not the object of knew.
25b Use who and whom correctly in questions.
When who and whom (or whoever and whomever) are used to
open questions, their case is determined by their function within
the question. In the following example, who functions as the sub-
ject of the question.
▶ Whom was responsible for creating that computer virus?
Who is the subject of the verb was.
When whom functions as the object of a verb or the object of a
preposition in a question, it appears out of normal order. To choose
the correct pronoun, you can mentally restructure the question.
▶ Who did the Democratic Party nominate in 2008?
Whom is the direct object of the verb did nominate. Th is becomes clear
if you restructure the question: Th e Democratic Party did nominate
whom in 2008?
25c Use whom for subjects or objects of
infi nitives.
An infi nitive is the word to followed by the base form of a verb.
(See 48b.) Subjects of infi nitives are an exception to the rule that
subjects must be in the subjective case. Th e subject of an infi ni-
tive must be in the objective case. Objects of infi nitives also are in
the objective case.
▶ When it comes to money, I know who to believe.
Th e infi nitive phrase whom to believe is the direct object of the verb
know, and whom is the subject of the infi nitive to believe.
^
who
^
Who
^
Whom
^
whom
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230 26 Adjectives and adverbs
adj, adv
NOTE: In spoken English, who is frequently used when the cor-
rect whom sounds too stuff y. Although some readers will accept
constructions like Who [not Whom] did Senator Boxer replace?
in informal written English, it is safer to use whom in formal
writing.
EXERCISE 25–1 Edit the following sentences to eliminate errors in the
use of who and whom (or whoever and whomever). If a sentence is cor-
rect, write “correct” aft er it. Answers appear in the back of the book.
More practice:
What is the address of the artist who Antonio hired?
a. Arriving late for rehearsal, we had no idea who was supposed to
dance with whom.
b. Th e environmental policy conference featured scholars who I had
never heard of.
c. Whom did you support in last month’s election for student
government president?
d. Daniel always gives a holiday donation to whomever needs it.
e. So many singers came to the audition that Natalia had trouble
deciding who to select for the choir.
26 Choose adjectives and adverbs with care.
Adjectives modify nouns or pronouns. Th ey usually come before
the word they modify; occasionally they function as comple-
ments following the word they modify. Adverbs modify verbs,
adjectives, or other adverbs. (See 46d and 46e.)
Many adverbs are formed by adding -ly to adjectives
( normal, normally; smooth, smoothly). But don’t assume that all
words ending in -ly are adverbs or that all adverbs end in -ly.
Some adjectives end in -ly (lovely, friendly), and some adverbs
don’t (always, here, there). When in doubt, consult a dictionary.
^
whom
macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
25 Who and whom
> Exercises: 25–2 and 25–3
> Exercises: 24/25–6 and 24/25–7 (pronoun review)
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http://www.macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
23126aAdjectives to modify nouns
adj, adv
Placement of adjectives and adverbs can be a tricky matter for multi-
lingual writers. See 30f and 30h.
M
u
lt
ili
n
gu
a
l
26a Use adjectives to modify nouns.
Adjectives ordinarily precede the nouns they modify. But they
can also function as subject complements or object comple-
ments, following the nouns they modify.
In English, adjectives are not pluralized to agree with the words they
modify:
▶ Th e reds roses were a surprise.
M
u
lt
ili
n
gu
a
l
^
red
Subject complements
A subject complement follows a linking verb and completes the
meaning of the subject. (See 47b.) When an adjective functions
as a subject complement, it describes the subject.
Justice is blind.
Problems can arise with verbs such as smell, taste, look, and
feel, which sometimes, but not always, function as linking verbs.
If the word following one of these verbs describes the subject, use
an adjective; if the word following the verb modifi es the verb, use
an adverb.
ADJECTIVE Th e detective looked cautious.
ADVERB Th e detective looked cautiously for fi ngerprints.
Th e adjective cautious describes the detective; the adverb cau-
tiously modifi es the verb looked.
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26b232 Adjectives and adverbs
adj, adv
Linking verbs suggest states of being, not actions. Notice, for
example, the diff erent meanings of looked in the preceding ex-
amples. To look cautious suggests the state of being cautious; to
look cautiously is to perform an action in a cautious way.
▶ Th e lilacs in our backyard smell especially sweetly this year.
Th e verb smell suggests a state of being, not an action. Th erefore, it
should be followed by an adjective, not an adverb.
▶ Th e drawings looked well aft er the architect made a few changes.
Th e verb looked is a linking verb suggesting a state of being, not an
action. Th e adjective good is appropriate following the linking verb to
describe drawings. (See also 26c.)
Object complements
An object complement follows a direct object and completes its
meaning. (See 47b.) When an adjective functions as an object
complement, it describes the direct object.
Sorrow makes us wise.
Object complements occur with verbs such as call, consider,
create, fi nd, keep, and make. When a modifi er follows the direct
object of one of these verbs, use an adjective to describe the direct
object; use an adverb to modify the verb.
ADJECTIVE Th e referee called the plays perfect.
ADVERB Th e referee called the plays perfectly.
Th e fi rst sentence means that the referee considered the plays to
be perfect; the second means that the referee did an excellent job
of calling the plays.
26b Use adverbs to modify verbs, adjectives,
and other adverbs.
When adverbs modify verbs (or verbals), they nearly always
answer the question When? Where? How? Why? Under what
conditions? How oft en? or To what degree? When adverbs modify
^
sweet
^
good
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23326cgood and well, bad and badly
adj, adv
adjectives or other adverbs, they usually qualify or intensify the
meaning of the word they modify. (See 46e.)
Adjectives are oft en used incorrectly in place of adverbs in
casual or nonstandard speech.
▶ Th e travel arrangement worked out perfect for everyone.
▶ Th e manager must see that the offi ce runs smooth and effi cient.
Th e adverb perfectly modifi es the verb worked out; the adverbs smoothly
and effi ciently modify the verb runs.
▶ Th e chance of recovering any lost property looks real slim.
Only adverbs can modify adjectives or other adverbs. Really intensifi es
the meaning of the adjective slim.
26c Distinguish between good and well, bad
and badly.
Good is an adjective ( good performance). Well is an adverb when
it modifi es a verb (speak well). Th e use of the adjective good in
place of the adverb well to modify a verb is nonstandard and
especially common in casual speech.
▶ We were glad that Sanya had done good on the CPA exam.
Th e adverb well modifi es the verb had done.
Confusion can arise because well is an adjective when it mod-
ifi es a noun or pronoun and means “healthy” or “satisfactory”
(Th e babies were well and warm).
▶ Adrienne did not feel good, but she performed anyway.
As an adjective following the linking verb did feel, well describes
Adrienne’s health.
Bad is always an adjective and should be used to describe a
noun; badly is always an adverb and should be used to modify a
verb. Th e adverb badly is oft en used inappropriately to describe a
noun, especially following a linking verb.
^
perfectly
^
smoothly
^
effi ciently.
^
really
^
well
^
well,
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26d234 Adjectives and adverbs
adj, adv
▶ Th e sisters felt badly when they realized they had left their
brother out of the planning.
Th e adjective bad is used aft er the linking verb felt to describe the noun
sisters.
26d Use comparatives and superlatives with care.
Most adjectives and adverbs have three forms: the positive, the
comparative, and the superlative.
POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
soft soft er soft est
fast faster fastest
careful more careful most careful
bad worse worst
good better best
Comparative versus superlative
Use the comparative to compare two things, the superlative to
compare three or more.
▶ Which of these two low-carb drinks is best?
▶ Th ough Shaw and Jackson are impressive, Zhao is the more
qualifi ed of the three candidates running for mayor.
Forming comparatives and superlatives
To form comparatives and superlatives of most one- and two-
syllable adjectives, use the endings -er and -est: smooth, smoother,
smoothest; easy, easier, easiest. With longer adjectives, use more
and most (or less and least for downward comparisons): exciting,
more exciting, most exciting; helpful, less helpful, least helpful.
Some one-syllable adverbs take the endings -er and -est
( fast, faster, fastest), but longer adverbs and all of those ending
in -ly form the comparative and superlative with more and most
(or less and least).
^
bad
^
bett er?
^
most
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23526eDouble negatives
adj, adv
Th e comparative and superlative forms of some adjectives
and adverbs are irregular: good, better, best; well, better, best; bad,
worse, worst; badly, worse, worst.
▶ Th e Kirov is the talentedest ballet company we have seen.
▶ According to our projections, sales at local businesses will be
worser than those at the chain stores this winter.
Double comparatives or superlatives
Do not use double comparatives or superlatives. When you have
added -er or -est to an adjective or adverb, do not also use more or
most (or less or least).
▶ Of all her family, Julia is the most happiest about the move.
▶ All the polls indicated that Gore was more likelier to win
than Bush.
Absolute concepts
Avoid expressions such as more straight, less perfect, very round,
and most unique. Either something is unique or it isn’t. It is illogi-
cal to suggest that absolute concepts come in degrees.
▶ Th at is the most unique wedding gown I have ever seen.
▶ Th e painting is even more priceless because it is signed.
26e Avoid double negatives.
Standard English allows two negatives only if a positive meaning
is intended: Th e orchestra was not unhappy with its performance
(meaning that the orchestra was happy). Using a double negative
to emphasize a negative meaning is nonstandard.
Negative modifi ers such as never, no, and not should not be
paired with other negative modifi ers or with negative words such
as neither, none, no one, nobody, and nothing.
^
most talented
^
worse
^
likely
^
unusual
^
valuable
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26e236 Adjectives and adverbs
adj, adv
▶ Th e county is not doing nothing to see that the trash is picked up.
Th e double negative not . . . nothing is nonstandard.
Th e modifi ers hardly, barely, and scarcely are considered
negatives in standard English, so they should not be used with
negatives such as not, no one, or never.
▶ Maxine is so weak that she can’t hardly climb stairs.
EXERCISE 26–1 Edit the following sentences to eliminate errors in the
use of adjectives and adverbs. If a sentence is correct, write “correct”
aft er it. Answers appear in the back of the book.
More practice:
We weren’t surprised by how good the sidecar racing team
fl owed through the tricky course.
a. Do you expect to perform good on the exam next week?
b. With the budget deadline approaching, our offi ce hasn’t hardly
had time to handle routine correspondence.
c. Some fl owers smell surprisingly bad.
d. Th e customer complained that he hadn’t been treated nice by the
agent on the phone.
e. Of all the smart people in my family, Aunt Ida is the most cleverest.
EXERCISE 26–2 Edit the following passage to eliminate errors in the
use of adjectives and adverbs.
Doctors recommend that to give skin the most fullest
protection from ultraviolet rays, people should use plenty of
sunscreen, limit sun exposure, and wear protective clothing. Th e
commonest sunscreens today are known as “broad spectrum”
because they block out both UVA and UVB rays. Th ese lotions
don’t feel any diff erently on the skin from the old UVA-only types,
but they work best at preventing premature aging and skin cancer.
Many sunscreens claim to be waterproof, but they won’t hardly
^
anything
^
can
^
well
macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
26 Adjectives and adverbs
> Exercises: 26–3 to 26–5
> LearningCurve: Verbs, adjectives, and adverbs
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23727aIrregular verbs
vb
provide adequate coverage aft er extended periods of swimming or
perspiring. To protect good, even waterproof sunscreens should
be reapplied liberal and oft en. All areas of exposed skin, including
ears, backs of hands, and tops of feet, need to be coated good
to avoid burning or damage. Some people’s skin reacts bad to
PABA, or para-aminobenzoic acid, so PABA-free (hypoallergenic)
sunscreens are widely available. In addition to recommending
sunscreen, doctors almost unanimously agree that people should
stay out of the sun when rays are the most strongest — between
10:00 a.m. and 3:00 p.m. — and should limit time in the sun. Th ey
also suggest that people wear long-sleeved shirts, broad-brimmed
hats, and long pants whenever possible.
27 Choose appropriate verb forms, tenses, and moods
in Standard English.
In speech, some people use verb forms and tenses that match
a home dialect or variety of English. In writing, use Standard
En glish verb forms unless you are quoting nonstandard speech
or using alternative forms for literary eff ect. (See 17c.)
Except for the verb be, all verbs in English have fi ve forms.
Th e following list shows the fi ve forms and provides a sample
sentence in which each might appear.
BASE FORM Usually I (walk, ride).
PAST TENSE Yesterday I (walked, rode).
PAST PARTICIPLE I have (walked, ridden) many times before.
PRESENT PARTICIPLE I am (walking, riding) right now.
-S FORM He/she/it (walks, rides) regularly.
Th e verb be has eight forms instead of the usual fi ve: be, am,
is, are, was, were, being, been.
27a Choose Standard English forms of irregular
verbs.
For all regular verbs, the past-tense and past-participle forms
are the same (ending in -ed or -d), so there is no danger of
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27a238 Standard English verb forms
vb
confusion. Th is is not true, however, for irregular verbs, such as
the following.
BASE FORM PAST TENSE PAST PARTICIPLE
go went gone
break broke broken
fl y fl ew fl own
sing sang sung
Th e past-tense form always occurs alone, without a helping
verb. It expresses action that occurred entirely in the past: I rode
to work yesterday. I walked to work last Tuesday. Th e past parti-
ciple is used with a helping verb. It forms the perfect tenses with
has, have, or had; it forms the passive voice with be, am, is, are,
was, were, being, or been. (See 46c for a complete list of helping
verbs and 27f for a survey of tenses.)
PAST TENSE Last July, we went to Paris.
HELPING VERB + PAST PARTICIPLE We have gone to Paris twice.
Th e list of common irregular verbs beginning below will
help you distinguish between the past tense and the past partici-
ple. Choose the past-participle form if the verb in your sentence
requires a helping verb; choose the past-tense form if the verb
does not require a helping verb. (See verb tenses in 27f.)
▶ Yesterday we seen a documentary about Isabel Allende.
Th e past-tense saw is required because there is no helping verb.
▶ Th e truck was apparently stole while the driver ate lunch.
▶ By Friday, the stock market had fell two hundred points.
Because of the helping verbs was and had, the past-participle forms are
required: was stolen, had fallen.
Common irregular verbs
BASE FORM PAST TENSE PAST PARTICIPLE
arise arose arisen
awake awoke, awaked awaked, awoke, awoken
be was, were been
^
saw
^
stolen
^
fallen
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23927aIrregular verbs
vb
BASE FORM PAST TENSE PAST PARTICIPLE
beat beat beaten, beat
become became become
begin began begun
bend bent bent
bite bit bitten, bit
blow blew blown
break broke broken
bring brought brought
build built built
burst burst burst
buy bought bought
catch caught caught
choose chose chosen
cling clung clung
come came come
cost cost cost
deal dealt dealt
dig dug dug
dive dived, dove dived
do did done
drag dragged dragged
draw drew drawn
dream dreamed, dreamt dreamed, dreamt
drink drank drunk
drive drove driven
eat ate eaten
fall fell fallen
fi ght fought fought
fi nd found found
fl y fl ew fl own
forget forgot forgotten, forgot
freeze froze frozen
get got gotten, got
(continued )
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27a240 Standard English verb forms
vb
BASE FORM PAST TENSE PAST PARTICIPLE
give gave given
go went gone
grow grew grown
hang (execute) hanged hanged
hang (suspend) hung hung
have had had
hear heard heard
hide hid hidden
hurt hurt hurt
keep kept kept
know knew known
lay (put) laid laid
lead led led
lend lent lent
let (allow) let let
lie (recline) lay lain
lose lost lost
make made made
prove proved proved, proven
read read read
ride rode ridden
ring rang rung
rise (get up) rose risen
run ran run
say said said
see saw seen
send sent sent
set (place) set set
shake shook shaken
shoot shot shot
shrink shrank shrunk
sing sang sung
sink sank sunk
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24127blie vs. lay
vb
BASE FORM PAST TENSE PAST PARTICIPLE
sit (be seated) sat sat
slay slew slain
sleep slept slept
speak spoke spoken
spin spun spun
spring sprang sprung
stand stood stood
steal stole stolen
sting stung stung
strike struck struck, stricken
swear swore sworn
swim swam swum
swing swung swung
take took taken
teach taught taught
throw threw thrown
wake woke, waked waked, woken
wear wore worn
wring wrung wrung
write wrote written
27b Distinguish among the forms of lie and lay.
Writers and speakers frequently confuse the various forms of lie
(meaning “to recline or rest on a surface”) and lay (meaning “to put
or place something”). Lie is an intransitive verb; it does not take a
direct object: Th e forms lie on the table. Th e verb lay is transitive;
it takes a direct object: Please lay the forms on the table. (See 47b.)
In addition to confusing the meaning of lie and lay, writ-
ers and speakers are oft en unfamiliar with the Standard English
forms of these verbs.
BASE FORM PAST TENSE
PAST
PARTICIPLE
PRESENT
PARTICIPLE
lie (recline) lay lain lying
lay (put) laid laid laying
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27c242 Standard English verb forms
vb
▶ Sue was so exhausted that she laid down for a nap.
Th e past-tense form of lie (“to recline”) is lay.
▶ Th e patient had laid in an uncomfortable position all night.
Th e past-participle form of lie (“to recline”) is lain. If the correct English
seems too stilted, recast the sentence: Th e patient had been lying in an
uncomfortable position all night.
▶ Th e prosecutor lay the pistol on a table close to the jurors.
Th e past-tense form of lay (“to place”) is laid.
▶ Letters dating from 1915 were laying in a corner of the chest.
Th e present participle of lie (“to rest on a surface”) is lying.
EXERCISE 27–1 Edit the following sentences to eliminate problems
with irregular verbs. If a sentence is correct, write “correct” aft er it.
Answers appear in the back of the book. More practice:
Th e ranger seen the forest fi re ten miles away.
a. When I get the urge to exercise, I lay down until it passes.
b. Grandmother had drove our new hybrid to the sunrise church
service, so we were left with the station wagon.
c. A pile of dirty rags was laying at the bottom of the stairs.
d. How did the game know that the player had went from the room
with the blue ogre to the hall where the gold was heaped?
e. Abraham Lincoln took good care of his legal clients; the contracts
he drew for the Illinois Central Railroad could never be broke.
27c Use -s (or -es) endings on present-tense
verbs that have third-person singular subjects.
All singular nouns (child, tree) and the pronouns he, she, and it
are third-person singular; indefi nite pronouns such as everyone
^
lay
^
lain
^
laid
^
lying
^
saw
macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
27 Verb forms, tenses, and moods
> Exercises: 27–2 to 27–4
> LearningCurve: Verbs
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24327c-s (or -es) endings
vb
and neither are also third-person singular. When the subject of a
sentence is third-person singular, its verb takes an -s or -es end-
ing in the present tense. (See also 21.)
SINGULAR PLURAL
FIRST PERSON I know we know
SECOND PERSON you know you know
THIRD PERSON he/she/it
child
everyone
knows
knows
knows
they
parents
know
know
▶ My neighbor drive to Marco Island every weekend.
▶ Sulfur dioxide turn leaves yellow, dissolve marble, and eat away
iron and steel.
Th e subjects neighbor and sulfur dioxide are third-person singular, so the
verbs must end in -s.
TIP: Do not add the -s ending to the verb if the subject is not
third-person singular. Th e writers of the following sentences,
knowing they sometimes dropped -s endings from verbs, over-
corrected by adding the endings where they don’t belong.
▶ I prepare/s program specifi cations and logic diagrams for every
installation.
Th e writer mistakenly concluded that the -s ending belongs on present-
tense verbs used with all singular subjects, not just third-person singular
subjects. Th e pronoun I is fi rst-person singular, so its verb does not
require the -s.
▶ Th e dirt fl oors require/s continual sweeping.
Th e writer mistakenly thought that the verb needed an -s ending
because of the plural subject. But the -s ending is used only on present-
tense verbs with third-person singular subjects.
Has versus have
In the present tense, use has with third-person singular subjects;
all other subjects require have.
^
drives
^
turns
^
dissolves
^
eats
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27c244 Standard English verb forms
vb
SINGULAR PLURAL
FIRST PERSON I have we have
SECOND PERSON you have you have
THIRD PERSON he/she/it has they have
▶ Th is respected musician almost always have a message to convey
in his work.
Th e subject musician is third-person singular, so the verb should be has.
▶ My law classes has helped me understand contracts.
Th e subject of this sentence — classes — is third-person plural, so Standard
English requires have. Has is used only with third-person singular subjects.
Does versus do and doesn’t versus don’t
In the present tense, use does and doesn’t with third-person sin-
gular subjects; all other subjects require do and don’t.
SINGULAR PLURAL
FIRST PERSON I do/don’t we do/don’t
SECOND PERSON you do/don’t you do/don’t
THIRD PERSON he/she/it does/doesn’t they do/don’t
▶ Grandfather really don’t have a place to call home.
Grandfather is third-person singular, so the verb should be doesn’t.
Am, is, and are; was and were
Th e verb be has three forms in the present tense (am, is, are) and
two in the past tense (was, were).
SINGULAR PLURAL
FIRST PERSON I am/was we are/were
SECOND PERSON you are/were you are/were
THIRD PERSON he/she/it is/was they are/were
▶ Did you think you was going to drown?
Th e subject you is second-person singular, so the verb should be were.
^
has
^
have
^
doesn’t
^
were
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24527d-ed endings
vb
27d Do not omit -ed endings on verbs.
Speakers who do not fully pronounce -ed endings sometimes
omit them unintentionally in writing. Failure to pronounce -ed
endings is common in many dialects and in informal speech,
even in Standard English. In the following frequently used words
and phrases, for example, the -ed ending is not always fully
pronounced.
advised developed prejudiced supposed to
asked fi xed pronounced used to
concerned frightened stereotyped
When a verb is regular, both the past tense and the past par-
ticiple are formed by adding -ed (or -d) to the base form of the
verb.
Past tense
Use the ending -ed or -d to express the past tense of regular verbs.
Th e past tense is used when the action occurred entirely in the past.
▶ Over the weekend, Ed fi x his brother’s skateboard and tuned up
his mother’s 1991 Fiat.
▶ Last summer, my counselor advise me to ask my chemistry
instructor for help.
Past participles
Past participles are used in three ways: (1) following have, has,
or had to form one of the perfect tenses; (2) following be, am, is,
are, was, were, being, or been to form the passive voice; and (3) as
adjectives modifying nouns or pronouns. Th e perfect tenses are
listed on page 248, and the passive voice is discussed in 8a. For a
discussion of participles as adjectives, see 48b.
▶ Robin has ask for more housing staff for next year.
Has asked is present perfect tense (have or has followed by a past
participle).
^
fi xed
^
advised
^
asked
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27e246 Standard English verb forms
vb
▶ Th ough it is not a new phenomenon, domestic violence is now
publicize more than ever.
Is publicized is a verb in the passive voice (a form of be followed by a past
participle).
▶ All kickboxing classes end in a cool-down period to stretch
tighten muscles.
Th e past participle tightened functions as an adjective modifying the
noun muscles.
27e Do not omit needed verbs.
Although Standard English allows some linking verbs and help-
ing verbs to be contracted in informal contexts, it does not allow
them to be omitted.
Linking verbs, used to link subjects to subject complements,
are frequently a form of be: be, am, is, are, was, were, being, been.
(See 47b.) Some of these forms may be contracted (I’m, she’s,
we’re, you’re, they’re), but they should not be omitted altogether.
▶ When we quiet in the evening, we can hear the crickets.
Helping verbs, used with main verbs, include forms of be,
do, and have and the modal verbs can, will, shall, could, would,
should, may, might, and must. (See 46c.) Some helping verbs may
be contracted (he’s leaving, we’ll celebrate, they’ve been told), but
they should not be omitted altogether.
▶ We been in Chicago since last Th ursday.
▶ Do you know someone who be good for the job?
Some languages do not require a linking verb between a subject and
its complement. English, however, requires a verb in every sentence.
See 30a.
▶ Every night, I read a short book to my daughter. When I too busy,
my husband reads to her.M
u
lt
ili
n
gu
a
l
^
am
^
publicized
^
tightened
^
are
^
have
^
would
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24727fVerb tense
vb
EXERCISE 27–5 Edit the following sentences to eliminate problems
with -s and -ed verb forms and with omitted verbs. If a sentence is cor-
rect, write “correct” aft er it. Answers appear in the back of the book.
More practice:
Th e Pell Grant sometimes cover the student’s full tuition.
a. Th e glass sculptures of the Swan Boats was prominent in the
brightly lit lobby.
b. Visitors to the glass museum were not suppose to touch the
exhibits.
c. Our church has all the latest technology, even a closed-circuit
television.
d. Christos didn’t know about Marlo’s promotion because he never
listens. He always talking.
e. Most psychologists agree that no one performs well under stress.
27f Choose the appropriate verb tense.
Tenses indicate the time of an action in relation to the time of the
speaking or writing about that action.
Th e most common problem with tenses — shift ing confus-
ingly from one tense to another — is discussed in section 13.
Other problems with tenses are detailed in this section, aft er the
following survey of tenses.
Survey of tenses
Tenses are classified as present, past, and future, with simple, per-
fect, and progressive forms for each.
Simple tenses Th e simple tenses indicate relatively simple time
relations. Th e simple present tense is used primarily for actions
occurring at the same time they are being discussed or for actions
occurring regularly. Th e simple past tense is used for actions com-
pleted in the past. Th e simple future tense is used for actions that
will occur in the future. In the following table, the simple tenses
^
covers
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27 Verb forms, tenses, and moods
> Exercises: 27–6 to 27–8
> LearningCurve: Verbs
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27f248 Standard English verb forms
vb
are given for the regular verb walk, the irregular verb ride, and
the highly irregular verb be.
SIMPLE PRESENT
SINGULAR PLURAL
I walk, ride, am we walk, ride, are
you walk, ride, are you walk, ride, are
he/she/it walks, rides, is they walk, ride, are
SIMPLE PAST
SINGULAR PLURAL
I walked, rode, was we walked, rode, were
you walked, rode, were you walked, rode, were
he/she/it walked, rode, was they walked, rode, were
SIMPLE FUTURE
I, you, he/she/it, we, they will walk, ride, be
Perfect tenses More complex time relations are indicated by the
perfect tenses. A verb in one of the perfect tenses (a form of have
plus the past participle) expresses an action that was or will be
completed at the time of another action.
PRESENT PERFECT
I, you, we, they have walked, ridden, been
he/she/it has walked, ridden, been
PAST PERFECT
I, you, he/she/it, we, they had walked, ridden, been
FUTURE PERFECT
I, you, he/she/it, we, they will have walked, ridden, been
Progressive forms Th e simple and perfect tenses have progres-
sive forms that describe actions in progress. A progressive verb
consists of a form of be followed by a present participle. Th e pro-
gressive forms are not normally used with certain verbs, such as
believe, know, hear, seem, and think.
PRESENT PROGRESSIVE
I am walking, riding, being
he/she/it is walking, riding, being
you, we, they are walking, riding, being
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24927fVerb tense
vb
PAST PROGRESSIVE
I, he/she/it was walking, riding, being
you, we, they were walking, riding, being
FUTURE PROGRESSIVE
I, you, he/she/it, we, they will be walking, riding, being
PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE
I, you, we, they have been walking, riding, being
he/she/it has been walking, riding, being
PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE
I, you, he/she/it, we, they had been walking, riding, being
FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE
I, you, he/she/it, we, they will have been walking, riding,
being
See 28a for more specifi c examples of verb tenses that can be chal-
lenging for multilingual writers.
M
u
lt
ili
n
gu
a
l
Special uses of the present tense
Use the present tense when expressing general truths, when writ-
ing about literature, and when quoting, summarizing, or para-
phrasing an author’s views.
General truths or scientific principles should appear in the
present tense unless such principles have been disproved.
▶ Galileo taught that the earth revolved around the sun.
Because Galileo’s teaching has not been discredited, the verb should
be in the present tense. Th e following sentence, however, is acceptable:
Ptolemy taught that the sun revolved around the earth.
When writing about a work of literature, you may be tempted
to use the past tense. Th e convention, however, is to describe
fictional events in the present tense.
^
revolves
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27f250 Standard English verb forms
vb
▶ In Masuji Ibuse’s Black Rain, a child reached for a pomegranate
in his mother’s garden, and a moment later he was dead, killed
by the blast of the atomic bomb.
When you are quoting, summarizing, or paraphras-
ing the author of a nonliterary work, use present-tense verbs
such as writes, reports, asserts, and so on to introduce the
source. Th is convention is usually followed even when the au-
thor is dead (unless a date or the context specifi es the time of
writing).
▶ Dr. Jerome Groopman argued that doctors are “susceptible to the
subtle and not so subtle eff orts of the pharmaceutical industry to
sculpt our thinking” (9).
In MLA style, signal phrases are written in the present tense, not the
past tense. (See also 55c.)
APA NOTE: When you are documenting a paper with the APA
(American Psychological Association) style of in-text citations,
use past tense verbs such as reported or demonstrated or present
perfect verbs such as has reported or has demonstrated to intro-
duce the source. (See also 60c.)
E. Wilson (1994) reported that positive reinforcement alone was
a less eff ective teaching technique than a mixture of positive
reinforcement and constructive criticism.
The past perfect tense
Th e past perfect tense consists of a past participle preceded by had
(had worked, had gone). Th is tense is used for an action already
completed by the time of another past action or for an action
already completed at some specific past time.
Everyone had spoken by the time I arrived.
I pleaded my case, but Paula had made up her mind.
Writers sometimes use the simple past tense when they
should use the past perfect.
^
reaches
^
is
^
argues
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25127fVerb tense
vb
▶ We built our cabin high on a pine knoll, forty feet above an
abandoned quarry that was flooded in 1920 to create a lake.
Th e building of the cabin and the flooding of the quarry both occurred
in the past, but the flooding was completed before the time of building.
▶ By the time dinner was served, the guest of honor left .
Th e past perfect tense is needed because the action of leaving was
already completed at a specific past time (when dinner was served).
Some writers tend to overuse the past perfect tense. Do not
use the past perfect if two past actions occurred at the same time.
▶ When Ernest Hemingway lived in Cuba, he had written For
Whom the Bell Tolls.
Sequence of tenses with infinitives and participles
An infinitive is the base form of a verb preceded by to. (See 48b.)
Use the present infinitive to show action at the same time as or
later than the action of the verb in the sentence.
▶ Sonia had hoped to have paid the bill by May 1.
Th e action expressed in the infinitive (to pay) occurred later than the
action of the sentence’s verb (had hoped).
Use the perfect form of an infinitive (to have followed by the
past participle) for an action occurring earlier than that of the
verb in the sentence.
▶ Dan would like to join the navy, but he went to college fi rst.
Th e liking occurs in the present; the joining would have occurred in
the past.
Like the tense of an infinitive, the tense of a participle is gov-
erned by the tense of the sentence’s verb. Use the present parti-
ciple (ending in -ing) for an action occurring at the same time as
that of the sentence’s verb.
Hiking the Appalachian Trail, we spotted many wildflowers.
^
had been
^
had
^
wrote
^
pay
^
have joined
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27g252 Standard English verb forms
vb
Use the past participle (such as given or helped) or the present
perfect participle (having plus the past participle) for an action
occurring before that of the verb.
Discovered off the coast of Florida, the Spanish galleon yielded
many treasures.
Having worked her way through college, Lee graduated debt-free.
27g Use the subjunctive mood in the few
contexts that require it.
Th ere are three moods in English: the indicative, used for facts,
opinions, and questions; the imperative, used for orders or
advice; and the subjunctive, used in certain contexts to express
wishes, requests, or conditions contrary to fact. For many writers,
the subjunctive causes the most problems.
Forms of the subjunctive
In the subjunctive mood, present-tense verbs do not change
form to indicate the number and person of the subject (see 21).
Instead, the subjunctive uses the base form of the verb (be, drive,
employ) with all subjects.
It is important that you be [not are] prepared for the interview.
We asked that she drive [not drives] more slowly.
Also, in the subjunctive mood, there is only one past-tense
form of be: were (never was).
If I were [not was] you, I’d try a new strategy.
Uses of the subjunctive
Th e subjunctive mood appears only in a few contexts: in
contrary-to-fact clauses beginning with if or expressing a wish;
in that clauses following verbs such as ask, insist, recommend,
request, and suggest; and in certain set expressions.
In contrary-to-fact clauses beginning with if When a subordinate
clause beginning with if expresses a condition contrary to fact,
use the subjunctive were in place of was.
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25327gSubjunctive mood
vb
▶ If I was a member of the management team, I would organize
more social events for employees.
▶ Th e astronomers would be able to see the moons of Jupiter
tonight if the weather was clearer.
Th e verbs in these sentences express conditions that do not exist: Th e
writer is not a member of Congress, and the weather is not clear.
Do not use the subjunctive mood in if clauses expressing
conditions that exist or may exist.
If Dana wins the contest, she will leave for Barcelona in June.
In contrary-to-fact clauses expressing a wish In formal En glish,
use the subjunctive were in clauses expressing a wish or desire.
INFORMAL I wish that Dr. Vaughn was my professor.
FORMAL I wish that Dr. Vaughn were my professor.
In that clauses following verbs such as ask, insist, request, and suggest
Because requests have not yet become reality, they are expressed
in the subjunctive mood.
▶ Professor Moore insists that her students are on time for every
class.
▶ We recommend that Mrs. Lambert fi les form 1050 as soon as
possible.
In certain set expressions Th e subjunctive mood, once more
widely used, remains in certain set expressions: Be that as it may,
as it were, far be it from me, and so on.
^
were
^
were
^
be
^
fi le
08_HAC_01131_PT4_187_254.indd 25308_HAC_01131_PT4_187_254.indd 253 01/09/15 5:48 PM01/09/15 5:48 PM
27g254 Standard English verb forms
vb
EXERCISE 27–9 Edit the following sentences to eliminate errors in
verb tense or mood. If a sentence is correct, write “correct” aft er it.
Answers appear in the back of the book. More practice:
Aft er the path was plowed, we were able to walk in the park.
a. Th e palace of Knossos in Crete is believed to have been destroyed
by fi re around 1375 BCE.
b. Watson and Crick discovered the mechanism that controlled
inheritance in all life: the workings of the DNA molecule.
c. When city planners proposed rezoning the waterfront, did they
know that the mayor promised to curb development in that
neighborhood?
d. Tonight’s concert begins at 9:30. If it was earlier, I’d consider going.
e. Th e math position was fi lled by the woman who had been running
the tutoring center.
^
had been
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27 Verb forms, tenses, and moods
> Exercises: 27–10 to 27–12
> LearningCurve: Verbs
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Multilingual
Writers
and ESL
Challenges
28 Verbs, 256
29 Articles (a, an, the) and types of nouns, 270
30 Sentence structure, 279
31 Prepositions and idiomatic expressions, 288
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ESL
Verbs256 28
Th is section of Rules for Writers is primarily for multilingual
writers. You may fi nd this section helpful if you learned English
as a second language (ESL) or if you speak a language other than
English with your friends and family.
28 Verbs
Both native and nonnative speakers of English encounter chal-
lenges with verbs. Section 28 focuses on specifi c challenges that
multilingual writers sometimes face. You can fi nd more help with
verbs in other sections in the book:
making subjects and verbs agree (21)
using irregular verb forms (27a, 27b)
leaving off verb endings (27c, 27d)
choosing the correct verb tense (27f )
avoiding inappropriate uses of the passive voice (8a)
28a Use the appropriate verb form and tense.
Th is section off ers a brief review of English verb forms and tenses.
For additional help, see 27 and 46c.
Basic verb forms
Every main verb in English has fi ve forms, which are used to cre-
ate all of the verb tenses in standard English. Th e chart at the top
of page 257 shows these forms for the regular verb help and the
irregular verbs give and be. See 27a for the forms of other com-
mon irregular verbs.
Verb tenses
Section 27f describes all the verb tenses in English, showing the
forms of a regular verb, an irregular verb, and the verb be in each
tense. Th e chart on pages 257–59 provides more details about the
tenses commonly used in the active voice in writing; the chart on
page 260 gives details about tenses commonly used in the passive
voice.
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257
ESL
28aAppropriate form and tense
Basic verb forms
REGULAR
VERB HELP
IRREGULAR
VERB GIVE
IRREGULAR
VERB BE *
BASE FORM help give be
PAST TENSE helped gave was, were
PAST PARTICIPLE helped given been
PRESENT PARTICIPLE helping giving being
-S FORM helps gives is
*Be also has the forms am and are, which are used in the present tense.
Verb tenses commonly used in the active voice
For descriptions and examples of all verb tenses, see 27f. For verb
tenses commonly used in the passive voice, see the chart on page 260.
Simple tenses
For general facts, states of being, habitual actions
Simple present Base form or -s form
● general facts
● states of being
● habitual, repetitive
actions
● scheduled future
events
College students oft en study late at
night.
Water becomes steam at 100 degrees
centigrade.
We donate to a diff erent charity each
year.
Th e train arrives tomorrow at 6:30 p.m.
NOTE: For uses of the present tense in writing about literature, see
page 249.
Simple past Base form + -ed or -d or irregular form
● completed actions at a
specifi c time in the past
● facts or states of being
in the past
Th e storm destroyed their property.
She drove to Montana three years ago.
When I was young, I usually walked to
school with my sister.
Simple future will + base form
● future actions, promises,
or predictions
I will exercise tomorrow. Th e snowfall
will begin around midnight.
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ESL
28a Verbs258
Verb tenses commonly used in the active voice, continued
Simple progressive forms
For continuing actions
Present progressive am, is, are + present participle
● actions in progress at
the present time, not
continuing indefi nitely
● future actions (with leave,
go, come, move, etc.)
Th e students are taking an exam in
Room 105.
Th e valet is parking the car.
I am leaving tomorrow morning.
Past progressive was, were + present participle
● actions in progress at a
specifi c time in the past
● was going to, were going to
for past plans that did not
happen
Th ey were swimming when the storm
struck.
We were going to drive to Florida for
spring break, but the car broke down.
NOTE: Some verbs are not normally used in the progressive: appear,
believe, belong, contain, have, hear, know, like, need, see, seem, taste,
understand, and want.
▶ I am wanting to see August Wilson’s Radio Golf.
Perfect tenses
For actions that happened or will happen before another time
Present perfect has, have + past participle
● repetitive or constant
actions that began in the
past and continue to
the present
I have loved cats since I was a child.
Alicia has worked in Kenya for ten
years.
● actions that happened
at an unknown or
unspecifi c past time
Stephen has visited Wales three times.
Past perfect had + past participle
● actions that began or
occurred before another
time in the past
She had just crossed the street when
the runaway car crashed into the
building.
NOTE: For more discussion of uses of the past perfect, see 27f. For
uses of the past perfect in conditional sentences, see 28e.
^
want
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259
ESL
28bPassive voice
28b To write a verb in the passive voice, use a
form of be with the past participle.
When a sentence is written in the passive voice, the subject
receives the action instead of doing it. (See “Passive transforma-
tions” in 47c.)
Th e solution was measured by the lab assistant.
To form the passive voice, use a form of be — am, is, are, was,
were, being, be, or been — followed by the past participle of the
main verb: was chosen, are remembered. (Sometimes a form of be
follows another helping verb: will be considered, could have been
broken.)
▶ Dreaming in Cuban was writing by Cristina García.
In the passive voice, the past participle written, not the present participle
writing, must follow was (the past tense of be).
▶ Th e child is being test.
Th e past participle tested, not the base form test, must be used with is
being to form the passive voice.
For details on forming the passive in various tenses, consult
the chart on page 260. (For appropriate uses of the passive voice,
see 8a.)
^
writt en
^
tested.
Verb tenses commonly used in the active voice, continued
Perfect progressive forms
For continuous past actions before another time
Present perfect progressive has, have + been + present participle
● continuous actions
that began in the past and
continue to the present
Yolanda has been trying to get a job in
Boston for fi ve years.
Past perfect progressive had + been + present participle
● actions that began and
continued in the past
until another past action
By the time I moved to Georgia, I had
been supporting myself for fi ve years.
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28b Verbs260
Verb tenses commonly used in the passive voice
For details about verb tenses in the active voice, see pages 257–59.
Simple tenses (passive voice)
Simple present am, is, are + past participle
● general facts
● habitual, repetitive actions
Breakfast is served daily.
Th e receipts are counted every night.
Simple past was, were + past participle
● completed past actions He was rewarded for being on time.
Simple future will be + past participle
● future actions, promises,
or predictions
Th e decision will be made by the
committee next week.
Simple progressive forms (passive voice)
Present progressive am, is, are + being + past participle
● actions in progress at
the present time
● future actions (with leave,
go, come, move, etc.)
Th e new stadium is being built with
private money.
Jo is being promoted to a new job
next month.
Past progressive was, were + being + past participle
● actions in progress at a
specifi c time in the past
We thought we were being followed.
Perfect tenses (passive voice)
Present perfect has, have + been + past participle
● actions that began in
the past and continue
to the present
● actions that happened at
an unknown or unspecifi c
time in the past
Th e fl ight has been delayed because of
storms in the Midwest.
Wars have been fought throughout
history.
Past perfect had + been + past participle
● actions that began or
occurred before another
time in the past
He had been given all the hints he
needed to complete the puzzle.
NOTE: Future progressive, future perfect, and perfect progressive
forms are not used in the passive voice.
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261
ESL
28cBase form after a modal
NOTE: Only transitive verbs, those that take direct objects, may be
used in the passive voice. Intransitive verbs such as occur, happen,
sleep, die, become, and fall are not used in the passive. (See 47b.)
▶ Th e accident was happened suddenly.
EXERCISE 28–1 Revise the following sentences to correct errors in
verb forms and tenses in the active and the passive voice. You may need
to look at 27a for the correct form of some irregular verbs and at 27f for
help with tenses. Answers appear in the back of the book.
More practice:
Th e meeting begin tonight at 7:30.
a. In the past, tobacco companies deny any connection between
smoking and health problems.
b. Th e volunteer’s compassion has touch many lives.
c. I am wanting to register for a summer tutoring session.
d. By the end of the year, the state will have test 139 birds for avian fl u.
e. Th e golfers were prepare for all weather conditions.
28c Use the base form of the verb after
a modal.
Th e modal verbs are can, could, may, might, must, shall, should,
will, and would. (Ought to is also considered a modal verb.) Th e
modals are used with the base form of a verb to show ability, cer-
tainty, necessity, permission, obligation, or possibility.
Modals and the verbs that follow them do not change form
to indicate tense. For a summary of modals and their meanings,
see the chart on pages 262–63. (See also 27e.)
▶ Th e art museum will launches its fundraising campaign
next month.
Th e modal will must be followed by the base form launch, not the
present tense launches.
^
begins
^
launch
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28 Verbs
> Exercises: 28–2, 28–3, and 28–13 (verb review)
> LearningCurve: Verbs for multilingual writers
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ESL
28c Verbs262
Modals and their meanings
can
● general ability
(present)
● informal requests
or permission
Ants can survive anywhere, even in space. Jorge
can run a marathon faster than his brother.
Can you tell me where the light is? Sandy
can borrow my calculator.
could
● general ability
(past)
● polite, informal
requests or
permission
Lea could read when she was only three
years old.
Could you give me that pen?
may
● formal requests or
permission
● possibility
May I see the report? Students may park
only in the yellow zone.
I may try to fi nish my homework tonight, or
I may wake up early and fi nish it tomorrow.
might
● possibility Funding for the language lab might double
by 2019.
NOTE: Might usually expresses a stronger possibility than may.
must
● necessity (present
or future)
● strong probability
● near certainty
(present or past)
To be eff ective, welfare-to-work programs
must provide access to job training.
Amy must be nervous. [She is probably nervous.]
I must have left my wallet at home. [I almost
certainly left my wallet at home.]
should
● suggestions or
advice
● obligations or duties
● expectations
Diabetics should drink plenty of water every
day.
Th e government should protect citizens’ rights.
Th e books should arrive soon. [We expect the
books to arrive soon.]
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263
ESL
28c
▶ Th e translator could spoke many languages, so the
ambassador hired her for the European tour.
Th e modal could must be followed by the base form speak, not the past
tense spoke.
TIP: Do not use to in front of a main verb that follows a modal.
▶ Gina can to drive us home if we miss the last train.
For the use of modals in conditional sentences, see 28e.
EXERCISE 28–4 Edit the following sentences to correct errors in the use
of verb forms with modals. You may fi nd it helpful to consult the chart
on pages 262–63. If a sentence is correct, write “correct” aft er it. Answers
appear in the back of the book. More practice:
We should to order pizza for dinner.
a. A major league pitcher can to throw a baseball more than ninety-
fi ve miles per hour.
^
speak
will
● certainty
● requests
● promises and off ers
If you don’t leave now, you will be late
for your rehearsal.
Will you help me study for my
psychology exam?
Jonah will arrange the carpool.
would
● polite requests
● habitual or
repeated actions (past)
Would you help me carry these books?
I would like some coff ee. [Would like is
more polite than want.]
Whenever Elena needed help with
sewing, she would call her aunt.
Base form after a modal
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28 Verbs
> Exercises: 28–5 and 28–6
> LearningCurve: Verbs for multilingual writers
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28d Verbs264
b. Th e writing center tutor will helps you revise your essay.
c. A reptile must adjusted its body temperature to its environment.
d. In some states, individuals may renew a driver’s license online.
e. My uncle, a cartoonist, could sketched a face in less than two
minutes.
28d To make negative verb forms, add not in
the appropriate place.
If the verb is the simple present or past tense of be (am, is, are,
was, were), add not aft er the verb.
Gianna is not a member of the club.
For simple present-tense verbs other than be, use do or does
plus not before the base form of the verb. (For the correct forms
of do and does, see the chart on p. 204.)
▶ Mariko no want more dessert.
▶ Mariko does not wants more dessert.
For simple past-tense verbs other than be, use did plus not
before the base form of the verb.
▶ Th ey did not planted corn this year.
In a verb phrase consisting of one or more helping verbs and a
present or past participle (is watching, were living, has played, could
have been driven), use the word not aft er the fi rst helping verb.
▶ Inna should have not gone dancing last night.
▶ Bonnie is no singing this weekend.
NOTE: English allows only one negative in an independent clause
to express a negative idea; using more than one is an error known
as a double negative (see 26e).
▶ We could not fi nd no books about the history of our school.
^
does not
/
^
plant
^
not
^
not
^
any
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265
ESL
28eVerbs in conditional sentences
28e In a conditional sentence, choose verb
tenses according to the type of condition
expressed in the sentence.
Conditional sentences contain two clauses: a subordinate clause
(usually starting with if, when, or unless) and an independent
clause. Th e subordinate clause (sometimes called the if or unless
clause) states the condition or cause; the independent clause
states the result or eff ect. In each example in this section, the sub-
ordinate clause (if clause) is marked SUB, and the independent
clause is marked IND. (See 48e on subordinate clauses.)
Factual
Factual conditional sentences express relationships based on
facts. If the relationship is a scientifi c truth, use the present tense
in both clauses.
If water cools to 32 degrees Fahrenheit, it freezes.
If the sentence describes a condition that is (or was) habitually
true, use the same tense in both clauses.
When Sue jogs along the canal, her dog runs ahead of her.
Whenever the coach asked for help, I volunteered.
Predictive
Predictive conditional sentences are used to predict the future
or to express future plans or possibilities. To form a predictive
sentence, use a present-tense verb in the subordinate clause; in
the independent clause, use the modal will, can, may, should, or
might plus the base form of the verb.
If you practice regularly, your tennis game should improve.
We will lose our remaining wetlands unless we act now.
TIP: In all types of conditional sentences (factual, predictive, and
speculative), if or unless clauses do not use the modal verb will.
▶ If Jenna will pass her history test, she will graduate this year.
SUB IND
SUB IND
SUB IND
SUB IND
IND SUB
^
passes
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ESL
28e Verbs266
Speculative
Speculative conditional sentences express unlikely, contrary-to-
fact, or impossible conditions. English uses the past or past per-
fect tense in the if clause, even for conditions in the present or
the future.
Unlikely possibilities If the condition is possible but unlikely in
the present or the future, use the past tense in the subordinate
clause; in the independent clause, use would, could, or might plus
the base form of the verb.
If I won the lottery, I would travel to Egypt.
Th e writer does not expect to win the lottery. Because this is a
possible but unlikely present or future situation, the past tense is
used in the subordinate clause.
Conditions contrary to fact In conditions that are currently
unreal or contrary to fact, use the past-tense verb were (not was)
in the if clause for all subjects. (See also 27g on the subjunctive
mood.)
▶ If I was president, I would make children’s issues a priority.
Th e writer is not president, so were is correct in the if clause.
Events that did not happen In a conditional sentence that specu-
lates about an event that did not happen or was impossible in the
past, use the past perfect tense in the if clause; in the independent
clause, use would have, could have, or might have with the past
participle. (See also past perfect tense, p. 258.)
If I had saved more money, I would have visited Laos last year.
Th e writer did not save more money and did not travel to Laos.
Th is sentence shows a possibility that did not happen.
If Aunt Grace had been alive for your graduation, she would
have been very proud.
Aunt Grace was not alive at the time of the graduation. Th is sen-
tence shows an impossible situation in the past.
SUB IND
^
were
SUB IND
SUB IND
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267
ESL
28fVerbs followed by gerunds or infi nitives
EXERCISE 28–7 Edit the following sentences to correct problems with
verbs. In some cases, more than one revision is possible. Possible revi-
sions appear in the back of the book. More practice:
If I have time, I would study both French and Russian next
semester.
a. Th e electrician might have discovered the broken circuit if she
went through the modules one at a time.
b. If Verena wins a scholarship, she would go to graduate school.
c. Whenever a rainbow appears aft er a storm, everybody came out
to see it.
d. Sarah did not understood the terms of her internship.
e. If I live in Budapest with my cousin Szusza, she would teach me
Hungarian cooking.
28f Become familiar with verbs that may be
followed by gerunds or infi nitives.
A gerund is a verb form that ends in -ing and is used as a noun:
sleeping, dreaming. (See 48b on verbal phrases.) An infi nitive is
the word to plus the base form of the verb: to sleep, to dream. Th e
word to is an infi nitive marker, not a preposition, in this use. (See
48b on infi nitive phrases.)
A few verbs may be followed by either a gerund or an infi ni-
tive; others may be followed by a gerund but not by an infi nitive;
still others may be followed by an infi nitive but not by a gerund.
Verb + gerund or infi nitive (no change in meaning)
Th e following commonly used verbs may be followed by a ger-
und or an infi nitive, with little or no diff erence in meaning:
begin hate love
continue like start
I love skiing. I love to ski.
^
had
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28 Verbs
> Exercises: 28–8, 28–9, and 28–13 (verb review)
> LearningCurve: Verbs for multilingual writers
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ESL
28f Verbs268
Verb + gerund or infi nitive (change in meaning)
With a few verbs, the choice of a gerund or an infi nitive changes
the meaning dramatically:
forget remember stop try
She stopped speaking to Lucia. [She no longer spoke to Lucia.]
She stopped to speak to Lucia. [She paused so that she could speak
to Lucia.]
Verb + gerund
Th ese verbs may be followed by a gerund but not by an infi nitive:
admit discuss imagine put off risk
appreciate enjoy miss quit suggest
avoid escape postpone recall tolerate
deny fi nish practice resist
Bill enjoys playing [not to play] the piano.
Jamie quit smoking.
Verb + infi nitive
Th ese verbs may be followed by an infi nitive but not by a gerund:
agree decide manage plan wait
ask expect mean pretend want
beg help need promise wish
claim hope off er refuse would like
Jill has off ered to water [not watering] the plants while we are
away.
Joe fi nally managed to fi nd a parking space.
A few of these verbs may be followed either by an infi nitive
directly or by a noun or pronoun plus an infi nitive:
ask help promise would like
expect need want
We asked to speak to the congregation.
We asked Rabbi Abrams to speak to our congregation.
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269
ESL
28f
Verb + noun or pronoun + infi nitive
With certain verbs in the active voice, a noun or pronoun must come
between the verb and the infi nitive that follows it. Th e noun or pro-
noun usually names a person who is aff ected by the action of the verb.
advise convince order tell
allow encourage persuade urge
cause have (own) remind warn
command instruct require
Th e class encouraged Luis to tell the story of his escape.
Th e counselor advised Haley to take four courses instead of fi ve.
Verb + noun or pronoun + unmarked infi nitive
An unmarked infi nitive is an infi nitive without to. A few verbs
(oft en called causative verbs) may be followed by a noun or pro-
noun and an unmarked infi nitive.
have (cause) let (allow)
help make (force)
Jorge had the valet park his car.
▶ Rose had the attendant to wash the windshield.
▶ Frank made me to carry his book for him.
NOTE: Help can be followed by a noun or pronoun and either an
unmarked or a marked infi nitive.
Emma helped Brian wash the dishes.
Emma helped Brian to wash the dishes.
NOTE: Th e infi nitive is used in some typical constructions with
too and enough.
TOO + ADJECTIVE + INFINITIVE Th e gift is too large to wrap.
ENOUGH + NOUN + INIFINITIVE Our emergency pack has enough
bottled water to last a week.
ADJECTIVE + ENOUGH + INFINITIVE Some of the hikers felt strong enough
to climb another thousand feet.
V N INF
Verbs followed by gerunds or infi nitives
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270 Articles (a, an, the)29
EXERCISE 28–10 Form sentences by adding gerund or infi nitive con-
structions to the following sentence openings. In some cases, more than
one kind of construction is possible. Possible answers appear in the back
of the book. More practice:
Please remind
a. I enjoy
b. Th e tutor told Samantha
c. Th e team hopes
d. Ricardo and his brothers miss
e. Jon remembered
29 Articles
Articles (a, an, the) are part of a category of words known as
noun markers or determiners.
29a Be familiar with articles and other noun
markers.
Standard English uses noun markers to help identify the nouns
that follow. In addition to articles (a, an, and the), noun markers
include the following:
• possessive nouns, such as Elena’s (See 36a.)
• possessive pronoun/adjectives: my, your, his, her, its, our,
their (See 46b.)
• demonstrative pronoun/adjectives: this, that, these, those
(See 46b.)
• quantifi ers: all, any, each, either, every, few, many, more,
most, much, neither, several, some, and so on (See 29d.)
• numbers: one, twenty-three, and so on
^
your sister to call me.
macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
28 Verbs
> Exercises: 28–11 to 28–13 (verb review)
> LearningCurve: Verbs for multilingual writers
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29bWhen to use the
Using articles and other noun markers
Articles and other noun markers always appear before nouns;
sometimes other modifi ers, such as adjectives, come between a
noun marker and a noun.
Felix is reading a book about mythology.
We took an exciting trip to Alaska last summer.
Th at very delicious meal was expensive.
In most cases, do not use an article with another noun marker.
▶ Th e Natalie’s older brother lives in Wisconsin.
Expressions like a few, the most, and all the are exceptions: a few
potatoes, all the rain. See also 29d.
Types of articles and types of nouns
To choose an appropriate article for a noun, you must fi rst
determine whether the noun is common or proper, count or
noncount, singular or plural, and specifi c or general. Th e chart on
pages 273–74 describes the types of nouns.
Articles are classifi ed as indefi nite and defi nite. Th e indefi nite
articles, a and an, are used with general nouns. Th e defi nite arti-
cle, the, is used with specifi c nouns. (Th e last section of the chart
on pp. 273–74 explains general and specifi c nouns.)
A and an both mean “one” or “one among many.” Use a before
a consonant sound: a banana, a vacation, a picture, a happy child, a
united family. Use an before a vowel sound: an eggplant, an occasion,
an uncle, an honorable person. (See also a, an in the glossary of usage.)
Th e shows that a noun is specifi c; use the with one or more
than one specifi c thing: the newspaper, the soldiers.
29b Use the with most specifi c common nouns.
Th e defi nite article, the, is used with most nouns — both count
and noncount — that the reader can identify specifi cally. Usually
the identity will be clear to the reader for one of the six reasons
on pages 272–74. (See also the chart on p. 275.)
ART N
ART ADJ N
NOUN
MARKER ADV ADJ N
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29b272 Articles (a, an, the)
1. Th e noun has been previously mentioned.
▶ A truck cut in front of our van. When truck skidded a few
seconds later, we almost crashed into it.
Th e article A is used before truck when the noun is fi rst mentioned. When
the noun is mentioned again, it needs the article the because readers can
now identify which truck skidded — the one that cut in front of the van.
2. A phrase or clause following the noun restricts its identity.
▶ Bryce warned me that GPS in his car was not working.
Th e phrase in his car identifi es the specifi c GPS.
NOTE: Descriptive adjectives do not necessarily make a noun
specifi c. A specifi c noun is one that readers can identify within a
group of nouns of the same type.
▶ If I win the lottery, I will buy the brand-new bright red
sports car.
Th e reader cannot identify which specifi c brand-new bright red sports
car the writer will buy. Even though car has many adjectives in front of
it, it is a general noun in this sentence.
3. A superlative adjective such as best or most intelligent makes
the noun’s identity specifi c. (See also 26d on comparatives
and superlatives.)
▶ Our petite daughter dated tallest boy in her class.
Th e superlative tallest makes the noun boy specifi c. Although there
might be several tall boys, only one boy can be the tallest.
4. Th e noun describes a unique person, place, or thing.
▶ During an eclipse, one should not look directly at sun.
Th ere is only one sun in our solar system, so its identity is clear.
5. Th e context or situation makes the noun’s identity clear.
▶ Please don’t slam door when you leave.
Both the speaker and the listener know which door is meant.
^
the
^
the
^
a
^
the
^
the
^
the
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29b
Types of nouns
Common or proper
Common nouns Examples
● name general persons,
places, things, or ideas
● begin with lowercase
religion beauty
knowledge student
rain country
Proper nouns Examples
● name specifi c persons,
places, things, or ideas
● begin with capital letter
Hinduism President Adams
Philip Blue Mosque
Vietnam Renaissance
Count or noncount (common nouns only)
Count nouns Examples
● name persons, places,
things, or ideas that can
be counted
● have plural forms
girl, girls
city, cities
goose, geese
philosophy, philosophies
Noncount nouns Examples
● name things or abstract
ideas that cannot be
counted
● cannot be made plural
water patience
silver knowledge
furniture air
NOTE: See the chart on page 276 for commonly used noncount nouns.
Singular or plural (both common and proper)
Singular nouns
(count and noncount) Examples
● represent one person,
place, thing, or idea
backpack rain
country beauty
woman Nile River
achievement Block Island
Plural nouns (count only) Examples
● represent more than one
person, place, thing, or
idea
● must be count nouns
backpacks Ural Mountains
countries Falkland Islands
women achievements
When to use the
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29c274 Articles (a, an, the)
6. Th e noun is singular and refers to a scientifi c class or
category of items (most oft en animals, musical instruments,
and inventions).
▶ Tin whistle is common in traditional Irish music.
Th e writer is referring to the tin whistle as a class of musical
instruments.
29c Use a (or an) with common singular count
nouns that refer to “one” or “any.”
If a count noun refers to one unspecifi c item (not a whole cate-
gory), use the indefi nite article, a or an. A and an usually mean
“one among many” but can also mean “any one.” (See the chart on
p. 275.)
▶ My English professor asked me to bring dictionary to class.
Th e noun dictionary refers to “one unspecifi c dictionary” or “any
dictionary.”
^
The tin
^
a
Types of nouns, continued
Specifi c (defi nite) or general (indefi nite) (count and noncount)
Specifi c nouns Examples
● name persons, places,
things, or ideas that can
be identifi ed within a
group of the same type
Th e students in Professor Martin’s class
should study.
Th e airplane carrying the senator
was late.
Th e furniture in the truck was
damaged.
General nouns Examples
● name categories of
persons, places, things,
or ideas (oft en plural)
Students should study.
Books bridge gaps between cultures.
Th e airplane has made commuting
between cities easy.
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29cWhen to use a or an
Choosing articles for common nouns
Use the
● if the reader has enough
information to identify
the noun specifi cally
COUNT: Please turn on the lights. We’re
going to the lake tomorrow.
NONCOUNT: Th e food throughout Italy
is excellent.
Use a or an
● if the noun refers to
one item
and
● if the item is singular
but not specifi c
COUNT: Bring a pencil to class. Charles
wrote an essay about his fi rst job.
NOTE: Do not use a or an with plural or noncount nouns.
Use a quantifi er (enough, many, some, etc.)
● if the noun represents
an unspecifi ed amount
of something
● if the amount is more
than one but not all
items in a category
COUNT ( plural ): Amir showed us some
photos of India. Many turtles return to
the same nesting site each year.
NONCOUNT: We didn’t get enough rain
this summer.
NOTE: Sometimes no article conveys an unspecifi ed amount: Amir
showed us photos of India.
Use no article
● if the noun represents all
items in a category
● if the noun represents a
category in general
COUNT ( plural ): Students can attend the
show for free.
NONCOUNT: Coal is a natural resource.
NOTE: Th e is occasionally used when a singular count noun refers to
all items in a class or a specifi c category: Th e bald eagle is no longer
endangered in the United States.
▶ We want to rent apartment close to the lake.
Th e noun apartment refers to “any apartment close to the lake,” not a
specifi c apartment.
^
an
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29d276 Articles (a, an, the)
29d Use a quantifi er such as some or more,
not a or an, with a noncount noun to express an
approximate amount.
Do not use a or an with noncount nouns. Also do not use
numbers or words such as several or many; they must be used
with plural nouns, and noncount nouns do not have plural
forms. (See the chart above for a list of commonly used noncount
nouns.)
▶ Dr. Snyder gave us an information about the Peace Corps.
▶ Do you have many money with you?
You can use quantifi ers such as enough, less, and some to sug-
gest approximate amounts or nonspecifi c quantities of noncount
Commonly used noncount nouns
Food and drink
beef, bread, butter, candy, cereal, cheese, cream, meat, milk, pasta, rice,
salt, sugar, water, wine
Nonfood substances
air, cement, coal, dirt, gasoline, gold, paper, petroleum, plastic, rain,
silver, snow, soap, steel, wood, wool
Abstract nouns
advice, anger, beauty, confi dence, courage, employment, fun,
happiness, health, honesty, information, intelligence, knowledge, love,
poverty, satisfaction, wealth
Use no article
biology (and other areas of study), clothing, equipment, furni-
ture, homework, jewelry, luggage, machinery, mail, money, news,
poetry, pollution, research, scenery, traffi c, transportation, violence,
weather, work
NOTE: A few noncount nouns (such as love) can also be used as
count nouns: He had two loves: music and archery.
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29fArticles with proper nouns
nouns: a little salt, any homework, enough wood, less information,
much pollution.
▶ Vincent’s mother told him that she had a news that would
surprise him.
29e Do not use articles with nouns that refer
to all of something or something in general.
When a noncount noun refers to all of its type or to a concept in
general, it is not marked with an article.
▶ Th e kindness is a virtue.
Th e noun represents kindness in general; it does not represent a specifi c
type of kindness, such as the kindness he showed me aft er my mother’s
death.
▶ In some parts of the world, the rice is preferred to all other grains.
Th e noun rice represents rice in general. To refer to a specifi c type or
serving of rice, the defi nite article is appropriate: Th e rice my husband
served last night is the best I’ve ever tasted.
In most cases, when you use a count noun to represent a
general category, make the noun plural. Do not use unmarked
singular count nouns to represent whole categories.
▶ Fountain is an expensive element of landscape design.
Fountains is a count noun that represents fountains in general.
EXCEPTION: In some cases, the can be used with singular count
nouns to represent a class or specifi c category: Th e Chinese alliga-
tor is smaller than the American alligator. See also number 6 in 29b.
29f Do not use articles with most singular proper
nouns. Use the with most plural proper nouns.
Since singular proper nouns are already specifi c, they typically
do not need an article: Prime Minister Cameron, Jamaica, Lake
Huron, Mount Etna.
^
some
^
Kindness
^
Fountains are
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29f278 Articles (a, an, the)
Th ere are, however, many exceptions. In most cases, if the
proper noun consists of a common noun with modifi ers (adjec-
tives or an of phrase), use the with the proper noun.
▶ We visited Great Wall of China last year.
▶ Rob wants to be a translator for Central Intelligence Agency.
Th e is used with most plural proper nouns: the McGregors,
the Bahamas, the Finger Lakes, the United States.
Geographic names create problems because there are so
many exceptions to the rules. When in doubt, consult the chart
on page 279, check a dictionary, or ask a native speaker.
EXERCISE 29–1 Edit the following sentences for proper use of articles
and nouns. If a sentence is correct, write “correct” aft er it. Answers ap-
pear in the back of the book. More practice:
Th e Josefi na’s dance routine was fl awless.
a. Doing volunteer work oft en brings a satisfaction.
b. As I looked out the window of the plane, I could see the Cape Cod.
c. Melina likes to drink her coff ees with lots of cream.
d. Recovering from abdominal surgery requires patience.
e. I completed the my homework assignment quickly.
EXERCISE 29–2 Articles have been omitted from the following descrip-
tion of winter weather. Insert the articles a, an, and the where English
requires them and be prepared to explain the reasons for your choices.
Many people confuse terms hail, sleet, and freezing rain. Hail
normally occurs in thunderstorm and is caused by strong updraft s
that lift growing chunks of ice into clouds. When chunks of ice,
called hailstones, become too heavy to be carried by updraft s, they
fall to ground. Hailstones can cause damage to crops, windshields,
and people. Sleet occurs during winter storms and is caused by
snowfl akes falling from layer of cold air into warm layer, where
they become raindrops, and then into another cold layer. As they
^
the
^
the
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29 Articles
> Exercises: 29–3 to 29–6
> LearningCurve: Articles and nouns for multilingual writers
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30Sentence structure
fall through last layer of cold air, raindrops freeze and become
small ice pellets, forming sleet. When it hits car windshield or
windows of house, sleet can make annoying racket. Driving and
walking can be hazardous when sleet accumulates on roads and
sidewalks. Freezing rain is basically rain that falls onto ground and
then freezes aft er it hits ground. It causes icy glaze on trees and
any surface that is below freezing.
Using the with geographic nouns
When to omit the
streets, squares, parks
cities, states, counties
most countries,
continents
bays, single lakes
single mountains, islands
Ivy Street, Union Square, Denali
National Park
Miami, New Mexico, Bee County
Italy, Nigeria, China, South America,
Africa
Tampa Bay, Lake Geneva
Mount Everest, Crete
When to use the
country names with of
phrase
large regions, deserts
peninsulas
oceans, seas, gulfs
canals and rivers
mountain ranges
groups of islands
the United States (of America), the
People’s Republic of China
the East Coast, the Sahara
the Baja Peninsula, the Sinai Peninsula
the Pacifi c Ocean, the Dead Sea, the
Persian Gulf
the Panama Canal, the Amazon
the Rocky Mountains, the Alps
the Solomon Islands
30 Sentence structure
Although their structure can vary widely, sentences in English
generally fl ow from subject to verb to object or complement:
Bears eat fi sh. Th is section focuses on the major challenges that
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30a Sentence structure 280
multilingual students face when writing sentences in English. For
more details on the parts of speech and the elements of sentences,
consult sections 46–49.
30a Use a linking verb between a subject and
its complement.
Some languages, such as Russian and Turkish, do not use link-
ing verbs (is, are, was, were) between subjects and complements
(nouns or adjectives that rename or describe the subject). Every
English sentence, however, must include a verb. For more on
linking verbs, see 27e.
▶ Jim intelligent.
▶ Many streets in San Francisco very steep.
30b Include a subject in every sentence.
Some languages, such as Spanish and Japanese, do not require a
subject in every sentence. Every English sentence, however, needs
a subject. Commands are an exception: Th e subject you is under-
stood but not present in the sentence ([You] Give me the book).
▶ Your aunt is very energetic. Seems young for her age.
Th e word it is used as the subject of a sentence describing the
weather or temperature, stating the time, indicating distance, or
suggesting an environmental fact.
▶ Is raining in the valley and snowing in the mountains.
▶ Is 9:15 a.m.
In most English sentences, the subject appears before the
verb. Some sentences, however, are inverted: Th e subject comes
aft er the verb. In these sentences, a placeholder called an expletive
(there or it) oft en comes before the verb.
Th ere are many people here today. (Many people are here today.)
^
is
^
are
^
She seems
^
It is
^
It is
EXP V S S V
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30cRepeated nouns or pronouns
▶ Is an apple pie in the refrigerator.
▶ As you know, many religious sects in India.
Notice that the verb agrees with the subject that follows it: apple pie is,
sects are. (See 21g.)
Sometimes an inverted sentence has an infi nitive (to work) or a
noun clause (that she is intelligent) as the subject. In such sentences,
the placeholder it is needed before the verb. (See also 48b and 48e.)
It is important to study daily. (To study daily is important.)
▶ Because the road is fl ooded, is necessary to change our route.
TIP: Th e words here and there are not used as subjects. When
they mean “in this place” (here) or “in that place” (there), they are
adverbs, not nouns.
▶ I just returned from a vacation in Japan. Th ere is very
beautiful.
▶ Here off ers a master’s degree in physical therapy; there has
only a bachelor’s program.
30c Do not use both a noun and a pronoun
to perform the same grammatical function in a
sentence.
English does not allow a subject to be repeated in its own clause.
▶ Th e doctor she advised me to cut down on salt.
Th e pronoun she cannot repeat the subject, doctor.
Do not add a pronoun even when a word group comes be-
tween the subject and the verb.
▶ Th e watch that I lost on vacation it was in my backpack.
Th e pronoun it cannot repeat the subject, watch.
^
There is
^
there are
EXP V S S V
^
it
^
It
/
^
there.
^
This school
^
that school
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30d Sentence structure 282
Some languages allow “topic fronting,” placing a word or
phrase (a “topic”) at the beginning of a sentence and following
it with an independent clause that explains something about the
topic. Th is form is not allowed in English because the sentence
seems to start with one subject but then introduces a new subject
in an independent clause.
INCORRECT Th e seeds I planted them last fall.
Th e sentence can be corrected by bringing the topic (seeds) into
the independent clause.
▶ Th e seeds I planted them last fall.
30d Do not repeat a subject, an object, or an
adverb in an adjective clause.
Adjective clauses begin with relative pronouns (who, whom,
whose, which, that) or relative adverbs (when, where). Relative
pronouns usually serve as subjects or objects in the clauses they
introduce; another word in the clause cannot serve the same
function. Relative adverbs should not be repeated by other
adverbs later in the clause.
Th e cat ran under the car that was parked on the street.
▶ Th e cat ran under the car that it was parked on the street.
Th e relative pronoun that is the subject of the adjective clause, so the
pronoun it cannot be added as a subject.
▶ Myrna enjoyed the investment seminars that she attended
them last week.
Th e relative pronoun that is the object of the verb attended. Th e pronoun
them cannot also serve as an object.
Sometimes the relative pronoun is understood but not pres-
ent in the sentence. In such cases, do not add another word with
the same function as the omitted pronoun.
TOPIC IND CLAUSE
^
the seeds
ADJ CLAUSE
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30eMixed constructions with although or because
▶ Myrna enjoyed the seminars she attended them last week.
Th e relative pronoun that is understood aft er seminars even though it is
not present in the sentence.
If the clause begins with a relative adverb, do not use another
adverb with the same meaning later in the clause.
▶ Th e offi ce where I work there is one hour from the city.
Th e adverb there cannot repeat the relative adverb where.
EXERCISE 30–1 In the following sentences, add needed subjects or
expletives and delete any repeated subjects, objects, or adverbs. Answers
appear in the back of the book. More practice:
Th e new geology professor is the one whom we saw him on TV
this morning.
a. Are some cartons of ice cream in the freezer.
b. I don’t use the subway because am afraid.
c. Th e prime minister she is the most popular leader in my country.
d. We tried to get in touch with the same manager whom we spoke to
him earlier.
e. Recently have been a number of earthquakes in Turkey.
30e Avoid mixed constructions beginning with
although or because.
A word group that begins with although cannot be linked to a
word group that begins with but or however. Th e result is an error
called a mixed construction (see also 11a). Similarly, a word group
that begins with because cannot be linked to a word group that
begins with so or therefore.
If you want to keep although or because, drop the other link-
ing word (see the examples on p. 284).
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30 Sentence structure
> Exercises: 30–2 and 30–3
> LearningCurve: Sentence structure for multilingual writers
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30f Sentence structure 284
▶ Although Nikki Giovanni is best known for her poetry for
adults, but she has written several books for children.
▶ Because German and Dutch are related languages, therefore
tourists from Berlin can usually read a few signs in Amsterdam.
If you want to keep the other linking word, omit although or
because.
▶ Although Nikki Giovanni is best known for her poetry for
adults, but she has written several books for children.
▶ Because German and Dutch are related languages, therefore
tourists from Berlin can usually read a few signs in
Amsterdam.
For advice about using commas and semicolons with linking
words, see 32a and 34b.
30f Do not place an adverb between a verb
and its direct object.
Adverbs modifying verbs can appear in various positions: at the
beginning or end of a sentence, before or aft er a verb, or between
a helping verb and its main verb.
Slowly, we drove along the rain-slick road.
Mia handled the teapot very carefully.
Martin always wins our tennis matches.
Christina is rarely late for our lunch dates.
My daughter has oft en spoken of you.
Th e election results were being closely followed by analysts.
However, an adverb cannot appear between a verb and its
direct object.
▶ Mother wrapped carefully the gift .
Th e adverb carefully cannot appear between the verb, wrapped, and its
direct object, the gift .
/
^
;
^
,
^
carefully
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30gPresent and past participles
EXERCISE 30–4 Edit the following sentences for proper sentence
structure. If a sentence is correct, write “correct” aft er it. Answers appear
in the back of the book. More practice:
She peeled slowly the banana.
a. Although freshwater freezes at 32 degrees Fahrenheit, however
ocean water freezes at 28 degrees Fahrenheit.
b. Because we switched cable packages, so our channel lineup has
changed.
c. Th e competitor mounted confi dently his skateboard.
d. My sister performs well the legong, a Balinese dance.
e. Because product development is behind schedule, we will have to
launch the product next spring.
30g Distinguish between present participles
and past participles used as adjectives.
Both present and past participles may be used as adjectives. Th e
present participle always ends in -ing. Past participles usually end
in -ed, -d, -en, -n, or -t. (See 27a.)
PRESENT PARTICIPLES confusing, speaking, boring
PAST PARTICIPLES confused, spoken, bored
Like all other adjectives, participles can come before nouns; they
also can follow linking verbs, in which case they describe the
subject of the sentence. (See 47b.)
Use a present participle to describe a person or thing causing
or stimulating an experience.
Th e boring lecture put us to sleep. [Th e lecture caused boredom.]
Use a past participle to describe a person or thing under-
going an experience.
Th e audience was bored by the lecture. [Th e audience experienced
boredom.]
/
^
slowly.
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30 Sentence structure
> Exercises: 30–5 and 30–6
> LearningCurve: Sentence structure for multilingual writers
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ESL
30g Sentence structure 286
Participles that describe emotions or mental states oft en
cause the most confusion.
annoying/annoyed exhausting/exhausted
boring/bored fascinating/fascinated
confusing/confused frightening/frightened
depressing/depressed satisfying/satisfi ed
exciting/excited surprising/surprised
▶ Our aft ernoon hike to Th undering Brook Falls was
exhausted.
Exhausting suggests that the hike caused exhaustion.
▶ Th e exhausting hikers reached the campground just
before midnight.
Exhausted describes how the hikers felt.
EXERCISE 30–7 Edit the following sentences for proper use of pres-
ent and past participles. If a sentence is correct, write “correct” aft er it.
Answers appear in the back of the book.
More practice:
Danielle and Monica were very exciting to be going to a
Broadway show for the fi rst time.
a. Listening to everyone’s complaints all day was irritated.
b. Th e long fl ight to Singapore was exhausted.
c. His skill at chess is amazing.
d. Aft er a great deal of research, the scientist made a fascinated
discovery.
e. Surviving that tornado was one of the most frightened experiences
I’ve ever had.
^
exhausting.
^
exhausted
^
excited
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30 Sentence structure
> Exercises: 30–8 and 30–9
> LearningCurve: Sentence structure for multilingual writers
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287
ESL
30hOrder of cumulative adjectives
30h Place cumulative adjectives in an
appropriate order.
Adjectives usually come before the nouns they modify and may
also come aft er linking verbs. (See 46d and 47b.)
Janine wore a new necklace. Janine’s necklace was new.
Cumulative adjectives, which cannot be joined by the word
and or separated by commas, must come in a particular order. If
you use cumulative adjectives before a noun, see the chart on this
page. Th e chart is only a guide; don’t be surprised if you encoun-
ter exceptions. (See also 33d.)
▶ My dorm room has only a desk and a plastic red stained chair.
ADJ N V ADJ
^
stained red plastic
Order of cumulative adjectives
FIRST ARTICLE OR OTHER NOUN MARKER a, an, the, her, Joe’s, two,
many, some
EVALUATIVE WORD attractive, dedicated, delicious, ugly,
disgusting
SIZE large, enormous, small, little
LENGTH OR SHAPE long, short, round, square
AGE new, old, young, antique
COLOR yellow, blue, crimson
NATIONALITY French, Peruvian, Vietnamese
RELIGION Catholic, Protestant, Jewish, Muslim
MATERIAL silver, walnut, wool, marble
LAST NOUN/ADJECTIVE tree (as in tree house), kitchen (as in
kitchen table)
THE NOUN MODIFIED house, coat, bicycle, bread, woman, coin
My large blue wool coat is in the attic.
Joe’s collection includes two small antique silver coins.
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ESL
Prepositions and idiomatic expressions288 31
EXERCISE 30–10 Using the chart on page 287 as necessary, arrange the
following modifi ers and nouns in their proper order. Answers appear in
the back of the book. More practice:
new, French, two, bicycles, racing
a. sculptor, young, an, Vietnamese, intelligent
b. dedicated, a, priest, Catholic
c. old, her, sweater, blue, wool
d. delicious, Joe’s, Scandinavian, bread
e. many, boxes, jewelry, antique, beautiful
31 Prepositions and idiomatic expressions
31a Become familiar with prepositions that
show time and place.
Th e most frequently used prepositions in English are at, by, for,
from, in, of, on, to, and with. Prepositions can be diffi cult to mas-
ter because the diff erences among them are subtle and idiomatic.
Th e chart on page 289 is limited to three troublesome preposi-
tions that show time and place: at, on, and in.
Not every possible use is listed in the chart, so don’t be sur-
prised when you encounter exceptions and idiomatic uses that
you must learn one at a time. For example, in English a person
rides in a car but on a bus, plane, train, or subway.
▶ My fi rst class starts on 8:00 a.m.
▶ Th e farmers go to market in Wednesday.
two new French racing bicycles
^
at
^
on
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30 Sentence structure
> Exercises: 30–11 and 30–12
> LearningCurve: Sentence structure for multilingual writers
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289
ESL
31aPrepositions showing time and place (at, on, in)
EXERCISE 31–1 In the following sentences, replace prepositions that
are not used correctly. You may need to refer to the chart on this page. If
a sentence is correct, write “correct” aft er it. Answers appear in the back
of the book. More practice:
Th e play begins on 7:20 p.m.
a. Whenever we eat at the Centerville Café, we sit at a small table on
the corner of the room.
b. In the 1990s, entrepreneurs created new online businesses in
record numbers.
c. In Th ursday, Nancy will attend her fi rst home repair class at the
community center.
^
at
At, on, and in to show time and place
Showing time
AT at a specifi c time: at 7:20, at dawn, at dinner
ON on a specifi c day or date: on Tuesday, on June 4
IN in a part of a 24-hour period: in the aft ernoon, in the
daytime [but at night]
in a year or month: in 2008, in July
in a period of time: fi nished in three hours
Showing place
AT at a meeting place or location: at home, at the club
at the edge of something: sitting at the desk
at the corner of something: turning at the intersection
at a target: throwing the snowball at Lucy
ON on a surface: placed on the table, hanging on the wall
on a street: the house on Spring Street
on an electronic medium: on television, on the Internet
IN in an enclosed space: in the garage, in an envelope
in a geographic location: in San Diego, in Texas
in a print medium: in a book, in a magazine
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31 Prepositions and idiomatic expressions
> Exercises: 31–2 and 31–3
> LearningCurve: Prepositions for multilingual writers
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ESL
31b Prepositions and idiomatic expressions290
d. Alex began looking for her lost mitten in another location.
e. We decided to go to a restaurant because there was no fresh food
on the refrigerator.
31b Use nouns (including -ing forms) after
prepositions.
In a prepositional phrase, use a noun (not a verb) aft er the prepo-
sition. Sometimes the noun will be a gerund, the -ing verb form
that functions as a noun (see 48b).
▶ Our student government is good at save money.
Distinguish between the preposition to and the infi nitive marker
to. If to is a preposition, it should be followed by a noun or a gerund.
▶ We are dedicated to help the poor.
If to is an infi nitive marker, it should be followed by the base
form of the verb.
▶ We want to helping the poor.
To test whether to is a preposition or an infi nitive marker, in-
sert a word that you know is a noun aft er the word to. If the noun
makes sense in that position, to is a preposition. If the noun does
not make sense aft er to, then to is an infi nitive marker.
Zoe is addicted to .
Th ey are planning to .
In the fi rst sentence, a noun (such as magazines) makes sense
aft er to, so to is a preposition and should be followed by a noun
or a gerund: Zoe is addicted to magazines. Zoe is addicted to
running.
In the second sentence, a noun (such as magazines) does not
make sense aft er to, so to is an infi nitive marker and must be fol-
lowed by the base form of the verb: Th ey are planning to build a
new school.
^
saving
^
helping
^
help
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291
ESL
31dVerb + preposition combinations
Adjective + preposition combinations
accustomed to connected to guilty of preferable to
addicted to covered with interested in proud of
afraid of dedicated to involved in responsible
angry with devoted to involved with for
ashamed of diff erent from known as satisfi ed with
aware of engaged in known for scared of
committed to engaged to made of (or similar to
concerned excited about made from) tired of
about familiar with married to worried
concerned with full of opposed to about
31c Become familiar with common adjective +
preposition combinations.
Some adjectives appear only with certain prepositions. Th ese
expressions are idiomatic and may be diff erent from the combi-
nations used in your native language.
▶ Paula is married with Jon.
Check an ESL dictionary for combinations that are not listed
in the chart at the bottom of this page.
31d Become familiar with common verb +
preposition combinations.
Many verbs and prepositions appear together in idiomatic
phrases. Pay special attention to the combinations that are diff er-
ent from the combinations used in your native language.
▶ Your success depends of your eff ort.
Check an ESL dictionary for combinations that are not listed
in the chart on page 292.
^
to
^
on
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ESL
Prepositions and idiomatic expressions292 31d
Verb + preposition combinations
agree with compare with forget about speak to (or
apply to concentrate on happen to speak with)
approve of consist of hope for stare at
arrive at count on insist on succeed at
arrive in decide on listen to succeed in
ask for depend on participate in take advantage of
believe in diff er from rely on take care of
belong to disagree with reply to think about
care about dream about respond to think of
care for dream of result in wait for
compare to feel like search for wait on
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Punctuation
32 The comma, 294
33 Unnecessary commas, 308
34 The semicolon, 313
35 The colon, 317
36 The apostrophe, 319
37 Quotation marks, 323
38 End punctuation, 330
39 Other punctuation marks, 332
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294
32 The comma
Th e comma was invented to help readers. Without it, sen-
tence parts can collide into one another unexpectedly, causing
misreadings.
CONFUSING If you cook Elmer will do the dishes.
CONFUSING While we were eating a rattlesnake approached
our campsite.
Add commas in the logical places (aft er cook and eating), and
suddenly all is clear. No longer is Elmer being cooked, the rattle-
snake being eaten.
Various rules have evolved to prevent such misreadings and
to speed readers along through complex grammatical structures.
Th ose rules are detailed in this section. (Section 33 explains when
not to use commas.)
32a Use a comma before a coordinating
conjunction joining independent clauses.
When a coordinating conjunction connects two or more inde-
pendent clauses — word groups that could stand alone as separate
sentences — a comma must precede it. Th ere are seven coordi-
nating conjunctions in English: and, but, or, nor, for, so, and yet.
A comma tells readers that one independent clause has come
to a close and that another is about to begin.
▶ Th e department sponsored a seminar on college survival
skills and it also hosted a barbecue for new students.
EXCEPTION: If the two independent clauses are short and there is
no danger of misreading, the comma may be omitted.
Th e plane took off and we were on our way.
TIP: As a rule, do not use a comma with a coordinating conjunc-
tion that joins only two words, phrases, or subordinate clauses.
(See 33a.)
^
,
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29532b
,̂
Introductory clauses or phrases
▶ A good money manager controls expenses, and invests surplus
dollars to meet future needs.
Th e word group following and is not an independent clause; it is the
second half of a compound predicate (controls . . . and invests).
32b Use a comma after an introductory clause
or phrase.
Th e most common introductory word groups are clauses and
phrases functioning as adverbs. Such word groups usually tell
when, where, how, why, or under what conditions the main ac-
tion of the sentence occurred. (See 48a, 48b, and 48e.)
A comma tells readers that the introductory clause or phrase has
come to a close and that the main part of the sentence is about to begin.
▶ When Irwin was ready to iron his cat tripped on the cord.
Without the comma, readers may have Irwin ironing his cat. Th e
comma signals that his cat is the subject of a new clause, not part of the
introductory one.
▶ Near a small stream at the bottom of the canyon the park
rangers discovered an abandoned mine.
Th e comma tells readers that the introductory prepositional phrase has
come to a close.
EXCEPTION: Th e comma may be omitted aft er a short adverb
clause or phrase if there is no danger of misreading: In no time
we were at 2,800 feet.
Sentences also frequently begin with participial phrases that
function as adjectives, describing the noun or pronoun immedi-
ately following them. Th e comma tells readers that they are about
to learn the identity of the person or thing described; therefore, the
comma is usually required even when the phrase is short. (See 48b.)
▶ Buried under layers of younger rocks the earth’s oldest rocks
contain no fossils.
NOTE: Other introductory word groups include transitional ex-
pressions and absolute phrases (see 32f ).
/
^
,
^
,
^
,
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32b The comma296
,̂
EXERCISE 32–1 Add or delete commas where necessary in the follow-
ing sentences. If a sentence is correct, write “correct” aft er it. Answers
appear in the back of the book. More practice:
Because we had been saving molding for a few weeks we had
enough wood to frame all thirty paintings.
a. Alisa brought the injured bird home, and fashioned a splint out of
Popsicle sticks for its wing.
b. Considered a classic of early animation Th e Adventures of Prince
Achmed used hand-cut silhouettes against colored backgrounds.
c. If you complete the evaluation form and return it within two
weeks you will receive a free breakfast during your next stay.
d. Aft er retiring from the New York City Ballet in 1965, legendary
dancer Maria Tallchief went on to found the Chicago City Ballet.
e. Roger had always wanted a handmade violin but he couldn’t aff ord one.
EXERCISE 32–2 Add or delete commas where necessary in the follow-
ing sentences. If a sentence is correct, write “correct” aft er it. Answers
appear in the back of the book.
Th e car had been sitting idle for a month so the battery was
completely dead.
a. J. R. R. Tolkien fi nished writing his draft of Th e Lord of the Rings
trilogy in 1949 but the fi rst book in the series wasn’t published
until 1954.
b. In the fi rst two minutes of its ascent the space shuttle had broken
the sound barrier and reached a height of over twenty-fi ve miles.
c. German shepherds can be gentle guide dogs or they can be fi erce
attack dogs.
d. Some former professional cyclists claim that the use of
performance-enhancing drugs is widespread in cycling and
they argue that no rider can be competitive without doping.
e. As an intern, I learned most aspects of the broadcasting industry
but I never learned about fundraising.
^
,
^
,
macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
32 The comma
> Exercises: 32–3 and 32–4
> LearningCurve: Commas
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29732d
,̂
Coordinate adjectives
32c Use a comma between all items in a series.
When three or more items are presented in a series, those items
should be separated from one another with commas. Items in a
series may be single words, phrases, or clauses.
▶ Langston Hughes’s poetry is concerned with racial pride,
social justice and the diversity of the African American
experience.
▶ Bubbles of air, leaves, ferns, bits of wood and insects are
oft en found trapped in amber.
Although some writers view the last comma in a series as op-
tional, most experts advise using the comma because its omission
can result in ambiguity or misreading.
▶ My uncle willed me all of his property, houses and boats.
Did the uncle will his property and houses and boats — or simply his
property, consisting of houses and boats? If the former meaning is
intended, a comma is necessary to prevent ambiguity.
▶ Th e activities include touring the White House, visiting the Air
and Space Museum, attending a lecture about the Founding
Fathers and kayaking on the Potomac River.
Without the comma, the activities might seem to include a lecture about
kayaking, not participating in kayaking. Th e comma makes it clear that
kayaking on the Potomac River is a separate item in the series.
32d Use a comma between coordinate
adjectives not joined with and. Do not use a
comma between cumulative adjectives.
When two or more adjectives each modify a noun separately,
they are coordinate.
Roberto is a warm, gentle, aff ectionate father.
^
,
^
,
^
,
^
,
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32d The comma298
,̂
If the adjectives can be joined with and, the adjectives
are coordinate, so you should use commas: warm and gentle and
aff ectionate (warm, gentle, aff ectionate).
Adjectives that do not modify the noun separately are cumulative.
Th ree large gray shapes moved slowly toward us.
Beginning with the adjective closest to the noun shapes, these
modifi ers lean on one another, piggyback style, with each modify-
ing a larger word group. Gray modifi es shapes, large modifi es gray
shapes, and three modifi es large gray shapes. Cumulative adjectives
cannot be joined with and (not three and large and gray shapes).
COORDINATE ADJECTIVES
▶ Should patients with severe irreversible brain damage be put
on life support systems?
Adjectives that can be connected with and are coordinate: severe and
irreversible.
CUMULATIVE ADJECTIVES
▶ Ira ordered a rich, chocolate, layer cake.
Ira didn’t order a cake that was rich and chocolate and layer: He ordered
a layer cake that was chocolate, a chocolate layer cake that was rich.
EXERCISE 32–5 Add or delete commas where necessary in the follow-
ing sentences. If a sentence is correct, write “correct” aft er it. Answers
appear in the back of the book. More practice:
We gathered our essentials, took off for the great outdoors
and ignored the fact that it was Friday the 13th.
a. Th e cold impersonal atmosphere of the university was unbearable.
b. An ambulance threaded its way through police cars, fi re trucks
and irate citizens.
c. Th e 1812 Overture is a stirring, magnifi cent piece of music.
^
,
/ /
^
,
macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
32 The comma
> Exercises: 32–7 and 32–8
> LearningCurve: Commas
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29932e
,̂
Nonrestrictive elements
d. Aft er two broken arms, three cracked ribs and one concussion,
Ken quit the varsity football team.
e. My cat’s pupils had constricted to small black shining slits.
EXERCISE 32–6 Add or delete commas where necessary in the follow-
ing sentences. If a sentence is correct, write “correct” aft er it. Answers
appear in the back of the book.
Good social workers excel in patience, diplomacy and
positive thinking.
a. NASA’s rovers on Mars are equipped with special cameras that can
take close-up high-resolution pictures of the terrain.
b. A baseball player achieves the triple crown by having the highest
batting average, the most home runs, and the most runs batted in
during the regular season.
c. If it does not get enough sunlight, a healthy green lawn can turn
into a shriveled brown mess within a matter of days.
d. Love, vengeance, greed and betrayal are common themes in
Western literature.
e. Many experts believe that shark attacks on surfers are a result of
the sharks’ mistaking surfb oards for small, injured seals.
32e Use commas to set off nonrestrictive
(nonessential) elements. Do not use commas
to set off restrictive (essential) elements.
Certain word groups that modify nouns or pronouns can be re-
strictive or nonrestrictive — that is, essential or not essential to
the meaning of a sentence. Th ese word groups are usually adjec-
tive clauses, adjective phrases, or appositives.
Restrictive elements
A restrictive element defi nes or limits the meaning of the word it
modifi es; it is therefore essential to the meaning of the sentence
and is not set off with commas. If you remove a restrictive modi-
fi er from a sentence, the meaning changes signifi cantly, becom-
ing more general than you intended.
^
,
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32e The comma300
,̂
RESTRICTIVE (NO COMMAS)
Th e campers need clothes that are durable.
Scientists who study the earth’s structure are called geologists.
Th e fi rst sentence does not mean that the campers need clothes
in general. Th e intended meaning is more limited: Th e campers
need durable clothes. Th e second sentence does not mean that
scientists in general are called geologists; only those scientists
who specifi cally study the earth’s structure are called geologists.
Th e italicized word groups are essential and are therefore not set
off with commas.
Nonrestrictive elements
A nonrestrictive modifi er describes a noun or pronoun whose
meaning has already been clearly defi ned or limited. Because the
modifi er contains nonessential or parenthetical information, it is
set off with commas. If you remove a nonrestrictive element from
a sentence, the meaning does not change dramatically. Some
meaning may be lost, but the defi ning characteristics of the per-
son or thing described remain the same.
NONRESTRICTIVE (WITH COMMAS)
Th e campers need sturdy shoes, which are expensive.
Th e scientists, who represented eight diff erent universities, met to
review applications for the Advancements in Science Award.
In the fi rst sentence, the campers need sturdy shoes, and the
shoes happen to be expensive. In the second sentence, the sci-
entists met to review applications for the award; that they repre-
sented eight diff erent universities is informative but not critical
to the meaning of the sentence. Th e nonessential information in
both sentences is set off with commas.
NOTE: Oft en it is diffi cult to tell whether a word group is restric-
tive or nonrestrictive without seeing it in context and considering
the writer’s meaning. Both of the following sentences are gram-
matically correct, but their meaning is slightly diff erent.
Th e dessert made with fresh raspberries was delicious.
Th e dessert, made with fresh raspberries, was delicious.
In the fi rst example, the phrase made with fresh raspberries tells
readers which of two or more desserts the writer is referring to.
In the example with commas, the phrase merely adds informa-
tion about the dessert.
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30132e
,̂
Adjective clauses
Adjective clauses are patterned like sentences, containing sub-
jects and verbs, but they function within sentences as modifi ers
of nouns or pronouns. Th ey always follow the word they modify,
usually immediately. Adjective clauses begin with a relative pro-
noun (who, whom, whose, which, that) or with a relative adverb
(where, when). (See also 48e.)
Nonrestrictive adjective clauses are set off with commas;
restrictive adjective clauses are not.
NONRESTRICTIVE CLAUSE (WITH COMMAS)
▶ Ed’s house which is located on thirteen acres was completely
furnished with bats in the raft ers and mice in the kitchen.
Th e adjective clause which is located on thirteen acres does not restrict
the meaning of Ed’s house; the information is nonessential and is
therefore set off with commas.
RESTRICTIVE CLAUSE (NO COMMAS)
▶ Th e giant panda, that was born at the San Diego Zoo in 2003,
was sent to China in 2007.
Because the adjective clause that was born at the San Diego Zoo in 2003
identifi es one particular panda out of many, the information is essential
and is therefore not set off with commas.
NOTE: Use that only with restrictive (essential) clauses. Many
writers prefer to use which only with nonrestrictive (nonessen-
tial) clauses, but usage varies.
Adjective phrases
Prepositional or verbal phrases functioning as adjectives may be
restrictive or nonrestrictive. Nonrestrictive phrases are set off
with commas; restrictive phrases are not.
NONRESTRICTIVE PHRASE (WITH COMMAS)
▶ Th e helicopter with its million-candlepower spotlight
illuminating the area circled above.
Th e with phrase is nonessential because its purpose is not to specify
which of two or more helicopters is being discussed. Th e phrase is not
required for readers to understand the meaning of the sentence.
^
,
^
,
/ /
^
,
^
,
Nonrestrictive elements
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32e The comma302
,̂
RESTRICTIVE PHRASE (NO COMMAS)
▶ One corner of the attic was fi lled with newspapers, dating
from the early 1900s.
Dating from the early 1900s restricts the meaning of newspapers, so the
comma should be omitted.
▶ Th e bill, proposed by the Illinois representative, would
lower taxes for middle-income families.
Proposed by the Illinois representative identifi es exactly which bill is
meant.
Appositives
An appositive is a noun or noun phrase that renames a nearby
noun. Nonrestrictive appositives are set off with commas; restric-
tive appositives are not.
NONRESTRICTIVE APPOSITIVE (WITH COMMAS)
▶ Darwin’s most important book On the Origin of Species
was the result of many years of research.
Most important restricts the meaning to one book, so the appositive On
the Origin of Species is nonrestrictive and should be set off with commas.
RESTRICTIVE APPOSITIVE (NO COMMAS)
▶ Th e song, “Viva la Vida, ” was blasted out of huge amplifi ers.
Once they’ve read song, readers still don’t know precisely which song the
writer means. Th e appositive following song restricts its meaning, so the
appositive should not be set off with commas.
EXERCISE 32–9 Add or delete commas where necessary in the follow-
ing sentences. If a sentence is correct, write “correct” aft er it. Answers
appear in the back of the book. More practice:
My sister who plays center on the Sparks now lives at
Th e Sands a beach house near Los Angeles.
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30332f
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Transitions, parenthetical expressions, etc.
a. Choreographer Alvin Ailey’s best-known work Revelations is more
than just a crowd-pleaser.
b. Twyla Th arp’s contemporary ballet Push Comes to Shove was made
famous by the Russian dancer Baryshnikov. [Th arp has written
more than one contemporary ballet.]
c. Th e glass sculptor sift ing through hot red sand explained her tech-
nique to the other glassmakers. [Th ere is more than one glass sculptor.]
d. A member of an organization, that provides job training for teens,
was also appointed to the education commission.
e. Brian Eno who began his career as a rock musician turned to
meditative compositions in the late 1970s.
32f Use commas to set off transitional and
parenthetical expressions, absolute phrases,
and word groups expressing contrast.
Transitional expressions
Transitional expressions serve as bridges between sentences or
parts of sentences. Th ey include conjunctive adverbs such as
however, therefore, and moreover and transitional phrases such as
for example, as a matter of fact, and in other words. (For complete
lists of these expressions, see 34b.)
When a transitional expression appears between indepen-
dent clauses in a compound sentence, it is preceded by a semico-
lon and is usually followed by a comma. (See 34b.)
▶ Minh did not understand our language; moreover he was
unfamiliar with our customs.
When a transitional expression appears at the beginning of a
sentence or in the middle of an independent clause, it is usually
set off with commas.
▶ As a matter of fact American football was established in the
mid-nineteenth century by fans who wanted to play a more
organized game of rugby.
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macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
32 The comma
> Exercise: 32–10
> LearningCurve: Commas
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32f The comma304
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▶ Natural foods are not always salt free; celery for example
contains more sodium than most people would imagine.
EXCEPTION: If a transitional expression blends smoothly with the
rest of the sentence, calling for little or no pause in reading, it
does not need to be set off with a comma. Expressions such as
also, at least, certainly, consequently, indeed, of course, moreover,
no doubt, perhaps, then, and therefore do not always call for a
pause.
Alice’s bicycle is broken; therefore you will need to borrow Sue’s.
Parenthetical expressions
Expressions that are distinctly parenthetical, providing only
supplemental information, should be set off with commas.
Th ey interrupt the fl ow of a sentence or appear at the end as
aft erthoughts.
▶ Evolution as far as we know doesn’t work this way.
Absolute phrases
An absolute phrase, which modifi es the whole sentence, usually
consists of a noun followed by a participle or participial phrase.
(See 48d.) Absolute phrases may appear at the beginning or at the
end of a sentence and should be set off with commas.
Th e sun appearing for the fi rst time in a week, we were at last able
to begin the archaeological dig.
▶ Elvis Presley made music industry history in the 1950s his
records having sold more than ten million copies.
NOTE: Do not insert a comma between the noun and the parti-
ciple in an absolute construction.
▶ Th e next contestant, being fi ve years old, the host adjusted
the height of the microphone.
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ABSOLUTE PHRASE
N PARTICIPLE
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30532h
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he said, etc.
Word groups expressing contrast
Sharp contrasts beginning with words such as not, never, and un-
like are set off with commas.
▶ Th e Epicurean philosophers sought mental not bodily
pleasures.
▶ Unlike Robert Rae Marie enjoyed managing the household
budget.
32g Use commas to set off nouns of direct
address, the words yes and no, interrogative tags,
and mild interjections.
▶ Forgive me Angela for forgetting your birthday.
▶ Yes the loan will probably be approved.
▶ Th e fi lm was faithful to the book wasn’t it?
▶ Well cases like these are diffi cult to decide.
32h Use commas with expressions such as he
said to set off direct quotations.
▶ In his “Letter from Birmingham Jail,” Martin Luther King
Jr. wrote “We know through painful experience that freedom
is never voluntarily given by the oppressor; it must be
demanded by the oppressed” (225).
See 37 on the use of quotation marks and pages 467–68 on citing
literary sources in MLA style.
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32i The comma306
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32i Use commas with dates, addresses, titles,
and numbers.
Dates
In dates, set off the year from the rest of the sentence with a pair
of commas.
▶ On December 12 1890 orders were sent out for the arrest of
Sitting Bull.
EXCEPTIONS: Commas are not needed if the date is inverted or if
only the month and year are given.
Th e security alert system went into eff ect on 15 April 2009.
February 2015 was an extremely snowy month.
Addresses
Th e elements of an address or a place name are separated with
commas. A zip code, however, is not preceded by a comma.
▶ John Lennon was born in Liverpool England in 1940.
▶ Please send the package to Greg Tarvin at 708 Spring Street
Washington IL 61571.
Titles
If a title follows a name, set off the title from the rest of the sen-
tence with a pair of commas.
▶ Ann Hall MD has been appointed to the board of trustees.
Numbers
In numbers more than four digits long, use commas to separate
the numbers into groups of three, starting from the right. In
numbers four digits long, a comma is optional.
3,500 [or 3500]
100,000
5,000,000
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30732j
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To prevent confusion
EXCEPTIONS: Do not use commas in street numbers, zip codes,
telephone numbers, or years with four or fewer digits.
32j Use a comma to prevent confusion.
In certain situations, a comma is necessary to prevent confusion.
If the writer has intentionally left out a word or phrase, for ex-
ample, a comma may be needed to signal the omission.
▶ To err is human; to forgive divine.
If two words in a row echo each other, a comma may be needed
for ease of reading.
▶ Th e catastrophe that we had feared might happen happened.
Sometimes a comma is needed to prevent readers from
grouping words in ways that do not match the writer’s intention.
▶ Patients who can walk up and down the halls every day.
EXERCISE 32–11 Th is exercise covers the major uses of the comma
described in 32a–32e. Add or delete commas where necessary. If a sen-
tence is correct, write “correct” aft er it. Answers appear in the back of
the book. More practice:
Even though our brains actually can’t focus on two tasks
at a time many people believe they can multitask.
a. Cricket which originated in England is also popular in Australia,
South Africa and India.
b. At the sound of the starting pistol the horses surged forward
toward the fi rst obstacle, a sharp incline three feet high.
c. Aft er seeing an exhibition of Western art Gerhard Richter escaped
from East Berlin, and smuggled out many of his notebooks.
d. Corrie’s new wet suit has an intricate, blue pattern.
e. We replaced the rickety, old, spiral staircase with a sturdy, new ladder.
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macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
32 The comma
> Exercises: 32–13 to 32–17
> LearningCurve: Commas
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308 33 Unnecessary commas
no ,
EXERCISE 32–12 Th is exercise covers all uses of the comma. Add or
delete commas where necessary in the following sentences. If a sentence
is correct, write “correct” aft er it. Answers appear in the back of the
book.
“Yes neighbors, we must work together to save the community
center,” urged Mr. Owusu.
a. On January 15, 2008 our offi ce moved to 29 Commonwealth
Avenue, Mechanicsville VA 23111.
b. Th e coach having bawled us out thoroughly, we left the locker
room with his harsh words ringing in our ears.
c. Ms. Carlson you are a valued customer whose satisfaction is very
important to us.
d. Mr. Mundy was born on July 22, 1939 in Arkansas, where his
family had lived for four generations.
e. Her board poised at the edge of the half-pipe, Nina waited her
turn to drop in.
33 Unnecessary commas
Many common misuses of the comma result from a misunder-
standing of the major comma rules presented in 32.
33a Do not use a comma with a coordinating
conjunction that joins only two words, phrases, or
subordinate clauses.
Th ough a comma should be used before a coordinating con-
junction joining independent clauses (see 32a) or with a series
of three or more elements (see 32c), these rules should not be
extended to other compound word groups.
▶ Ron discovered a leak, and came back to fi x it.
Th e coordinating conjunction and links two verbs in a compound
predicate: discovered and came.
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30933d
no ,
With certain adjectives, nouns, and adverbs
▶ We knew that she had won, but that the election was close.
Th e coordinating conjunction but links two subordinate clauses, each
beginning with that.
33b Do not use a comma to separate a verb
from its subject or object.
A sentence should fl ow from subject to verb to object without
unnecessary pauses. Commas may appear between these major
sentence elements only when a specifi c rule calls for them.
▶ Zoos large enough to give the animals freedom to roam, are
becoming more popular.
Th e comma should not separate the subject, Zoos, from the verb, are
becoming.
33c Do not use a comma before the fi rst or
after the last item in a series.
Th ough commas are required between items in a series (32c), do
not place them either before or aft er the whole series.
▶ Other causes of asthmatic attacks are, stress, change in
temperature, and cold air.
▶ Ironically, even novels that focus on horror, evil, and alienation,
oft en have themes of spiritual renewal and redemption as well.
33d Do not use a comma between cumulative
adjectives, between an adjective and a noun,
or between an adverb and an adjective.
Commas are required between coordinate adjectives (those
that can be joined with and ), but they do not belong between
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33e310 Unnecessary commas
no ,
cumulative adjectives (those that cannot be joined with and ).
(For a full discussion, see 32d.)
▶ In the corner of the closet, we found an old, maroon hatbox.
A comma should never be used between an adjective and the
noun that follows it.
▶ It was a senseless, dangerous, mission.
Nor should a comma be used between an adverb and an
adjective that follows it.
▶ Th e Hillside is a good home for severely, disturbed youths.
33e Do not use commas to set off restrictive
elements.
Restrictive elements are modifi ers or appositives that restrict the
meaning of the nouns they follow. Because they are essential to the
meaning of the sentence, they are not set off with commas. (For a
full discussion of restrictive and nonrestrictive elements, see 32e.)
▶ Drivers, who think they own the road, make cycling a
dangerous sport.
Th e modifi er who think they own the road restricts the meaning of Drivers
and is essential to the meaning of the sentence. Putting commas around
the who clause falsely suggests that all drivers think they own the road.
▶ Margaret Mead’s book, Coming of Age in Samoa, stirred up
considerable controversy when it was published in 1928.
Since Mead wrote more than one book, the appositive contains
information essential to the meaning of the sentence.
33f Do not use a comma to set off a concluding
adverb clause that is essential for meaning.
When adverb clauses introduce a sentence, they are nearly always
followed by a comma (see 32b). When they conclude a sentence,
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Other misuses
however, they are not set off by commas if their content is es-
sential to the meaning of the earlier part of the sentence. Adverb
clauses beginning with aft er, as soon as, because, before, if, since,
unless, until, and when are usually essential.
▶ Don’t visit Paris at the height of the tourist season, unless
you have booked hotel reservations.
Without the unless clause, the meaning of the sentence might at fi rst
seem broader than the writer intended.
When a concluding adverb clause is nonessential, it should
be preceded by a comma. Clauses beginning with although, even
though, though, and whereas are usually nonessential.
▶ Th e lecture seemed to last only a short time although the
clock said it had gone on for more than an hour.
33g Do not use a comma after a phrase that
begins an inverted sentence.
Th ough a comma belongs aft er most introductory phrases (see
32b), it does not belong aft er phrases that begin an inverted sen-
tence. In an inverted sentence, the subject follows the verb, and
a phrase that ordinarily would follow the verb is moved to the
beginning (see 47c).
▶ At the bottom of the hill, sat the stubborn mule.
33h Avoid other common misuses of the
comma.
Do not use a comma in the following situations.
AFTER A COORDINATING CONJUNCTION (AND, BUT, OR, NOR, FOR,
SO, YET )
▶ Occasionally TV talk shows are performed live, but, more
oft en they are taped.
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33h Unnecessary commas312
no ,
AFTER SUCH AS OR LIKE
▶ Shade-loving plants such as, begonias, impatiens, and coleus
can add color to a shady garden.
AFTER ALTHOUGH
▶ Although, the air was balmy, the water was too cold for
swimming.
BEFORE A PARENTHESIS
▶ Th ough Sylvia’s ACT score was low, (only 15), her admissions
essay was superior.
TO SET OFF AN INDIRECT (REPORTED) QUOTATION
▶ Samuel Goldwyn once said, that a verbal contract isn’t worth
the paper it’s written on.
WITH A QUESTION MARK OR AN EXCLAMATION POINT
▶ “Why don’t you try it?, ” she coaxed. “You can’t do any worse
than the rest of us.”
EXERCISE 33–1 Delete any unnecessary commas in the following sen-
tences. If a sentence is correct, write “correct” aft er it. Answers appear in
the back of the book. More practice:
In his Silk Road Project, Yo-Yo Ma incorporates work by
musicians such as, Kayhan Kalhor and Richard Danielpour.
a. Aft er the morning rains cease, the swimmers emerge from
their cottages.
b. Tricia’s fi rst artwork was a bright, blue, clay dolphin.
/
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macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
33 Unnecessary commas
> Exercises: 33–3 to 33–5
> LearningCurve: Commas
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31334a
;
With independent clauses and no coordinating conjunction
c. Some modern musicians, (trumpeter John Hassell is an ex-
ample) blend several cultural traditions into a unique sound.
d. Myra liked hot, spicy foods such as, chili, kung pao chicken,
and buff alo wings.
e. On the display screen, was a soothing pattern of light and
shadow.
EXERCISE 33–2 Delete unnecessary commas in the following passage.
Each spring since 1970, New Orleans has hosted the Jazz
and Heritage Festival, an event that celebrates the music, food,
and culture, of the region. Although, it is oft en referred to as “Jazz
Fest,” the festival typically includes a wide variety of musical styles
such as, gospel, Cajun, blues, zydeco, and, rock and roll. Famous
musicians who have appeared regularly at Jazz Fest, include Dr.
John, B. B. King, and Aretha Franklin. Large stages are set up
throughout the fairgrounds in a way, that allows up to ten bands
to play simultaneously without any sound overlap. Food tents are
located throughout the festival, and off er popular, local dishes
like crawfi sh Monica, jambalaya, and fried, green tomatoes.
Following Hurricane Katrina in 2005, Jazz Fest revived quickly,
and attendance has steadily increased each year. Fans, who cannot
attend the festival, still enjoy the music by downloading songs,
and watching performances online.
34 The semicolon
Th e semicolon is used to connect major sentence elements of
equal grammatical rank.
34a Use a semicolon between closely related
independent clauses not joined with a coordinating
conjunction.
When two independent clauses appear in one sentence, they are
usually linked with a comma and a coordinating conjunction
(and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet). Th e coordinating conjunction sig-
nals the relation between the clauses. If the clauses are closely
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34b The semicolon314
;
related and the relation is clear without a conjunction, they may
be linked with a semicolon instead.
In fi lm, a low-angle shot makes the subject look powerful; a high-
angle shot does just the opposite.
A semicolon must be used whenever a coordinating con-
junction has been omitted between independent clauses. To use
merely a comma creates a type of run-on sentence known as a
comma splice. (See 20.)
▶ In 1800, a traveler needed six weeks to get from New York City
to Chicago, in 1860, the trip by railroad took only two days.
34b Use a semicolon between independent
clauses linked with a transitional expression.
Transitional expressions include conjunctive adverbs and transi-
tional phrases.
CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS
accordingly furthermore moreover still
also hence nevertheless subsequently
anyway however next then
besides incidentally nonetheless therefore
certainly indeed now thus
consequently instead otherwise
conversely likewise similarly
fi nally meanwhile specifi cally
TRANSITIONAL PHRASES
aft er all even so in fact
as a matter of fact for example in other words
as a result for instance in the fi rst place
at any rate in addition on the contrary
at the same time in conclusion on the other hand
When a transitional expression appears between indepen-
dent clauses, it is preceded by a semicolon and usually followed
by a comma.
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31534d
;
Misuses
▶ Many corals grow very gradually, in fact, the creation of a
coral reef can take centuries.
When a transitional expression appears in the middle or at
the end of the second independent clause, the semicolon goes
between the clauses.
▶ Biologists have observed laughter in primates other than
humans, chimpanzees, however, sound more like they are
panting than laughing.
Transitional expressions should not be confused with the co-
ordinating conjunctions and, but, or, nor, for, so, and yet, which
are preceded by a comma when they link independent clauses.
(See 32a.)
34c Use a semicolon between items in a series
containing internal punctuation.
▶ Classic science fi ction sagas are Star Trek, with Mr. Spock,
Battlestar Galactica, with its Cylons, and Star Wars, with
Han Solo, Luke Skywalker, and Darth Vader.
Without the semicolons, the reader would have to sort out the major
groupings, distinguishing between important and less important pauses
according to the logic of the sentence. By inserting semicolons at the
major breaks, the writer does this work for the reader.
34d Avoid common misuses of the semicolon.
Do not use a semicolon in the following situations.
BETWEEN A SUBORDINATE CLAUSE AND THE REST OF THE SENTENCE
▶ Although children’s literature was added to the National
Book Awards in 1969; it has had its own award, the Newbery
Medal, since 1922.
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34d The semicolon316
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BETWEEN AN APPOSITIVE AND THE WORD IT REFERS TO
▶ Th e scientists were fascinated by the species Argyroneta
aquatica; a spider that lives underwater.
TO INTRODUCE A LIST
▶ Some of my favorite celebrities have been animal rights
advocates; Betty White, Casey Affl eck, and Dave Navarro.
BETWEEN INDEPENDENT CLAUSES JOINED BY AND, BUT, OR, NOR, FOR, SO, OR YET
▶ Five of the applicants had worked with spreadsheets; but
only one was familiar with database management.
EXCEPTIONS: If one or both of the independent clauses contain a
comma, you may use a semicolon with a coordinating conjunc-
tion between the clauses.
EXERCISE 34–1 Add commas or semicolons where needed in the fol-
lowing well-known quotations. If a sentence is correct, write “correct” aft er
it. Answers appear in the back of the book. More practice:
If an animal does something we call it instinct if we do
the same thing we call it intelligence. — Will Cuppy
a. Do not ask me to be kind just ask me to act as though I were.
— Jules Renard
b. When men talk about defense they always claim to be protecting
women and children but they never ask the women and children
what they think. — Pat Schroeder
c. When I get a little money I buy books if any is left I buy food and
clothes. — Desiderius Erasmus
d. America is a country that doesn’t know where it is going but is
determined to set a speed record getting there.
— Laurence J. Peter
e. Wit has truth in it wisecracking is simply calisthenics with words.
— Dorothy Parker
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34 The semicolon
> Exercises: 34–3 to 34–6
> LearningCurve: Semicolons and colons
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31735a
:
Before a list, an appositive, a quotation, or a summary
EXERCISE 34–2 Edit the following sentences to correct errors in the use
of the comma and the semicolon. If a sentence is correct, write “correct”
aft er it. Answers appear in the back of the book.
Love is blind envy has its eyes wide open.
a. Strong black coff ee will not sober you up, the truth is that time is
the only way to get alcohol out of your system.
b. Margaret was not surprised to see hail and vivid lightning, condi-
tions had been right for violent weather all day.
c. Th ere is oft en a fi ne line between right and wrong; good and bad;
truth and deception.
d. My mother always says that you can’t learn common sense; either
you’re born with it or you’re not.
e. Severe, unremitting pain is a ravaging force; especially when the
patient tries to hide it from others.
35 The colon
Th e colon is used primarily to call attention to the words that fol-
low it. In addition, the colon has some conventional uses.
35a Use a colon after an independent clause
to direct attention to a list, an appositive, a
quotation, or a summary or an explanation.
A LIST
Th e daily routine should include at least the following: twenty
knee bends, fi ft y sit-ups, and fi ve minutes of running in place.
AN APPOSITIVE
My roommate is guilty of two of the seven deadly sins: gluttony
and sloth.
A QUOTATION
Consider the words of Benjamin Franklin: “Th ere never was a
good war or a bad peace.”
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35b The colon318
:
A SUMMARY OR AN EXPLANATION
Faith is like love: It cannot be forced.
Th e novel is clearly autobiographical: Th e author even gives his
own name to the main character.
NOTE: For other ways of introducing quotations, see “Introducing
quoted material” on pages 327–28. When an independent clause
follows a colon, begin with a capital letter. Some disciplines use a
lowercase letter instead. See 45f for variations.
35b Use a colon according to convention.
SALUTATION IN A LETTER Dear Sir or Madam:
HOURS AND MINUTES 5:30 p.m.
PROPORTIONS Th e ratio of women to men was 2:1.
TITLE AND SUBTITLE Th e Glory of Hera: Greek Mythology and the
Greek Family
BIBLIOGRAPHIC ENTRIES Boston: Bedford, 2014
CHAPTER AND VERSE IN SACRED TEXT Luke 2:14, Qur’an 67:3
35c Avoid common misuses of the colon.
A colon must be preceded by a full independent clause. Th erefore,
avoid using it in the following situations.
BETWEEN A VERB AND ITS OBJECT OR COMPLEMENT
▶ Some important vitamins found in vegetables are: vitamin A,
thiamine, niacin, and vitamin C.
BETWEEN A PREPOSITION AND ITS OBJECT
▶ Th e heart’s two pumps each consist of: an upper chamber,
or atrium, and a lower chamber, or ventricle.
AFTER SUCH AS, INCLUDING, OR FOR EXAMPLE
▶ Th e NCAA regulates college athletic teams, including:
basketball, baseball, soft ball, and football.
/
/
/
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31936a
’
Possessive nouns
EXERCISE 35–1 Edit the following sentences to correct errors in the
use of the comma, the semicolon, or the colon. If a sentence is correct,
write “correct” aft er it. Answers appear in the back of the book.
More practice:
Lift ing the cover gently, Luca found the source of the odd
sound; a marble in the gears.
a. We always looked forward to Th anksgiving in Vermont: It was our
only chance to see our Grady cousins.
b. If we have come to fi ght, we are far too few, if we have come to die,
we are far too many.
c. Th e travel package includes: a round-trip ticket to Athens, a cruise
through the Cyclades, and all hotel accommodations.
d. Th e news article portrays the land use proposal as reckless;
although 62 percent of the town’s residents support it.
e. Psychologists Kindlon and Th ompson (2000) off er parents a sim-
ple starting point for raising male children, “Teach boys that there
are many ways to be a man” (p. 256).
36 The apostrophe
36a Use an apostrophe to indicate that a noun
is possessive.
Possessive nouns usually indicate ownership, as in Tim’s hat, the law-
yer’s desk. Frequently, however, ownership is only loosely implied: the
tree’s roots, a day’s work. If you are not sure whether a noun is posses-
sive, try turning it into an of phrase: the roots of the tree, the work of a
day. (Pronouns also have possessive forms. See 36b and 36e.)
When to add -’s
1. If the noun does not end in -s, add -’s.
Luck oft en propels a rock musician’s career.
/
^
:
macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
35 The colon
> Exercises: 35–2 and 35–3
> LearningCurve: Semicolons and colons
^
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36b The apostrophe320
’
Th e Children’s Defense Fund is a nonprofi t organization that
supports programs for poor and minority children.
2. If the noun is singular and ends in -s or an s sound, add -’s
to indicate possession.
Lois’s sister spent last year in India.
Her article presents an overview of Marx’s teachings.
NOTE: To avoid potentially awkward pronunciation, some writers
use only the apostrophe with a singular noun ending in -s: Sophocles’.
When to add only an apostrophe
If the noun is plural and ends in -s, add only an apostrophe.
Both diplomats’ briefcases were searched by guards.
Joint possession
To show joint possession, use -’s or (-s’ ) with the last noun only;
to show individual possession, make all nouns possessive.
Have you seen Joyce and Greg’s new camper?
John’s and Marie’s expectations of marriage couldn’t have been
more diff erent.
Joyce and Greg jointly own one camper. John and Marie indi-
vidually have diff erent expectations.
Compound nouns
If a noun is compound, use -’s (or -s’ ) with the last element.
My father-in-law’s memoir about his childhood in Sri Lanka was
published in October.
36b Use an apostrophe and -s to indicate that
an indefi nite pronoun is possessive.
Indefi nite pronouns refer to no specifi c person or thing: every-
one, someone, no one, something. (See 46b.)
Someone’s raincoat has been left behind.
^
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’
Not for plural numbers, letters, abbreviations, etc.
36c Use an apostrophe to mark omissions
in contractions and numbers.
In a contraction, the apostrophe takes the place of one or more
missing letters. It’s stands for it is, can’t for cannot.
It’s a shame that Frank can’t go on the tour.
Th e apostrophe is also used to mark the omission of the
fi rst two digits of a year (the class of ’08) or years (the ’60s
generation).
36d Do not use an apostrophe in certain
situations.
An apostrophe typically is not used to pluralize numbers, letters,
abbreviations, and words mentioned as words. Note the few ex-
ceptions and be consistent throughout your paper.
Plural of numbers
Do not use an apostrophe in the plural of any numbers.
Oksana skated nearly perfect fi gure 8s.
Th e 1920s are known as the Jazz Age.
Plural of letters
Italicize the letter and use roman (regular) font style for the -s
ending. Do not italicize academic grades.
Two large Ps were painted on the door.
He received two Ds for the fi rst time in his life.
EXCEPTIONS: To avoid misreading, use an apostrophe to form the
plural of lowercase letters and the capital letters A and I.
Beginning readers oft en confuse b’s and d’s.
Students with straight A’s earn high honors.
MLA NOTE: MLA recommends using an apostrophe for the plural
of single capital and lowercase letters: H ’s, p’s.
^
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36e The apostrophe322
’
Plural of abbreviations
Do not use an apostrophe to pluralize an abbreviation.
Harriet has thirty DVDs on her desk.
Marco earned two PhDs before his thirtieth birthday.
Plural of words mentioned as words
Generally, omit the apostrophe to form the plural of words men-
tioned as words. If the word is italicized, the -s ending appears in
roman (regular) type.
We’ve heard enough maybe s.
Words mentioned as words may also appear in quotation marks.
When you choose this option, use the apostrophe.
We’ve heard enough “maybe’s.”
36e Avoid common misuses of the apostrophe.
Do not use an apostrophe with nouns that are not possessive or with
the possessive pronouns its, whose, his, hers, ours, yours, and theirs.
▶ Some outpatient’s have special parking permits.
▶ Each area has it’s own conference room.
It’s means “it is.” Th e possessive pronoun its contains no apostrophe
despite the fact that it is possessive.
▶ We attended a reading by Junot Díaz, who’s work focuses on the
Dominican immigration experience.
Who’s means “who is.” Th e possessive pronoun is whose.
EXERCISE 36–1 Edit the following sentences to correct errors in the
use of the apostrophe. If a sentence is correct, write “correct” aft er it.
Answers appear in the back of the book. More practice:
Our favorite barbecue restaurant is Poor Richards Ribs.
a. Th is diet will improve almost anyone’s health.
^
outpatients
^
its
^
whose
^
Richard’s
^
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32337
“ ”
Quotation marks
b. Th e innovative shoe fastener was inspired by the designers young son.
c. Each days menu features a diff erent European country’s dish.
d. Sue worked overtime to increase her families earnings.
e. Ms. Jacobs is unwilling to listen to students complaints about
computer failures.
EXERCISE 36–2 Edit the following passage to correct errors in the use
of the apostrophe.
Its never too soon to start holiday shopping. In fact, some
people choose to start shopping as early as January, when last
seasons left over’s are priced at their lowest. Many stores try to lure
customers in with promise’s of savings up to 90 percent. Th eir main
objective, of course, is to make way for next years inventory. Th e big
problem with postholiday shopping, though, is that there isn’t much
left to choose from. Store’s shelves have been picked over by last-
minute shoppers desperately searching for gift s. Th e other problem
is that its hard to know what to buy so far in advance. Next year’s
hot items are anyones guess. But proper timing, mixed with lot’s of
luck and determination, can lead to good purchases at great price’s.
37 Quotation marks
Writers use quotation marks primarily to enclose direct quota-
tions of another person’s spoken or written words. You will also
fi nd these other uses and exceptions:
• for quotations within quotations (single quotation marks: 37b)
• for titles of short works (37c)
• for words used as words (37d)
• with other marks of punctuation (37e)
• with brackets and ellipsis marks (39c, 39d)
• no quotation marks for indirect quotations, paraphrases,
and summaries (p. 324)
• no quotation marks for long quotations (p. 324)
macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
36 The apostrophe
> Exercises: 36–3 to 36–5
> LearningCurve: Apostrophes
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37a Quotation marks324
“ ”
37a Use quotation marks to enclose direct
quotations.
Direct quotations of a person’s words, whether spoken or written,
must be in quotation marks.
“Twitter,” according to social media researcher Jameson Brown, “is
the best social network for brand to customer engagement.”
In dialogue, begin a new paragraph to mark a change in
speaker.
“Mom, his name is Willie, not William. A thousand times I’ve
told you, it’s Willie.”
“Willie is a derivative of William, Lester. Surely his birth
certifi cate doesn’t have Willie on it, and I like calling people by
their proper names.”
“Yes, it does, ma’am. My mother named me Willie K. Mason.”
— Gloria Naylor
If a single speaker utters more than one paragraph, introduce
each paragraph with a quotation mark, but do not use a closing
quotation mark until the end of the speech.
Exception: Indirect quotations
Do not use quotation marks around indirect quotations. An
indirect quotation reports someone’s ideas without using that
person’s exact words. In academic writing, indirect quotation is
called paraphrase or summary. (See pp. 412–14.)
Social media researcher Jameson Brown claims that Twitter is the best
social media tool for companies that want to reach their consumers.
Exception: Long quotations
Long quotations of prose or poetry are generally set off from the
text by indenting. Quotation marks are not used because the in-
dented format tells readers that the quotation is taken word-for-
word from the source.
After making an exhaustive study of the historical record, James
Horan evaluates Billy the Kid like this:
The portrait that emerges of [the Kid] from the thousands
of pages of affidavits, reports, trial transcripts, his letters,
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“ ”
Words as words
and his testimony is neither the mythical Robin Hood nor
the stereotyped adenoidal moron and pathological killer.
Rather Billy appears as a disturbed, lonely young man,
honest, loyal to his friends, dedicated to his beliefs, and
betrayed by our institutions and the corrupt, ambitious,
and compromising politicians in his time. (158)
Th e long quotation and the page number in parentheses are han-
dled according to MLA style. (See 56a.)
MLA and APA have specifi c guidelines for what constitutes
a long quotation and how it should be indented (see pp. 449
and 541, respectively).
37b Use single quotation marks to enclose
a quotation within a quotation.
Megan Marshall notes that Elizabeth Peabody’s school focused
on “not merely ‘teaching’ but ‘educating children morally and
spiritually as well as intellectually from the fi rst’ ” (107).
37c Use quotation marks around the titles
of short works.
Short works include newspaper and magazine articles, poems,
short stories, songs, episodes of television and radio programs,
and chapters or subdivisions of books.
James Baldwin’s story “Sonny’s Blues” tells the story of two
brothers who come to understand each other’s suff ering.
NOTE: Titles of long works such as books, plays, television and
radio programs, fi lms, magazines, and newspapers are put in
italics. (See 42a.)
37d Quotation marks may be used to set off
words used as words.
Although words used as words are ordinarily italicized (see 42d),
quotation marks are also acceptable. Be consistent throughout
your paper.
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37e Quotation marks326
“ ”
Th e words “accept” and “except” are frequently confused.
Th e words accept and except are frequently confused.
37e Use punctuation with quotation marks
according to convention.
Th is section describes the conventions American publishers use
in placing various marks of punctuation inside or outside quota-
tion marks. It also explains how to punctuate when introducing
quoted material. (For the use of quotation marks in MLA and
APA styles, see 56a and 61a, respectively. Th e examples in this
section show MLA style.)
Periods and commas
Place periods and commas inside quotation marks.
“I’m here as part of my service-learning project,” I told the
classroom teacher. “I’m hoping to become a reading specialist.”
Th is rule applies to single quotation marks as well as double quota-
tion marks. (See 37b.) It also applies to all uses of quotation marks:
for quoted material, for titles of works, and for words used as words.
EXCEPTION: In MLA and APA styles of parenthetical in-text cita-
tions, the period follows the citation in parentheses.
James M. McPherson comments, approvingly, that the Whigs
“were not averse to extending the blessings of American liberty,
even to Mexicans and Indians” (48).
Colons and semicolons
Put colons and semicolons outside quotation marks.
Harold wrote, “I regret that I am unable to attend the fundraiser
for AIDS research”; his letter, however, came with a donation.
Question marks and exclamation points
Put question marks and exclamation points inside quotation
marks unless they apply to the whole sentence.
Dr. Abram’s fi rst question was “What are your goals?”
Have you heard the old proverb “Do not climb the hill until you
reach it”?
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32737e
“ ”
With other punctuation marks
In the fi rst sentence, the question mark applies only to the quoted
question. In the second sentence, the question mark applies to
the whole sentence.
NOTE: In MLA and APA styles for a quotation that ends with a
question mark or an exclamation point, the parenthetical citation
and a period should follow the entire quotation.
Rosie Th omas asks, “Is nothing in life ever straight and clear, the
way children see it?” (77).
Introducing quoted material
Aft er a word group introducing a quotation, choose a colon, a
comma, or no punctuation at all, whichever is appropriate in
context.
Formal introduction If a quotation is formally introduced, a
colon is appropriate. A formal introduction is a full independent
clause, not just an expression such as he said or she remarked.
Th omas Friedman provides a challenging yet optimistic view
of the future: “We need to get back to work on our country and
on our planet. Th e hour is late, the stakes couldn’t be higher, the
project couldn’t be harder, the payoff couldn’t be greater” (25).
Expression such as he writes If a quotation is introduced with an
expression such as he writes or she remarked — or if it is followed
by such an expression — a comma is needed.
“With regard to air travel,” Stephen Ambrose notes, “Jeff erson was
a full century ahead of the curve” (53).
“Unless another war is prevented it is likely to bring destruction on
a scale never before held possible and even now hardly conceived,”
Albert Einstein wrote in the aft ermath of the atomic bomb (29).
Blended quotation When a quotation is blended into the writer’s
own sentence, either a comma or no punctuation is appropriate,
depending on the way in which the quotation fi ts into the sen-
tence structure.
Th e future champion could, as he put it, “fl oat like a butterfl y and
sting like a bee.”
Virginia Woolf wrote in 1928 that “a woman must have money
and a room of her own if she is to write fi ction” (4).
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37f Quotation marks328
“ ”
Beginning of sentence If a quotation appears at the beginning of
a sentence, use a comma aft er it unless the quotation ends with a
question mark or an exclamation point.
“I’ve always thought of myself as a reporter,” American poet
Gwendolyn Brooks once stated (162).
“What is it?” she asked, bracing herself.
Interrupted quotation If a quoted sentence is interrupted by
explanatory words, use commas to set off the explanatory
words. If two successive quoted sentences from the same source
are interrupted by explanatory words, use a comma before the
explanatory words and a period aft er them.
“Everyone agrees journalists must tell the truth,” Bill Kovach and
Tom Rosenstiel write. “Yet people are befuddled about what ‘the
truth’ means” (37).
37f Avoid common misuses of quotation marks.
Do not use quotation marks to draw attention to familiar slang,
to disown trite expressions, or to justify an attempt at humor.
▶ Th e economist estimated that single-family home prices would
decline another 5 percent by the end of the year, emphasizing
that this was only a “ballpark fi gure.”
Do not use quotation marks around the title of your own essay.
EXERCISE 37–1 Add or delete quotation marks as needed and make
any other necessary changes in punctuation in the following sentences.
If a sentence is correct, write “correct” aft er it. Answers appear in the
back of the book. More practice:
Gandhi once said, An eye for an eye only ends up making
the whole world blind.
/ /
^
“
^
”
macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
37 Quotation marks
> Exercises: 37–3 to 37–5
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32937f
“ ”
Quotation marks
a. As for the advertisement “Sailors have more fun”, if you consider chip-
ping paint and swabbing decks fun, then you will have plenty of it.
b. Even aft er forty minutes of discussion, our class could not agree
on an interpretation of Robert Frost’s poem “Th e Road Not Taken.”
c. Aft er winning the lottery, Juanita said that “she would give half the
money to charity.”
d. Aft er the movie, Vicki said, “Th e reviewer called this fl ick “trash of
the fi rst order.” I guess you can’t believe everything you read.”
e. “Cleaning your house while your kids are still growing,” said
Phyllis Diller, “is like shoveling the walk before it stops snowing.”
EXERCISE 37–2 Add or delete quotation marks as needed and make
any other necessary changes in punctuation in the following passage.
Citations should conform to MLA style (see 54b).
In his article Th e Moment of Truth, former vice president
Al Gore argues that global warming is a genuine threat to
life on Earth and that we must act now to avoid catastrophe.
Gore calls our situation a “true planetary emergency” and cites
scientifi c evidence of the greenhouse eff ect and its consequences
(170–71). “What is at stake, Gore insists, is the survival of our
civilization and the habitability of the Earth (197).” With such
a grim predicament at hand, Gore questions why so many
political and economic leaders are reluctant to act. “Is it simply
more convenient to ignore the warnings,” he asks (171)?
Th e crisis, of course, will not go away if we just pretend it
isn’t there. Gore points out that in Chinese two symbols form the
character for the word crisis. Th e fi rst of those symbols means
“danger”, and the second means “opportunity.” Th e danger we
face, he claims, is accompanied by “unprecedented opportunity.”
(172) Gore contends that throughout history we have won battles
against seemingly unbeatable evils such as slavery and fascism and
that we did so by facing the truth and choosing the moral high
ground. Gore’s fi nal appeal is to our humanity:
“Ultimately, [the fi ght to end global warming] is not about
any scientifi c discussion or political dialogue; it is about who
we are as human beings. It is about our capacity to transcend
our limitations, to rise to this new occasion. To see with our
hearts, as well as our heads, the response that is now called
for.” (244)
Gore feels that the fate of our world rests in our own hands, and
his hope is that we will make the choice to save the planet.
Source of quotations: Al Gore; “Th e Moment of Truth”; Vanity Fair
May 2006: 170+; print.
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330
38 End punctuation
38a The period
Use a period to end all sentences except direct questions or genu-
ine exclamations. Also use periods in abbreviations according to
convention.
To end sentences
Most sentences should end with a period. A sentence that reports
a question instead of asking it directly, (an indirect question)
should end with a period, not a question mark.
▶ Th e professor asked whether talk therapy was more benefi cial
than antidepressants?
If a sentence is not a genuine exclamation, it should end with
a period, not an exclamation point. (See also 38c.)
▶ Aft er years of working her way through school, Geeta fi nally
graduated with high honors!
In abbreviations
A period is conventionally used in abbreviations of titles and
Latin words or phrases, including the time designations for
morning and aft ernoon.
Mr. i.e. a.m. (or AM)
Ms. e.g. p.m. (or PM)
Dr. etc.
NOTE: If a sentence ends with a period marking an abbreviation,
do not add a second period.
Do not use a period with US Postal Service abbreviations for
states: MD, TX, CA.
/
^
.
/
^
.
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33138c
!
The exclamation point
Current usage is to omit the period in abbreviations
of organization names, academic degrees, and designations
for eras.
NATO UNESCO UCLA BS BC
IRS AFL-CIO NIH PhD BCE
38b The question mark
A direct question should be followed by a question mark.
What is the horsepower of a 777 engine?
TIP: Do not use a question mark aft er an indirect question,
one that is reported rather than asked directly. Use a period
instead.
▶ He asked me who was teaching the math course this
year?
38c The exclamation point
Use an exclamation point after a word group or sentence
to express exceptional feeling or to provide special empha-
sis. The exclamation point is rarely appropriate in academic
writing.
When Gloria entered the room, I switched on the lights, and we all
yelled, “Surprise!”
TIP: Do not overuse the exclamation point.
▶ In the fi sherman’s memory, the fi sh lives on, increasing in
length and weight with each passing year, until at last it is
big enough to shade a fi shing boat!
Th is sentence doesn’t need to be pumped up with an exclamation point.
It is emphatic enough without it.
/
^
.
/
^
.
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332 39 Other punctuation marks
—
EXERCISE 38–1 Add appropriate end punctuation in the following
paragraph.
Although I am generally rational, I am superstitious I
never walk under ladders or put shoes on the table If I spill the
salt, I go into frenzied calisthenics picking up the grains and
tossing them over my left shoulder As a result of these curious
activities, I’ve always wondered whether knowing the roots of
superstitions would quell my irrational responses Superstition has
it, for example, that one should never place a hat on the bed Th is
superstition arises from a time when head lice were common and
placing a guest’s hat on the bed stood a good chance of spreading
lice through the host’s bed Doesn’t this make good sense And
doesn’t it stand to reason that, if I know that my guests don’t have
lice, I shouldn’t care where their hats go Of course it does It is
fair to ask, then, whether I have changed my ways and place hats
on beds Are you kidding I wouldn’t put a hat on a bed if my life
depended on it
39 Other punctuation marks
39a The dash
When typing, use two hyphens to form a dash (–). Do not put
spaces before or aft er the dash. If your word processing program
has what is known as an “em-dash” (—), you may use it instead,
with no space before or aft er it.
Use a dash to set off parenthetical material that deserves
emphasis.
Everything that went wrong — from the peeping Tom at her
window last night to my head-on collision today — we blamed on
our move.
Use a dash to set off appositives that contain commas. An
appositive is a noun or noun phrase that renames a nearby noun.
Ordinarily, most appositives are set off with commas (32e), but
when the appositive itself contains commas, a pair of dashes
helps readers see the relative importance of all the pauses.
In my hometown, people’s basic needs — food, clothing, and
shelter — are less costly than in a big city like Los Angeles.
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33339b
( )
Parentheses
A dash can also introduce a list, a restatement, an amplifi ca-
tion, or a dramatic shift in tone or thought.
Along the wall are the bulk liquids — sesame seed oil, honey,
saffl ower oil, and that half-liquid “peanuts only” peanut butter.
In his last semester, Peter tried to pay more attention to his
priorities — applying to graduate school and getting fi nancial aid.
Everywhere we looked there were little kids — a bag of Skittles in
one hand and their mommy or daddy’s sleeve in the other.
Kiere took a few steps back, came running full speed, kicked a
mighty kick — and missed the ball.
In the fi rst two examples, the writer could also use a colon.
(See 35a.) Th e colon is more formal than the dash and not quite
as dramatic.
TIP: Unless there is a specifi c reason for using the dash, avoid it.
Unnecessary dashes create a choppy eff ect.
39b Parentheses
Use parentheses to enclose supplemental material, minor di-
gressions, and aft erthoughts.
Nurses record patients’ vital signs (temperature, pulse, and blood
pressure) several times a day.
Use parentheses to enclose letters or numbers labeling items
in a series.
Regulations stipulated that only the following equipment could
be used on the survival mission: (1) a knife, (2) thirty feet of
parachute line, (3) a book of matches, (4) two ponchos, (5) an E
tool, and (6) a signal fl are.
TIP: Rough draft s are likely to contain unnecessary parentheses.
As writers head into a sentence, they oft en think of additional
details, using parentheses to work them in as best they can. Such
sentences usually can be revised to include the details without
parentheses.
▶ Researchers have said that seventeen million (estimates run
as high as twenty-three million) Americans have diabetes.
^
from
^
to
/
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39c Other punctuation marks334
[ ]
39c Brackets
Use brackets to enclose any words or phrases that you have in-
serted into an otherwise word-for-word quotation.
Audubon reports that “if there are not enough young to balance
deaths, the end of the species [California condor] is inevitable” (4).
Th e sentence quoted from the Audubon article did not contain
the words California condor (since the context of the full article
made clear what species was meant), so the writer needed to add
the name in brackets.
Th e Latin word “sic” in brackets indicates that an error in a
quoted sentence appears in the original source.
According to the review, Nelly Furtado’s performance was brilliant,
“exceding [sic] the expectations of even her most loyal fans.”
Do not overuse “sic,” however, since calling attention to oth-
ers’ mistakes can appear snobbish. Th e preceding quotation, for
example, might have been paraphrased instead: According to the
review, even Nelly Furtado’s most loyal fans were surprised by the
brilliance of her performance.
39d The ellipsis mark
Th e ellipsis mark consists of three spaced periods. Use an ellipsis
mark to indicate that you have deleted words from an otherwise
word-for-word quotation.
Shute (2010) acknowledges that treatment for autism can be
expensive: “Sensory integration therapy . . . can cost up to $200
an hour” (82).
If you delete a full sentence or more in the middle of a quoted
passage, use a period before the three ellipsis dots.
“If we don’t properly train, teach, or treat our growing prison
population,” says longtime reform advocate Luis Rodríguez,
“somebody else will. . . . Th is may well be the safety issue of the
new century” (16).
TIP: Ordinarily, do not use the ellipsis mark at the beginning
or at the end of a quotation. Readers will understand that the
quoted material is taken from a longer passage. If you have cut
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33539eSlash
/
some words from the end of the fi nal quoted sentence, however,
MLA requires an ellipsis mark.
In quoted poetry, use a full line of ellipsis dots to indicate
that you have dropped a line or more from the poem, as in this
example from “To His Coy Mistress” by Andrew Marvell:
Had we but world enough, and time,
Th is coyness, lady, were no crime.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
But at my back I always hear
Time’s wingèd chariot hurrying near; (1–2, 21–22)
39e The slash
Use the slash to separate two or three lines of poetry that have been
run into your text. Add a space both before and aft er the slash.
In the opening lines of “Jordan,” George Herbert pokes gentle fun
at popular poems of his time: “Who says that fi ctions only and
false hair / Become a verse? Is there in truth no beauty?” (1–2).
Four or more lines of poetry should be handled as an indented
quotation. (See pp. 324–25.)
Th e slash may occasionally be used to separate paired terms
such as pass/fail and producer/director. Do not use a space before
or aft er the slash. Be sparing in this use of the slash. In partic-
ular, avoid the use of and/or, he/she, and his/her. Instead of using
he/she and his/her to solve sexist language problems, you can
usually fi nd more graceful alternatives. (See 17e and 22a.)
EXERCISE 39–1 Edit the following sentences to correct errors in punc-
tuation, focusing especially on appropriate use of the dash, parentheses,
brackets, the ellipsis mark, and the slash. If a sentence is correct, write
“correct” aft er it. Answers appear in the back of the book.
More practice:
Social insects, bees, for example, are able to
communicate complicated messages to one another.
/ —
^
/ —
^
macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
39 Other punctuation marks
> Exercises: 39–2 and 39–3
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39e Other punctuation marks336
/
a. A client left his/her cell phone in our conference room aft er the
meeting.
b. Th e fi lms we made of Kilauea — on our trip to Hawaii Volcanoes
National Park — illustrate a typical spatter cone eruption.
c. Although he was confi dent in his course selections, Greg chose the
pass/fail option for Chemistry 101.
d. Of three engineering fi elds, chemical, mechanical, and materials,
Keegan chose materials engineering for its application to toy
manufacturing.
e. Th e writer Chitra Divakaruni explained her work with other
Indian American immigrants: “Many women who came to
Maitri [a women’s support group in San Francisco] needed to
know simple things like opening a bank account or getting citizen-
ship. . . . Many women in Maitri spoke English, but their English
was functional rather than emotional. Th ey needed someone who
understands their problems and speaks their language.”
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Mechanics
40 Abbreviations, 338
41 Numbers, 341
42 Italics, 343
43 Spelling, 345
44 The hyphen, 353
45 Capitalization, 356
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338
40 Abbreviations
Use abbreviations only when they are clearly appropriate and uni-
versally understood (such as Dr., a.m., PhD, and so on). Th is sec-
tion provides details about common abbreviations and about how
to handle abbreviations that might not be familiar to your audience.
40a Use standard abbreviations for titles
immediately before and after proper names.
TITLES BEFORE
PROPER NAMES
TITLES AFTER
PROPER NAMES
Mr. Rafael Zabala William Albert Sr.
Ms. Nancy Linehan Th omas Hines Jr.
Dr. Margaret Simmons Robert Simkowski, MD
Rev. John Stone Margaret Chin, LLD
Do not abbreviate a title if it is not used with a proper name.
▶ My history prof. is an expert on race relations in South Africa.
Avoid redundant titles such as Dr. Amy Day, MD. Choose
one title or the other: Dr. Amy Day or Amy Day, MD.
40b Use abbreviations only when you are sure
your readers will understand them.
Familiar abbreviations for the names of organizations, compa-
nies, countries, academic degrees, and common terms, written
without periods, are generally acceptable.
CIA FBI MD NAACP
NBA CEO PhD DVD
YMCA CBS USA ESL
Talk show host Conan O’Brien is a Harvard graduate with a BA in
history.
Th e YMCA has opened a new gym close to my offi ce.
^
professor
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Units of measurement 339
abbr
40d
When using an unfamiliar abbreviation (such as NASW for
National Association of Social Workers) or a potentially am-
biguous abbreviation (such as AMA, which might refer to the
American Medical Association or the American Management
Association), write the full name followed by the abbreviation in
parentheses at the fi rst mention of the name. Th en use just the
abbreviation throughout the rest of the paper.
NOTE: An abbreviation that can be pronounced as a word is
called an acronym: NATO, MADD, OPEC.
40c Use BC, AD, a.m., p.m., No., and $ only with
specifi c dates, times, numbers, and amounts.
Th e abbreviation BC (“before Christ”) follows a date, and AD
(“anno Domini”) precedes a date. Acceptable alternatives are
BCE (“before the common era”) and CE (“common era”), both of
which follow a date.
40 BC (or 40 BCE) 4:00 a.m. (or AM) No. 12 (or no. 12)
AD 44 (or 44 CE) 6:00 p.m. (or PM) $150
Avoid using a.m., p.m., No., or $ when not accompanied by a
specifi c numeral: in the morning (not in the a.m.).
40d Units of measurement
Th e following are typical abbreviations for units of measurement.
Most social sciences and related fi elds use metric units (km, mg), but
in other fi elds and in everyday use, US standard units (mi, lb) are
typical. As a general rule, use the abbreviations for units when they
appear with numerals; spell out the units when they are used alone
or when they are used with spelled-out numbers (see also 41a).
METRIC UNITS US STANDARD UNITS
m, cm, mm yd, ft , in.
km, kph mi, mph
kg, g, mg lb, oz
Results were measured in pounds.
Runners in the 5-km race had to contend with a stiff headwind.
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abbr
Abbreviations340 40e
Use no periods aft er abbreviations for units of measurement,
except for the abbreviation for “inch” (in.), to distinguish it from
the preposition in.
40e Be sparing in your use of Latin
abbreviations.
Latin abbreviations are acceptable in footnotes and bibliographies.
cf. (Latin confer, “compare”)
e.g. (Latin exempli gratia, “for example”)
et al. (Latin et alia, “and others”)
etc. (Latin et cetera, “and so forth”)
i.e. (Latin id est, “that is”)
N.B. (Latin nota bene, “note well”)
In most academic writing, use the appropriate English phrases.
▶ Many obsolete laws remain on the books. A law in
Vermont, e.g., forbids an unmarried man and woman to
sit closer than six inches apart on a park bench.
40f Plural of abbreviations
To form the plural of most abbreviations, add -s, without an
apostrophe: PhDs, DVDs. Do not add -s to indicate the plural of
units of measurement: mm (not mms), lb (lbs), in. (not ins.).
40g Avoid inappropriate abbreviations.
In academic writing, abbreviations for the following are not com-
monly accepted.
PERSONAL NAMES Charles (not Chas.)
DAYS OF THE WEEK Monday (not Mon.)
HOLIDAYS Christmas (not Xmas)
MONTHS January, February, March (not Jan., Feb., Mar.)
COURSES OF STUDY political science (not poli. sci.)
^
for example,
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341Spelling out numbers
num
41a
DIVISIONS OF WRITTEN WORKS chapter, page (not ch., p.)
STATES AND COUNTRIES Massachusetts (not MA or Mass.)
PARTS OF A BUSINESS NAME Adams Lighting Company (not Adams
Lighting Co.); Kim and Brothers (not Kim and Bros.)
NOTE: Use abbreviations for units of measurement when they are
preceded by numerals (13 cm). Do not abbreviate them when
they are used alone. (See 40d.)
EXCEPTION: Abbreviate states and provinces in complete
addresses, and always abbreviate DC when used with Washington.
EXERCISE 40–1 Edit the following sentences to correct errors in
abbreviations. If a sentence is correct, write “correct” aft er it. Answers
appear in the back of the book. More practice:
Th is year Xmas will fall on a Tues.
a. Since its inception, the BBC has maintained a consistently high
standard of radio and television broadcasting.
b. Some combat soldiers are trained by govt. diplomats to be sensi-
tive to issues of culture, history, and religion.
c. Mahatma Gandhi has inspired many modern leaders, including
Martin Luther King Jr.
d. How many lb. have you lost since you began running four miles a day?
e. Denzil spent all night studying for his psych. exam.
41 Numbers
41a Follow the conventions in your discipline for
spelling out or using numerals to express numbers.
In the humanities, which generally follow Modern Language
Association (MLA) style, use numerals only for specifi c numbers
above one hundred: 353, 1,020. Spell out numbers one hundred and
below and large round numbers: eleven, thirty-fi ve, sixty, fi ft een million.
^
Christmas
^
Tuesday.
macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
40 Abbreviations
> Exercises: 40–2 and 40–3
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41b Numbers342
num
Th e social sciences and other disciplines that follow
American Psychological Association (APA) style use numer-
als for all but the numbers one through nine. Spell out numbers
from one to nine even when they are used with related numerals
in a passage: Th e survey found that nine of the 157 respondents
had not taken a course on alcohol use. (An exception is the ab-
stract of a paper, where numerals are used for all numbers. See
62a on APA manuscript format.)
If a sentence begins with a number, spell out the number or
rewrite the sentence.
▶ 150 children in our program need expensive dental treatment.
Rewriting the sentence may be less awkward if the number is long: In
our program, 150 children need expensive dental treatment.
41b Use numerals according to convention in
dates, addresses, and so on.
DATES July 4, 1776; 56 BC; AD 30
ADDRESSES 77 Latches Lane, 519 West 42nd Street
PERCENTAGES 55 percent (or 55%)
FRACTIONS, DECIMALS ⅞, 0.047
SCORES 7 to 3, 21–18
STATISTICS average age 37, average weight 180
SURVEYS 4 out of 5
EXACT AMOUNTS OF MONEY $105.37, $106,000
DIVISIONS OF BOOKS volume 3, chapter 4, page 189
DIVISIONS OF PLAYS act 3, scene 3 (or act III, scene iii)
TIME OF DAY 4:00 p.m., 1:30 a.m.
NOTE: When not using a.m. or p.m., write out the time in words
(two o’clock in the aft ernoon, twelve noon, seven in the morning).
EXERCISE 41–1 Edit the following sentences to correct errors in the
use of numbers. If a sentence is correct, write “correct” aft er it. Answers
appear in the back of the book. More practice:
By the end of the evening, Ashanti had only three dollars
and six cents left .
^
One hundred fi fty
^
$3.06
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343Titles of works
ital
42a
a. Th e carpenters located 3 maple timbers, 21 sheets of cherry, and
10 oblongs of polished ebony for the theater set.
b. Th e program’s cost is well over one billion dollars.
c. Th e score was tied at 5–5 when the momentum shift ed and carried
the Standards to a decisive 12–5 win.
d. 8 students in the class had been labeled “learning disabled.”
e. Th e Vietnam Veterans Memorial in Washington, DC, had fi ft y-
eight thousand one hundred thirty-two names inscribed on it
when it was dedicated in 1982.
42 Italics
Th is section describes conventional uses for italics. (If your
instructor requires underlining, simply substitute underlining
for italics in the examples in this section.)
Some soft ware applications do not allow for italics. To in-
dicate words that should be italicized, you can use underscore
marks or asterisks before and aft er the words.
I will write my senior thesis on _And the Mountains Echoed_.
NOTE: Excessive use of italics to emphasize words or ideas, espe-
cially in academic writing, is distracting and should be avoided.
42a Italicize the titles of works according
to convention.
Titles of the following types of works should be italicized.
TITLES OF BOOKS Th e Color Purple, Th e Round House
MAGAZINES Time, Scientifi c American, Slate
NEWSPAPERS the Baltimore Sun, the Orlando Sentinel Online
PAMPHLETS Common Sense, Facts about Marijuana
LONG POEMS Th e Waste Land, Paradise Lost
PLAYS ’Night Mother, Wicked
FILMS Casablanca, Argo
macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
41 Numbers
> Exercises: 41–2 and 41–3
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Italics344 42b
ital
TELEVISION PROGRAMS Th e Voice, Frontline
RADIO PROGRAMS All Th ings Considered
MUSICAL COMPOSITIONS Porgy and Bess
CHOREOGRAPHIC WORKS Brief Fling
WORKS OF VISUAL ART American Gothic
DATABASES [MLA] ProQuest
WEB SITES Salon, Google
COMPUTER SOFTWARE OR APPS [MLA] Photoshop, Instagram
Th e titles of other works — including short stories, essays,
episodes of radio and television programs, songs, and short
poems — are enclosed in quotation marks. (See 37c.)
NOTE: Do not use italics when referring to the Bible, titles of
books in the Bible (Genesis, not Genesis), or titles of legal docu-
ments (the Constitution, not the Constitution).
42b Italicize the names of specifi c ships,
spacecraft, and aircraft.
Queen Mary 2, Endeavour, Wright Flyer
Th e success of the Soviets’ Sputnik energized the US space program.
42c Italicize foreign words used in an English
sentence.
Shakespeare’s Falstaff is a comic character known for both his
excessive drinking and his general joie de vivre.
EXCEPTION: Do not italicize foreign words that have become a
standard part of the English language — “laissez-faire,” “fait accom-
pli,” “modus operandi,” and “per diem,” for example.
42d Italicize words mentioned as words, letters
mentioned as letters, and numbers mentioned as
numbers.
Tomás assured us that the chemicals could probably be safely
mixed, but his probably stuck in our minds.
Some toddlers have trouble pronouncing the letters f and s.
A big 3 was painted on the stage door.
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345Spelling rules
sp
43a
NOTE: Quotation marks may be used instead of italics to set off
words mentioned as words. (See 37d.)
EXERCISE 42–1 Edit the following sentences to correct errors in the
use of italics. If a sentence is correct, write “correct” aft er it. Answers
appear in the back of the book. More practice:
Th e lecture was about Gini Alhadeff ’s memoir Th e Sun at
Midday.
a. Howard Hughes commissioned the Spruce Goose, a beautifully
built but thoroughly impractical wooden aircraft .
b. Th e old man screamed his anger, shouting to all of us, “I will not
leave my money to you worthless layabouts!”
c. I learned the Latin term ad infi nitum from an old nursery rhyme
about fl eas: “Great fl eas have little fl eas upon their back to bite
’em, / Little fl eas have lesser fl eas and so on ad infi nitum.”
d. Cinema audiences once gasped at hearing the word damn in Gone
with the Wind.
e. Neve Campbell’s lifelong interest in ballet inspired her
involvement in the fi lm “Th e Company,” which portrays a season
with the Joff rey Ballet.
43 Spelling
You learned to spell from repeated experience with words in both
reading and writing. As you proofread, you can probably tell if a
word doesn’t look quite right. In such cases, the solution is sim-
ple: Look up the word in the dictionary. (See 43b.)
43a Become familiar with the major spelling rules.
i before e except after c
In general, use i before e except aft er c and except when sounded
like ay, as in neighbor and weigh.
Correct
macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
42 Italics
> Exercises: 42–2 and 42–3
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43a Spelling346
sp
I BEFORE E relieve, believe, sieve, niece, fi erce, frieze
E BEFORE I receive, deceive, sleigh, freight, eight
EXCEPTIONS seize, either, weird, height, foreign, leisure
Suffi xes
Final silent -e Generally, drop a fi nal silent -e when adding a suf-
fi x that begins with a vowel. Keep the fi nal -e if the suffi x begins
with a consonant.
combine, combination achieve, achievement
desire, desiring care, careful
prude, prudish entire, entirety
remove, removable gentle, gentleness
Words such as changeable, judgment, argument, and truly are
exceptions.
Final -y When adding -s or -d to words ending in -y, ordinarily
change -y to -ie when the -y is preceded by a consonant but not
when it is preceded by a vowel.
comedy, comedies monkey, monkeys
dry, dried play, played
With proper names ending in -y, however, do not change the -y
to -ie even if it is preceded by a consonant: the Doughertys (the
Dougherty family).
Final consonants If a fi nal consonant is preceded by a single vowel
and the consonant ends a one-syllable word or a stressed syllable,
double the consonant when adding a suffi x beginning with a vowel.
bet, betting occur, occurrence
commit, committed
Plurals
-s or -es Add -s to form the plural of most nouns; add -es to sin-
gular nouns ending in -s, -sh, -ch, and -x.
table, tables church, churches
paper, papers dish, dishes
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34743bThe dictionary
sp
Ordinarily add -s to nouns ending in -o when the -o is pre-
ceded by a vowel. Add -es when it is preceded by a consonant.
radio, radios hero, heroes
video, videos tomato, tomatoes
Other plurals To form the plural of a hyphenated compound
word, add -s to the chief word even if it does not appear at the end.
mother-in-law, mothers-in-law
English words derived from other languages such as Latin,
Greek, or French sometimes form the plural as they would in
their original language.
medium, media chateau, chateaux
criterion, criteria
Spelling varieties among English-speaking countries can cause
confusion. Following is a list of some common words with diff erent
American and British spellings. Consult a dictionary for others.
AMERICAN BRITISH
canceled, traveled cancelled, travelled
color, humor colour, humour
judgment judgement
check cheque
realize, apologize realise, apologise
defense defence
anemia, anesthetic anaemia, anaesthetic
theater, center theatre, centre
fetus foetus
mold, smolder mould, smoulder
civilization civilisation
connection, infl ection connexion, infl exion
licorice liquorice
M
u
lt
ili
n
gu
a
l
43b Become familiar with your dictionary.
A good dictionary, whether print or online — such as Th e Random
House College Dictionary or Merriam-Webster online — is an
indispensable writer’s aid.
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43b Spelling348
sp
A sample print dictionary entry, taken from Th e American
Heritage Dictionary, appears at the bottom of this page.
A sample online dictionary entry, taken from Merriam-
Webster online, appears on page 349.
Spelling, word division, pronunciation
Th e main entry (re•gard in the sample entries) shows the correct
spelling of the word. When there are two correct spellings of a
word (as in collectible, collectable, for example), both are given,
with the preferred spelling usually appearing fi rst.
Meanings
Spelling
Word
division
Part of
speech label
Word endings
(inflections)
Pronunciation
Grammatical
label
Idioms
Synonyms
Usage note
Word origin
(etymology)
Usage label
PRINT DICTIONARY ENTRY
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34943bThe dictionary
sp
Th e dot between re and gard separates the two syllables and
indicates where the word should be divided if it can’t fi t at the
end of a line of type (see 44f ). When a word is compound, the
main entry shows how to write it: as one word (crossroad ), as a
hyphenated word (cross-stitch), or as two words (cross section).
Alternative
entries Pronunciation
Part of speech label
Audio pronunciation link
Word origin
(etymology)
Link for
multilingual
writers
Usage label
Idioms
Meanings
(synonyms
shown as
hyperlinks)
ONLINE DICTIONARY ENTRY
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43b Spelling350
sp
Th e word’s pronunciation is given just aft er the main entry.
Th e accents indicate which syllables are stressed; the other marks
are explained in the dictionary’s pronunciation key. Many online
entries include an audio link to a voice pronouncing the word.
Word endings and grammatical labels
When a word takes endings to indicate grammatical functions
(called infl ections), the endings are listed in boldface, as with
-garded, -garding, and -gards in the sample print entry (p. 348).
Labels for the parts of speech and for other grammatical
terms are sometimes abbreviated, as they are in the print entry.
Th e most commonly used abbreviations are these:
n. noun adj. adjective
pl. plural adv. adverb
sing. singular pron. pronoun
v. verb prep. preposition
tr. transitive verb conj. conjunction
intr. intransitive verb interj. interjection
Meanings, word origin, synonyms, and antonyms
Sometimes a word can be used as more than one part of speech
(regard, for instance, can be used as either a verb or a noun). In
such a case, all the meanings for one part of speech are given
before all the meanings for another, as in the sample entries.
Th e origin of the word, called its etymology, appears in
brackets aft er all the meanings in the print and online versions.
Synonyms, words similar in meaning to the main entry, are
frequently listed. In the sample print entry, the dictionary draws
distinctions in meaning among the various synonyms. In the
online entry, synonyms appear as hyperlinks. Antonyms, which
do not appear in the sample entries, are words having a meaning
opposite from that of the main entry.
Usage
Usage labels indicate when, where, or under what conditions a
particular meaning for a word is appropriately used. Common
labels are informal (or colloquial ), slang, archaic, poetic, non-
standard, dialect, obsolete, and British. In the sample print entry
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35143dCommonly misspelled words
sp
(p. 348), two meanings of regard are labeled obsolete because they
are no longer in use. Th e sample online entry (p. 349) has one
meaning labeled archaic.
Dictionaries sometimes include usage notes as well. Advice
in the notes is based on the opinions of many experts and on ac-
tual usage in current publications.
43c Discriminate between words that sound
alike but have different meanings.
Words that sound alike or nearly alike but have diff erent mean-
ings and spellings are called homophones. Th e following sets of
words are commonly confused. (See also the glossary of usage in
the appendixes.)
aff ect (verb: to exert an infl uence)
eff ect (verb: to accomplish; noun: result)
its (possessive pronoun: of or belonging to it)
it’s (contraction of it is or it has)
loose (adjective: free, not securely attached)
lose (verb: to fail to keep, to be deprived of )
principal (adjective: most important; noun: head of a school)
principle (noun: a fundamental guideline or truth)
their (possessive pronoun: belonging to them)
they’re (contraction of they are)
there (adverb: that place or position)
who’s (contraction of who is or who has)
whose (possessive form of who)
your (possessive pronoun: belonging to you)
you’re (contraction of you are)
43d Be alert to commonly misspelled words.
absence
academic
accidentally
accommodate
achievement
acknowledge
acquaintance
acquire
address
all right
amateur
analyze
answer
apparently
appearance
arctic
argument
arithmetic
arrangement
ascend
athlete
athletics
attendance
basically
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43d Spelling352
sp
beautiful
beginning
believe
benefi ted
bureau
business
calendar
candidate
cemetery
changeable
column
commitment
committed
committee
competitive
completely
conceivable
conscience
conscientious
conscious
criticism
criticize
decision
defi nitely
descendant
desperate
dictionary
diff erent
disastrous
eighth
eligible
embarrass
emphasize
entirely
environment
especially
exaggerated
exercise
exhaust
existence
extraordinary
extremely
familiar
fascinate
February
foreign
forty
fourth
friend
government
grammar
guard
harass
height
humorous
incidentally
incredible
independence
indispensable
inevitable
intelligence
irrelevant
irresistible
knowledge
library
license
lightning
loneliness
maintenance
maneuver
marriage
mathematics
mischievous
necessary
noticeable
occasion
occurred
occurrence
pamphlet
parallel
particularly
pastime
permanent
permissible
perseverance
phenomenon
physically
playwright
practically
precede
preference
preferred
prejudice
presence
prevalent
privilege
proceed
professor
pronunciation
publicly
quiet
quite
quizzes
receive
recognize
referred
restaurant
rhythm
roommate
sandwich
schedule
seize
separate
sergeant
siege
similar
sincerely
sophomore
strictly
subtly
succeed
surprise
thorough
tomorrow
tragedy
transferred
tries
truly
unnecessarily
usually
vacuum
vengeance
villain
weird
whether
writing
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353Compound words
hyph
44a
EXERCISE 43–1 Th e following memo has been run through a spell
checker. Proofread it carefully, editing the spelling and typographical
errors that remain. More practice:
November 3, 2014
To: Patricia Wise
From: Constance Mayhew
Subject: Express Tours annual report
Th ank you for agreeing to draft the annual report for Express Tours.
Before you begin you’re work, let me outline the initial steps.
First, its essential for you to include brief profi les of top
management. Early next week, I’ll provide profi les for all manages
accept Samuel Heath, who’s biographical information is being
revised. You should edit these profi les carefully and than format
them according to the enclosed instructions. We may ask you to
include other employee’s profi les at some point.
Second, you should arrange to get complete fi nancial information
for fi scal year 2014 from our comptroller, Richard Chang. (Helen
Boyes, to, can provide the necessary fi gures.) When you get this
information, precede according tot he plans we discuss in yesterday’s
meeting. By the way, you will notice from the fi gures that the sale of
our Charterhouse division did not signifi cantly eff ect net profi ts.
Th ird, you should e-mail a fi rst draft of the report by December
15. Of coarse, you should proofread you writing.
I am quiet pleased that you can take on this project. If I can
answers questions, don’t hesitate to call.
44 The hyphen
In addition to the guidelines in this section, a dictionary will help
you make decisions about hyphenation.
44a Consult the dictionary to determine how to
treat a compound word.
Th e dictionary shows whether to treat a compound word as a
hyphenated compound (water-repellent), one word (waterproof ),
macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
43 Spelling
> Exercise: 43–2
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The hyphen354 44b
hyph
or two words (water table). If the compound word is not in the
dictionary, treat it as two words.
▶ Th e prosecutor chose not to cross examine any witnesses.
▶ All students are expected to record their data in a small note book.
▶ Alice walked through the looking/-glass into a backward world.
44b Hyphenate two or more words used
together as an adjective before a noun.
▶ Many teachers use Web delivered content in the classroom.
▶ Richa Gupta is not yet a well known candidate.
Web-delivered in the fi rst example and well-known in the second
example are adjectives used before the nouns content and candidate.
Generally, do not use a hyphen when such compounds fol-
low the noun.
▶ Aft er our television campaign, Richa Gupta will be well/- known.
Do not use a hyphen to connect -ly adverbs to the words
they modify.
▶ A slowly/-moving truck tied up traffi c.
NOTE: When two or more hyphenated adjectives in a row modify
the same noun, you can suspend the hyphens. Do you prefer fi rst-,
second-, or third-class tickets?
44c Hyphenate fractions and certain numbers
when they are spelled out.
For numbers written as words, use a hyphen in all fractions (two-
thirds) and in all forms of compound numbers from twenty-one
to ninety-nine (thirty-fi ve, sixty-seventh).
▶ One fourth of my income goes to pay my child care expenses.
^
–
(
)
^
–
^
–
^
–
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35544fWord division
hyph
44d Use a hyphen with the prefi xes all-,
ex- (meaning “former”), and self- and with the
suffi x -elect.
▶ Th e private foundation is funneling more money into
self help projects.
▶ Th e Student Senate bylaws require the president elect
to attend all senate meetings between the election and the
offi cial transfer of offi ce.
44e Use a hyphen to clarify certain words.
Without the hyphen, there would be no way to distinguish
between words such as re-creation and recreation.
Bicycling in the city is my favorite form of recreation.
Th e fi lm was praised for its astonishing re-creation of nineteenth-
century London.
Hyphens are sometimes used to separate awkward double or
triple letters in compound words (anti-intellectual, cross-stitch).
44f Check for correct word breaks when words
must be divided at the end of a line.
Some word processing programs and other computer applica-
tions automatically generate word breaks at the ends of lines. For
academic writing, it’s best to disable automatic hyphenation. Th is
setting will ensure that only words already containing a hyphen
(such as long-distance, pre-Roman) will be hyphenated at the
ends of lines.
E-mail addresses and URLs need special attention when they
occur at the end of a line of text or in bibliographic citations. You
can’t rely on your word processor to divide these terms correctly,
so you must make a decision in each case. Do not insert a hyphen
to divide electronic addresses. Instead, break an e-mail address
^
–
^
–
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Capitalization356
cap
45
aft er the @ symbol or before a period. It is common practice to
break a URL before most punctuation marks. (For variations in
MLA and APA styles, see 57a and 62a, respectively.)
I repeatedly e-mailed Janine at janine.r.rose@dunbaracademy
.org before I gave up and called her cell phone.
To avoid standing in line, I now order stamps online at http://www
.usps.com.
EXERCISE 44–1 Edit the following sentences to correct errors in
hyphenation. If a sentence is correct, write “correct” aft er it. Answers
appear in the back of the book. More practice:
Émile Zola’s fi rst readers were scandalized by his slice of life novels.
a. Gold is the seventy-ninth element in the periodic table.
b. Th e swift ly-moving tugboat pulled alongside the barge and
directed it away from the oil spill in the harbor.
c. Th e Moche were a pre-Columbian people who established a
sophisticated culture in ancient Peru.
d. Your dog is well-known in our neighborhood.
e. Road-blocks were set up along all the major highways leading out
of the city.
45 Capitalization
In addition to the rules in this section, a good dictionary can tell
you when to use capital letters.
45a Capitalize proper nouns and words derived
from them; do not capitalize common nouns.
Proper nouns are the names of specifi c persons, places, and
things. All other nouns are common nouns. Th e following types
of words are usually capitalized: names of deities, religions,
^
–
^
–
macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
44 The hyphen
> Exercises: 44–2 and 44–3
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http://www.usps.com
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35745aProper vs. common nouns
cap
religious followers, sacred books; words of family relation-
ship used as names; particular places; nationalities and their
languages, races, tribes; educational institutions, departments,
degrees, particular courses; government departments, organi-
zations, political parties; historical movements, periods, events,
documents; and trade names.
PROPER NOUNS COMMON NOUNS
God (used as a name) a god
Book of Common Prayer a sacred book
Uncle Pedro my uncle
Father (used as a name) my father
Lake Superior a picturesque lake
the Capital Center a center for advanced studies
the South a southern state
Wrigley Field a baseball stadium
University of Wisconsin a state university
Geology 101 geology
Environmental Protection
Agency
a federal agency
the Democratic Party a political party
the Enlightenment the eighteenth century
the Treaty of Versailles a treaty
Advil a painkiller
Months, holidays, and days of the week are treated as proper
nouns; the seasons and numbers of the days of the month are not.
Our academic year begins on a Tuesday in early September, right
aft er Labor Day.
Graduation is in late spring, on the second of June.
EXCEPTION: Capitalize Fourth of July (or July Fourth) when refer-
ring to the holiday.
Names of school subjects are capitalized only if they are
names of languages. Names of particular courses are capitalized.
Th is semester Lee is taking math, geography, geology, French, and
English.
Professor Obembe off ers Modern American Fiction 501 to
undergraduate students.
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Capitalization358 45b
cap
Th e terms Web and Internet are typically capitalized, but re-
lated common nouns are not: home page, operating system. Usage
varies widely, however, so check with your instructor about
whether you should follow the guidelines for MLA or APA style
(57a or 62a, respectively).
CAUTION: Do not capitalize common nouns to make them seem
important.
45b Capitalize titles of persons when used
as part of a proper name but usually not when
used alone.
Professor Margaret Barnes; Dr. Sinyee Sein; John Scott Williams Jr.
District Attorney Marshall was reprimanded for badgering the witness.
Th e district attorney was elected for a two-year term.
Usage varies when the title of an important public fi gure is
used alone: Th e president [or President] vetoed the bill.
45c Capitalize the fi rst, last, and all major words
in titles and subtitles of works such as books,
articles, songs, and online documents.
In both titles and subtitles of works mentioned in the text of a
paper, major words such as nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives,
and adverbs should be capitalized. Minor words such as articles,
prepositions, and coordinating conjunctions are not capitalized
unless they are the fi rst or last word of a title or subtitle.
Capitalize the second part of a hyphenated term in a title if
it is a major word but not if it is a minor word. Capitalize chapter
titles and the titles of other major divisions of a work following
the same guidelines used for titles of complete works.
Seizing the Enigma: Th e Race to Break the German U-Boat Codes
A River Runs through It
“I Want to Hold Your Hand”
Th e Canadian Green Page
To see why some of the titles in the list are italicized and
some are put in quotation marks, see 42a and 37c.
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35945fFirst word after a colon
cap
Titles of works are handled diff erently in the APA reference
list. See “Preparing the list of references” in 62a.
45d Capitalize the fi rst word of a sentence.
Th e fi rst word of a sentence should be capitalized. When a sen-
tence appears within parentheses, capitalize its fi rst word unless
the parentheses appear within another sentence.
Early detection of breast cancer signifi cantly increases survival
rates. (See table 2.)
Early detection of breast cancer signifi cantly increases survival
rates (see table 2).
45e Capitalize the fi rst word of a quoted
sentence but not a quoted word or phrase.
Loveless writes, “If failing schools are ever to be turned around,
much more must be learned about how schools age as institutions”
(25).
Russell Baker has written that in this country, sports are “the
opiate of the masses” (46).
If a quoted sentence is interrupted by explanatory words, do
not capitalize the fi rst word aft er the interruption. (See 37e.)
“If you want to go out,” he said, “tell me now.”
When quoting poetry, copy the poet’s capitalization exactly.
Many poets capitalize the fi rst word of every line of poetry; a few
contemporary poets dismiss capitalization altogether.
it was the week that
i felt the city’s narrow breezes rush about
me — Don L. Lee
45f Capitalize the fi rst word after a colon if it
begins an independent clause.
If a group of words following a colon could stand on its own as a
complete sentence, capitalize the fi rst word (see p. 360).
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45f Capitalization360
cap
Clinical trials called into question the safety profi le of the drug: A
high percentage of participants reported hypertension and kidney
problems.
Preferences vary among academic disciplines. See 57a and
62a.
Always use lowercase for a list or an appositive that follows
a colon (see 35a).
Students were divided into two groups: residents and commuters.
EXERCISE 45–1 Edit the following sentences to correct errors in capi-
talization. If a sentence is correct, write “correct” aft er it. Answers appear
in the back of the book. More practice:
On our trip to the West, we visited the / grand /canyon and the
/ great /salt /desert.
a. Assistant dean Shirin Ahmadi recommended off ering more world
language courses.
b. We went to the Mark Taper Forum to see a production of Angels in
America.
c. Kalindi has an ambitious semester, studying diff erential calculus,
classical hebrew, brochure design, and greek literature.
d. Lydia’s Aunt and Uncle make modular houses as beautiful as
modernist works of art.
e. We amused ourselves on the long fl ight by discussing how Spring
in Kyoto stacks up against Summer in London.
^
G
^
C
^
G
^
S
^
D
macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
45 Capitalization
> Exercises: 45–2 and 45–3
> LearningCurve: Capitalization
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Grammar
Basics
46 Parts of speech, 362
47 Sentence patterns, 375
48 Subordinate word groups, 383
49 Sentence types, 392
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46 Parts of speech
Traditional grammar recognizes eight parts of speech: noun,
pronoun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition, conjunction, and
interjection. Many words can function as more than one part
of speech. For example, depending on its use in a sentence, the
word paint can be a noun (Th e paint is wet) or a verb (Please paint
the ceiling next).
46a Nouns
A noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or concept.
Th e lion in the cage growled at the zookeeper.
Nouns sometimes function as adjectives modifying other
nouns. Because of their dual roles, nouns used in this manner
may be called noun/adjectives.
Th e leather notebook was tucked in the student’s backpack.
Nouns are classifi ed in a variety of ways. Proper nouns are
capitalized, but common nouns are not (see 45a). For clarity, writ-
ers choose between concrete and abstract nouns (see 18b). Th e
distinction between count nouns and noncount nouns can be
especially helpful to multilingual writers (see 29a). Most nouns
have singular and plural forms; collective nouns may be either
singular or plural, depending on how they are used (see 21f and
22b). Possessive nouns require an apostrophe (see 36a).
EXERCISE 46–1 Underline the nouns (and noun/adjectives) in the fol-
lowing sentences. Answers appear in the back of the book.
More practice:
Th e best part of dinner was the chef ’s newest dessert.
N N N
N/ADJ N/ADJ
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46 Parts of speech
> Exercises: 46–2 to 46–4, 46–19, 46–20
> LearningCurve: Nouns and pronouns
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Pronouns 363
basic
46b
a. Th e stage was set for a confrontation of biblical proportions.
b. Th e courage of the mountain climber was an inspiration to the
rescuers.
c. Th e need to arrive before the guest of honor motivated us to navi-
gate the thick fog.
d. Th e defense attorney made a fi nal appeal to the jury.
e. A national museum dedicated to women artists opened in 1987.
46b Pronouns
A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun. Usually the pro-
noun substitutes for a specifi c noun, known as its antecedent.
When the battery wears down, we recharge it.
Although most pronouns function as substitutes for nouns,
some can function as adjectives modifying nouns. Such pro-
nouns may be called pronoun/adjectives.
Th at bird was at the same window yesterday morning.
Pronouns are classifi ed as personal, possessive, intensive and
refl exive, relative, interrogative, demonstrative, indefi nite, and
reciprocal.
Personal pronouns Personal pronouns refer to specifi c persons or
things. Th ey always function as subsitutes for nouns.
Singular: I, me, you, she, her, he, him, it
Plural: we, us, you, they, them
Possessive pronouns Possessive pronouns indicate ownership.
Singular: my, mine, your, yours, her, hers, his, its
Plural: our, ours, your, yours, their, theirs
Some of these possessive pronouns function as adjectives modi-
fying nouns: my, your, his, her, its, our, their.
Intensive and refl exive pronouns Intensive pronouns emphasize
a noun or another pronoun (Th e senator herself met us at the
door). Refl exive pronouns name a receiver of an action identical
with the doer of the action (Paula cut herself ).
ANT PN
PN/ADJ
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basic
46b Parts of speech364
Singular: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself
Plural: ourselves, yourselves, themselves
Relative pronouns Relative pronouns introduce subordinate
clauses functioning as adjectives (Th e writer who won the award
refused to accept it). Th e relative pronoun, in this case who,
also points back to a noun or pronoun that the clause modifi es
(writer). (See 48e.)
who, whom, whose, which, that
Th e pronouns whichever, whoever, whomever, what, and whatever
are sometimes considered relative pronouns. Th ese words intro-
duce noun clauses, however; they do not point back to a noun or
pronoun. (See “Noun clauses” in 48e.)
Interrogative pronouns Interrogative pronouns introduce ques-
tions (Who is expected to win the election?).
who, whom, whose, which, what
Demonstrative pronouns Demonstrative pronouns identify or
point to nouns. Frequently they function as adjectives (Th is chair
is my favorite), but they may also function as substitutes for
nouns (Th is is my favorite chair).
this, that, these, those
Indefi nite pronouns Indefi nite pronouns refer to nonspecifi c per-
sons or things. Most are always singular (everyone, each); some
are always plural (both, many); a few may be singular or plural
(see 21e). Most indefi nite pronouns function as substitutes for
nouns (Something is burning), but some can also function as
adjectives (All campers must check in at the lodge).
all anything everyone nobody several
another both everything none some
any each few no one somebody
anybody either many nothing someone
anyone everybody neither one something
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Verbs 365
basic
46c
Reciprocal pronouns Reciprocal pronouns refer to individual
parts of a plural antecedent (By turns, the penguins fed one
another).
each other, one another
NOTE: See also pronoun-antecedent agreement (22), pronoun
reference (23), distinguishing between pronouns such as I and
me (24), and distinguishing between who and whom (25).
EXERCISE 46–5 Underline the pronouns (and pronoun/adjectives) in
the following sentences. Answers appear in the back of the book.
More practice:
We were intrigued by the video that the fi ft h graders
produced as their fi nal project.
a. Th e governor’s loyalty was his most appealing trait.
b. In the fall, the geese that fl y south for the winter pass through our
town in huge numbers.
c. As Carl Sandburg once said, even he himself did not understand
some of his poetry.
d. I appealed my parking ticket, but you did not get one.
e. Angela did not mind gossip as long as no one gossiped about her.
46c Verbs
Th e verb of a sentence usually expresses action ( jump, think) or
being (is, become). It is composed of a main verb possibly pre-
ceded by one or more helping verbs.
Th e horses exercise every day.
Th e task force report was not completed on schedule.
No one has been defended with more passion than our mayor.
MV
HV MV
HV HV MV
macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
46 Parts of speech
> Exercises: 46–6 to 46–8, 46–19, 46–20
> LearningCurve: Nouns and pronouns
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basic
46c Parts of speech366
Notice that words, usually adverbs, can intervene between the
helping verb and the main verb (was not completed). (See 46e.)
Helping verbs
Th ere are twenty-three helping verbs in English: forms of have,
do, and be, which may also function as main verbs; and nine
modals, which function only as helping verbs. Have, do, and be
change form to indicate tense; the nine modals do not.
FORMS OF HAVE, DO, AND BE
have, has, had
do, does, did
be, am, is, are, was, were, being, been
MODALS
can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, will, would
Th e verb phrase ought to is oft en classifi ed as a modal as well.
Main verbs
Th e main verb of a sentence is always the kind of word that would
change form if put into these test sentences:
BASE FORM Usually I (walk, ride).
PAST TENSE Yesterday I (walked, rode).
PAST PARTICIPLE I have (walked, ridden) many times
before.
PRESENT PARTICIPLE I am (walking, riding) right now.
-S FORM Usually he/she/it (walks, rides).
If a word doesn’t change form when slipped into the test sen-
tences, you can be certain that it is not a main verb. For example,
the noun revolution, though it may seem to suggest an action,
can never function as a main verb. Just try to make it behave
like one (Today I revolution . . . Yesterday I revolutioned . . .) and
you’ll see why.
When both the past-tense and the past-participle forms of a
verb end in -ed, the verb is regular (walked, walked). Otherwise,
the verb is irregular (rode, ridden). (See 27a.)
Th e verb be is highly irregular, having eight forms instead of
the usual fi ve: the base form be; the present-tense forms am, is,
and are; the past-tense forms was and were; the present participle
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Adjectives 367
basic
46d
being; and the past participle been. Helping verbs combine with
main verbs to create tenses. For a survey of tenses, see 28a.
NOTE: Some verbs are followed by particles, words that look like
prepositions but that are actually part of the verbs. Common
verb-particle combinations include bring up, call off , drop off , give
in, look up, run into, and take off .
Sharon packed up her broken laptop and sent it off to the repair shop.
TIP: For more information about using verbs, see these sections:
active verbs (8), subject-verb agreement (21), Standard English
verb forms (27), verb tense and mood (27f and 27g), and
multilingual/ESL challenges with verbs (28).
EXERCISE 46–9 Underline the verbs in the following sentences, in-
cluding helping verbs and particles. If a verb is part of a contraction
(such as is in isn’t or would in I’d), underline only the letters that repre-
sent the verb. Answers appear in the back of the book.
More practice:
Th e ground under the pine trees wasn’t wet from the rain.
a. My grandmother always told me a soothing story before bed.
b. Th ere were fi ft y apples on the tree before the frost killed them.
c. Morton brought down the box of letters from the attic.
d. Stay on the main road and you’ll arrive at the base camp before us.
e. Th e fi sh struggled vigorously but was trapped in the net.
46d Adjectives
An adjective is a word used to modify, or describe, a noun or
pronoun. An adjective usually answers one of these questions:
Which one? What kind of ? How many?
the frisky horse [Which horse?]
cracked old plates [What kind of plates?]
ADJ
ADJ ADJ
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46 Parts of speech
> Exercises: 46–10 to 46–12, 46–19, 46–20
> LearningCurve: Verbs, adjectives, and adverbs
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basic
46e Parts of speech368
nine months [How many months?]
qualifi ed applicants [What kind of applicants?]
Adjectives usually precede the words they modify. Th ey may
also follow linking verbs, in which case they describe the subject.
(See 47b.)
Th e decision was unpopular.
Th e defi nite article the and the indefi nite articles a and an are
also classifi ed as adjectives.
A defendant should be judged on the evidence provided to the
jury, not on hearsay.
Some possessive, demonstrative, and indefi nite pronouns
can function as adjectives: their, its, this, all (see 46b). And nouns
can function as adjectives when they modify other nouns: apple
pie (the noun apple modifi es the noun pie; see 46a).
TIP: You can fi nd more details about using adjectives in 26. If you
are a multilingual writer, you may fi nd help with articles and spe-
cifi c uses of adjectives in 29, 30g, and 30h.
46e Adverbs
An adverb is a word used to modify, or qualify, a verb (or verbal), an
adjective, or another adverb. It usually answers one of these questions:
When? Where? How? Why? Under what conditions? To what degree?
Pull fi rmly on the emergency handle. [Pull how?]
Read the text fi rst and then complete the exercises. [Read when?
Complete when?]
Adverbs modifying adjectives or other adverbs usually in-
tensify or limit the intensity of the word they modify.
Be extremely kind, and you will have many friends.
We proceeded very cautiously in the dark house.
Th e words not and never are classifi ed as adverbs.
ADJ
ADJ
ADJ
ART ART ART
ADV
ADV
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Prepositions 369
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46f
A word such as cannot contains the helping verb can and the
adverb not. Th e word can’t contains the helping verb can and a
contracted form of not (see 36c).
TIP: You can fi nd more details about using adverbs in 26b–26d.
Multilingual writers can fi nd more about the placement of ad-
verbs in 30f.
EXERCISE 46–13 Underline the adjectives and circle the adverbs in
the following sentences. If a word is a noun or pronoun functioning as
an adjective, underline it and mark it as a noun/adjective or pronoun/
adjective. Also treat the articles a, an, and the as adjectives. Answers ap-
pear in the back of the book. More practice:
Finding an available room during the convention
was not easy.
a. Generalizations lead to weak, unfocused essays.
b. Th e Spanish language is wonderfully fl exible.
c. Th e wildfl owers smelled especially fragrant aft er the steady rain.
d. I’d rather be slightly hot than bitterly cold.
e. Th e cat slept soundly in its wicker basket.
46f Prepositions
A preposition is a word placed before a noun or pronoun to form
a phrase that modifi es another word in the sentence. Th e prepo-
sitional phrase nearly always functions as an adjective or as an
adverb.
Th e road to the summit travels past craters from an extinct
volcano.
To the summit functions as an adjective modifying the noun road;
past craters functions as an adverb modifying the verb travels;
P P P
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46 Parts of speech
> Exercises: 46–14 to 46–20
> LearningCurve: Verbs, adjectives, and adverbs
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46g Parts of speech370
from an extinct volcano functions as an adjective modifying the
noun craters. (For more on prepositional phrases, see 48a.)
English has a limited number of prepositions. Th e most
common are included in the following list.
about beside from outside toward
above besides in over under
across between inside past underneath
aft er beyond into plus unlike
against but like regarding until
along by near respecting unto
among concerning next round up
around considering of since upon
as despite off than with
at down on through within
before during onto throughout without
behind except opposite till
below for out to
Some prepositions are more than one word long. Along with, as well
as, in addition to, next to, and rather than are common examples.
TIP: Prepositions are used in idioms such as capable of and dig
up (see 18d). For specifi c issues for multilingual writers, see 31.
46g Conjunctions
Conjunctions join words, phrases, or clauses, and they indicate
the relation between the elements joined.
Coordinating conjunctions A coordinating conjunction is used
to connect grammatically equal elements. (See 9b and 14a.) Th e
coordinating conjunctions are and, but, or, nor, for, so, and yet.
Th e sociologist interviewed children but not their parents.
Write clearly, and your readers will appreciate your eff orts.
In the fi rst sentence, but connects two noun phrases; in the sec-
ond, and connects two independent clauses.
Correlative conjunctions Correlative conjunctions come in pairs;
they connect grammatically equal elements.
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Interjections 371
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46h
either . . . or whether . . . or
neither . . . nor both . . . and
not only . . . but also
Either the painting was brilliant or it was a forgery.
Subordinating conjunctions A subordinating conjunction intro-
duces a subordinate clause and indicates the relation of the clause
to the rest of the sentence. (See 48e.) Th e most common subordi-
nating conjunctions are aft er, although, as, as if, because, before, if,
in order that, once, since, so that, than, that, though, unless, until,
when, where, whether, and while. (For a complete list, see p. 390.)
When the fundraiser ends, we will have raised a million dollars.
Conjunctive adverbs Conjunctive adverbs connect independent
clauses and indicate the relation between the clauses. Th ey can
be used with a semicolon to join two independent clauses in one
sentence, or they can be used alone with an independent clause.
Th e most common conjunctive adverbs are fi nally, furthermore,
however, moreover, nevertheless, similarly, then, therefore, and
thus. (For a complete list, see p. 374.)
Th e photographer failed to take a light reading; therefore, all the
pictures were underexposed.
During the day, the kitten sleeps peacefully. However, when night
falls, the kitten is wide awake and ready to play.
Conjunctive adverbs can appear at the beginning or in the
middle of a clause.
When night falls, however, the kitten is wide awake and ready to play.
TIP: Recognizing conjunctive adverbs and coordinating conjunc-
tions will help you avoid run-on sentences and make punctua-
tion decisions (see 20, 32a, and 32f ). Recognizing subordinating
conjunctions will help you avoid sentence fragments (see 19).
46h Interjections
An interjection is a word used to express surprise or emotion
(Oh! Hey! Wow!).
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46 Parts of speech
> Exercises: 46–19 and 46–20 (all parts of speech)
> LearningCurve: Prepositions and conjunctions
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46h372 Parts of speech
Parts of speech
● A noun names a person, place, thing, or concept.
Repetition does not transform a lie into truth.
● A pronoun substitutes for a noun.
Before the attendant let us board the small plane, he weighed us
and our baggage.
PERSONAL PRONOUNS: I, me, you, he, him, she, her, it, we, us, they,
them
POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS: my, mine, your, yours, her, hers, his, its,
our, ours, their, theirs
INTENSIVE AND REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS: myself, yourself, himself,
herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves
RELATIVE PRONOUNS: that, which, who, whom, whose
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS: who, whom, whose, which, what
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS: this, that, these, those
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
all each many one
another either neither several
any everybody nobody some
anybody everyone none somebody
anyone everything no one someone
anything few nothing something
both
RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS: each other, one another
● A helping verb comes before a main verb.
MODALS: can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, will, would
(also ought to)
FORMS OF BE: be, am, is, are, was, were, being, been
FORMS OF HAVE: have, has, had
FORMS OF DO: do, does, did
N N N
PN PN PN
PN
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46hParts of speech
(Th e forms of be, have, and do may also function as main
verbs.)
● A main verb shows action or a state of being.
Th e novel opens with a tense description of a grim murder, but
the author does not maintain the initial level of suspense.
A main verb will always change form when put into these
positions in sentences:
Usually I . (walk, ride)
Yesterday I . (walked, rode)
I have many times before.
I am right now.
Usually he .
(walked, ridden)
(walking, riding)
(walks, rides)
Th e highly irregular verb be has eight forms: be, am, is, are, was,
were, being, been.
● An adjective modifi es a noun or pronoun, usually answering
one of these questions: Which one? What kind of ? How many?
Th e articles a, an, and the are also adjectives.
Our family’s strong ties gave us welcome comfort in our
grief.
● An adverb modifi es a verb, an adjective, or an adverb,
usually answering one of these questions: When? Where?
Why? How? Under what conditions? To what degree?
Young people oft en approach history skeptically.
● A preposition indicates the relationship between the
noun or pronoun that follows it and another word in the
sentence.
A journey of a thousand miles begins with a single step.
MV
HV MV
PN/ADJ N/ADJ ADJ ADJ PN/ADJ
ADV ADV
P P
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46h374 Parts of speech
Parts of speech, continued
COMMON PREPOSITIONS
about besides like since
above between near than
across beyond next through
aft er but next to throughout
against by of till
along concerning off to
along with considering on toward
among despite onto under
around down opposite underneath
as during out unlike
as well as except outside until
at for over unto
because of from past up
before in plus upon
behind in addition to rather than with
below inside regarding within
beside into respecting without
● A conjunction connects words or word groups.
COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS: and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet
SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS: aft er, although, as, as if, because,
before, even though, if, in order that, once, since, so that,
than, that, though, unless, until, when, where, whether,
while
CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS: either . . . or; neither . . . nor; not
only . . . but also; both . . . and; whether . . . or
CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS: accordingly, also, anyway, besides,
certainly, consequently, conversely, fi nally, furthermore, hence,
however, incidentally, indeed, instead, likewise, meanwhile,
moreover, nevertheless, next, nonetheless, now, otherwise,
similarly, specifi cally, still, subsequently, then, therefore,
thus
● An interjection expresses surprise or emotion (Oh! Wow!
Hooray! ).
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47 Sentence patterns
Th e vast majority of sentences in English conform to one of these
fi ve patterns:
subject/verb/subject complement
subject/verb/direct object
subject/verb/indirect object/direct object
subject/verb/direct object/object complement
subject/verb
Adverbial modifi ers (single words, phrases, or clauses) may
be added to any of these patterns, and they may appear nearly
anywhere — at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end.
Predicate is the grammatical term given to the verb plus its
objects, complements, and adverbial modifi ers.
For a quick-reference chart of sentence patterns, see page 380.
47a Subjects
Th e subject of a sentence names whom or what the sentence is
about. Th e simple subject is always a noun or pronoun; the com-
plete subject consists of the simple subject and any words or word
groups modifying the simple subject.
The complete subject
To fi nd the complete subject, ask Who? or What?, insert the verb,
and fi nish the question. Th e answer is the complete subject.
Th e devastating eff ects of famine can last for many years.
Who or what can last for many years? Th e devastating eff ects of
famine.
Adventure novels that contain multiple subplots are oft en made
into successful movies.
COMPLETE SUBJECT
COMPLETE SUBJECT
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47a Sentence patterns376
Who or what are oft en made into movies? Adventure novels that
contain multiple subplots.
In our program, student teachers work full-time for ten months.
Who or what works full-time for ten months? Student teach-
ers. Notice that In our program, student teachers is not a sensible
answer to the question. (It is not safe to assume that the subject
must always appear fi rst in a sentence.)
The simple subject
To fi nd the simple subject, strip away all modifi ers in the com-
plete subject. Th is includes single-word modifi ers such as the and
devastating, phrases such as of famine, and subordinate clauses
such as that contain multiple subplots.
Th e devastating eff ects of famine can last for many years.
Adventure novels that contain multiple subplots are oft en made
into successful movies.
A sentence may have a compound subject containing two
or more simple subjects joined with a coordinating conjunction
such as and, but, or or.
Great commitment and a little luck make a successful actor.
Understood subjects
In imperative sentences, which give advice or issue commands,
the subject is understood but not actually present in the sentence.
Th e subject of an imperative sentence is understood to be you.
[You] Put your hands on the steering wheel.
Subject after the verb
Although the subject ordinarily comes before the verb (Th e
planes took off ), occasionally it does not. When a sentence begins
with Th ere is or Th ere are (or Th ere was or Th ere were), the subject
COMPLETE
SUBJECT
SS
SS
SS SS
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Subjects 377
basic
47a
follows the verb. In such inverted constructions, the word Th ere
is an expletive, an empty word serving merely to get the sentence
started.
Th ere are eight planes waiting to take off .
Occasionally a writer will invert a sentence for eff ect.
Joyful is the child whose school closes for snow.
Joyful is an adjective, so it cannot be the subject. Turn this sen-
tence around and its structure becomes obvious.
Th e child whose school closes for snow is joyful.
In questions, the subject frequently appears between the
helping verb and the main verb.
Do Kenyan marathoners train year-round?
TIP: Th e ability to recognize the subject of a sentence will help
you edit for fragments (19), subject-verb agreement (21), pro-
nouns such as I and me (24), missing subjects (30b), and repeated
subjects (30c).
EXERCISE 47–1 In the following sentences, underline the complete
subject and write SS above the simple subject(s). If the subject is an un-
derstood you, insert you in parentheses. Answers appear in the back of
the book. More practice:
Parents and their children oft en look alike.
a. Th e hills and mountains seemed endless, and the snow atop them
glistened.
b. In foil fencing, points are scored by hitting an electronic target.
c. Do not stand in the aisles or sit on the stairs.
d. Th ere were hundreds of fi refl ies in the open fi eld.
e. Th e evidence against the defendant was staggering.
SS
SS
HV SS MV
SS SS
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47 Sentence patterns
> Exercises: 47–2 to 47–4
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47b Sentence patterns378
47b Verbs, objects, and complements
Section 46c explains how to fi nd the verb of a sentence. A sen-
tence’s verb is classifi ed as linking, transitive, or intransitive, de-
pending on the kinds of objects or complements the verb can (or
cannot) take.
Linking verbs and subject complements
Linking verbs connect the subject to a subject complement, a
word or word group that completes the meaning of the subject by
renaming or describing it.
If the subject complement renames the subject, it is a noun
or noun equivalent (sometimes called a predicate noun).
An e-mail requesting personal information may be a scam.
If the subject complement describes the subject, it is an
adjective or adjective equivalent (sometimes called a predicate
adjective).
Last month’s temperatures were mild.
Whenever they appear as main verbs (rather than help-
ing verbs), the forms of be — be, am, is, are, was, were, being,
been — usually function as linking verbs. In the preceding exam-
ples, for instance, the main verbs are be and were.
Verbs such as appear, become, feel, grow, look, make, seem,
smell, sound, and taste are linking when they are followed by a
word or word group that renames or describes the subject.
As it thickens, the sauce will look unappealing.
Transitive verbs and direct objects
A transitive verb takes a direct object, a word or word group that
names a receiver of the action.
Th e hungry cat clawed the bag of dry food.
Th e simple direct object is always a noun or pronoun, in this case
bag. To fi nd it, simply strip away all modifi ers.
S V SC
S V SC
S V SC
S V DO
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47bVerbs, objects, complements
Transitive verbs usually appear in the active voice, with the
subject doing the action and a direct object receiving the action.
Active-voice sentences can be transformed into the passive voice,
with the subject receiving the action instead. (See 47c.)
Transitive verbs, indirect objects, and
direct objects
Th e direct object of a transitive verb is sometimes preceded by an
indirect object, a noun or pronoun telling to whom or for whom
the action of the sentence is done.
You give her some yarn, and she will knit you a scarf.
Th e simple indirect object is always a noun or pronoun. To test
for an indirect object, insert the word to or for before the word or
word group in question. If the sentence makes sense, the word or
word group is an indirect object.
You give [to] her some yarn, and she will knit [for] you a scarf.
An indirect object may be turned into a prepositional phrase
using to or for: You give some yarn to her, and she will knit a scarf
for you.
Only certain transitive verbs take indirect objects. Some ex-
amples are ask, bring, fi nd, get, give, hand, lend, make, off er, pay,
promise, read, send, show, teach, tell, throw, and write.
Transitive verbs, direct objects, and
object complements
Th e direct object of a transitive verb is sometimes followed by
an object complement, a word or word group that renames or
describes the object.
People oft en consider chivalry a thing of the past.
Th e kiln makes clay fi rm and strong.
When the object complement renames the direct object, it is a
noun or pronoun (such as thing). When it describes the direct
object, it is an adjective (such as fi rm and strong).
S V IO DO S V IO DO
S V DO OC
S V DO OC
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47b Sentence patterns380
Intransitive verbs
Intransitive verbs take no objects or complements.
Th e audience laughed.
Th e driver accelerated in the straightaway.
Nothing receives the actions of laughing and accelerating in
these sentences, so the verbs are intransitive. Notice that such
verbs may or may not be followed by adverbial modifi ers.
In the second sentence, in the straightaway is an adverbial prepo-
sitional phrase modifying accelerated.
S V
S V
Sentence patterns
Subject / linking verb / subject complement
Acting is art. [Art renames Acting.]
Good researchers are curious. [Curious describes researchers.]
Subject / transitive verb / direct object
An antihistamine may prevent an allergic reaction.
Subject / transitive verb / indirect object / direct object
Th e elevator’s rapid ascent gave Irina an attack of vertigo.
Subject / transitive verb / direct object / object complement
Th e reviewer called the fi lm a masterpiece. [Masterpiece renames fi lm.]
Th e new double-glazed windows made the house warmer.
[Warmer describes house.]
Subject / intransitive verb
Th e kettle whistles.
S V SC
S V SC
S V DO
S V IO DO
S V DO OC
S V DO OC
S V
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381
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47bVerbs, objects, complements
NOTE: Th e dictionary will tell you whether a verb is transitive
or intransitive. Some verbs have both transitive and intransitive
functions.
TRANSITIVE Sandra fl ew her small plane over the canyon.
INTRANSITIVE A fl ock of migrating geese fl ew overhead.
In the fi rst example, fl ew has a direct object that receives the
action: her small plane. In the second example, the verb is fol-
lowed by an adverb (overhead), not by a direct object.
EXERCISE 47–5 Label the subject complements and direct objects in
the following sentences, using the labels SC and DO. If a subject comple-
ment or direct object consists of more than one word, bracket and label
all of it. Answers appear in the back of the book.
Th e sharp right turn confused most drivers.
a. Textbooks are expensive.
b. Samurai warriors never fear death.
c. Successful coaches always praise their players’ eff orts.
d. St. Petersburg was the capital of the Russian Empire for two centuries.
e. Th e medicine tasted bitter.
EXERCISE 47–6 Each of the following sentences has either an indirect
object followed by a direct object or a direct object followed by an object
complement. Label the objects and complements, using the labels IO,
DO, and OC. If an object or a complement consists of more than one
word, bracket and label all of it. Answers appear in the back of the book.
More practice:
Most people consider their own experience normal.
a. Stress can make adults and children weary.
b. Th e dining hall off ered students healthy meal choices.
c. Consider the work fi nished.
d. We showed the agent our tickets, and she gave us boarding
passes.
e. Zita has made community service her priority this year.
DO
DO OC
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47 Sentence patterns
> Exercises: 47–7 to 47–12
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47c Sentence patterns382
47c Pattern variations
Although most sentences follow one of the fi ve patterns in the
chart on page 380, variations of these patterns commonly occur
in questions, commands, sentences with delayed subjects, and
passive transformations.
Questions and commands
Questions are sometimes patterned in normal word order, with
the subject preceding the verb.
Who will have the most hits this season?
Sometimes the pattern of a question is inverted, with the
subject appearing between the helping verb and the main verb
or aft er the verb.
Will he have the most hits this season?
Why is the number of hits an important statistic?
In commands, the subject of the sentence is an understood you.
[You] Pay attention to the road.
Sentences with delayed subjects
Writers sometimes choose to delay the subject of a sentence to
achieve a special eff ect such as suspense or humor.
Behind the phony tinsel of Hollywood lies the real tinsel.
Th e subject of the sentence is also delayed in sentences open-
ing with the expletive Th ere or It. When used as expletives, the
words Th ere and It have no strict grammatical function; they
serve merely to get the sentence started.
Th ere are thirty thousand spectators in the stadium.
It is best to avoid trans fats.
Th e subject in the second example is an infi nitive phrase. (See 48b.)
S V
HV S MV
V S
S V
V S
V S
V S
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48Subordinate word groups
Passive transformations
Transitive verbs, those that can take direct objects, usually appear
in the active voice. In the active voice, the subject does the action,
and a direct object receives the action.
ACTIVE Th e fi reworks display dazzled the viewers on the
Esplanade.
Sentences in the active voice may be transformed into the
passive voice, with the subject receiving the action instead.
PASSIVE Th e viewers on the Esplanade were dazzled by the
fi reworks display.
What was once the direct object (the viewers on the Esplanade)
has become the subject in the passive-voice transformation,
and the original subject appears in a prepositional phrase
beginning with by. Th e by phrase is frequently omitted in passive-
voice constructions.
PASSIVE Th e viewers on the Esplanade were dazzled.
Verbs in the passive voice can be identifi ed by their form
alone. Th e main verb is always a past participle, such as dazzled
(see 46c), preceded by a form of be (be, am, is, are, was, were,
being, been): were dazzled. Sometimes adverbs intervene (were
usually dazzled).
TIP: Avoid using the passive voice when the active voice would
be more appropriate (see 8a).
48 Subordinate word groups
Subordinate word groups include phrases and clauses. Phrases
are subordinate because they lack a subject and a verb; they are
classifi ed as prepositional, verbal, appositive, and absolute (see
48a–48d). Subordinate clauses have a subject and a verb, but they
begin with a word (such as although, that, or when) that marks
them as subordinate (see 48e).
S V DO
S HV MV
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48a Subordinate word groups384
48a Prepositional phrases
A prepositional phrase begins with a preposition such as at, by,
for, from, in, of, on, to, or with (see 46f ) and usually ends with
a noun or noun equivalent: on the table, for him, by sleeping
late. Th e noun or noun equivalent is known as the object of the
preposition.
Prepositional phrases function either as adjectives or as ad-
verbs. When functioning as an adjective, a prepositional phrase
nearly always appears immediately following the noun or pro-
noun it modifi es.
Th e hut had walls of mud.
Adjective phrases usually answer one or both of the ques-
tions Which one? and What kind of ? If we ask Which walls? or
What kind of walls? we get a sensible answer: walls of mud.
Adverbial prepositional phrases usually modify the verb, but
they can also modify adjectives or other adverbs. When a prepo-
sitional phrase modifi es the verb, it can appear nearly anywhere
in a sentence.
James walked his dog on a leash.
Sabrina in time adjusted to life in Ecuador.
During a mudslide, the terrain can change drastically.
If a prepositional phrase is movable, you can be certain that it is
adverbial.
In the cave, the explorers found well-preserved prehistoric
drawings.
Th e explorers found well-preserved prehistoric drawings in the cave.
Adverbial word groups usually answer one of these ques-
tions: When? Where? How? Why? Under what conditions? To
what degree?
James walked his dog how? On a leash.
Sabrina adjusted to life in Ecuador when? In time.
Th e terrain can change drastically under what conditions?
During a mudslide.
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Verbal phrases 385
basic
48b
In questions and subordinate clauses, a preposition may appear
aft er its object.
What are you afraid of ?
We avoided the bike trail that John had warned us about.
EXERCISE 48–1 Underline the prepositional phrases in the follow-
ing sentences. Tell whether each one is an adjective phrase or an adverb
phrase and what it modifi es in the sentence. Answers appear in the back
of the book. More practice:
Flecks of mica glittered in the new granite fl oor.
a. In northern Italy, we met many people who speak German as their
fi rst language.
b. William completed the three-mile hike through the thick forest
with ease.
c. To my boss’s dismay, I was late for work again.
d. Th e traveling exhibit of Mayan artifacts gave viewers new insight
into pre-Columbian culture.
e. In 2002, the euro became the offi cial currency in twelve European
countries.
48b Verbal phrases
A verbal is a verb form that does not function as the verb of a
clause. Verbals include infi nitives (the word to plus the base form
of the verb), present participles (the -ing form of the verb), and
past participles (the verb form usually ending in -d, -ed, -n, -en,
or -t). (See 27a and 46c.)
INFINITIVE
PRESENT
PARTICIPLE
PAST
PARTICIPLE
to dream dreaming dreamed
to choose choosing chosen
to build building built
to grow growing grown
(Adjective phrase
modifying “Flecks”; adverb phrase modifying “glitt ered”)
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48 Subordinate word groups
> Exercises: 48–2 to 48–5
> LearningCurve: Coordination and subordination
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basic
48b Subordinate word groups386
Instead of functioning as the verb of a clause, a verbal func-
tions as an adjective, a noun, or an adverb.
ADJECTIVE Broken promises cannot be fi xed.
NOUN Constant complaining becomes wearisome.
ADVERB Can you wait to celebrate?
Verbals with objects, complements, or modifi ers form verbal
phrases.
In my family, singing loudly is more appreciated than singing well.
Governments exist to protect the rights of minorities.
Like verbals, verbal phrases function as adjectives, nouns, or
adverbs. Verbal phrases are ordinarily classifi ed as participial,
gerund, and infi nitive.
Participial phrases
Participial phrases always function as adjectives. Th eir verbals
are either present participles (such as dreaming, asking) or past
participles (such as stolen, reached).
Participial phrases frequently appear immediately following
the noun or pronoun they modify.
Congress shall make no law abridging the freedom of speech
or of the press.
Participial phrases are oft en movable. Th ey can precede the
word they modify.
Being a weight-bearing joint, the knee is among the most
frequently injured.
Th ey may also appear at some distance from the word they modify.
Last night we saw a play that aff ected us deeply, written with
profound insight into the lives of immigrants.
Gerund phrases
Gerund phrases are built around present participles (verb forms
that end in -ing), and they always function as nouns: usually as
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Verbal phrases 387
basic
48b
subjects, subject complements, direct objects, or objects of a
preposition.
Rationalizing a fear can eliminate it.
Th e key to a good sauce is browning the mushrooms.
Lizards usually enjoy sunning themselves.
Th e American Heart Association has documented the benefi ts of
diet and exercise in reducing the risk of heart attack.
Infi nitive phrases
Infi nitive phrases, usually constructed around to plus the base
form of the verb (to call, to drink), can function as nouns, as
adjectives, or as adverbs. When functioning as a noun, an infi ni-
tive phrase may appear in almost any noun slot in a sentence,
usually as a subject, subject complement, or direct object.
To live without health insurance is risky.
Infi nitive phrases functioning as adjectives usually appear
immediately following the noun or pronoun they modify.
Th e Nineteenth Amendment gave women the right to vote.
Th e infi nitive phrase modifi es the noun right. Which right? Th e
right to vote.
Adverbial infi nitive phrases usually qualify the meaning of
the verb, telling when, where, how, why, under what conditions,
or to what degree an action occurred.
Volunteers rolled up their pants to wade through the fl oodwaters.
Why did they roll up their pants? To wade through the fl oodwaters.
NOTE: In some constructions, the infi nitive is unmarked; that is,
the to does not appear. (See 28f.)
Graphs and charts can help researchers [to] present complex data.
S
SC
DO
OBJ OF PREP
S
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48c Subordinate word groups388
EXERCISE 48–6 Underline the verbal phrases in the following sen-
tences. Tell whether each phrase is participial, gerund, or infi nitive
and how each is used in the sentence. Answers appear in the back of
the book. More practice:
Do you want to watch that documentary?
a. Updating your soft ware will fi x the computer glitch.
b. Th e challenge in decreasing the town budget is identifying nones-
sential services.
c. Cathleen tried to help her mother by raking the lawn.
d. Understanding little, I had no hope of passing my biology fi nal.
e. Working with animals gave Steve a sense of satisfaction.
48c Appositive phrases
Appositive phrases describe nouns or pronouns. Instead of mod-
ifying nouns or pronouns, however, appositive phrases rename
them. In form they are nouns or noun equivalents.
Bloggers, conversationalists at heart, are the online equivalent of
radio talk show hosts.
Appositives are said to be “in apposition to” the nouns or
pronouns they rename. Conversationalists at heart is in apposi-
tion to the noun Bloggers.
48d Absolute phrases
An absolute phrase modifi es a whole clause or sentence, not just
one word. It consists of a noun or noun equivalent usually fol-
lowed by a participial phrase.
Her words reverberating in the hushed arena, the senator urged the
crowd to support her former opponent.
(Infi nitive phrase used
as direct object of “Do want”)
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48 Subordinate word groups
> Exercises: 48–7 to 48–9
> LearningCurve: Coordination and subordination
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Subordinate clauses 389
basic
48e
48e Subordinate clauses
Subordinate clauses are patterned like sentences, having subjects
and verbs and sometimes objects or complements. But they func-
tion within sentences as adjectives, adverbs, or nouns. Th ey can-
not stand alone as complete sentences.
A subordinate clause usually begins with a subordinating
conjunction or a relative pronoun. Th e chart on page 390 clas-
sifi es these words according to the kinds of clauses (adjective,
adverb, or noun) they introduce.
Adjective clauses
Adjective clauses modify nouns or pronouns, usually answering
the question Which one? or What kind of ? Most adjective clauses
begin with a relative pronoun (who, whom, whose, which, or
that). In addition to introducing the clause, the relative pronoun
points back to the noun that the clause modifi es.
Th e coach chose players who would benefi t from intense drills.
A book that goes unread is a writer’s worst nightmare.
Relative pronouns are sometimes “understood.”
Th e things [that] we cherish most are the things [that] we might lose.
Occasionally an adjective clause is introduced by a relative
adverb, usually when, where, or why.
Th e aging actor returned to the stage where he had made his debut
as Hamlet half a century earlier.
Th e parts of an adjective clause are oft en arranged as in sen-
tences (subject/verb/object or complement).
Sometimes it is our closest friends who disappoint us.
Frequently, however, the object or complement appears fi rst, out
of the normal order of subject/verb/object.
Th ey can be the very friends whom we disappoint.
TIP: For punctuation of adjective clauses, see 32e and 33e. For ad-
vice about avoiding repeated words in adjective clauses, see 30d.
S V DO
DO S V
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basic
48e Subordinate word groups390
Adverb clauses
Adverb clauses modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs, usu-
ally answering one of these questions: When? Where? Why?
How? Under what conditions? To what degree? Th ey always
begin with a subordinating conjunction (such as aft er, although,
because, that, though, unless, or when). (For a complete list, see
the chart on this page.)
When the sun went down, the hikers prepared their camp.
Kate would have made the team if she hadn’t broken her ankle.
Adverb clauses are usually movable when they modify a verb. In
the preceding examples, for instance, the adverb clauses can be
moved without aff ecting the meaning of the sentences.
Th e hikers prepared their camp when the sun went down.
If she hadn’t broken her ankle, Kate would have made the team.
When an adverb clause modifi es an adjective or an adverb,
it is not movable; it must appear next to the word it modifi es. In
the following examples, the when clause modifi es the adjective
Uncertain, and the than clause modifi es the adverb better.
Words that introduce subordinate clauses
Words introducing adjective clauses
RELATIVE PRONOUNS: that, which, who, whom, whose
RELATIVE ADVERBS: when, where, why
Words introducing adverb clauses
SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS: aft er, although, as, as if, because,
before, even though, if, in order that, since, so that, than, that,
though, unless, until, when, where, whether, while
Words introducing noun clauses
RELATIVE PRONOUNS: that, which, who, whom, whose
OTHER PRONOUNS: what, whatever, whichever, whoever, whomever
OTHER SUBORDINATING WORDS: how, if, when, whenever, where,
wherever, whether, why
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Subordinate clauses 391
basic
48e
Uncertain when the baby would be born, Ray and Leah stayed close
to home.
Jackie can dance better than I can walk.
Adverb clauses are sometimes elliptical, with some of their
words being understood but not appearing in the sentence.
When [it is] renovated, the dorm will hold six hundred students.
Noun clauses
A noun clause functions just like a single-word noun, usually as
a subject, a subject complement, a direct object, or an object of
a preposition. It usually begins with one of the following words:
how, if, that, what, whatever, when, where, whether, which, who,
whoever, whom, whomever, whose, why. (For a complete list, see
the box on p. 390.)
Whoever leaves the house last must double-lock the door.
Copernicus argued that the sun is the center of the universe.
Th e subordinating word introducing the clause may or may
not play a signifi cant role in the clause. In the preceding example
sentences, Whoever is the subject of its clause, but that does not
perform a function in its clause.
As with adjective clauses, the parts of a noun clause may ap-
pear in normal order (subject/verb/object or complement) or out
of their normal order.
Loyalty is what keeps a friendship strong.
New Mexico is where we live.
EXERCISE 48–10 Underline the subordinate clauses in the follow-
ing sentences. Tell whether each clause is an adjective, adverb, or noun
clause and how it is used in the sentence. Answers appear in the back of
the book. More practice:
Show the committee the latest draft before you print the
fi nal report. (Adverb clause modifying “Show”)
S
DO
S V DO OC
DO S V
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basic
Sentence types392 49
a. Th e city’s electoral commission adjusted the voting process so that
every vote would count.
b. A marketing campaign that targets baby boomers may not appeal
to young professionals.
c. Aft er the Tambora volcano erupted in the southern Pacifi c in
1815, no one realized that it would contribute to the “year without
a summer” in Europe and North America.
d. Th e concept of peak oil implies that at a certain point there will be
no more oil to extract from the earth.
e. Details are easily overlooked when you are rushing.
49 Sentence types
Sentences are classifi ed in two ways: according to their structure
(simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex) and ac-
cording to their purpose (declarative, imperative, interrogative,
and exclamatory).
49a Sentence structures
Depending on the number and the types of clauses they con-
tain, sentences are classifi ed as simple, compound, complex, or
compound-complex.
Clauses come in two varieties: independent and subordinate.
An independent clause contains a subject and a predicate, and it
either stands alone or could stand alone as a sentence. A subor-
dinate clause also contains a subject and a predicate, but it func-
tions within a sentence as an adjective, an adverb, or a noun; it
cannot stand alone. (See 48e.)
Simple sentences
A simple sentence is one independent clause with no subordinate
clauses.
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48 Subordinate word groups
> Exercises: 48–11 to 48–15
> LearningCurve: Coordination and subordination
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Sentence structures 393
basic
49a
Without a passport, Eva could not visit her grandparents in
Hungary.
A simple sentence may contain compound elements — a
compound subject, verb, or object, for example — but it does not
contain more than one full sentence pattern. Th e following sen-
tence is simple because its two verbs (comes in and goes out) share
a subject (Spring).
Spring comes in like a lion and goes out like a lamb.
Compound sentences
A compound sentence is composed of two or more independent
clauses with no subordinate clauses. Th e independent clauses are
usually joined with a comma and a coordinating conjunction
(and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet) or with a semicolon. (See 14a.)
Th e car broke down, but a rescue van arrived within minutes.
A shark was spotted near shore; people left immediately.
Complex sentences
A complex sentence is composed of one independent clause with
one or more subordinate clauses. (See 48e.)
INDEPENDENT CLAUSE
INDEPENDENT CLAUSE
CLAUSE CLAUSE
INDEPENDENT CLAUSE INDEPENDENT CLAUSE
INDEPENDENTINDEPENDENT
ADJECTIVE Th e pitcher who won the game is a rookie.
ADVERB If you leave late, take a cab home.
NOUN What matters most to us is a quick commute.
CLAUSE
CLAUSE
CLAUSE
SUBORDINATE
SUBORDINATE
SUBORDINATE
Compound-complex sentences
A compound-complex sentence contains at least two indepen-
dent clauses and at least one subordinate clause. Th e following
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49b Sentence types394
sentence contains two independent clauses, each of which con-
tains a subordinate clause.
Tell the doctor how you feel, and she will decide whether
you can go home.
49b Sentence purposes
Writers use declarative sentences to make statements, impera-
tive sentences to issue requests or commands, interrogative
sentences to ask questions, and exclamatory sentences to make
exclamations.
DECLARATIVE Th e echo sounded in our ears.
IMPERATIVE Love your neighbor.
INTERROGATIVE Did the better team win tonight?
EXCLAMATORY We’re here to save you!
EXERCISE 49–1 Identify the following sentences as simple, compound,
complex, or compound-complex. Identify the subordinate clauses and clas-
sify them according to their function: adjective, adverb, or noun. (See 48e.)
Answers appear in the back of the book. More practice:
Th e deli in Courthouse Square was crowded with lawyers
at lunchtime.
a. Fires that are ignited in dry areas spread especially quickly.
b. Th e early Incas were advanced; they used a calendar and devel-
oped a decimal system.
c. Elaine’s jacket was too thin to block the wintry air.
d. Before we leave for the station, we always check the Amtrak
Web site.
e. Decide when you want to leave, and I will be there to pick you up.
INDEPENDENT CLAUSE
SUB CL
INDEPENDENT CLAUSE
SUB CL
(Simple)
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49 Sentence types
> Exercises: 49–2 and 49–3
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Research
50 Thinking like a researcher; gathering sources, 396
51 Managing information; taking notes responsibly, 408
52 Evaluating sources, 416
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396
50 Thinking like a researcher; gathering sources
A college research assignment asks you to pose questions worth
exploring, to read widely in search of possible answers, to inter-
pret what you read, to draw reasoned conclusions, and to support
those conclusions with evidence. In short, it asks you to enter a
research conversation by engaging with the ideas of other writers
and thinkers who have explored and studied your topic. As you lis-
ten to and learn from the voices already in the conversation, you’ll
fi nd entry points where you can add your own insights and ideas.
Becoming a confi dent researcher means fi guring out how to
respond to and engage with ideas, fi nd your own voice, and pre-
sent your ideas alongside other people’s thoughts. It also requires
embracing the idea that writing with sources is a process that
takes time. As your ideas evolve, you may fi nd that the process
leads you in unexpected directions — perhaps new questions in
the conversation require you to create a new search strategy, fi nd
additional sources, and challenge your initial assumptions. Keep
an open mind throughout the process, be curious, and enjoy the
work of fi nding answers to questions that matter to you.
50a Manage the project.
When you begin a research project, you need to understand the
assignment, choose a direction, and quickly grasp the big picture
for the topic you choose. Th e following tips will help you manage
the beginning phase of research.
Managing time
When you receive your assignment, set a realistic schedule of dead-
lines. Th ink about how much time you might need for each step of
your project. One student created a calendar to map out her tasks for
a research paper assigned on October 3 and due October 31, keep-
ing in mind that some tasks might overlap or need to be repeated.
Keeping a research log
Research is a process. As your topic evolves, you may fi nd your-
self asking new questions that require you to create a new search
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2 3
Receive
and
analyze
the assign-
ment.
4
Pose
questions
you might
explore.
5 6
Start
research
log.
7
Settle on
a topic;
narrow the
focus.
8
Revise
research
questions.
Locate
sources.
9 10 11 12 13
Draft a
working
thesis and
an outline.
14 15
16 17 18 19
Visit the
writing
center for
feedback.
20 21 22
23
Ask
peers for
feedback.
24 25 26 27 28 29
Proofread
the final
draft.
30
Proofread
the final
draft.
31
Submit the
final draft.
Read, take notes, and
compile a working bibliography.
Revise the paper;
if necessary, revise the thesis.
Draft the paper.
Talk with a reference
librarian; plan a
search strategy.
Draft the paper.
Prepare a list of
works cited.
Do additional
research if needed.
SAMPLE CALENDAR FOR A RESEARCH ASSIGNMENT
Manage the project 397
res
50a
strategy, fi nd additional sources, and revise your initial assumptions.
A research log helps you bring order to this process by keeping accu-
rate records of the sources you read and your ideas about them. You
might want to use a separate hardcopy notebook for your log or cre-
ate a digital set of fi les. Keeping an accurate source trail and working
bibliography, and separating your own insights and ideas from those
of your sources, will help you become a more effi cient researcher.
Getting the big picture
As you consider a possible research topic, set aside some time to
learn what people are saying about it by reading sources on the
Web or in library databases. Ask yourself questions such as these:
• What aspects of the topic are generating the most debate?
• Why and on what points are people disagreeing?
• Which arguments and approaches seem worth exploring?
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res
50b Thinking like a researcher; gathering sources398
Once you have an aerial view of the topic and are familiar with
some of the existing research, you can zoom in closer to examine
subtopics and debates that look interesting.
50b Pose questions worth exploring.
Every research project starts with questions. Working within the
guidelines of your assignment, pose a few preliminary questions
that seem worth researching — questions that you are interested
in exploring, that you feel would engage your audience, and
about which there is substantial debate. You’ll fi nd the research
process more rewarding and meaningful if you choose questions
that you care about.
Thinking like a researcher
To develop your authority as a researcher, you need to think like a
researcher — asking interesting questions, becoming well informed
through reading and evaluating sources, and citing sources to
acknowledge other researchers.
Be curious. What makes you angry, concerned, or perplexed? What
topics and debates do you care about? What problems do you want
to help solve? Explore your topic from multiple perspectives, and let
your curiosity drive your project.
Be engaged. Talk with a librarian and learn how to use your library’s
research tools and resources. Once you fi nd promising sources, let
one source lead you to another; follow clues (in the source’s list of
works cited, if one exists) to learn who else has written about your
topic. Listen to the key voices in the research conversation you’ve
joined — and then respond.
Be responsible. Use sources to develop and support your ideas
rather than patching them together to let them speak for you. From
the start of your research project, keep careful track of sources you
read or view (see 51), place quotation marks around words copied
from sources, and maintain accurate records for all bibliographic
information.
Be refl ective. Keep a research log, and use your log to explore vari-
ous points you are developing and to pose counterarguments to
your research argument. Research is never a straightforward path,
so use your log to refl ect on the evolution of your project as well as
your evolution as a researcher.
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Pose questions worth exploring 399
res
50b
Here are some preliminary questions jotted down by stu-
dents enrolled in a variety of college courses.
• Why are boys diagnosed with attention defi cit disorder
more oft en than girls are?
• Do nutritional food labels inform consumers or confuse them?
• Should states require public schools to adopt antibullying
policies?
• Why was amateur archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann such
a controversial fi gure in his own time?
As you think about possible questions, choose those that
are focused (not too broad), challenging (not just factual), and
grounded (not too speculative) as possible entry points in a
conversation.
Choosing a focused question
If your initial question is too broad, given the length of the paper
you plan to write, look for ways to restrict your focus. Here, for
example, is how two students narrowed their initial questions.
TOO BROAD FOCUSED
What are the benefi ts
of stricter auto emissions
standards?
How will stricter auto emissions
standards create new auto industry
jobs and make US carmakers more
competitive in the world market?
What causes depression? How has the widespread use of
antidepressant drugs aff ected
teenage suicide rates?
Choosing a challenging question
Your research paper will be more interesting to both you and
your audience if you base it on an intellectually challenging line
of inquiry. Avoid factual questions that fail to provoke thought or
engage readers in a debate; such questions lead to reports or lists
of facts, not to researched arguments.
TOO FACTUAL CHALLENGING
Is autism on the rise? Why is autism so diffi cult to treat?
Where is wind energy being
used?
What makes wind farms
economically viable?
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50b Thinking like a researcher; gathering sources400
You will need to address a factual question in the course
of answering a more challenging one. For example, if you were
writing about promising treatments for autism, you would no
doubt answer the question “What is autism?” at some point in
your paper and even analyze competing defi nitions of autism to
help support your arguments about the challenges of treating the
condition. It would be unproductive, however, to use the factual
question as the focus for the entire paper.
Choosing a grounded question
Make sure that your research question is grounded, not too
speculative. Although speculative questions — such as those that
address morality or beliefs — are worth asking in a research paper,
they are unsuitable central questions. For most college courses,
the central argument of a research paper should be grounded in
evidence and should not be based entirely on beliefs.
TOO SPECULATIVE GROUNDED
Is it wrong to share
pornographic personal
photos by cell phone?
What role should the US
government play in regulating
mobile content?
Do medical scientists have
the right to experiment on
animals?
How have technical
breakthroughs made medical
experiments on animals
increasingly unnecessary?
Finding an entry point in a research conversation
As you pose preliminary research questions, you may wonder
where and how to step into a research conversation. To fi nd entry
points, you may need to ask:
• Who are the major writers or thinkers in the debate? What
positions have they taken?
• How and why do the major writers or thinkers disagree?
• What hasn’t been said in the conversation and needs to be
pointed out?
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50 Thinking like a researcher; gathering sources
> Exercise: 50–1
> Writing practice: Entering a research conversation (with video)
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Map out a search strategy 401
res
50c
As you orient yourself, try using the following statements to help
you fi nd points of entry in a research conversation.
On one side of the debate is position X, on the other side is Y, but
there is a middle position, Z.
Th e conventional view about the problem or issue needs to be
challenged because . . .
Key details in this debate that have been overlooked are . . .
Researchers have drawn conclusion X from the evidence, but one
could also draw conclusion Y.
Testing a research question
● Does the question allow you to enter into a research conversation
that you care about?
● Is the question fl exible enough to allow for many possible
answers?
● Is the question clear, focused, interesting?
● Is the question narrow enough, given the length of the
assignment?
● Put the question to the “So what?” test. Can you show readers
why the question needs to be asked and why the answer matters?
(See p. 16.)
50c Map out a search strategy.
A search strategy is a systematic plan for tracking down sources.
To create a search strategy appropriate for your research question,
it may help to consult a librarian and take a look at your library’s
Web site, which will give you an overview of available resources.
No single search strategy works for every topic. For some
topics, it may be useful to search for information in popu-
lar newspapers, magazines, and Web sites. For others, the best
sources might be found in scholarly journals, books, and spe-
cialized reference works. Still other topics might be enhanced by
fi eld research — interviews, surveys, or observation.
With the help of a librarian, each of the students whose re-
search essays can be found in this handbook constructed a search
strategy appropriate for the research question.
Sophie Harba (See her full paper in 57b.) Sophie Harba’s topic,
the role of government in legislating food choices, is debated in
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50d Thinking like a researcher; gathering sources402
scholarly articles and in publications aimed at the general public.
To fi nd information on her topic, Harba decided to
• search the Web to locate current news, government
publications, and information from organizations that focus
on the issues surrounding government regulation of food
• check a library database for current peer-reviewed research
articles
• use the library catalog to search for a recently published
book that was cited in a blog post on her topic and on
several well-respected Web sites
Luisa Mirano (See her full paper in 62b.) Luisa Mirano’s topic, the
limitations of medication for childhood obesity, is the subject of
psychological studies as well as articles in newspapers and maga-
zines aimed at the general public. Th inking that both scholarly
and popular sources would be appropriate, Mirano decided to
• search the Web to see what issues about childhood obesity
might be interesting
• focus her search on medications reported in newspaper and
magazine articles, advocacy Web sites, and government sites
• search specialized databases related to psychology and
medicine for recent scholarly and scientifi c articles
• track down an article that several of her sources cited as an
infl uential study
USING SOURCES RESPONSIBLY: Use your research log (see p. 396)
to record information for each source you read or view, especially
page numbers and URLs. If you gather complete publication
information from the start of your project, you’ll easily fi nd it
when you need to document your sources.
50d Search effi ciently; master a few shortcuts
to fi nding good sources.
Most students use a combination of library databases and the
Web in their research. You can save yourself a lot of time by
becoming an effi cient searcher.
macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
50 Thinking like a researcher; gathering sources
> Writing practice: Mapping out a search strategy
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50dSearch effi ciently
Using the library
Th e Web site hosted by your college library is full of useful infor-
mation. In addition to dozens of databases and links to other
references, many libraries off er online subject guides as well
as one-on-one help from reference librarians through e-mail
or chat. You can save yourself time if you get advice from your
instructor, a librarian, or your library’s Web site about the best
place to start your search for sources.
Visiting your library can also be helpful. You can consult
personally with reference librarians, who can show you what re-
sources are available, help you refi ne your keywords for catalog
or database searches, or suggest ways to narrow your search.
Savvy searchers cut down on the clutter of a broad search by
adding additional search terms, limiting a search to recent pub-
lications, or selecting a database option to look at only one type
of source, such as peer-reviewed articles, if that’s what is needed.
When looking for books, you can broaden a catalog search by
asking “What kind of book might contain the information I
need?” Aft er you’ve identifi ed a promising book on the library
shelves, looking through the books on nearby shelves can also be
valuable.
Using the Web
When using a search engine, it’s a good idea to use terms that are
as specifi c as possible and to enclose search phrases in quotation
marks. You can refi ne your search by date or domain; for exam-
ple, autism site:.gov will search for information about autism on
government (.gov) Web sites. Use clues in what you fi nd (such
as organizations or government agencies that seem particularly
informative) to refi ne your search.
As you examine sites, look for “about” links to learn about
the site’s author or sponsoring agency. Examine URLs for clues.
Th ose that contain .k12 may be intended for young audiences;
URLs ending in .gov lead to offi cial information from US gov-
ernment entities. URLs may also off er clues about the country of
origin: .au for Australia, .uk for United Kingdom, .in for India,
and so on. If you aren’t sure where a page originated, erase ev-
erything in the URL aft er the fi rst slash in your address bar; the
result should be the root page of the site, which may off er useful
information about the site’s purpose and audience (see p. 404).
Avoid sites that provide information but no explanation of who
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CHECK URLS FOR CLUES ABOUT SPONSORSHIP
This source, from an internal page of a Web site, provides no indication of
an author or a sponsor. Shortening the URL to http://twain.lib.virginia.edu/
leads to a main page that lists a university literature professor as the author
and the University of Virginia Library as the sponsor.
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50d Thinking like a researcher; gathering sources404
the authors are or why the site was created. Th ey may simply be
advertising platforms attracting visitors with commonly sought
information that is not original or substantial. For more on eval-
uating Web sites, see 52e.
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405
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50dSearch effi ciently
Using bibliographies and citations as shortcuts
Scholarly books and articles list the works the author has cited,
usually at the end. Th ese lists are useful shortcuts to additional
reliable sources on your topic. For example, most of the scholarly
articles that student writer Luisa Mirano consulted contained
citations to related research studies, selected by experts in the
fi eld. Th rough these citations, she quickly located other sources
related to her topic, treatments for childhood obesity. Even popu-
lar sources such as news articles, videos, and interviews may refer
to additional relevant sources that may be worth tracking down.
Using a variety of online tools and databases
You will probably fi nd that your instructor, your librarian, or
your library’s Web site can be helpful in pointing you in the right
direction once you have a topic and a research question. If you
are still seeking some guidance about which Web sites, directo-
ries, databases, and other sources might yield useful searches, the
URL at the bottom of the page will lead you to lists of sources that
might provide the jump start you are looking for.
macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
50 Thinking like a researcher; gathering sources
> Finding research help: Locating sources using online tools and databases
Tips for smart searching
For currency. If you need current information, news outlets such as
the New York Times and the BBC, think tanks, government agen-
cies, and advocacy groups may provide appropriate sources for your
research. When using Google, you can limit a search to the most
recent year, month, week, or day.
For authority. As you search, keep an eye out for any experts
being cited in sources you examine. Following the citation trail may
lead you to sources by those experts — or the organizations they
represent — that may be even more helpful. You can limit a Google
search by type of Web site and type of source. Add site:.gov to focus
on government sources or fi letype:pdf to zero in on reports and
research papers as PDF fi les.
For scholarship. When you need scholarly or peer-reviewed articles,
use a library database to look for reports of original research written
by the people who conducted it. Scholarly articles provide information
about where the authors work (such as universities or research centers),
use a formal writing style, and include footnotes or a bibliography.
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50e Thinking like a researcher; gathering sources406
50e Conduct fi eld research, if appropriate.
Your own fi eld research can enhance or be the focus of a writing
project. For a composition class, for example, you might want
to interview a local politician about a current issue, such as the
initiation of a city bike-share program. For a sociology class, you
might decide to conduct a survey about campus trends in com-
munity service.
RESEARCH NOTE: Colleges and universities oft en require research-
ers to submit projects to an institutional review board (IRB) if
the research involves human subjects outside a classroom setting.
Before administering a survey or conducting other fi eldwork,
check with your instructor to see if IRB approval is required.
Interviewing
Interviews can oft en shed new light on a topic. Look for an
expert who has fi rsthand knowledge of the subject, or seek out
a key participant whose personal experience provides a valuable
perspective.
When asking for an interview, be clear about who you are,
what the purpose of the interview is, and how you would prefer
to conduct it: by e-mail, over the phone, or in person. Ask ques-
tions that lead to facts, anecdotes, and opinions that will add a
meaningful dimension to your paper.
Tips for smart searching, continued
For context. Books are important sources in many fi elds such as
history, philosophy, and sociology, and they oft en do a better job
than scholarly articles of putting ideas in context. You may fi nd a
single chapter or even a few pages that are just what you need to
gain a deeper perspective. Consider publication dates with your
topic in mind.
For fi rsthand authenticity. In some fi elds, primary sources may be
required. In historical research, for example, a primary source is
one that originated in the historical period under discussion or is a
fi rsthand account from a witness. In the sciences, a primary source
(sometimes called a primary article) is a published report of research
written by the scientist who conducted it. For more information, see
page 423.
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50eConduct fi eld research
INEFFECTIVE INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
How many years have you spent studying childhood obesity?
Is your work interesting?
EFFECTIVE INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
What are some current interpretations of the causes of childhood
obesity?
What treatments have you found to be most eff ective? Why do you
think they work?
USING SOURCES RESPONSIBLY: When quoting your source (the
interviewee) in your paper, be accurate and fair. Do not change
the meaning of your interviewee’s words or take them out of con-
text. To ensure accuracy, you might want to ask permission to
record the interview or conduct it by e-mail.
Surveying opinion
For some topics, you may fi nd it useful to survey opinions
through written questionnaires, telephone or e-mail polls, or
questions posted on a social media site. Many people are reluc-
tant to fi ll out long questionnaires, so for a good response rate,
limit your questions with your purpose in mind.
Surveys with yes/no questions or multiple-choice options
can be completed quickly, and the results are easy to tally. You
may also want to ask a few open-ended questions to elicit more
individual responses, some of which may be worth quoting in
your paper.
SAMPLE YES/NO QUESTION
Do you favor the use of Internet surveillance in the workplace?
SAMPLE OPEN-ENDED QUESTION
What, if any, experiences have you had with Internet surveillance
in the workplace?
Other fi eld methods
Your fi rsthand visits to and observations of signifi cant places,
people, or events can enhance a paper in a variety of disciplines.
If you aren’t able to visit an organization, a company, or a his-
toric site, you may fi nd useful information on an offi cial Web
site or a phone number or e-mail address to use to contact a
representative.
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408 Thinking like a researcher; gathering sources50f
50f Write a research proposal.
One eff ective way to manage your research project and focus your
thinking is to write a research proposal. A proposal gives you an
opportunity to look back — to remind you why you decided to
enter a specifi c research conversation — and to look forward — to
predict any diffi culties or obstacles that might arise during your
project. Your objective is to make a case for the question you plan
to explore, the sources you plan to use, and the feasibility of the
project, given the time and resources available. As you take stock
of your project, you also have the valuable opportunity to receive
comments from your instructor and classmates about your pro-
posed research question and search strategy.
Th e following points will help you organize your proposal.
• Research question. What question will you be exploring?
Why does this question need to be asked? What do you
hope to learn from the project?
• Research conversation. What have you learned so far about
the debate or specifi c research conversation you will enter?
What entry point have you found to off er your own insights
and ideas?
• Search strategy. Explain your search strategy: What kinds
of sources will you use to explore your question? What
sources have you found most useful, and why? How will you
locate a variety of sources (print and visual, primary and
secondary, for example)?
• Research challenges. What challenges, if any, do you
anticipate (locating suffi cient sources, managing the project,
fi nding a position to take)? What resources are available to
help you meet these challenges?
51 Managing information; taking notes responsibly
An eff ective researcher is a good record keeper. Whether you
decide to keep records in your research log or in a fi le on your
computer, you will need methods for managing information:
maintaining a working bibliography (see 51a), keeping track of
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Maintain a working bibliography 409
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51a
source materials (see 51b), and taking notes without plagiarizing
your sources (see 51c). (For more on avoiding plagiarism, see 54
for MLA style and 59 for APA style.)
51a Maintain a working bibliography.
Keep a record of each source you read or view. Th is record, called
a working bibliography, will help you compile the list of sources
that will appear at the end of your paper. Th e format of this list
depends on the documentation style you are using (for MLA
style, see 56b; for APA style, see 61b). Using the proper style in
your working bibliography will ensure that you have all the infor-
mation you need to correctly cite any sources you use. (See 52f
for advice on using your working bibliography as the basis for an
annotated bibliography.)
Most researchers save bibliographic information from the
library’s catalog and databases and from the Web. Th e informa-
tion you need is given in the chart on page 411. If you download
a visual, you must gather the same information as for a print
source.
For Web sources, some bibliographic information may not
be available, but spend time looking for it before assuming that it
doesn’t exist. When information isn’t available on the home page,
you may have to follow links to interior pages. (See also pp. 405
and 425 for more details about fi nding bibliographic information
in online sources.)
USING SOURCES RESPONSIBLY: Use care when printing or saving
articles from a database or Web site. Th e fi les themselves may not
include some of the elements you need to cite the source prop-
erly, especially page numbers. You may need to record additional
information from the database or Web site where you accessed
the fi le.
RESEARCH TIP: Your school may provide citation soft ware, which
automatically formats citations in any style using bibliographic
information submitted by researchers. You must carefully proof-
read the results from these programs, however, because the cita-
tions oft en include errors.
macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
51 Managing information; taking notes responsibly
> Finding research help: Choosing a documentation style
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Managing information; taking notes responsibly410 51b
51b Keep track of source materials.
Th e best way to keep track of source materials is to save a copy of
each potential source as you conduct your research. Many data-
base services will allow you to e-mail, save, or print citations or
full texts of articles, and you can easily download, copy, or take
screen shots of information from the Web.
Working with photocopies, printouts, and electronic
fi les — as opposed to relying on memory or hastily written
notes — has several benefi ts. You can highlight key passages,
perhaps even color-coding them to refl ect topics in your out-
line. You can get a head start on note taking. Finally, you reduce
the chances of unintentional plagiarism since you will be able
to compare your use of a source in your paper with the actual
source, not just with your notes.
51c Take notes carefully to avoid unintentional
plagiarism.
When you take notes from sources and jot down ideas, use your
own words. Avoid copying passages — or cutting and pasting
texts from electronic sources — without using quotation marks
to indicate which words are yours and which ones you’ve
taken from a source. Even if you half-copy the author’s sen-
tences — either by mixing the author’s phrases with your own
without using quotation marks or by plugging your synonyms
into the author’s sentence structure — you are committing pla-
giarism, a serious academic offense. (For examples of this kind
of plagiarism, sometimes referred to as patchwriting, see 54b
and 59b.)
To take notes responsibly, make sure you understand the
ideas in the source. What are the major arguments? What is
the evidence? Then, resist the temptation to look at the source
as you take notes — except when you are quoting. Keep the
source close by so that you can check for accuracy, but don’t
try to put ideas in your own words with the source’s sentences
in front of you. When you include a quotation in your notes,
make sure you copy the words exactly and put quotation
marks around them.
For strategies for avoiding plagiarism when using sources
from the Web, see page 415.
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51c
Information to collect for a working bibliography
For an entire book
● All authors; any editors or translators
● Title and subtitle
● Edition (if not the fi rst)
● Publication information: city, publisher, and date
● Medium: print, Web, and so on
● Date you retrieved the source (for an online source)
For an article
● All authors of the article
● Title and subtitle of the article
● Title of the journal, magazine, or newspaper
● Date; volume, issue, and page numbers
● Medium: print, Web, DVD, and so on
● Date you retrieved the source (for an online source)
For an article retrieved from a database (in addition to preceding
information)
● Name of the database
● Accession number or other number assigned by the database
● Digital object identifi er (DOI), if there is one
● URL of the journal’s home page, if there is no DOI
● Date you retrieved the source
For a Web source (including visual, audio, and multimedia sources)
● All authors, editors, or composers of the source
● Editor or compiler of the Web source, if there is one
● Title and subtitle of the source
● Title of the longer work, if the source is contained in a longer work
● Title of the Web site
● Print publication information for the source, if available
● Online page or paragraph numbers, if any
● Date of online publication (or latest update)
● Sponsor of the site
● Date you accessed the source
● Th e site’s URL
NOTE: For the exact bibliographic format to use in your working bib-
liography and in the fi nal paper, see 56b (MLA) and 61b (APA).
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51c Managing information; taking notes responsibly412
USING SOURCES RESPONSIBLY: Be especially careful when using
copy-and-paste functions in electronic fi les. Some researchers
plagiarize their sources because they lose track of which words
came from sources and which are their own. To prevent unin-
tentional plagiarism, put quotation marks around any source text
that you copy during your research.
Th ere are three kinds of note taking: summarizing, para-
phrasing, and quoting. Be sure to keep track of exact page refer-
ences for all three types of notes; you will need the page numbers
later if you use the information in your paper. And it is good
practice to indicate in your notes if you have summarized, para-
phrased, or quoted an author’s words to avoid unintentionally
plagiarizing a source.
Summarizing without plagiarizing
A summary condenses information and captures main ideas, per-
haps reducing a chapter to a short paragraph or a paragraph to a
single sentence. A summary should be written in your own words;
if you use phrases from the source, put them in quotation marks.
Academic English Even in the early stages of note taking, it is
important to keep in mind that in the United States written texts
are considered an author’s property. (Th is “property” isn’t a physical
object, so it is oft en referred to as intellectual property.) Th e author
(or the publisher) owns the language as well as any original ideas
contained in the writing, whether the source is published in print or
digital form. When you use another author’s property in your own
writing, you are required to follow certain conventions for citing the
material, or you risk committing plagiarism.
Here is a passage about marine pollution from a National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Web
site. Following the passage are the student’s annotations on
the source — notes and questions that help him fi gure out the
meaning — and then his summary of the passage. (Th e biblio-
graphic information is recorded in MLA style.)
ORIGINAL SOURCE
A question that is oft en posed to the NOAA Marine Debris
Program (MDP) is “How much debris is actually out there?”
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51c
Th e MDP has recognized the need for this answer as well as the
growing interest and value of citizen science. To that end, the MDP
is developing and testing two types of monitoring and assessment
protocols: 1) rigorous scientifi c survey and 2) volunteer at-sea
visual survey. Th ese types of monitoring programs are necessary
in order to compare marine debris, composition, abundance,
distribution, movement, and impact data on national and
global scales.
— NOAA Marine Debris Program.
“Eff orts and Activities Related to the
‘Garbage Patches.’ ” Marine Debris. NOAA Marine
Debris Program, 2012. Web. 28 Nov. 2012.
ORIGINAL SOURCE WITH STUDENT ANNOTATIONS
A question that is oft en posed to the NOAA Marine Debris
Program (MDP) is “How much debris is actually out there?”
Th e MDP has recognized the need for this answer as well as the
growing interest and value of citizen science. To that end, the MDP
is developing and testing two types of monitoring and assessment
protocols: 1) rigorous scientifi c survey and 2) volunteer at-sea visual
survey. Th ese types of monitoring programs are necessary in order
to compare marine debris, composition, abundance, distribution,
movement, and impact data on national and global scales.
SUMMARY
Source: NOAA Marine Debris Program. “Efforts and Activities Related
to the ‘Garbage Patches.’ ” Marine Debris. NOAA Marine Debris
Program, 2012. Web. 28 Nov. 2012.
Having to field citizens’ questions about the size of debris fields
in Earth’s oceans, the Marine Debris Program, an arm of the US
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, is currently
implementing methods to monitor and draw conclusions about our
oceans’ patches of pollution (NOAA Marine Debris Program).
by whom? ocean trash
ways of gathering information
kinds of materials how much?
why it matt ers
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51c Managing information; taking notes responsibly414
Paraphrasing without plagiarizing
Like a summary, a paraphrase is written in your own words; but
whereas a summary reports signifi cant information in fewer
words than the source, a paraphrase restates the information in
roughly the same number of words. A successful paraphrase also
uses sentence structure that’s diff erent from the original. If you
retain occasional choice phrases from the source, use quotation
marks so that later you will know which phrases are not your
own. If you paraphrase a source, you must still cite the source.
As you read the following paraphrase of the original source
(see pp. 412–13), notice that the language is signifi cantly diff er-
ent from that in the original.
PARAPHRASE
Source: NOAA Marine Debris Program. “Efforts and Activities Related
to the ‘Garbage Patches.’ ” Marine Debris. NOAA Marine Debris
Program, 2012. Web. 28 Nov. 2012.
Citizens concerned and curious about the amount, makeup, and
locations of debris patches in our oceans have been pressing NOAA’s
Marine Debris Program for answers. In response, the organization
is preparing to implement plans and standards for expert study and
nonexpert observation, both of which will yield results that will be
helpful in determining the significance of the pollution problem
(NOAA Marine Debris Program).
Using quotation marks to avoid plagiarizing
A quotation consists of the exact words from a source. In your
notes, put all quoted material in quotation marks; do not assume
that you will remember later which words, phrases, and passages
you have quoted and which are your own. When you quote, be
sure to copy the words of your source exactly, including punctua-
tion and capitalization.
QUOTATION
Source: NOAA Marine Debris Program. “Efforts and Activities Related
to the ‘Garbage Patches.’ ” Marine Debris. NOAA Marine Debris
Program, 2012. Web. 28 Nov. 2012.
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Take notes carefully to avoid unintentional plagiarism 415
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51c
The NOAA Marine Debris Program has noted that, as our oceans
become increasingly polluted, surveillance is “necessary in order
to compare marine debris, composition, abundance, distribution,
movement, and impact data on national and global scales.”
Note that because the source is from a Web site without page
numbers, the in-text citation includes only the author name and
not a page number.
Avoiding plagiarism from the Web
Understand what plagiarism is. When you use another author’s
intellectual property — language, visuals, or ideas — in your own
writing without giving proper credit, you commit a kind of aca-
demic theft called plagiarism.
Treat Web sources the same way you treat print sources. Any lan-
guage that you fi nd on the Web must be cited, even if the material
is in the public domain (which generally includes older works
no longer protected by copyright law) or is publicly accessible
on free sites. When you use material from Web sites sponsored
by federal, state, or municipal governments (.gov sites) or by
nonprofi t organizations (.org sites), you must acknowledge that
material, too, as intellectual property owned by those agencies.
Keep track of which words come from sources and which are your
own. To prevent unintentional plagiarism when you copy and
paste passages from Web sources to an electronic fi le, put quo-
tation marks around any text that you have inserted into your
own work. During note taking and draft ing, you might use a dif-
ferent color font or highlighting to draw attention to text taken
from sources so that material from articles, Web sites, and other
sources stands out unmistakably as someone else’s words.
Avoid Web sites that bill themselves as “research services” and sell
essays. When you use Web search engines to research a topic,
you will oft en see links to sites that appear to off er legitimate
writing support but that actually sell college essays. Of course,
submitting a paper that you have purchased is cheating, but even
using material from such a paper is considered plagiarism.
For details on avoiding plagiarism while working with
sources, see 54b (MLA) and 59b (APA).
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416
52 Evaluating sources
You can oft en locate dozens or even hundreds of potential
sources for your topic — far more than you will have time to
read. Your challenge will be to determine what kinds of sources
you need to answer your research questions and to zero in on a
reasonable number of trustworthy sources. Th is kind of decision
making is referred to as evaluating sources. When you evaluate a
source, you make a judgment about how useful the source is to
your project.
Evaluating sources isn’t something you do in one sitting.
Being an eff ective researcher doesn’t mean following a formula
( fi nd some sources > evaluate those sources > write the paper).
Rather, it means seeing the process as more dynamic. Aft er you
do some planning, searching, and reading, for example, you may
refl ect on the information you have collected and conclude that
you need to rethink your research question — and so you return
to assessing the kinds of sources you need. You may be midway
through draft ing your paper when you begin to question a par-
ticular source’s credibility, at which point you return to searching
and reading.
52a Think about how sources might contribute
to your writing.
How you plan to use sources in your paper will aff ect how you
evaluate them. Not every source must directly support your the-
sis; sources can have a range of functions in a paper. Th ey can do
any of the following:
• provide background information or context for your topic
• explain terms or concepts that your readers might not
understand
• provide evidence for your argument
• lend authority to your argument
• identify a gap or contradiction in the conversation
• off er counterarguments and alternative interpretations to
your argument
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Think about how sources might contribute to your writing 417
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52a
As you plan, you will need to think through the kinds of
sources that will help you fulfi ll your purpose. Th e following are
notes that one student took as she planned a paper.
Purpose: to persuade
My argument: that public funding for the arts should be granted on
artistic merit alone and not on so-called decency standards
Sources I could use for
background/context:
1998 Supreme Court decision (National
Endowment for the Arts v. Finley)
First Amendment
Sources that support my
argument:
interviews of controversial artists
Karen Finley and Tim Miller
Source that represents an
alternative viewpoint:
passages from a profile of conservative
North Carolina senator Jesse Helms
With her overall purpose in mind, the student judged each source
according to the specifi c role it would play in her argument. For
more examples of how student writers use sources for a variety of
purposes, see 53c and 58c.
Viewing evaluation as a process
When you use sources in your writing, make a habit of evaluating,
or judging the value of, those sources at each stage of your project.
Th e following questions may help.
Evaluate as you PLAN Evaluate as you SEARCH
What kinds of sources do I
need?
What do I need these sources
to help me do: Defi ne?
Persuade? Inform?
How can I fi nd reliable sources
that help me answer my research
question?
Which sources will help me
build my credibility as a
researcher?
Evaluate as you READ Evaluate as you WRITE
What positions do these sources
take in the debate on my topic?
What are their biases?
How do these sources inform
my understanding of the topic
and the position I will take?
How do the sources I’ve chosen
help me make my point?
How do my own ideas fi t into
the conversation on my research
topic?
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52b Evaluating sources418
52b Select sources worth your time and
attention.
As you search for sources in databases, the library catalog, and
search engines, you’re likely to get many more results than you
can read or use. Th is section explains how to scan through the
results for the most promising sources, and how to preview
them to see whether they will help you answer your research
question.
Scanning search results
As you scan through a list of search results, look for clues indicat-
ing whether a source might be useful for your purposes or not
worth pursuing. You will need to use somewhat diff erent strate-
gies when scanning search results from a database, a library cata-
log, and a Web search engine.
Databases Most databases list at least the following information,
which can help you decide if a source is relevant, current, and
scholarly (see the chart on p. 421).
Title and brief description (How relevant?)
Date (How current?)
Name of periodical or other publication (How scholarly?)
Length (How extensive in coverage?)
Many databases allow you to sort your list of results by rele-
vance or date; sorting may help you scan the information more
effi ciently.
Library catalogs Th e library’s catalog usually lists basic
information about books, periodicals, DVDs, and other
material — enough to give you a fi rst impression. As in database
search results, the title and date of publication of books and other
sources listed in the catalog will oft en be your fi rst clues as to
whether the source is worth consulting. If a title looks interest-
ing, you can click on it for information about the subject matter
and length. For books, reports, or other long sources, a table of
contents may also be available.
macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
52 Evaluating sources
> Writing practice: Planning with sources
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Select sources worth your time and attention 419
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52b
Web search engines Reliable and unreliable sources live side-
by-side online. As you scan through search results, look for the
following clues about the probable relevance, currency, and reli-
ability of a Web site.
Th e title, keywords, headings, and lead-in text (How relevant?)
A date (How current?)
An indication of the site’s sponsor or purpose (How reliable?)
Th e URL, especially the URL ending: for example, .com, .edu, .gov,
or .org (How relevant? How reliable?)
At the bottom of this page are a few of the results that stu-
dent writer Luisa Mirano retrieved aft er typing the keywords
childhood obesity into a search engine; she limited her search to
works with those words in the title.
Mirano found the fi rst site, sponsored by a research-based
organization, promising enough to explore for her paper. Th e
second and fourth sites held less promise because they seemed
to off er popular rather than scholarly information. In addi-
tion, the second site was full of distracting advertisements.
Mirano rejected the third source not because she doubted its
reliability — in fact, research from the National Institutes of
Health was what she hoped to fi nd — but because a review of
its contents revealed that the information was too general for
her purposes.
EVALUATING SEARCH RESULTS: INTERNET SEARCH ENGINE
Content from a
research-based
organization.
Promising.
Popular rather
than scholarly
source. Not
relevant.
Content too
general. Not
relevant.
Popular and
too general.
Not relevant.
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52b Evaluating sources420
Previewing sources
Once you have decided that a source looks promising, preview it
quickly to see whether it lives up to its promise. If you can evalu-
ate as you search, rejecting irrelevant or unreliable sources before
actually reading them, you will save yourself time.
PREVIEWING AN ARTICLE
• Consider the publication in which the article is printed. Is
it a scholarly journal (see the chart on p. 421)? A popular
magazine? A newspaper with a national reputation?
• For a magazine or journal article, look for an abstract or
a statement of purpose at the beginning; also look for a
summary at the end.
• For a newspaper article, focus on the headline and the
opening paragraphs for relevance.
• Scan any headings and look at any visuals — charts, graphs,
diagrams, or illustrations — that might indicate the article’s
focus and scope.
PREVIEWING A BOOK
• Glance through the table of contents, keeping your research
question in mind. Even if the entire book is not relevant,
parts of it may prove useful.
• Scan the preface in search of a statement of the author’s
purposes.
• Use the index to look up a few words related to your topic.
• If a chapter looks useful, read its opening and closing
paragraphs and skim any headings.
PREVIEWING A WEB SITE
• Check to see if the sponsor is a reputable organization, a
government agency, or a university. Is the group likely to
look at only one side of a debatable issue?
• If you have landed on an internal page of a site and no
author or sponsor is evident, try navigating to the home
page, either through a link or by truncating the URL (see
the tip on p. 404).
• Try to determine the purpose of the Web site. Is the site
trying to sell a product? Promote an idea? Inform the
public? Is the purpose consistent with your research?
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Select appropriate versions of online sources 421
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52c
• If the Web site includes statistical data (tables, graphs,
charts), can you tell how and by whom the statistics were
compiled? Is research cited?
• Find out when the site was created or last updated. Is it
current enough for your purposes?
52c Select appropriate versions of online
sources.
An online source may appear as an abstract, an excerpt, or a full-
text article or book. It is important to distinguish among these
versions of sources and to use a complete version of a source,
preferably one with page numbers, for your research.
Abstracts and excerpts are shortened versions of complete
works. An abstract — a summary of a work’s contents — might
appear in a database record for a source and can give you clues
Determining if a source is scholarly
For many college assignments, you will be asked to use scholarly
sources. Th ese are written by experts for a knowledgeable audience
and usually go into more depth than books and articles written for
a general audience. (Scholarly sources are sometimes called refereed
or peer-reviewed because the work is evaluated by experts in the fi eld
before publication.) To determine if a source is scholarly, you should
look for the following:
● Formal language and presentation
● Authors who are academics or scientists
● Footnotes or a bibliography documenting the works cited by the
author in the source
● Original research and interpretation (rather than a summary of
other people’s work)
● Quotations from and analysis of primary sources (in humani-
ties disciplines such as literature, history, and philosophy)
● A description of research methods or a review of related research
(in the sciences and social sciences)
NOTE: In some databases, searches can be limited to refereed or
peer-reviewed journals.
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52d Evaluating sources422
52d Read with an open mind and a
critical eye.
As you begin reading the sources you have chosen, keep an open
mind. Do not let your personal beliefs prevent you from listening
to new ideas and opposing viewpoints. Be curious about the wide
range of positions in the research conversation you are enter-
ing. Your research question should guide you as you engage your
sources.
When you read critically, you are examining an author’s as-
sumptions, assessing evidence, and weighing conclusions.
Reading critically means
• reading carefully (What does the source say?)
• reading skeptically (Are any of the author’s points or
conclusions problematic?)
• reading evaluatively (How does this source help me make my
argument?)
For one student’s careful reading of a source text, see 5a.
USING SOURCES RESPONSIBLY: Take time to read the entire source
and try to understand an author’s arguments, assumptions, and
conclusions. Try to avoid taking quotations from the fi rst few
pages of a source before you understand if the words and ideas
are representative of the work as a whole.
about the usefulness of the source for your research. An excerpt
is the fi rst few sentences or paragraphs of a newspaper or maga-
zine article and sometimes appears in a list of results from an
online search. Abstracts and excerpts oft en provide enough in-
formation for you to determine whether the complete article
would be useful for your paper. Both are brief (usually fewer than
fi ve hundred words) and generally do not contain enough infor-
mation to function alone as sources in a research paper. Reading
the complete article is the best way to understand the author’s
argument before referring to it in your own writing. If an article is
available in multiple fi le formats, work with the fi le that includes
page numbers. Numbering will help you with accurate note taking
and citation.
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Read with an open mind and a critical eye 423
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52d
Distinguishing between primary and secondary sources
As you begin assessing evidence in a source, determine whether
you are reading a primary or a secondary source. Primary
sources include original documents such as letters, diaries, legis-
lative bills, laboratory studies, fi eld research reports, and eyewit-
ness accounts. Secondary sources are commentaries on primary
sources — another writer’s opinions about or interpretation of a
primary source.
Although a primary source is not necessarily more reliable
than a secondary source, it has the advantage of being a fi rsthand
account. You can better evaluate what a secondary source says if
you have fi rst read any primary sources it discusses.
Being alert for signs of bias
Bias is a way of thinking, a tendency to be partial, that prevents
people and publications from viewing a topic objectively. Both in
print and online, some sources are more objective than others.
If you are exploring the rights of organizations like WikiLeaks
to distribute sensitive government documents over the Internet,
for example, you may not fi nd objective, unbiased information
in a US State Department report. If you are researching timber
harvesting practices, you are likely to encounter bias in publica-
tions sponsored by environmental groups. As a researcher, you
will need to consider any suspected bias as you assess the source.
If you are uncertain about a source’s special interests, seek the
help of a reference librarian.
Like publishers, some authors are more objective than oth-
ers. If you have reason to believe that a writer is particularly
biased, you will want to assess his or her arguments with spe-
cial care. For a list of questions worth asking, see the chart on
page 424.
Assessing the author’s argument
In nearly all subjects worth writing about, there is some element
of argument, so expect to encounter debates and disagreements
among authors. In fact, areas of disagreement give you entry
points in a research conversation. Th e questions in the chart on
page 424 can help you weigh the strengths and weaknesses of
each author’s arguments.
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52e Evaluating sources424
52e Assess Web sources with care.
Sources found on the Web can provide valuable information,
but verifying their credibility may take time. Before using a Web
source in your paper, make sure you know who created the mate-
rial and for what purpose. Sites with reliable information can
stand up to careful scrutiny. For a checklist on evaluating Web
sources, see the chart on page 425. (See also an evaluation of two
sample Web sites on pp. 426–27.)
Evaluating all sources
Checking for signs of bias
● Does the author or publisher endorse political or religious views
that could aff ect objectivity?
● Is the author or publisher associated with a special-interest
group, such as PETA or the National Rifl e Association, that
might present only one side of an issue?
● Are alternative views presented and addressed? How fairly does
the author treat opposing views? (See 6c.)
● Does the author’s language show signs of bias?
Assessing an argument
● What is the author’s central claim or thesis?
● How does the author support this claim — with relevant and
suffi cient evidence or with just a few anecdotes or emotional
examples?
● Are statistics consistent with those you encounter in other
sources? Have they been used fairly? Does the author explain
where the statistics come from?
● Are any of the author’s assumptions questionable?
● Does the author consider opposing arguments and refute
them persuasively? (See 6c.)
● Does the author fall prey to any logical fallacies?
(See 6a.)
macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
52 Evaluating sources
> Writing practice: Evaluating sources you fi nd on the Web
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425
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52eAssess Web sources with care
Evaluating sources you fi nd on the Web
Authorship
● Does the Web site or document have an author? You may need to
do some clicking and scrolling to fi nd the author’s name. If you
have landed directly on an internal page of a site, for example,
you may need to navigate to the home page or fi nd an “about this
site” link to learn the name of the author.
● If there is an author, can you tell whether he or she is knowl-
edgeable and credible? When the author’s qualifi cations aren’t
listed on the site itself, look for links to the author’s home
page, which may provide evidence of his or her interests and
expertise.
Sponsorship
● Who, if anyone, sponsors the site? Th e sponsor of a site is oft en
named and described on the home page.
● What does the URL tell you? Th e domain name extension
oft en indicates the type of group hosting the site: commercial
(.com), educational (.edu), nonprofi t (.org), governmental
(.gov), military (.mil), or network (.net). URLs may also indi-
cate a country of origin: .uk (United Kingdom) or .jp (Japan),
for instance.
Purpose and audience
● Why was the site created: To argue a position? To sell a product?
To inform readers?
● Who is the site’s intended audience?
Currency
● How current is the site? Check for the date of publication or the
latest update, oft en located at the bottom of the home page or at
the beginning or end of an internal page.
● How current are the site’s links? If many of the links no longer
work, the site may be too dated for your purposes.
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1
3
2
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52e Evaluating sources426
EVALUATING A WEB SITE: CHECKING RELIABILITY
1 This page on Internet monitoring and workplace privacy appears on a Web
site sponsored by the National Conference of State Legislatures. The
NCSL is a bipartisan group that functions as a clearinghouse of ideas and
research of interest to state lawmakers. It is also a lobby for state issues
before the US government.
2 A clear date of publication shows currency.
3 An “About Us” page provides an opportunity to verify the organization’s
credentials. When you know something about the creator of the site,
you will be in a good position to evaluate the worth and reliability of its
information.
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2
1
3
2
1
Construct an annotated bibliography 427
res
52f
EVALUATING A WEB SITE: CHECKING PURPOSE
1 The site is sponsored by a company that specializes in employee-monitoring
software.
2 Repeated links for trial downloads and purchase suggest the site’s
intended audience: consumers seeking to purchase software (probably
not researchers seeking detailed information about employees’ use of the
Internet in the workplace).
3 The site appears to provide information and even shows statistics from
studies, but ultimately the purpose of the site is to sell a product.
52f Construct an annotated bibliography.
Section 51a describes how to write a working bibliography, a
document that helps you keep track of publication information
for all of the sources you may be considering for your project.
At some point during your research process, or as a separate
assignment, your instructor may ask you to write an annotated
macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
52 Evaluating sources
> Writing practice: Developing an annotated bibliography
> Sample student writing: Orlov, “Online Monitoring: A Threat to Employee Privacy in
the Wired Workplace: An Annotated Bibliography” (annotated bibliography; MLA)
> Sample student writing: Niemeyer, “Keynesian Policy: Implications for the Current
U.S. Economic Crisis” (annotated bibliography; APA)
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Writing guide | Annotated
bibliography
An annotated bibliography gives you an opportunity to
summarize, evaluate, and record publication information for
your sources before draft ing your research paper. You summarize
each source to understand its main ideas; you evaluate each
source for accuracy, quality, and relevance. Finally, you refl ect,
asking yourself how the source will contribute to your research
project. A sample annotated bibliography entry appears on
page 430.
Key features
● A list of sources arranged in alphabetical order by author includes
complete bibliographic information for each source.
● A brief entry for each source is typically one hundred to two hundred
words.
● A summary of each source states the work’s main ideas and key points
briefl y and accurately. Th e summary is written in the third person and
the present tense. Summarizing helps you test your understanding of a
source and convey its meaning responsibly.
● An evaluation of the source’s role and usefulness in your project
includes an assessment of the source’s strengths and limitations, the
author’s qualifi cations and expertise, and the function of the source in
your project. Evaluating a source helps you analyze how the source fi ts
into your project and separate the source’s ideas from your own.
Writing your annotated bibliography
EXPLORE
For each source, begin by brainstorming responses to questions such
as the following.
● What is the purpose of the source? Who is the author’s intended
audience?
● What is the author’s thesis? What evidence supports the thesis?
● What qualifi cations and expertise does the author bring?
Does the author have any biases or make any questionable
assumptions?
● Why do you think this source is useful for your project?
● How does this source relate to the other sources in your
bibliography?
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DRAFT
● Arrange the sources in alphabetical order by author (or by title for
works with no author).
● Provide consistent bibliographic information for each source. For
the exact bibliographic format, see 56b (MLA) or 61b (APA).
● Start your summary by identifying the thesis and purpose of the
source as well as the credentials of the source’s author.
● Keep your research question in mind. How does this source
contribute to your project? How does it help you take your place
in the conversation?
REVISE
Ask reviewers for specifi c feedback. Here are some questions to
guide their comments.
● Is each source summarized clearly? Have you identifi ed the
author’s main idea?
● For each source, have you made a clear judgment about how and
why the source is useful for your project?
● Have you used quotation marks around exact words from a
source?
bibliography entry for one or more of the sources you’ve gath-
ered. When annotating a bibliography entry, you provide citation
information for the source and, in your own words, a summary
of its contents. Summarizing key points of a source will help you
identify how the source relates to your argument and will help
you judge whether the source is relevant and appropriate for your
project. Evaluating your sources’ ideas will help you separate
them from your own ideas, and it will also help you move toward
a draft in which you synthesize sources and present your own
thesis. (See 55d and 60d for more on synthesis.) For a sample
annotated bibliography, see page 430. For more help with writing
an annotated bibliography, see the Writing Guide that begins on
page 428.
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52f Evaluating sources430
SAMPLE ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY ENTRY (MLA STYLE)
Resnik, David. “Trans Fat Bans and Human Freedom.”
American Journal of Bioethics 10.3 (2010): 27-32.
Academic Search Premier. Web. 17 Apr. 2013.
In this scholarly article, bioethicist David
Resnik argues that bans on unhealthy foods
threaten our personal freedom. He claims that
researchers don’t have enough evidence
to know whether banning trans fats will save
lives or money; all we know is that such bans
restrict dietary choices. Resnik explains why
most Americans oppose food restrictions, noting
our multiethnic and regional food traditions as
well as our resistance to government limitations
on personal freedoms. He acknowledges that
few people would miss eating trans fats, but he
fears that bans on such substances could lead
to widespread restrictions on red meat, sugary
sodas, and other foods known to have harmful
effects. Resnik offers a well-reasoned argument,
but he goes too far by insisting that all proposed
food restrictions will do more harm than good.
This article contributes important perspectives on
American resistance to government intervention
in food choice and counters arguments in other
sources that support the idea of food legislation
to advance public health.
Summarize the
source using
present tense.
Annotations
should be
three to seven
sentences
long.
Evaluate the
source for bias
and relevance.
Evaluate the
source for its
contribution to
the research
project.
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Writing
Papers in
MLA Style
DIRECTORY TO MLA IN-TEXT CITATION MODELS, 432
DIRECTORY TO MLA WORKS CITED MODELS, 432
53 Supporting a thesis, 435
54 Citing sources; avoiding plagiarism, 441
55 Integrating sources, 445
56 Documenting sources in MLA style, 458
57 MLA manuscript format; sample research paper, 513
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General guidelines for signal
phrases and page numbers
1. Author named in a signal
phrase, 459
2. Author named in
parentheses, 460
3. Author unknown, 460
4. Page number unknown, 460
5. One-page source, 460
Variations on the
general guidelines
6. Two or three authors, 461
7. Four or more authors, 461
8. Organization as author, 462
9. Authors with the same last
name, 462
10. Two or more works by the same
author, 462
11. Two or more works in one
citation, 463
12. Repeated citations from the
same source, 463
13. Encyclopedia or dictionary
entry, 464
14. Multivolume work, 464
15. Entire work, 464
16. Selection in an anthology, 464
17. Government document, 465
18. Historical document, 465
19. Legal source, 465
20. Visual such as a table, a chart,
or another graphic, 465
21. Personal communication and
social media, 466
22. Web source, 466
23. Indirect source (source quoted
in another source), 466
Literary works and sacred texts
24. Literary work without parts or
line numbers, 467
25. Verse play or poem, 467
26. Novel with numbered
divisions, 468
27. Sacred text, 468
Directory to MLA in-text citation models
General guidelines for
listing authors
1. Single author, 469
2. Two or three authors, 469
3. Four or more authors, 472
4. Organization or company as
author, 472
5. No author listed, 472
a. Article or other short
work, 472
b. Television program, 473
c. Book, entire Web site, or
other long work, 473
6. Two or more works by the same
author, 473
7. Two or more works by the same
group of authors, 473
8. Editor or translator, 473
9. Author with editor or
translator, 474
10. Graphic narrative or illustrated
work, 475
a. Author fi rst, 475
b. Illustrator fi rst, 475
c. Author and illustrator the
same person, 476
11. Author using a pseudonym (pen
name) or screen name, 476
12. Author quoted by another
author (indirect source), 476
Articles and other short works
13. Basic format for an article or
other short work, 477
a. Print, 477
b. Web, 477
c. Database, 477
14. Article in a journal, 477
a. Print, 477
b. Online journal, 479
c. Database, 479
15. Article in a magazine, 479
a. Print (monthly), 479
b. Print (weekly), 479
c. Web, 481
d. Database, 481
Directory to MLA works cited models
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16. Article in a newspaper, 481
a. Print, 481
b. Web, 482
c. E-reader, 482
d. Database, 482
17. Abstract or executive
summary, 482
a. Abstract of an article, 482
b. Abstract of a paper, 482
c. Abstract of a
dissertation, 483
d. Executive summary, 483
18. Article with a title in its
title, 483
19. Editorial, 483
20. Unsigned article, 483
21. Letter to the editor, 483
22. Comment on an online
article, 484
23. Paper or presentation at a
conference, 484
24. Book review, 484
a. Print, 485
b. Web, 485
c. Database, 485
25. Film review or other review, 485
a. Print, 485
b. Web, 485
26. Performance review, 485
27. Interview, 486
a. Print, 486
b. Web, 486
c. Television or radio, 486
d. Personal, 486
28. Article in a reference work
(encyclopedia, dictionary,
wiki), 486
a. Print, 487
b. Web, 487
29. Letter, 487
a. Print, 487
b. Web, 487
c. Personal, 487
Books and other long works
30. Basic format for a book, 488
a. Print, 488
b. E-book, 488
c. Web, 488
d. Database, 488
31. Parts of a book, 490
a. Foreword, introduction,
preface, or afterword, 490
b. Chapter in a book, 490
32. Book with a title in its title, 490
33. Book in a language other than
English, 490
34. Entire anthology or
collection, 490
35. One selection from an
anthology or a collection, 491
36. Two or more selections from an
anthology or a collection, 491
37. Edition other than the fi rst, 491
38. Multivolume work, 493
39. Sacred text, 493
40. Book in a series, 494
41. Republished book, 494
42. Publisher’s imprint, 494
43. Pamphlet, brochure, or
newsletter, 494
44. Dissertation, 494
a. Published, 494
b. Unpublished, 494
45. Proceedings of a
conference, 495
46. Manuscript, 495
Web sites and parts of Web sites
47. An entire Web site, 495
a. Web site with author or
editor, 495
b. Web site with organization
as author, 496
c. Web site with no author, 496
d. Web site with no title, 496
48. Short work from a Web
site, 496
a. Short work with author, 496
b. Short work with no
author, 496
49. Long work from a Web site, 498
50. Entire blog, 498
51. Blog post or comment, 498
52. Academic course or department
home page, 498
Directory to MLA works cited models, continued
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434
Audio, visual, and
multimedia sources
53. Podcast, 499
a. Web, 499
b. Downloaded, 499
54. Film (DVD, BD, or other
format), 499
55. Supplementary material
accompanying a fi lm, 500
56. Video or audio from the
Web, 500
57. Video game, 501
58. Computer software
or app, 501
59. Television or radio episode or
program, 501
a. Broadcast, 501
b. Web, 502
c. Podcast, 502
60. Transcript, 503
61. Performance, 504
62. Lecture or public address, 504
a. Live, 504
b. Web, 504
63. Musical score, 504
64. Sound recording, 505
a. CD, 505
b. Downloaded, 505
65. Work of art, 505
a. Original, 506
b. Web, 506
c. Digital fi le, 506
d. Reproduction (print), 506
66. Photograph, 506
a. Original, 507
b. Web, 507
c. Digital fi le, 507
d. Reproduction (print), 507
67. Cartoon, 507
68. Advertisement, 507
69. Visual such as a table, a chart,
or another graphic, 507
70. Map, 508
71. Digital fi le, 509
Government and legal documents
72. Government document, 510
73. Testimony before a legislative
body, 510
74. Historical document, 510
75. Legislative act (law), 511
76. Court case, 511
Personal communication
and social media
77. E-mail message, 511
78. Text message, 511
79. Posting to an online discussion
list, 512
80. Facebook post or
comment, 512
81. Twitter post (tweet), 512
Directory to MLA works cited models, continued
Most English instructors and some humanities instructors will
ask you to document your sources with the Modern Language
Association (MLA) system of citations described in chapter 56.
When writing an MLA paper that is based on sources, you
face three main challenges: (1) supporting a thesis, (2) citing
your sources accurately and avoiding plagiarism, and (3) inte-
grating source material eff ectively.
Examples in chapters 53–55 are drawn from a student’s re-
search about the role of government in legislating food choices.
Sophie Harba’s research paper, in which she argues that state gov-
ernments have the responsibility to advance health policies and
to regulate healthy eating choices, appears on pages 517–25.
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53aForm a working thesis
NOTE: For advice on fi nding and evaluating sources and on man-
aging information in all your college courses, see chapters 50–52.
53 Supporting a thesis
Most research assignments ask you to form a thesis, or main idea,
and to support that thesis with well-organized evidence. (See
also 1c.)
53a Form a working thesis.
Once you have read a variety of sources, considered your issue
from diff erent perspectives, and chosen an entry point in the
research conversation (see 50b), you are ready to form a work-
ing thesis to focus your project: a one-sentence (or occasionally
a two-sentence) statement of your central idea. (See also 1c and
53d.) Th e working thesis expresses more than your opinion; it
expresses your informed, reasoned answer to your research
question — a question about which people might disagree. As
you learn more about your subject, your ideas may change, and
your working thesis will evolve, too. You can revise your thesis as
you draft .
In a research paper, your thesis will answer the central re-
search question that you pose (see 50b). Here, for example, are
student writer Sophie Harba’s research question and working
thesis.
RESEARCH QUESTION
Should the government enact laws to regulate healthy eating
choices?
WORKING THESIS
Government has the responsibility to regulate healthy eating choices
because of the rise of chronic diseases.
macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
53 Supporting a thesis
> Writing practice: Writing a working thesis for a research paper
> Exercises: 53–1 and 53–2
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53b436 Supporting a thesis
Aft er you have written a rough draft and perhaps done more
reading, you may decide to revise your thesis, as Harba did, to
give it a sharper and more specifi c focus.
REVISED THESIS
In the name of public health and safety, state governments have
the responsibility to advance health policies and to regulate healthy
eating choices, especially since doing so offers a potentially large
social benefit for a relatively small cost.
Th e thesis usually appears at the end of the introductory para-
graph. To read Sophie Harba’s thesis in her introduction, see page
517.
Testing your thesis
When draft ing and revising a thesis statement, make sure it answers
your central research question and that you can eff ectively develop
it with the sources available to you. Keeping the following guidelines
in mind will help you develop an eff ective thesis statement.
● A thesis should take a position that needs to be argued and sup-
ported. It should not be a fact or description.
● A thesis should match the scope of the research project. If your
thesis is too broad, explore a subtopic of your original topic. If
your thesis is too narrow, pose a research question that has more
than one answer.
● A thesis should be sharply focused. Avoid vague words such as
interesting or good. Use concrete language and make sure your
thesis lets readers know your position.
● A thesis should stand up to the “So what?” question. Ask yourself
why readers should care about your thesis. If your thesis matters
to you, your readers are more likely to fi nd your ideas engaging.
53b Organize your ideas.
Th e body of your paper will consist of evidence in support of
your thesis. It will be useful to sketch an informal plan that helps
you begin to organize your ideas. Sophie Harba, for example,
used this simple plan to outline the structure of her argument:
• Debates about the government’s role in regulating food have
a long history in the United States.
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53cUse sources to inform and support your argument
• Some experts argue that we should focus on the dangers of
unhealthy eating habits and on preventing chronic diseases
linked to diet.
• But food regulations are not a popular solution because
many Americans object to government restrictions on
personal choice.
• Food regulations designed to prevent chronic disease don’t
ask Americans to give up their freedom; they ask Americans
to see health as a matter of public good.
Aft er you have written a rough draft , a formal outline can help
you organize your argument (see 1d).
53c Use sources to inform and support your
argument.
Used thoughtfully, the source materials you have gathered will
make your argument more developed and convincing for read-
ers. Sources can play several diff erent roles to support your thesis
and develop your points.
Providing background information or context
You can use facts and statistics to support generalizations or to
establish the importance of your topic, as student writer Sophie
Harba does to demonstrate the large social benefi ts of laws
designed to prevent chronic disease.
To give just one example, Marion Nestle, New York University
professor of nutrition and public health, notes that “a 1% reduction
in intake of saturated fat across the population would prevent more
than 30,000 cases of coronary heart disease annually and save more
than a billion dollars in health care costs” (7).
Explaining terms or concepts
If readers are unfamiliar with a term or a concept, you will want
to defi ne or explain it; or if your argument depends on a term
with multiple meanings, you will want to explain your use of
the term. Quoting or paraphrasing a source can help you defi ne
terms and concepts in accessible language. Harba defi nes the
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53c438 Supporting a thesis
term refi ned grains as part of her claim that the typical American
diet is getting less healthy over time.
A diet that is low in nutritional value and high in sugars, fats, and
refined grains—grains that have been processed to increase shelf
life but that sacrifice fiber, iron, and B vitamins—can be damaging
over time (United States, Dept. of Agriculture and Dept. of Health
and Human Services 36).
Supporting your claims
As you develop your argument, back up your assertions with
facts, examples, and other evidence from your research. (See also
6h.) Harba, for example, uses factual evidence to make the point
that the typical American diet is damaging.
Michael Pollan, who has written extensively about Americans’ unhealthy
eating habits, cites the Centers for Disease Control in arguing that “fully
three quarters of US health care spending goes to treat chronic diseases,
most of which are preventable and linked to diet: heart disease, stroke,
type 2 diabetes, and at least a third of all cancers.”
Lending authority
Expert opinion can add weight and credibility to your argument.
(See also 6h.) But don’t rely on experts to make your points for you.
State your ideas in your own words and, when appropriate, cite the
judgment of an authority in the fi eld to support your position.
Debates surrounding the government’s role in regulating food have
a long history in the United States. According to Lorine Goodwin, a
food historian, nineteenth-century reformers who sought to purify
the food supply were called “fanatics” and “radicals” by critics who
argued that consumers should be free to buy and eat what they
want (77).
Anticipating and countering objections
Do not ignore sources that seem contrary to your position.
Instead, use them to give voice to opposing points of view and to
state potential objections to your argument before you counter
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53dDraft an introduction for your thesis
them (see 6i). By anticipating her readers’ argument that many
Americans oppose laws to limit what they eat, Sophie Harba cre-
ates an opportunity to counter that objection and build common
ground with her readers.
Why is the public largely resistant to laws that would limit
unhealthy choices or penalize those choices with so-called fat
taxes? Many consumers and civil rights advocates find such laws
to be an unreasonable restriction on individual freedom of choice.
As health policy experts Mello, Studdert, and Brennan point out,
opposition to food and beverage regulation is similar to the
opposition to early tobacco legislation: the public views the issue as
one of personal responsibility rather than one requiring government
intervention (2602). In other words, if a person eats unhealthy food
and becomes ill as a result, that is his or her choice. But those who
favor legislation claim that freedom of choice is a myth because of
the strong influence of food and beverage industry marketing on
consumers’ dietary habits.
53d Draft an introduction for your thesis.
In a research paper, readers are accustomed to seeing the thesis
statement — the paper’s main point — at the end of the fi rst or sec-
ond paragraph. Th e advantage of putting it in the fi rst paragraph
is that readers can easily recognize your position. Th e advantage
of delaying the thesis until the second paragraph is that you can
provide a fuller context for your main idea.
As you draft your introduction, you may revise your work-
ing thesis, either because you have refi ned your thinking or be-
cause new wording fi ts more smoothly into the context you have
created for it.
In addition to stating your thesis, an introduction should
hook readers (see 1e). For example, in your fi rst sentence or two
you might introduce readers to the research conversation by
connecting your topic to a recent news item or by pointing to
emerging trends in an academic discipline. Other strategies are
to pose a puzzling problem or to cite a startling statistic. Sophie
Harba begins her paper by engaging readers with her research
question: “Should the government enact laws to regulate healthy
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53e440 Supporting a thesis
eating choices?” She then highlights the research conversation
around the question before off ering her perspective in her thesis
(see p. 517).
53e Draft the paper in an appropriate voice.
A chatty, breezy voice is usually not appropriate in a research
paper, but neither is a vague, timid one.
TOO CHATTY
What’s up with these people who think food isn’t important and
don’t want the government in their kitchen? People who are
against food regulation seem so irrational and unreasonable.
MORE FORMAL
Why is the public largely resistant to laws that would limit
unhealthy choices or penalize those choices with so-called fat
taxes? Many consumers and civil rights advocates fi nd such laws
to be an unreasonable restriction on individual freedom of choice.
TOO VAGUE
It has been concluded that a majority of Americans don’t want the
government to restrict their food access.
MORE SPECIFIC
According to a nationwide poll, 75 percent of Americans are
opposed to laws that restrict or put limitations on access to
unhealthy foods (Neergaard and Agiesta).
TOO TIMID
I may not be an expert on food policy, but it seems to me that
eating unhealthy foods contributes to chronic disease and lots of
other problems.
MORE AUTHORITATIVE
Mounting scientifi c evidence points to unhealthy foods as a
signifi cant contributing factor to chronic disease, which we know
is straining our health care system, decreasing our quality of life,
and leading to unnecessary premature deaths.
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54 Citing sources; avoiding plagiarism
In a research paper, you will draw on the work of other writ-
ers, and you must document their contributions by citing your
sources. Sources are cited for two reasons:
1. to tell readers where your information comes from — so
that they can assess its reliability and, if interested, fi nd and
read the original source
2. to give credit to the writers from whom you have borrowed
words and ideas
Borrowing another writer’s language, sentence structures, or
ideas without proper acknowledgment is a form of dishonesty
known as plagiarism.
You must include a citation when you quote from a source,
when you summarize or paraphrase, and when you borrow facts
that are not common knowledge (see also 54b).
54a Understand how the MLA system works.
Most English professors and some humanities professors require
the MLA (Modern Language Association) system of in-text
citations. Here, briefl y, is how the MLA citation system usually
works. (See 56 for more details and model citations. See 57b for
a sample research paper with in-text citations and a works cited
list in MLA style.)
1. Th e source is introduced by a signal phrase that names its
author.
2. Th e material being cited is followed by a page number
in parentheses (unless the source is an unpaginated Web
source).
3. At the end of the paper, a list of works cited (arranged
alphabetically by authors’ last names) gives complete
publication information for the source.
441
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54b442 Citing sources; avoiding plagiarism
IN-TEXT CITATION
Bioethicist David Resnik emphasizes that such policies “open
the door to excessive government control over food, which could
restrict dietary choices, interfere with cultural, ethnic, and religious
traditions, and exacerbate socioeconomic inequalities” (31).
ENTRY IN THE LIST OF WORKS CITED
Resnik, David. “Trans Fat Bans and Human Freedom.” American
Journal of Bioethics 10.3 (2010): 27-32. Academic Search
Premier. Web. 17 Apr. 2013.
NOTE: When you use an MLA in-text citation, a period appears
aft er the parenthetical citation. Th is basic MLA format varies for
diff erent types of sources. For a detailed discussion and other
models, see 56.
54b Avoid plagiarism when quoting,
summarizing, and paraphrasing sources.
In a research paper, you draw on the work of other writers, and
you must document their contributions by citing your sources.
When you acknowledge your sources, you avoid plagiarism, a
serious academic off ense. (See also 51c.)
In general, these three acts are considered plagiarism:
(1) failing to cite quotations and borrowed ideas, (2) failing to
enclose borrowed language in quotation marks, and (3) failing to
put summaries and paraphrases in your own words. Defi nitions
of plagiarism may vary; it’s a good idea to fi nd out how your
school defi nes academic dishonesty.
Citing quotations and borrowed ideas
You must cite all direct quotations. You must also cite any ideas
borrowed from a source: summaries and paraphrases; statistics
and other specifi c facts; and visuals such as cartoons, graphs, and
diagrams.
Th e only exception is common knowledge — information
that your readers could easily fi nd in any number of general
sources. For example, a quick search could tell you that Joel Coen
directed Fargo in 1996 and that Emily Dickinson published only
a handful of her many poems during her lifetime.
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54b
Avoid plagiarism when quoting,
summarizing, and paraphrasing sources
As a rule, when you have seen information repeatedly in
your reading, you don’t need to cite it. However, when informa-
tion has appeared in only one or two sources, when it is highly
specifi c (as with statistics), or when it is controversial, you should
cite the source. If a topic is new to you and you are not sure what
is considered common knowledge or what is controversial, ask
your instructor, a reference librarian, or someone else with ex-
pertise. When in doubt, cite the source. (See 56 for details.)
Enclosing borrowed language in quotation marks
To indicate that you are using a source’s exact phrases or sen-
tences, you must enclose them in quotation marks unless they
have been set off from the text by indenting (see 55b). To omit
the quotation marks is to claim — falsely — that the language is
your own, as in the example below. Such an omission is plagia-
rism even if you have cited the source.
ORIGINAL SOURCE
Although these policies may have a positive impact on human
health, they open the door to excessive government control over
food, which could restrict dietary choices, interfere with cultural,
ethnic, and religious traditions, and exacerbate socioeconomic
inequalities.
—David Resnik, “Trans Fat Bans and Human Freedom,” p. 31
PLAGIARISM
Bioethicist David Resnik points out that policies to ban trans fats
may protect human health, but they open the door to excessive
government control over food, which could restrict dietary choices
and interfere with cultural, ethnic, and religious traditions (31).
BORROWED LANGUAGE IN QUOTATION MARKS
Bioethicist David Resnik points out that policies to ban trans fats
may protect human health, but they “open the door to excessive
government control over food, which could restrict dietary choices,
interfere with cultural, ethnic, and religious traditions, and
exacerbate socioeconomic inequalities” (31).
macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
54 Citing sources; avoiding plagiarism
> Exercises: 54–1 to 54–6
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54b444 Citing sources; avoiding plagiarism
Putting summaries and paraphrases in your own words
Summaries and paraphrases are written in your own words. A
summary condenses information from a source; a paraphrase
uses roughly the same number of words as the original source to
convey the information. When you summarize or paraphrase, it
is not enough to name the source; you must restate the source’s
meaning using your own language. (See also 51c and 55a.) Half-
copying the author’s sentences by using the author’s phrases in
your own sentences without quotation marks or by plugging
synonyms into the author’s sentence structure (sometimes called
patchwriting) is a form of plagiarism.
Th e fi rst paraphrase of the following source is plagiarized.
Even though the source is cited, too much of its language is bor-
rowed from the original. Th e highlighted strings of words have
been copied exactly (without quotation marks). In addition, the
writer has closely echoed the sentence structure of the source,
merely substituting some synonyms (interfere with lifestyle choices
for paternalistic intervention into lifestyle choices and decrease the
feeling of personal responsibility for enfeeble the notion of personal
responsibility).
ORIGINAL SOURCE
[A]ntiobesity laws encounter strong opposition from some
quarters on the grounds that they constitute paternalistic
intervention into lifestyle choices and enfeeble the notion of
personal responsibility. Such arguments echo those made in the
early days of tobacco regulation.
— Michelle M. Mello, David M. Studdert, and
Troyen A. Brennan, “Obesity — Th e New Frontier of
Public Health Law,” p. 2602
PLAGIARISM: UNACCEPTABLE BORROWING
Health policy experts Mello, Studdert, and Brennan argue that
antiobesity laws encounter strong opposition from some quarters
because they interfere with lifestyle choices and decrease the
feeling of personal responsibility. These arguments mirror those
made in the early days of tobacco regulation (2602).
To avoid plagiarizing an author’s language, resist the temp-
tation to look at the source while you are summarizing or
paraphrasing. Aft er you have read the passage you want to para-
phrase, set the source aside. Ask yourself, “What is the author’s
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55Integrating sources
meaning?” In your own words, state your understanding of the
author’s ideas.
Return to the source and check that you haven’t used the au-
thor’s language or sentence structure or misrepresented the au-
thor’s ideas. Following these steps will help you avoid plagiarizing
the source. When you fully understand another writer’s meaning,
you can more easily and accurately represent those ideas in your
own words.
ACCEPTABLE PARAPHRASE
As health policy experts Mello, Studdert, and Brennan point out,
opposition to food and beverage regulation is similar to the
opposition to early tobacco legislation: the public views the issue as
one of personal responsibility rather than one requiring government
intervention (2602).
55 Integrating sources
Your research paper draws on and borrows from the work of
others — your sources — to help you develop and support your
ideas. As you conduct research, you gather language and ideas
from your sources that you might want to use in your paper.
Section 54 shows you how to acknowledge those sources to avoid
plagiarism. Th is section will help you integrate those sources
seamlessly and eff ectively into your paper, so that readers under-
stand how your use of quotation, summary, and paraphrase con-
tributes to your argument.
As you integrate sources, you need to fi nd a balance between
the words of your sources and your own voice. Readers should al-
ways know who is speaking in your paper — you or your source.
You can use several strategies to integrate research sources into
your paper while maintaining your own voice.
• Use sources as concisely as possible so that your own
thinking and voice aren’t lost (55a and 55b).
• Use signal phrases and avoid dropping quotations into your
paper without indicating the boundary between your words
and the source’s words (55c).
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55a446 Integrating sources
• Discuss and analyze your sources to show readers how each
source supports your argument and how the sources relate
to one another (55d).
55a Summarize and paraphrase effectively.
In your academic writing, keep the emphasis on your ideas and
your language; use your own words to summarize and to para-
phrase your sources and to explain your points. Whether you
choose to summarize or paraphrase a source depends on your
purpose.
Summarizing
When you summarize a source, you express another writer’s
ideas in your own words, condensing the author’s key points and
using fewer words than the author. Th e following guidelines will
help you decide when summary is the most eff ective method for
integrating your source.
WHEN TO USE A SUMMARY
• When a passage is lengthy and you want to condense a
chapter to a short paragraph or a paragraph to a single
sentence
• When you want to state the source’s main ideas simply and
briefl y in your own words
• When you want to compare arguments or ideas from
various sources
• When you want to provide readers with an understanding
of the source’s argument before you respond to it or launch
your own
Paraphrasing
When you paraphrase, you express an author’s ideas in your
own words, using approximately the same number of words and
details as in the source. Th e following guidelines will help you
decide when paraphrase is the most eff ective method for inte-
grating your source.
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55bUse quotations effectively
WHEN TO USE A PARAPHRASE
• When the ideas and information are important but the
author’s exact words are not needed for accuracy or
emphasis
• When you want to restate the source’s ideas in your own
words
• When you need to simplify and explain a technical or
complicated source
• When you need to reorder a source’s ideas
Even though you use your own words to summarize and para-
phrase, the original idea remains the intellectual property of the
author, so you must include a citation. (See 54b.)
55b Use quotations effectively.
When you quote a source, you borrow some of the author’s exact
words and enclose them in quotation marks. Quotation marks
show your readers that both the idea and the words belong to the
author.
WHEN TO USE QUOTATIONS
• When language is especially vivid or expressive
• When exact wording is needed for technical accuracy
• When it is important to let the debaters of an issue explain
their positions in their own words
• When the words of an authority lend weight to an argument
• When the language of a source is the topic of your
discussion (as in an analysis or interpretation)
Limiting your use of quotations
Although it is tempting to insert many quotations in your paper
and to use your own words only for connecting passages, do not
quote excessively.
It is not always necessary to quote full sentences from a source.
To reduce your reliance on the words of others, you can oft en
macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
55 Integrating sources
> Exercises: 55–1 to 55–5
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55b Integrating sources448
integrate language from a source into your own sentence structure.
(For the use of signal phrases in integrating quotations, see 55c.)
Resnik acknowledges that his argument relies on the “slippery slope”
fallacy, but he insists that “social and political pressures” regarding
food regulations make his concerns valid (31).
Using the ellipsis mark and brackets
Two useful marks of punctuation, the ellipsis mark and brackets,
allow you to keep quoted material to a minimum and to integrate
it smoothly into your text.
The ellipsis mark To condense a quoted passage, you can use the
ellipsis mark (three periods, with spaces between) to indicate
that you have left words out. What remains must be grammati-
cally complete.
In Mississippi, legislators passed “a ban on bans—a law that
forbids . . . local restrictions on food or drink” (Conly A23).
Th e writer has omitted from the source the words municipalities
to place before local restrictions to condense the quoted material.
On the rare occasions when you want to leave out one or
more full sentences, use a period before the three ellipsis dots.
Legal scholars Gostin and Gostin argue that “individuals have
limited willpower to defer immediate gratification for longer-term
health benefits. . . . A person understands that high-fat foods
or a sedentary lifestyle will cause adverse health effects, or that
excessive spending or gambling will cause financial hardship, but it
is not always easy to refrain” (217).
Ordinarily, do not use an ellipsis mark at the beginning or
at the end of a quotation. Your readers will understand that the
quoted material is taken from a longer passage, so such marks are
not necessary. Th e only exception occurs when you have dropped
words at the end of the fi nal quoted sentence. In such cases, put
three ellipsis dots before the closing quotation mark and paren-
thetical reference.
USING SOURCES RESPONSIBLY: Make sure omissions and ellipsis
marks do not distort the meaning of your source.
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55bUse quotations effectively
Brackets Brackets allow you to insert your own words into
quoted material. You can insert words in brackets to clarify a con-
fusing reference or to keep a sentence grammatical in your con-
text. You also use brackets to indicate that you are changing a letter
from capital to lowercase (or vice versa) to fi t into your sentence.
Neergaard and Agiesta argue that “a new poll finds people are split
on how much the government should do to help [find solutions to
the national health crisis]—and most draw the line at attempts to
force healthier eating.”
In this example, the writer inserted words in brackets to clarify
the meaning of help.
To indicate an error such as a misspelling in a quotation, in-
sert [sic], including the brackets, right aft er the error.
“While Americans of every race, gender and ethnicity are affected
by this disease, diabetes disproportionately effects [sic] minority
populations.”
Do not overuse [sic] to call attention to errors in a source.
Sometimes paraphrasing is a better option. (See 39c.)
Setting off long quotations
When you quote more than four typed lines of prose or more
than three lines of poetry, set off the quotation by indenting it
one inch from the left margin.
Long quotations should be introduced by an informative
sentence, oft en followed by a colon. Quotation marks are unnec-
essary because the indented format tells readers that the passage
is taken word-for-word from the source.
In response to critics who claim that laws aimed at stopping
us from eating whatever we want are an assault on our freedom of
choice, Conly offers a persuasive counterargument:
[L]aws aren’t designed for each one of us individually.
Some of us can drive safely at 90 miles per hour, but we’re
bound by the same laws as the people who can’t, because
individual speeding laws aren’t practical. Giving up a little
liberty is something we agree to when we agree to live in
a democratic society that is governed by laws. (A23)
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55c Integrating sources450
Notice that at the end of an indented quotation the par-
enthetical citation goes outside the fi nal mark of punctuation.
(When a quotation is run into your text, the opposite is true. See
the sample citations on p. 448.)
55c Use signal phrases to integrate sources.
Whenever you include a paraphrase, summary, or direct quota-
tion of another writer’s work in your paper, prepare your read-
ers for it with introductory words called a signal phrase. A signal
phrase usually names the author of the source and oft en provides
some context for the source material.
Using signal phrases in MLA papers
To avoid monotony, try to vary both the language and the placement
of your signal phrases.
Model signal phrases
Michael Pollan, who has written extensively about Americans’ unhealthy
eating habits, argues that “. . .”
As health policy experts Mello, Studdert, and Brennan point out, “. . .”
Marion Nestle, New York University professor of nutrition and public
health, notes, “. . .”
Conly off ers a persuasive counterargument: “. . .”
Verbs in signal phrases
acknowledges comments endorses reasons
adds compares grants refutes
admits confi rms illustrates rejects
agrees contends implies reports
argues declares insists responds
asserts denies notes suggests
believes disputes observes thinks
claims emphasizes points out writes
When you write a signal phrase, choose a verb that is ap-
propriate for the way you are using the source. Are you providing
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55cUse signal phrases to integrate sources
background, explaining a concept, supporting a claim, lending
authority, or refuting a belief (see 53c)? Refer to the chart on page
450 for a list of verbs commonly used in signal phrases.
NOTE: MLA style calls for verbs in the present or present perfect
tense (argues, has argued) to introduce source material unless
you include a date that specifi es the time of the original author’s
writing.
Marking boundaries
Readers need to move from your words to the words of a source
without feeling a jolt. Avoid dropping quotations into the text
without warning. Instead, provide clear signal phrases, including
at least the author’s name, to indicate the boundary between your
words and the source’s words. (Th e signal phrase is highlighted in
the second example.)
DROPPED QUOTATION
Laws designed to prevent chronic disease by promoting
healthier food and beverage consumption also have potential
economic benefits. “[A] 1% reduction in the intake of saturated
fat across the population would prevent more than 30,000 cases of
coronary heart disease annually and would save more than a billion
dollars in health care costs” (Nestle 7).
QUOTATION WITH SIGNAL PHRASE
Laws designed to prevent chronic disease by promoting
healthier food and beverage consumption also have potential
economic benefits. Marion Nestle, New York University professor
of nutrition and public health, notes that “a 1% reduction in the
intake of saturated fat across the population would prevent more
than 30,000 cases of coronary heart disease annually and would
save more than a billion dollars in health care costs” (7).
Establishing authority
Th e fi rst time you mention a source, include in the signal phrase
the author’s title, credentials, or experience to help your readers
recognize the source’s authority and your own credibility as a
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55c Integrating sources452
responsible researcher who has located reliable sources. (Signal
phrases are highlighted in the next two examples.)
SOURCE WITH NO CREDENTIALS
Michael Pollan notes that “the Centers for Disease Control
estimates that fully three quarters of US health care spending goes
to treat chronic diseases, most of which are preventable and linked
to diet: heart disease, stroke, type 2 diabetes, and at least a third
of all cancers.”
SOURCE WITH CREDENTIALS
Journalist Michael Pollan, who has written extensively about
Americans’ unhealthy eating habits, notes that “the Centers for
Disease Control estimates that fully three quarters of US health
care spending goes to treat chronic diseases, most of which are
preventable and linked to diet: heart disease, stroke, type 2
diabetes, and at least a third of all cancers.”
Introducing summaries and paraphrases
Introduce most summaries and paraphrases with a signal phrase
that names the author and places the material in the context of
your argument. (See also 55c.) Readers will then understand that
everything between the signal phrase and the parenthetical cita-
tion summarizes or paraphrases the cited source.
Without the signal phrase (highlighted) in the following ex-
ample, readers might think that only the quotation at the end is
being cited, when in fact the whole paragraph is based on the
source.
To improve public health, advocates such as Bowdoin
College philosophy professor Sarah Conly contend that it is the
government’s duty to prevent people from making harmful choices
whenever feasible and whenever public benefits outweigh the costs.
In response to critics who claim that laws aimed at stopping us
from eating whatever we want are an assault on our freedom of
choice, Conly asserts that “laws aren’t designed for each one of us
individually” (A23).
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55cUse signal phrases to integrate sources
Th ere are times when a summary or a paraphrase does not
require a signal phrase naming the author. When the context
makes clear where the cited material begins, you may omit the
signal phrase and include the author’s last name in parentheses.
Using signal phrases with statistics and other facts
When you cite a statistic or another specifi c fact, a signal phrase
is oft en not necessary. Readers usually will understand that the
citation refers to the statistic or fact (not the whole paragraph).
Seventy-five percent of Americans are opposed to laws that restrict
or put limitations on access to unhealthy foods (Neergaard and
Agiesta).
Th ere is nothing wrong, however, with using signal phrases to
introduce statistics or other facts.
Putting source material in context
Readers should not have to guess why source material appears in
your paper. A signal phrase can help you make the connection
between your own ideas and those of another writer by clarifying
how the source will contribute to your paper (see 52a).
If you use another writer’s words, you must explain how they
relate to your argument. Quotations don’t speak for themselves;
you must support them by creating a context for readers. Embed
each quotation between sentences of your own: Introduce the
quotation with a signal phrase, and follow it with interpretive
comments that link the quotation to your paper’s argument (see
also 55d).
QUOTATION WITH EFFECTIVE CONTEXT
In response to critics who claim that laws aimed at stopping
us from eating whatever we want are an assault on our freedom of
choice, Conly offers a persuasive counterargument:
[L]aws aren’t designed for each one of us individually.
Some of us can drive safely at 90 miles per hour, but we’re
bound by the same laws as the people who can’t, because
individual speeding laws aren’t practical. Giving up a little
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55d Integrating sources454
liberty is something we agree to when we agree to live in
a democratic society that is governed by laws. (A23)
As Conly suggests, we need to change our either/or thinking
(either we have complete freedom of choice or we have government
regulations and lose our freedom) and instead need to see health as
a matter of public good, not individual liberty.
55d Synthesize sources.
When you synthesize multiple sources in a research paper, you
create a conversation about your research topic. Your argument
includes your active analysis and integration of ideas, not just a
series of quotations and paraphrases. Your synthesis will show
how your sources relate to one another; one source may support,
extend, or counter the ideas of another. Not every source has to
“speak” to another in a research paper, but readers should be able
to see how each one functions in your argument (see 52a).
Considering how sources relate to your argument
Before you integrate sources and show readers how they relate to
one another, consider how each one might contribute to your own
argument. As student writer Sophie Harba became more informed
about her research topic, she asked herself these questions: What
have I learned from my sources? Which sources might support my
ideas or illustrate the points I want to make? What counterargu-
ments do I need to address to strengthen my position? She annotated
a passage from one of her sources — a nonprofi t group’s assertion
that our choices about food are skewed by marketing messages.
STUDENT NOTES ON THE ORIGINAL SOURCE
useful factual information
Th e food and beverage industry spends approximately $2 billion per year
marketing to children. — “Facts on Junk Food”
could use this to counter the point about personal choice in Mello et al.
Placing sources in conversation
You can show readers how the ideas of one source relate to those
of another by connecting and analyzing the ideas in your own
voice. Aft er all, you’ve done the research and thought through the
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55dSynthesize sources
issues, so you should control the conversation. When you eff ec-
tively synthesize sources, the emphasis is still on your own writ-
ing; the thread of your argument should be easy to identify and
to understand, with or without your sources.
SAMPLE SYNTHESIS
Why is the public largely resistant to laws
that would limit unhealthy choices or penalize
those choices with so-called fat taxes? Many
consumers and civil rights advocates find such
laws to be an unreasonable restriction on
individual freedom of choice. As health policy
experts Mello, Studdert, and Brennan point out,
opposition to food and beverage regulation
is similar to the opposition to early tobacco
legislation: the public views the issue as one of
personal responsibility rather than one requiring
government intervention (2602). In other words,
if a person eats unhealthy food and becomes ill as
a result, that is his or her choice. But those who
favor legislation claim that freedom of choice is
a myth because of the strong influence of food
and beverage industry marketing on consumers’
dietary habits. According to one nonprofit health
advocacy group, food and beverage companies
spend roughly two billion dollars per year
marketing directly to children. As a result, kids
see about four thousand ads per year encouraging
them to consume unhealthy food and drinks
(“Facts on Junk Food”). As was the case with
antismoking laws passed in recent decades, taxes
and legal restrictions on junk food sales could
help to counter the strong marketing messages
that promote unhealthy products.
Student writer
Sophie Harba
sets up her
synthesis with
a question.
Student
writer
A signal
phrase
indicates how
the source
contributes
to Harba’s
argument and
shows that
the idea that
follows is not
her own.
Source 1
Harba
interprets a
paraphrased
source. Student
writer
Harba uses
a source to
support her
counter-
argument.
Source 2
Student
writer
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55d Integrating sources456
The United States has a history of state and
local public health laws that have successfully
promoted a particular behavior by punishing an
undesirable behavior. The decline in tobacco
use as a result of antismoking taxes and laws
is perhaps the most obvious example. Another
example is legislation requiring the use of seat
belts, which have significantly reduced fatalities
in car crashes. One government agency reports
that seat belt use saved an average of more than
fourteen thousand lives per year in the United
States between 2000 and 2010 (United States,
Dept. of Transportation, Natl. Highway Traffic
Safety Administration 231). Perhaps seat belt laws
have public support because the cost of wearing a
seat belt is small, especially when compared with
the benefit of saving fourteen thousand lives per
year.
In this synthesis, Harba uses her own analysis to shape the conver-
sation among her sources. She does not simply string quotations
together or allow them to overwhelm her writing. She guides her
readers through a conversation about a variety of laws that could
promote and have promoted public health. She fi nds points of
intersection among her sources, acknowledges the contributions of
others in the research conversation, and shows readers, in her own
voice, how the various sources support her argument.
When synthesizing sources, ask yourself the following
questions:
• How do your sources speak to your research question?
• How do your sources speak to each other?
• Have you varied the function of sources — to provide
background, to explain concepts, to lend authority, and to
anticipate counterarguments?
• Do you connect and analyze sources in your own voice?
• Is your own argument easy to identify and to understand,
with or without your sources?
Harba uses
a statistic to
extend the
argument and
follows the
source with a
closing thought
of her own.
Source 3
Student
writer
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55dSynthesize sources
Reviewing an MLA paper: Use of sources
Use of quotations
● Have you used quotation marks around quoted material (unless
it has been set off from the text)? (See 54b.)
● Have you checked that quoted language is word-for-word accu-
rate? If not, do ellipsis marks or brackets indicate the omissions
or changes? (See pp. 448–49.)
● Does a clear signal phrase (usually naming the author) prepare
readers for each quotation and for the purpose the quotation
serves? (See 55c.)
● Does a parenthetical citation follow each quotation? (See 56a.)
● Have you embedded each quotation between sentences of your
own to put the source in context? (See 55c.)
Use of summaries and paraphrases
● Are summaries and paraphrases free of plagiarized wording —
not copied or half-copied from the source? (See 54b.)
● Are summaries and paraphrases documented with parenthetical
citations? (See 54b and 56a.)
● Do readers know where the cited material begins? In other
words, does a signal phrase mark the boundary between your
words and the summary or paraphrase? Or does the context
alone make clear exactly what you are citing? (See 55c.)
● Does a signal phrase prepare readers for the purpose the sum-
mary or paraphrase has in your argument?
Use of statistics and other facts
● Are statistics and facts (other than common knowledge) docu-
mented with parenthetical citations? (See 54b and 56a.)
● If there is no signal phrase, will readers understand exactly
which facts are being cited? (See 55c.)
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56 Documenting sources in MLA style
In English and other humanities classes, you may be asked to use
the MLA (Modern Language Association) system for document-
ing sources, which is set forth in the MLA Handbook for Writers
of Research Papers, 7th ed. (New York: MLA, 2009).
MLA recommends in-text citations that refer readers to a list
of works cited. A typical in-text citation names the author of the
source, oft en in a signal phrase, and gives a page number in pa-
rentheses. At the end of the paper, the list of works cited provides
publication information about the source; the list is alphabetized
by authors’ last names (or by titles for works without authors).
Th ere is a direct connection between the in-text citation and the
alphabetical listing. In the following example, that connection is
highlighted.
IN-TEXT CITATION
Bioethicist David Resnik emphasizes that such policies, despite
their potential to make our society healthier, “open the door to
excessive government control over food, which could restrict dietary
choices, interfere with cultural, ethnic, and religious traditions, and
exacerbate socioeconomic inequalities” (31).
ENTRY IN THE LIST OF WORKS CITED
Resnik, David. “Trans Fat Bans and Human Freedom.” American
Journal of Bioethics 10.3 (2010): 27-32. Academic Search
Premier. Web. 17 Apr. 2013.
For a list of works cited that includes this entry, see page 524.
56a MLA in-text citations
MLA in-text citations are made with a combination of signal
phrases and parenthetical references. A signal phrase introduces
information taken from a source (a quotation, summary, para-
phrase, or fact); usually the signal phrase includes the author’s
name. Th e parenthetical reference comes aft er the cited material,
458
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56aMLA in-text citations
oft en at the end of the sentence. It includes at least a page num-
ber (except for unpaginated sources, such as those found on the
Web). In the models in 56a, the elements of the in-text citation
are highlighted.
IN-TEXT CITATION
Resnik acknowledges that his argument relies on “slippery slope”
thinking, but he insists that “social and political pressures”
regarding food regulation make his concerns valid (31).
Readers can look up the author’s last name in the alphabetized
list of works cited, where they will learn the work’s title and other
publication information. If readers decide to consult the source,
the page number will take them straight to the cited passage.
General guidelines for signal phrases and page numbers
Items 1–5 explain how the MLA system usually works for all
sources — in print, on the Web, in other media, and with or with-
out authors and page numbers. Items 6–27 give variations on the
basic guidelines.
■ 1. Author named in a signal phrase Ordinarily, introduce the
material being cited with a signal phrase that includes the author’s
name. In addition to preparing readers for the source, the signal
phrase allows you to keep the parenthetical citation brief.
According to Lorine Goodwin, a food historian, nineteenth-century
reformers who sought to purify the food supply were called “fanatics”
and “radicals” by critics who argued that consumers should be free to
buy and eat what they want (77).
Th e signal phrase — According to Lorine Goodwin — names the
author; the parenthetical citation gives the page number of the
book in which the quoted words may be found.
Notice that the period follows the parenthetical citation.
When a quotation ends with a question mark or an exclamation
point, leave the end punctuation inside the quotation mark and
add a period at the end of your sentence. (See the example at the
top of page 460.)
macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
56 Documenting sources in MLA style
> Exercises: 56–1 to 56–3
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MLA
56a460
MLA documentation style
Burgess asks a critical question: “How can we think differently
about food labeling?” (51).
■ 2. Author named in parentheses If you do not give the author’s
name in a signal phrase, put the last name in parentheses along
with the page number (if the source has one). Use no punctua-
tion between the name and the page number: (Moran 351).
According to a nationwide poll, 75% of Americans are opposed to
laws that restrict or put limitations on access to unhealthy foods
(Neergaard and Agiesta).
■ 3. Author unknown If a source has no author, the works cited
entry will begin with the title. In your in-text citation, either use
the complete title in a signal phrase or use a short form of the
title in parentheses. Titles of books and other long works are itali-
cized; titles of articles and other short works are put in quotation
marks (see also p. 514).
As a result, kids see nearly four thousand ads per year encouraging
them to eat unhealthy food and drinks (“Facts on Junk Food”).
NOTE: If the author is a corporation or a government agency, see
items 8 and 17 on pages 462 and 465, respectively.
■ 4. Page number unknown Do not include the page num-
ber if a work lacks page numbers, as is the case with many Web
sources. Do not use page numbers from a printout from a Web
site. (When the pages of a Web source are stable, as in PDF fi les,
supply a page number in your in-text citation.)
Michael Pollan points out that “cheap food” actually has “significant
costs—to the environment, to public health, to the public purse,
even to the culture.”
If a source has numbered paragraphs or sections, use “par.” (or
“pars.”) or “sec.” (or “secs.”) in the parentheses: (Smith, par. 4).
Notice that a comma follows the author’s name.
■ 5. One-page source If the source is one page long, MLA
allows (but does not require) you to omit the page number. It’s a
good idea to include the page number because without it readers
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MLA
56aMLA in-text citations
may not know where your citation ends or, worse, may not real-
ize that you have provided a citation at all.
NO PAGE NUMBER IN CITATION
Sarah Conly uses John Stuart Mill’s “harm principle” to argue
that citizens need their government to intervene to prevent them
from taking harmful actions—such as driving too fast or buying
unhealthy foods—out of ignorance of the harm they can do. But
government intervention may overstep in the case of food choices.
PAGE NUMBER IN CITATION
Sarah Conly uses John Stuart Mill’s “harm principle” to argue
that citizens need their government to intervene to prevent them
from taking harmful actions—such as driving too fast or buying
unhealthy foods—out of ignorance of the harm they can do (A23).
But government intervention may overstep in the case of food
choices.
Variations on the general guidelines
Th is section describes the MLA guidelines for handling a variety
of situations not covered in items 1–5.
■ 6. Two or three authors Name the authors in a signal phrase,
as in the following example, or include their last names in the
parenthetical reference: (Gostin and Gostin 214).
As legal scholars Gostin and Gostin explain, “[I]nterventions that
do not pose a truly significant burden on individual liberty” are
justified if they “go a long way towards safeguarding the health and
well-being of the populace” (214).
When you name three authors in the parentheses, separate the
names with commas: (Alton, Davies, and Rice 56).
■ 7. Four or more authors Name all authors or include only the
fi rst author’s name followed by “et al.” (Latin for “and others”).
Th e format you use should match the format in your works cited
entry (see item 3 on p. 472).
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56a462 MLA documentation style
The study was extended for two years, and only after results were
reviewed by an independent panel did the researchers publish their
findings (Blaine et al. 35).
■ 8. Organization as author When the author is a corporation
or an organization, name that author either in the signal phrase or
in the parentheses. (For a government agency as author, see item
17 on p. 465.)
The American Diabetes Association estimates that the cost of
diagnosed diabetes in the United States in 2012 was $245 billion.
In the list of works cited, the American Diabetes Association is
treated as the author and alphabetized under A. When you give
the organization name in parentheses, abbreviate common words
in the name: “Assn.,” “Dept.,” “Natl.,” “Soc.,” and so on.
The cost of diagnosed diabetes in the United States in 2012 was
estimated at $245 billion (Amer. Diabetes Assn.).
■ 9. Authors with the same last name If your list of works cited
includes works by two or more authors with the same last name,
include the author’s fi rst name in the signal phrase or fi rst initial
in the parentheses.
One approach to the problem is to introduce nutrition literacy at the
K-5 level in public schools (E. Chen 15).
■ 10. Two or more works by the same author Mention the title
of the work in the signal phrase or include a short version of the
title in the parentheses.
The American Diabetes Association tracks trends in diabetes across
age groups. In 2012, more than 200,000 children and adolescents
had diabetes (“Fast Facts”). Because of an expected dramatic
increase in diabetes in young people over the next forty years, the
association encourages “strategies for implementing childhood
obesity prevention programs and primary prevention programs for
youth at risk of developing type 2 diabetes” (“Number of Youth”).
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MLA
56aMLA in-text citations
Titles of articles and other short works are placed in quotation
marks; titles of books and other long works are italicized. (See
also p. 514.)
In the rare case when both the author’s name and a short title
must be given in parentheses, separate them with a comma.
Researchers have estimated that “the number of youth with type 2
[diabetes] could quadruple and the number with type 1 could triple”
by 2050, “with an increasing proportion of youth with diabetes from
minority populations” (Amer. Diabetes Assn., “Number of Youth”).
■ 11. Two or more works in one citation To cite more than one
source in the parentheses, list the authors (or titles) in alphabeti-
cal order and separate them with a semicolon.
The prevalence of early-onset Type 2 diabetes has been well
documented (Finn 68; Sharma 2037; Whitaker 118).
It may be less distracting to use an information note for multiple
citations (see 56c).
■ 12. Repeated citations from the same source When you
are writing about a single work, you do not need to include the
author’s name each time you quote from or paraphrase the work.
Aft er you mention the author’s name at the beginning of your
paper, you may include just the page number in your parentheti-
cal citations.
In Susan Glaspell’s short story “A Jury of Her Peers,” two women
accompany their husbands and a county attorney to an isolated
house where a farmer named John Wright has been choked to death
in his bed with a rope. The chief suspect is Wright’s wife, Minnie,
who is in jail awaiting trial. The sheriff’s wife, Mrs. Peters, has come
along to gather some personal items for Minnie, and Mrs. Hale has
joined her. Early in the story, Mrs. Hale sympathizes with Minnie and
objects to the way the male investigators are “snoopin’ round and
criticizin’ ” her kitchen (249). In contrast, Mrs. Peters shows respect
for the law, saying that the men are doing “no more than their duty”
(249).
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56a464 MLA documentation style
In a paper with multiple sources, if you are citing a source
more than once in a paragraph, you may omit the author’s name
aft er the fi rst mention in the paragraph as long as it is clear that
you are still referring to the same source.
■ 13. Encyclopedia or dictionary entry When an encyclopedia
or a dictionary entry does not have an author, it will be alphabet-
ized in the list of works cited under the word or entry that you
consulted (see item 28 on p. 486). Either in your text or in your
parenthetical citation, mention the word or entry. No page number
is required because readers can easily look up the word or entry.
The word crocodile has a complex etymology (“Crocodile”).
■ 14. Multivolume work If your paper cites more than one vol-
ume of a multivolume work, indicate in the parentheses the vol-
ume you are referring to, followed by a colon and the page number.
In his studies of gifted children, Terman describes a pattern of
accelerated language acquisition (2: 279).
If you cite only one volume of a multivolume work, you will in-
clude the volume number in the list of works cited and will not
need to include it in the parentheses. (See the second example in
item 38 on p. 493.)
■ 15. Entire work Use the author’s name in a signal phrase or
a parenthetical citation. Th ere is no need to use a page number.
Pollan explores the issues surrounding food production and
consumption from a political angle.
■ 16. Selection in an anthology Put the name of the author
of the selection (not the editor of the anthology) in the signal
phrase or the parentheses.
In “Love Is a Fallacy,” the narrator’s logical teachings disintegrate
when Polly declares that she should date Petey because “[h]e’s got a
raccoon coat” (Shulman 391).
In the list of works cited, the work is alphabetized under Shulman,
the author of the story, not under the name of the editor of the
anthology. (See item 35 on p. 491.)
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56aMLA in-text citations
Shulman, Max. “Love Is a Fallacy.” Current Issues and Enduring
Questions. Ed. Sylvan Barnet and Hugo Bedau. 9th ed. Boston:
Bedford, 2011. 383-91. Print.
■ 17. Government document When a government agency is
the author, you will alphabetize it in the list of works cited under
the name of the government, such as United States or Great
Britain (see item 72 on p. 510). For this reason, you must name
the government as well as the agency in your in-text citation.
One government agency reports that seat belt use saved an average
of more than fourteen thousand lives per year in the United States
between 2000 and 2010 (United States, Dept. of Transportation,
Natl. Highway Traffic Safety Administration 231).
■ 18. Historical document For a historical document, such as the
United States Constitution or the Canadian Charter of Rights and
Freedoms, provide the document title, neither italicized nor in quota-
tion marks, along with relevant article and section numbers. In paren-
thetical citations, use common abbreviations such as “art.” and “sec.”
and abbreviations of well-known titles: (US Const., art. 1, sec. 2).
While the United States Constitution provides for the formation of
new states (art. 4, sec. 3), it does not explicitly allow or prohibit
the secession of states.
Cite other historical documents as you would any other work, by
the fi rst element in the works cited entry (see item 74 on p. 510).
■ 19. Legal source For a legislative act (law) or court case,
name the act or case either in a signal phrase or in parentheses.
Italicize the names of cases but not the names of acts. (See also
items 75 and 76 on p. 511.)
The Jones Act of 1917 granted US citizenship to Puerto Ricans.
In 1857, Chief Justice Roger B. Taney declared in Dred Scott v.
Sandford that blacks, whether enslaved or free, could not be citizens
of the United States.
■ 20. Visual such as a table, a chart, or another graphic To cite
a visual that has a fi gure number in the source, use the abbreviation
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56a466 MLA documentation style
“fi g.” and the number in place of a page number in your paren-
thetical citation: (Manning, fi g. 4). If you refer to the fi gure in your
text, spell out the word “fi gure” in the text.
To cite a visual that does not have a fi gure number in a print
source, use the visual’s title or a description in your text and cite
the author and page number as for any other source.
For a visual not in a print source, identify the visual in your
text and then in parentheses use the fi rst element in the works
cited entry: the artist’s or photographer’s name or the title of the
work. (See items 65–70 on pp. 505–8.)
Photographs such as Woman Aircraft Worker (Bransby) and Women
Welders (Parks) demonstrate the US government’s attempt to
document the contributions of women during World War II.
■ 21. Personal communication and social media Cite personal
letters, personal interviews, e-mail messages, and social media
posts by the name listed in the works cited entry, as you would
for any other source. Identify the type of source in your text if
you feel it is necessary for clarity. (See items 27d, 29c, and 77–81
in section 56b.)
■ 22. Web source Your in-text citation for a source from the
Web should follow the same guidelines as for other sources. If
the source lacks page numbers but has numbered paragraphs,
sections, or divisions, use those numbers with the appropriate
abbreviation in your in-text citation: “par.,” “sec.,” “ch.,” “pt.,” and
so on. Do not add such numbers if the source itself does not use
them; simply give the author or title in your in-text citation.
Julian Hawthorne points out profound differences between his father
and Ralph Waldo Emerson but concludes that, in their lives and their
writing, “together they met the needs of nearly all that is worthy in
human nature” (ch. 4).
■ 23. Indirect source (source quoted in another source) When
a writer’s or a speaker’s quoted words appear in a source writ-
ten by someone else, begin the parenthetical citation with the
abbreviation “qtd. in.” (See also item 12 on p. 476.) In the fol-
lowing example, Gostin and Gostin are the authors of the source
given in the works cited list; the source contains a quotation by
Beauchamp.
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56aMLA in-text citations
Public health researcher Dan Beauchamp has said that “public health
practices are ‘communal in nature, and concerned with the well-
being of the community as a whole and not just the well-being of
any particular person’ ” (qtd. in Gostin and Gostin 217).
Literary works and sacred texts
Literary works and sacred texts are usually available in a vari-
ety of editions. Your list of works cited will specify which edition
you are using, and your in-text citation will usually consist of a
page number from the edition you consulted (see item 24). When
possible, give enough information — such as book parts, play
divisions, or line numbers — so that readers can locate the cited
passage in any edition of the work (see items 25–27).
■ 24. Literary work without parts or line numbers Many liter-
ary works, such as most short stories and many novels and plays,
do not have parts or line numbers. In such cases, simply cite the
page number.
At the end of Kate Chopin’s “The Story of an Hour,” Mrs. Mallard
drops dead upon learning that her husband is alive. In the final
irony of the story, doctors report that she has died of a “joy that
kills” (25).
■ 25. Verse play or poem For verse plays, give act, scene, and
line numbers that can be located in any edition of the work. Use
arabic numerals and separate the numbers with periods.
In Shakespeare’s King Lear, Gloucester, blinded for suspected
treason, learns a profound lesson from his tragic experience: “A man
may see how this world goes / with no eyes” (4.2.148-49).
For a poem, cite the part, stanza, and line numbers, if it has
them, separated by periods.
The Green Knight claims to approach King Arthur’s court “because
the praise of you, prince, is puffed so high, / And your manor and
your men are considered so magnificent” (1.12.258-59).
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56b468 MLA documentation style
For poems that are not divided into numbered parts or stanzas,
use line numbers. For a fi rst reference, use the word “lines”: (lines
5–8). Th ereaft er use just the numbers: (12–13).
■ 26. Novel with numbered divisions When a novel has num-
bered divisions, put the page number fi rst, followed by a semico-
lon, and then the book, part, or chapter in which the passage may
be found. Use abbreviations such as “bk.,” “pt.,” and “ch.”
One of Kingsolver’s narrators, teenager Rachel, pushes her
vocabulary beyond its limits. For example, Rachel complains that
being forced to live in the Congo with her missionary family is “a
sheer tapestry of justice” because her chances of finding a boyfriend
are “dull and void” (117; bk. 2, ch. 10).
■ 27. Sacred text When citing a sacred text such as the Bible
or the Qur’an, name the edition you are using in your works cited
entry (see item 39 on p. 493). In your parenthetical citation, give the
book, chapter, and verse (or their equivalent), separated with peri-
ods. Common abbreviations for books of the Bible are acceptable.
Consider the words of Solomon: “If your enemy is hungry, give him
bread to eat; and if he is thirsty, give him water to drink” (Oxford
Annotated Bible, Prov. 25.21).
Th e title of a sacred work is italicized when it refers to a specifi c
edition of the work, as in the preceding example. If you refer to the
book in a general sense in your text, neither italicize it nor put it in
quotation marks (see also the note on p. 344 in section 42a).
The Bible and the Qur’an provide allegories that help readers
understand how to lead a moral life.
56b MLA list of works cited
Th e elements you will need for the works cited list will diff er
slightly for some sources, but the main principles apply to all
sources, whether in print or from the Web: You should identify
an author, a creator, or a producer whenever possible; give a title;
provide the date on which the source was produced; and indicate
the medium of delivery. Some sources will require page numbers;
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56bMLA list of works cited
some will require a sponsoring person or organization; and some
will require other identifying information.
Section 56b provides details for how to cite many of the
sources you are likely to encounter. It also provides hints for what
you can do when a source does not match one of the models ex-
actly. When you cite sources, your goals are to show that your
sources are reliable and relevant, to provide readers with enough
information to fi nd sources easily, and to provide that informa-
tion consistently according to MLA conventions.
▶ Directory to MLA works cited models, page 432
▶ General guidelines for the works cited list, page 470
General guidelines for listing authors
Th e formatting of authors’ names in items 1–12 applies to all
sources — books, articles, Web sites — in print, on the Web, or in
other media. For more models of specifi c source types, see items
13–81.
■ 1. Single author
author: last city of
name fi rst title (book) publication publisher date
Bowker, Gordon. James Joyce: A New Biography. New York: Farrar, 2012.
medium
Print.
■ 2. Two or three authors
fi rst author: second author: city of
last name fi rst in normal order title (book) publication
Gourevitch, Philip, and Errol Morris. Standard Operating Procedure. New York:
publisher date medium
Penguin, 2008. Print.
fi rst author: other authors:
last name fi rst in normal order title (newspaper article)
Farmer, John, John Azzarello, and Miles Kara. “Real Heroes, Fake Stories.”
date
newspaper title of publication page medium
New York Times 14 Sept. 2008: WK10. Print.
macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
56 Documenting sources in MLA style
> Exercises: 56–4 to 56–8
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56b470 MLA documentation style
General guidelines for the works cited list
In the list of works cited, include only sources that you have quoted,
summarized, or paraphrased in your paper.
Authors and titles
● Arrange the list alphabetically by authors’ last names or by titles
for works with no authors.
● For the fi rst author, place the last name fi rst, a comma, and the
fi rst name. For subsequent authors, put their names in normal
order (fi rst name followed by last name).
● In titles of works, capitalize all words except articles (a, an, the),
prepositions (at, between, from, under, and so on), coordinat-
ing conjunctions (and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet), and the to in
infi nitives — unless the word is fi rst or last in the title or subtitle.
● Use quotation marks for titles of articles and other short works.
● Italicize titles of books and other long works.
Place of publication and publisher
● For sources that require a place of publication, give the city of
publication without a state or country name.
● Shorten publishers’ names, usually to the fi rst principal word
(“Wiley” for “John Wiley and Sons,” for instance). For university
publishers, use “U” and “P” for “University” and “Press”: UP of
Florida.
● If a work has two publishers, give the city and name for both (in
the order listed on the title page), separated with a semicolon.
● List a sponsor or a publisher for most sources from the Web.
● If a source has no sponsor or publisher, use “N.p.” (for “No
publisher”).
● For a work found in a database, give the title of the database but
not a sponsor.
Dates
● For a print source, give the most recent date on the title page or
the copyright page.
● For a Web source, use the copyright date or the most recent update.
● For books and for most journals, use the year of publication.
● For monthly magazines, use the month and the year. Abbreviate
all months except May, June, and July.
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56bMLA list of works cited
● For weekly magazines and newspapers, give the day, month, and
year, with no commas (18 Feb. 2013). Abbreviate all months except
May, June, and July.
● If there is no date of publication or update, use “n.d.” (for “no date”).
● For sources found on the Web or in a database, give your date of
access.
Page numbers
● For most articles and other short works, give page numbers
when they are available.
● If page numbers are not available (as is oft en the case with
sources on the Web), use “n. pag.” (for “no pagination”) in place
of page numbers.
● Do not use the page numbers from a printout of a source.
● If an article does not appear on consecutive pages, give the num-
ber of the fi rst page followed by a plus sign: 35+.
Medium
● Include the medium in which a work was published, produced,
or delivered.
● Capitalize the medium, but do not italicize it or put it in quota-
tion marks.
● Typical designations for the medium are “Print,” “Web,” “Radio,”
“Television,” “CD,” “Film,” “DVD,” “Photograph,” “Performance,”
“Lecture,” “MP3 fi le,” and “PDF fi le.”
URLs
● MLA guidelines assume that readers can locate most Web
sources by entering the author, title, or other identifying infor-
mation in a search engine or a database. Consequently, MLA
does not require a URL in citations for Web sources.
● If your instructor requires a URL, see the note at the end of item 47.
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56b472 MLA documentation style
■ 3. Four or more authors Either name all the authors or name
the fi rst author followed by “et al.” (Latin for “and others”). In an
in-text citation, use the same form for the authors’ names as you
use in the works cited entry. See item 7 on page 461.
Leech, Geoffrey, Marianne Hundt, Christian Mair, and Nicholas Smith.
Change in Contemporary English: A Grammatical Study. Cambridge:
Cambridge UP, 2009. Print.
■ 4. Organization or company as author
National Geographic. National Geographic Visual Atlas of the World.
Washington: Natl. Geographic Soc., 2008. Print.
Your in-text citation also should treat the organization as the
author (see item 8 on p. 462).
■ 5. No author listed
a. Article or other short work
“Policing Ohio’s Online Courses.” Editorial. Plain Dealer [Cleveland]
9 Oct. 2012: A5. Print.
“Chapter 2: What Can Be Patented?” Inventor’s Handbook. Lemelson-MIT.
Massachusetts Inst. of Technology, n.d. Web. 31 Oct. 2013.
fi rst author:
last name fi rst
other authors:
in normal order
title (book)
city of
publication
publisher year medium
author: organization
name, not abbreviated title (book)
city of
publication
publisher, with common
abbreviations date medium
article title label
newspaper title
(city in brackets)
date page(s) medium
article title title of long work
title of
Web site
sponsor
no
date medium
date of
access
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56bMLA list of works cited
b. Television program
“Fast Times at West Philly High.” Frontline. Prod. Debbie Morton. PBS.
KTWU, Topeka, 4 Dec. 2012. Television.
c. Book, entire Web site, or other long work
Women of Protest: Photographs from the Records of the National Woman’s Party.
Lib. of Cong., n.d. Web. 29 Sept. 2013.
TIP: Oft en the author’s name is available but is not easy to fi nd.
It may appear at the end of the page, in tiny print, or on another
page of the site, such as the home page. Also, an organization or a
government may be the author (see items 4 and 72).
■ 6. Two or more works by the same author First alphabetize
the works by title (ignoring the article A, An, or Th e at the begin-
ning of a title). Use the author’s name for the fi rst entry; for subse-
quent entries, use three hyphens and a period. Th e three hyphens
must stand for exactly the same name as in the fi rst entry.
García, Cristina. Dreams of Significant Girls. New York: Simon, 2011. Print.
—. The Lady Matador’s Hotel. New York: Scribner, 2010. Print.
■ 7. Two or more works by the same group of authors To list
multiple works by the same group of two or more authors, alpha-
betize the works by title (ignoring the article A, An, or Th e at the
beginning of a title). Use all authors’ names for the fi rst entry;
begin subsequent entries with three hyphens and a period. Th e
three hyphens must stand for all the authors’ names.
Agha, Hussein, and Robert Malley. “The Arab Counterrevolution.” New
York Review of Books. NYREV, 29 Sept. 2011. Web. 12 Dec. 2013.
—. “This Is Not a Revolution.” New York Review of Books. NYREV, 8 Nov.
2012. Web. 12 Dec. 2013.
■ 8. Editor or translator Begin with the editor’s or translator’s
name. For one editor, use “ed.” aft er the name; for more than one,
use “eds.” Use “trans.” for one or more translators. (See p. 474.)
episode title
title of
TV show producer network
local
station, city
date of
broadcast medium
title (Web site)
sponsor
no
date medium
date of
access
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56b474 MLA documentation style
Jones, Russell M., and John H. Swanson, eds. Dear Helen: Wartime Letters
from a Londoner to Her American Pen Pal. Columbia: U of Missouri P,
2009. Print.
■ 9. Author with editor or translator Begin with the name of
the author. Place the editor’s or translator’s name aft er the title.
“Ed.” or “Trans.” means “Edited by” or “Translated by,” so it is the
same for one or more editors or translators.
Scirocco, Alfonso. Garibaldi: Citizen of the World. Trans. Allan Cameron.
Princeton: Princeton UP, 2007. Print.
fi rst editor:
last name fi rst
other editor(s):
in normal order title (book)
city of
publication publisher
year medium
author:
last name fi rst title (book)
translator:
in normal order
city of
publication publisher year medium
How to answer the basic question
“Who is the author?”
PROBLEM: Sometimes when you need to cite a source, it’s not clear who
the author is. Th is is especially true for sources on the Web or other
nonprint sources, which may have been created by one person and
uploaded by a diff erent person or an organization. Whom do you cite as
the author in such a case? How do you determine who is the author?
EXAMPLE: Th e video “Surfi ng the Web on the Job” (see below) was
uploaded to YouTube by CBSNewsOnline. Is the person or organization
who uploads the video the author of the video? Not necessarily.
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56bMLA list of works cited
■ 10. Graphic narrative or other illustrated work If a work
has both an author and an illustrator, the order in your citation
will depend on which of those persons you emphasize in your
paper. (See also p. 476.)
a. Author fi rst If you emphasize the author’s work, begin with
the author’s name. Aft er the title, use the abbreviation “Illus.”
(meaning “Illustrated by”) followed by the illustrator’s name.
Moore, Alan. V for Vendetta. Illus. David Lloyd. New York: Vertigo-DC
Comics, 2008. Print.
b. Illustrator fi rst If you emphasize the illustrator, begin your
citation with the illustrator’s name, followed by the abbreviation
“illus.” (meaning “illustrator”). Aft er the title of the work, put the
author’s name, preceded by “By.”
Weaver, Dustin, illus. The Tenth Circle. By Jodi Picoult. New York:
Washington Square, 2006. Print.
STRATEGY: Aft er you view or listen to the source a few times, ask
yourself whether you can tell who is chiefl y responsible for creating
the content in the source. It could be an organization. It could be an
identifi able individual. Th is video consists entirely of reporting by Daniel
Sieberg, so in this case the author is Sieberg.
CITATION: To cite the source, you would use the basic MLA guidelines
for a video found on the Web (item 56).
Sieberg, Daniel. “Surfing the Web on the Job.” YouTube. YouTube,
12 Nov. 2009. Web. 26 Nov. 2012.
If you want to include the person or organization who uploaded the
video, you can add it as supplementary information at the end.
Sieberg, Daniel. “Surfing the Web on the Job.” YouTube. YouTube,
12 Nov. 2009. Web. 26 Nov. 2012. Uploaded by CBSNewsOnline.
author:
last name fi rst title of video
Web site
title sponsor
update date medium date of access
author:
last name fi rst title of video
Web site
title sponsor
update date medium date of access
supplementary
information
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56b476 MLA documentation style
■ 10. Graphic narrative or other illustrated work (cont.)
c. Author and illustrator the same person If the illustrator and the
author are the same person, cite the work as you would any other
work with one author (not using the label “illus.” or “by”).
Smith, Lane. Abe Lincoln’s Dream. New York: Roaring Brook, 2012. Print.
■ 11. Author using a pseudonym (pen name) or screen name Give
the author’s name as it appears in the source (the pseudonym),
followed by the author’s real name, if available, in brackets. (For
screen names in social media, see items 80 and 81 on p. 512.)
Grammar Girl [Mignon Fogarty]. “When Are Double Words OK?” Grammar
Girl: Quick and Dirty Tips for Better Writing. Macmillan, 28 Sept.
2012. Web. 10 Nov. 2013.
Pauline. Comment. “Is This the End?” By James Atlas. New York Times.
New York Times, 25 Nov. 2012. Web. 29 Nov. 2013.
■ 12. Author quoted by another author (indirect source) If one
of your sources uses a quotation from another source and you’d
like to use the quotation, provide a works cited entry for the
source in which you found the quotation. In your in-text citation,
indicate that the quoted words appear in the source (see item 23
on p. 466). In the following examples, Belmaker is the source in
the works cited list; Townson is quoted in Belmaker.
SOURCE (BELMAKER) QUOTING ANOTHER SOURCE (TOWNSON)
Peter Townson, a journalist working with the DOHA Center for
Press Freedom in Qatar, says there is one obvious reason that
some countries in the Middle East have embraced social media
so heartily. “It’s kind of the preferred way for people to get news,
because they know there’s no self-censorship involved,” Townson
said in a phone interview.
WORKS CITED ENTRY
Belmaker, Genevieve. “Five Ways Journalists Can Use Social Media for
On-the-Ground Reporting in the Middle East.” Poynter. Poynter
Inst., 20 Nov. 2012. Web. 24 Nov. 2013.
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477
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56bMLA list of works cited
IN-TEXT CITATION
Peter Townson points out that social media in the Middle East are
“kind of the preferred way for people to get news, because they
know there’s no self-censorship involved” (qtd. in Belmaker).
Articles and other short works
▶ Citation at a glance: Article in a journal, page 478
▶ Citation at a glance: Article from a database, page 480
■ 13. Basic format for an article or other short work
a. Print
Ferris, William R. “Southern Literature: A Blending of Oral, Visual, and
Musical Voices.” Daedalus 141.1 (2012): 139-53. Print.
b. Web
Sonderman, Jeff. “Survey: Public Prefers News from Professional
Journalists.” Poynter. Poynter Inst., 29 Aug. 2012. Web. 31 Oct. 2013.
c. Database
Emanuel, Lynn Collins. “The Noirs: Collecting the Evidence.” American Poetry
Review 41.6 (2012): 6. General OneFile. Web. 14 Dec. 2013.
■ 14. Article in a journal
a. Print
Fuqua, Amy. “ ‘The Furrow of His Brow’: Providence and Pragmatism in Toni
Morrison’s Paradise.” Midwest Quarterly 54.1 (2012): 38-52. Print.
author:
last name fi rst article title
journal
title
volume,
issue year page(s) medium
author:
last name fi rst title of short work
title of
Web site sponsor
update
date medium
date of
access
author:
last name fi rst article title journal title
volume,
issue year page(s)
database
title medium
date of
access
author: last
name fi rst article title
journal title
volume,
issue year page(s) medium
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478
Citation at a glance
Article in a journal (MLA)
To cite an article in a print journal in MLA style, include the following
elements:
1 Author(s) of article
2 Title and subtitle of article
3 Title of journal
4 Volume and issue numbers
(if any)
5 Year of publication
6 Page number(s) of article
7 Medium
3
1
1
2
2
6
4 5
FIRST
PAGE
OF
ARTICLE
JOURNAL TABLE OF CONTENTS
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WORKS CITED ENTRY FOR AN ARTICLE IN A PRINT JOURNAL
Turner, Joseph. “Sir Gawain and the Green Knight and the History of
Medieval Rhetoric.” Rhetoric Review 31.4 (2012): 371-88. Print.
For more on citing articles in MLA style, see items 13–16.
1 2
3 4 5 6 7
479
■ 14. Article in a journal (cont.)
b. Online journal
Cáceres, Sigfrido Burgos. “Towards Concert in Africa: Seeking Progress and
Power through Cohesion and Unity.” African Studies Quarterly 12.4
(2011): 59-73. Web. 31 Oct. 2013.
c. Database
Maier, Jessica. “A ‘True Likeness’: The Renaissance City Portrait.”
Renaissance Quarterly 65.3 (2012): 711-52. JSTOR. Web. 30 Aug. 2013.
■ 15. Article in a magazine
a. Print (monthly)
Bryan, Christy. “Ivory Worship.” National Geographic Oct. 2012: 28-61.
Print.
b. Print (weekly)
Vick, Karl. “The Stateless Statesman.” Time 15 Oct. 2012: 32-37. Print.
author:
last name fi rst article title
journal title
volume,
issue
year page(s) medium
date of
access
author:
last name fi rst article title
journal title
volume,
issue year page(s)
database
title medium
date of
access
author:
last name fi rst article title magazine title date page(s)
medium
author:
last name fi rst article title
magazine
title date page(s) medium
17_HAC_01131_PT10_431_526.indd 47917_HAC_01131_PT10_431_526.indd 479 01/09/15 5:21 PM01/09/15 5:21 PM
Citation at a glance
Article from a database (MLA)
To cite an article from a database in MLA style, include the following
elements:
1 Author(s) of article
2 Title and subtitle of article
3 Title of journal, magazine, or
newspaper
4 Volume and issue numbers
(for journal)
5 Date or year of publication
6 Page number(s) of article
(“n. pag.” if none)
7 Name of database
8 Medium
9 Date of access
7
3
1
2
65
DATABASE RECORD
4
480
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481
WORKS CITED ENTRY FOR AN ARTICLE FROM A DATABASE
Weinberger, Stephen. “From Censors to Critics: Representing ‘the People.’ ”
Film & History 42.2 (2012): 5-22. OmniFile Full Text Select. Web.
12 Jan. 2014.
For more on citing articles from a database in MLA style, see items 13–16.
1 2
3 4 5 6 7 8
9
■ 15. Article in a magazine (cont.)
c. Web
Leonard, Andrew. “The Surveillance State High School.” Salon. Salon Media Group,
27 Nov. 2012. Web. 4 Dec. 2013.
d. Database
Rosenbaum, Ron. “The Last Renaissance Man.” Smithsonian Nov. 2012:
39-44. OmniFile Full Text Select. Web. 12 Jan. 2014.
■ 16. Article in a newspaper If the city of publication is not
obvious from the title of the newspaper, include the city in
brackets aft er the newspaper title (see item 5a).
a. Print If sections are numbered, include the section number
between the date and the page number: 14 Sept. 2013, sec. 2: 21.
Sherry, Allison. “Volunteers’ Personal Touch Turns High-Tech Data into Votes.”
Denver Post 30 Oct. 2012: 1A+. Print.
author:
last name fi rst article title
Web site
title sponsor
date medium
date of
access
author:
last name fi rst article title
magazine
title date
page(s) database title medium
date of
access
author:
last name fi rst article title
newspaper
title date page(s) medium
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MLA
56b482 MLA documentation style
b. Web
Amos, Adria. “STEM Teacher Uses ‘Flip’ Method to Put Classroom Focus on
Students, Not Educator.” Knoxnews.com. Knoxville News Sentinel,
1 Oct. 2012. Web. 29 Oct. 2013.
c. E-reader
“Church Votes No on Female Bishops.” Boston Globe 21 Nov. 2012: A3. E-reader.
d. Database
“The Road toward Peace.” Editorial. New York Times 15 Feb. 1945: 18.
ProQuest Historical Newspapers: The New York Times. Web.
18 June 2013.
■ 17. Abstract or executive summary Include the label
“Abstract” or “Executive summary,” neither italicized nor in quota-
tion marks, aft er the title of the work.
a. Abstract of an article
Bottomore, Stephen. “The Romance of the Cinematograph.” Abstract. Film
History 24.3 (2012): 341-44. General OneFile. Web. 25 Oct. 2013.
b. Abstract of a paper
Dixon, Rosemary, Dmitri Iourinski, and Kyle B. Roberts. “The
Opportunities and Challenges of Virtual Library Systems: A Case
Study.” Abstract. Paper presented at the 2011 Chicago Colloquium
on Digital Humanities and Computer Science. U of Chicago. 20 Nov.
2011. Web. 28 Nov. 2013.
author: last
name fi rst article title
Web site
title sponsor
date medium
date of
access
article title
newspaper
title date page(s) medium
article title label newspaper title date page(s)
database title medium
date of
access
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483
MLA
56bMLA list of works cited
c. Abstract of a dissertation
Chen, Shu-Ling. “Mothers and Daughters in Morrison, Tan, Marshall,
and Kincaid.” Diss. U of Washington, 2000. DAI 61.6 (2000):
AAT9975963. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses. Web. 22 Feb. 2013.
d. Executive summary
Pintak, Lawrence. The Murrow Rural Information Initiative: Final Report.
Executive summary. Pullman: Murrow Coll. of Communication,
Washington State U, 25 May 2012. PDF file.
■ 18. Article with a title in its title Use single quotation marks
around a title of a short work or a quoted term that appears in an
article title. Italicize a title or term normally italicized.
Silber, Nina. “From ‘Great Emancipator’ to ‘Vampire Hunter’: The Many
Stovepipe Hats of Cinematic Lincoln.” Cognoscenti. WBUR, 22 Nov.
2012. Web. 13 Dec. 2013.
■ 19. Editorial Cite as a source with no author (see item 5) and
use the label “Editorial” following the article title.
“New State for the US?” Editorial. Columbus Dispatch. Dispatch Printing,
24 Nov. 2012. Web. 27 Nov. 2013.
■ 20. Unsigned article Cite as a source with no author (see
item 5).
“Public Health Response to a Changing Climate.” Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,
1 Oct. 2012. Web. 31 Oct. 2013.
“Harper’s Index.” Harper’s Magazine Feb. 2012: 11. Print.
■ 21. Letter to the editor Use the label “Letter” aft er the title.
If the letter has no title, place the label aft er the author’s name.
Fahey, John A. “Recalling the Cuban Missile Crisis.” Letter. Washington
Post 28 Oct. 2012: A16. LexisNexis Library Express. Web. 15 Dec.
2013.
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MLA
56b484 MLA documentation style
■ 22. Comment on an online article If the writer of the com-
ment uses a screen name, see item 11. Aft er the name, include
the label “Comment” followed by the title of the article and the
author of the article (preceded by “By”). Continue with publica-
tion information for the article.
pablosharkman. Comment. “ ‘We Are All Implicated’: Wendell Berry Laments
a Disconnection from Community and the Land.” By Scott Carlson.
Chronicle of Higher Education. Chronicle of Higher Educ.,
23 Apr. 2012. Web. 30 Oct. 2013.
■ 23. Paper or presentation at a conference If the paper or
presentation is included in the proceedings of a conference,
cite it as a selection in an anthology (see item 35; see also
item 45 for proceedings of a conference). If you viewed the
presentation live, cite it as a lecture or public address (see
item 62).
Zuckerman, Ethan, with Tim Berners-Lee, Esther Dyson, Jaron Lanier, and
Kaitlin Thaney. “Big Data, Big Challenges, and Big Opportunities.”
Presentation at Wired for Change: The Power and the Pitfalls of Big Data.
Ford Foundation, New York. 15 Oct. 2012. Web. 30 Oct. 2013.
■ 24. Book review Name the reviewer and the title of the
review, if any, followed by “Rev. of ” and the title and author of the
work reviewed. Add the publication information for the publica-
tion in which the review appears. If the review has no author and
author:
screen name label article title
author of
article
Web site title sponsor
update date medium
date of
access
fi rst author:
last name fi rst other contributors: in normal order
presentation title
label conference title
conference
sponsor location date medium
date of
access
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485
MLA
56bMLA list of works cited
no title, begin with “Rev. of ” and alphabetize the entry by the fi rst
principal word in the title of the work reviewed.
a. Print
Flannery, Tim. “A Heroine in Defense of Nature.” Rev. of On a Farther
Shore: The Life and Legacy of Rachel Carson, by William Souder. New
York Review of Books 22 Nov. 2012: 21-23. Print.
b. Web
Telander, Alex C. “In an MMO Far Far Away.” Rev. of Omnitopia Dawn, by
Diane Duane. San Francisco Book Review. 1776 Productions, 17 Jan.
2012. Web. 8 Aug. 2013.
c. Database
Petley, Christer. Rev. of The Atlantic World and Virginia, 1550-1624, by
Peter C. Mancall. Caribbean Studies 38.1 (2008): 175-77. JSTOR.
Web. 14 Oct. 2013.
■ 25. Film review or other review Name the reviewer and the title
of the review, if any, followed by “Rev. of ” and the title and writer
or director of the work reviewed. Add the publication information
for the publication in which the review appears. If the review has
no author and no title, begin with “Rev. of ” and alphabetize the
entry by the fi rst principal word in the title of the work reviewed.
a. Print
Lane, Anthony. “Film within a Film.” Rev. of Argo, dir. Ben Affleck, and
Sinister, dir. Scott Derrickson. New Yorker 15 Oct. 2012: 98-99. Print.
b. Web
Cobbett, Richard. “World of Warcraft: Mists of Pandaria Review.” Rev.
of Mists of Pandaria, by Blizzard Entertainment. PC Gamer. Future
Publishing, 4 Oct. 2012. Web. 13 Oct. 2013.
■ 26. Performance review Name the reviewer and the title of
the review, if any, followed by “Rev. of ” and the title and author
of the work reviewed. Add the publication information for the
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MLA
56b486 MLA documentation style
publication in which the review appears. If the review has no
author and no title, begin with “Rev. of ” and alphabetize the
entry by the fi rst principal word in the title of the work reviewed.
Matson, Andrew. Rev. of Until the Quiet Comes, by Flying Lotus. Seattle
Times. Seattle Times, 31 Oct. 2012. Web. 10 Nov. 2013.
■ 27. Interview Begin with the person interviewed, followed
by the title of the interview (if there is one). If the interview does
not have a title, include the word “Interview” aft er the interview-
ee’s name. If you wish to include the name of the interviewer, put
it aft er the title of the interview (or aft er the name of the inter-
viewee if there is no title). (See also item 60 for citing transcripts
of interviews.)
a. Print
Weddington, Sarah. “Sarah Weddington: Still Arguing for Roe.” Interview
by Michele Kort. Ms. Winter 2013: 32-35. Print.
b. Web
Kapoor, Anil. “Anil Kapoor on Q.” Interview by Jian Ghomeshi. Q. CBC
Radio, n.d. Web. 29 Oct. 2013.
c. Television or radio
Buffett, Warren, and Carol Loomis. Interview by Charlie Rose. Charlie
Rose. PBS. WGBH, Boston, 26 Nov. 2012. Television.
d. Personal To cite an interview that you conducted, begin
with the name of the person interviewed. Th en write “Personal
interview” or “Telephone interview,” followed by the date of the
interview.
Akufo, Dautey. Personal interview. 11 Apr. 2013.
■ 28. Article in a reference work (encyclopedia, dictionary,
wiki) List the author of the entry (if there is one), the title of
the entry, the title of the reference work, the edition number (if
any), the date of the edition, and the medium. Page numbers
are not necessary, even for print sources, because the entries in
the source are arranged alphabetically and are therefore easy to
locate.
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487
MLA
56bMLA list of works cited
a. Print
Posner, Rebecca. “Romance Languages.” The Encyclopaedia Britannica:
Macropaedia. 15th ed. 1987. Print.
“Sonata.” The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. 5th
ed. 2011. Print.
b. Web
“Hip Hop Music.” Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 19 Nov. 2012. Web.
18 Dec. 2013.
Durante, Amy M. “Finn Mac Cumhail.” Encyclopedia Mythica. Encyclopedia
Mythica, 17 Apr. 2011. Web. 20 Nov. 2013.
■ 29. Letter
a. Print Begin with the writer of the letter, the words “Letter
to” and the recipient, and the date of the letter (use “N.d.” if it is
undated). Add the title of the collection, the editor, and publica-
tion information. Add the page range before the medium.
Wharton, Edith. Letter to Henry James. 28 Feb. 1915. Henry James and
Edith Wharton: Letters, 1900-1915. Ed. Lyall H. Powers. New York:
Scribner’s, 1990. 323-26. Print.
b. Web Aft er information about the letter writer, recipient, and
date (if known), give the name of the Web site or archive, itali-
cized; the date of posting; the medium (“Web”); and your date of
access.
Oblinger, Maggie. Letter to Charlie Thomas. 31 Mar. 1895. Prairie
Settlement: Nebraska Photographs and Family Letters, 1862-1912.
Lib. of Cong., 15 Sept. 2000. Web. 3 Sept. 2013.
c. Personal To cite a letter that you received, begin with the writ-
er’s name and add the phrase “Letter to the author,” followed by
the date. Add the medium (“MS” for “manuscript,” or a hand-
written letter; “TS” for “typescript,” or a typed letter).
Primak, Shoshana. Letter to the author. 6 May 2013. TS.
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Books and other long works
▶ Citation at a glance: Book, page 489
■ 30. Basic format for a book
a. Print
Wolfe, Tom. Back to Blood. New York: Little, 2012. Print.
b. E-book
Tolstoy, Leo. War and Peace. Trans. Richard Pevear and Larissa Volokhonsky.
New York: Knopf, 2007. Nook file.
c. Web Give whatever print publication information is available
for the work, followed by the title of the Web site, the medium,
and your date of access.
Thoreau, Henry David. Thoreau’s Walden. Ed. and introd. Raymond MacDonald Alden.
New York: Longmans, 1910. Longmans’ English Classics. Google Books.
Web. 31 Oct. 2013.
Saalman, Lora, ed. and trans. The China-India Nuclear Crossroads. Washington:
Carnegie Endowment for Intl. Peace, 2012. Scribd. Web. 27 Nov. 2013.
d. Database
Cullender, Rose. A Tryal of Witches at the Assizes Held at Bury St. Edmonds for
the Count of Suffolk on the Tenth Day of March, 1664. London, 1682.
Early English Books Online. Web. 29 Apr. 2013.
author: last
name fi rst book title city publisher date medium
author: last
name fi rst book title translators: in normal order
city publisher date medium
author: last
name fi rst book title
contributor(s):
in normal order
city publisher
original
date series
Web site
title
medium date of access
author: last
name fi rst book title
city and date
of original
database title medium date of access
MLA
56b488 MLA documentation style
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Citation at a glance
Book (MLA)
To cite a print book in MLA style, include the following elements:
1 Author(s)
2 Title and subtitle
3 City of publication
4 Publisher
5 Date of publication (latest date)
6 Medium
3
1
5
WORKS CITED ENTRY FOR A PRINT BOOK
Popham, Peter. The Lady and the Peacock: The Life of Aung San Suu Kyi.
New York: Experiment, 2012. Print.
For more on citing books in MLA style, see items 30–42.
1 2
3 4 5 6
4
FROM
COPYRIGHT PAGE
TITLE PAGE
2
489
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MLA
56b490 MLA documentation style
■ 31. Parts of a book
a. Foreword, introduction, preface, or afterword
Bennett, Hal Zina. Foreword. Shimmering Images: A Handy Little Guide to
Writing Memoir. By Lisa Dale Norton. New York: Griffin-St. Martin’s,
2008. xiii-xvi. Print.
Ozick, Cynthia. “Portrait of the Essay as a Warm Body.” Introduction. The Best
American Essays 1998. Ed. Ozick. Boston: Houghton, 1998. xv-xxi. Print.
b. Chapter in a book
Adams, Henry. “Diplomacy.” The Education of Henry Adams. Boston: Houghton,
1918. N. pag. Bartleby.com: Great Books Online. Web. 8 Dec. 2013.
■ 32. Book with a title in its title If the book title contains a
title normally italicized, neither italicize the internal title nor
place it in quotation marks. If the title within the title is normally
put in quotation marks, retain the quotation marks and italicize
the entire book title.
Masur, Louis P. Runaway Dream: Born to Run and Bruce Springsteen’s
American Vision. New York: Bloomsbury, 2009. Print.
Millás, Juan José. “Personality Disorders” and Other Stories. Trans. Gregory
B. Kaplan. New York: MLA, 2007. Print.
■ 33. Book in a language other than English Capitalize the title
according to the conventions of the book’s language. If your read-
ers are not familiar with the language, include a translation of the
title in brackets.
Vargas Llosa, Mario. El sueño del celta [The Dream of the Celt]. Madrid:
Alfaguara, 2010. Print.
■ 34. Entire anthology or collection An anthology is a collec-
tion of works, oft en with various authors and an editor for the
entire volume. (Th e abbreviation “eds.” is for multiple editors. If
the book has only one editor, use the singular “ed.”)
author of foreword:
last name fi rst book part book title
author of book:
in normal order city imprint-publisher
date page(s) medium
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491
MLA
56bMLA list of works cited
Belasco, Susan, and Linck Johnson, eds. The Bedford Anthology of American
Literature. Vol. 2. Boston: Bedford, 2008. Print.
■ 35. One selection from an anthology or a collection
▶ Citation at a glance: Selection from an anthology or a collection, page 492
Lorde, Audre. “Black Mother Woman.” The Bedford Anthology of American
Literature. Ed. Susan Belasco and Linck Johnson. Vol. 2. Boston:
Bedford, 2008. 1419. Print.
■ 36. Two or more selections from an anthology or a collection
For two or more works from the same anthology, provide an
entry for the entire anthology (see item 34) and a shortened entry
for each selection. Use the medium only for the complete anthol-
ogy. Alphabetize the entries by authors’ or editors’ last names.
Belasco, Susan, and Linck Johnson, eds. The Bedford Anthology of American
Literature. Vol. 2. Boston: Bedford, 2008. Print.
Lorde, Audre. “Black Mother Woman.” Belasco and Johnson 1419.
Silko, Leslie Marmon. “Yellow Woman.” Belasco and Johnson 1475-81.
■ 37. Edition other than the fi rst Include the number of the
edition (2nd, 3rd, and so on). If the book has a translator or an
editor in addition to the author, give the name of the translator or
editor before the edition number, using the abbreviation “Trans.”
for “Translated by” or “Ed.” for “Edited by” (see item 9).
Eagleton, Terry. Literary Theory: An Introduction. 3rd ed. Minneapolis:
U of Minnesota P, 2008. Print.
fi rst editor:
last name fi rst
other editor(s):
in normal order
title of
anthology
volume city publisher date medium
author of
selection
title of
selection title of anthology
editor(s) of anthology volume city
publisher date page(s) medium
fi rst editor:
last name fi rst
other editor(s):
in normal order
title of
anthology
volume city publisher date medium
author of
selection
title of
selection
editor(s)
of anthology page(s)
author of selection
title of
selection
editor(s)
of anthology page(s)
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492
Citation at a glance
Selection from an anthology or a
collection (MLA)
To cite a selection from an anthology in MLA style, include the
following elements:
1 Author(s) of selection
2 Title and subtitle of selection
3 Title and subtitle of
anthology
4 Editor(s) of anthology
5 City of publication
6 Publisher
7 Date of publication
8 Page numbers of selection
9 Medium
7
1
2
6
5
4
FROM
COPYRIGHT PAGE
FIRST PAGE OF SELECTION
TITLE PAGE OF
ANTHOLOGY
3
8
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493
WORKS CITED ENTRY FOR A SELECTION FROM AN ANTHOLOGY
Coleman, Isobel. “Technology’s Quiet Revolution for Women.” The
Unfinished Revolution: Voices from the Global Fight for Women’s Rights.
Ed. Minky Worden. New York: Seven Stories, 2012. 41-49. Print.
For more on citing selections from anthologies in MLA style, see items 34–36.
1 2
3
4 5 6 7 8 9
■ 38. Multivolume work Include the total number of volumes
before the city and publisher, using the abbreviation “vols.” If
the volumes were published over several years, give the inclusive
dates of publication. (Th e abbreviation “Ed.” means “Edited by,”
so it is the same for one or more editors.)
Stark, Freya. Letters. Ed. Lucy Moorehead. 8 vols. Salisbury: Compton,
1974-82. Print.
If you cite only one of the volumes in your paper, include the
volume number before the city and publisher and give the date of
publication for that volume. Aft er the date, give the medium of
publication followed by the total number of volumes.
Stark, Freya. Letters. Ed. Lucy Moorehead. Vol. 5. Salisbury: Compton,
1978. Print. 8 vols.
■ 39. Sacred text Give the title of the edition (taken from the
title page), italicized; the editor’s or translator’s name (if any);
publication information; and the medium. Add the name of the
version, if there is one, aft er the medium.
The Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha. Ed. Herbert G. May and Bruce
M. Metzger. New York: Oxford UP, 1965. Print. Rev. Standard Vers.
The Qur’an: Translation. Trans. Abdullah Yusuf Ali. Elmhurst: Tahrike, 2000. Print.
author: last
name fi rst
book
title
editor(s):
in normal order
total
volumes city publisher
inclusive
dates medium
author: last
name fi rst
book
title
editor(s):
in normal order
volume
cited city publisher
date of
volume medium
total
volumes
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MLA
56b494 MLA documentation style
■ 40. Book in a series Aft er the publication information, give
the medium and then the series name as it appears on the title
page, followed by the series number, if any.
Denham, A. E., ed. Plato on Art and Beauty. New York: Palgrave, 2012.
Print. Philosophers in Depth.
■ 41. Republished book Aft er the title of the book, give the
original year of publication, followed by the current publication
information. If the republished book contains new material, such
as an introduction or an aft erword, include information about
the new material aft er the original date.
Trilling, Lionel. The Liberal Imagination. 1950. Introd. Louis Menand. New
York: New York Rev. of Books, 2008. Print.
■ 42. Publisher’s imprint Give the name of the imprint (a division
of a publishing company), a hyphen, and the name of the publisher.
Mantel, Hilary. Bring Up the Bodies. New York: Macrae-Holt, 2012. Print.
■ 43. Pamphlet, brochure, or newsletter Cite as you would a book.
The Legendary Sleepy Hollow Cemetery. Concord: Friends of Sleepy Hollow
Cemetery, 2008. Print.
■ 44. Dissertation
a. Published For dissertations that have been published in book
form, italicize the title. Aft er the title and before the book’s publi-
cation information, give the abbreviation “Diss.,” the name of the
institution, and the year the dissertation was accepted. Add the
medium of publication at the end.
Damberg, Cheryl L. Healthcare Reform: Distributional Consequences of an
Employer Mandate for Workers in Small Firms. Diss. Rand Graduate
School, 1995. Santa Monica: Rand, 1996. Print.
b. Unpublished Begin with the author’s name, followed by the dis-
sertation title in quotation marks; the abbreviation “Diss.”; the
name of the institution; the year the dissertation was accepted;
and the medium of the dissertation.
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495
MLA
56bMLA list of works cited
Jackson, Shelley. “Writing Whiteness: Contemporary Southern Literature
in Black and White.” Diss. U of Maryland, 2000. Print.
■ 45. Proceedings of a conference Cite as you would a book,
adding the name, date, and location of the conference aft er the title.
Sowards, Stacey K., Kyle Alvarado, Diana Arrieta, and Jacob Barde, eds.
Across Borders and Environments: Communication and Environmental
Justice in International Contexts. Proc. of Eleventh Biennial Conf. on
Communication and the Environment, 25-28 June 2011, U of Texas
at El Paso. Cincinnati: Intl. Environmental Communication Assn.,
2012. PDF file.
■ 46. Manuscript Give the author, a title or a description of
the manuscript, and the date of composition. Use the abbre-
viation “MS” for “manuscript” (handwritten) or “TS” for “type-
script.” Add the name and location of the institution housing the
material. For a manuscript found on the Web, give the preceding
information but omit “MS” or “TS.” List the title of the Web site,
the medium (“Web”), and your date of access.
Arendt, Hannah. Between Past and Future. N.d. 1st draft. Hannah
Arendt Papers. MS Div., Lib. of Cong. Manuscript Division, Library of
Congress. Web. 24 Aug. 2013.
Web sites and parts of Web sites
■ 47. An entire Web site
a. Web site with author or editor
Railton, Stephen. Mark Twain in His Times. Stephen Railton and U of Virginia Lib.,
2012. Web. 27 Nov. 2013.
Halsall, Paul, ed. Internet Modern History Sourcebook. Fordham U, 4 Nov.
2011. Web. 19 Sept. 2013.
author or editor:
last name fi rst
title of
Web site sponsor
update
date medium
date of
access
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■ 47. An entire Web site (cont.)
b. Web site with organization as author
United States. Dept. of Agriculture. USDA. US Dept. of Agriculture,
12 Feb. 2014. Web. 3 Mar. 2014.
c. Web site with no author Begin with the title of the site. If the site
has no title, begin with a label such as “Home page.”
Jacob Leisler Papers Project. Dept. of History, New York U, n.d. Web. 24
Aug. 2013.
d. Web site with no title Use the label “Home page” or another
appropriate description in place of a title.
Gray, Bethany. Home page. Iowa State U, 2013. Web. 22 Sept. 2013.
NOTE: If your instructor requires a URL for Web sources, include
the URL, enclosed in angle brackets, at the end of the entry.
Railton, Stephen. Mark Twain in His Times. Stephen Railton and U of Virginia
Lib., 2012. Web. 27 Nov. 2013.
■ 48. Short work from a Web site
▶ Citation at a glance: Short work from a Web site, page 497
a. Short work with author
Gallagher, Sean. “The Last Nomads of the Tibetan Plateau.” Pulitzer Center
on Crisis Reporting. Pulitzer Center, 25 Oct. 2012. Web. 30 Oct. 2013.
b. Short work with no author
“Social and Historical Context: Vitality.” Arapesh Grammar and Digital Language
Archive Project. Inst. for Advanced Technology in the Humanities, n.d.
Web. 18 Feb. 2014.
government department
title of
Web site sponsor
update
date medium
date of
access
author: last
name fi rst title of short work
title of
Web site
sponsor
update
date medium
date of
access
title of article title of Web site
sponsor
no
date
medium
date of
access
MLA
56b496 MLA documentation style
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http://twain.lib.virginia.edu/
Citation at a glance
Short work from a Web site (MLA)
To cite a short work from a Web site in MLA style, include the
following elements:
1 Author(s) of short work
(if any)
2 Title and subtitle of
short work
3 Title and subtitle of
Web site
4 Sponsor of Web site
(“N.p.” if none)
5 Latest update date
(“n.d.” if none)
6 Medium
7 Date of access
3
WORKS CITED ENTRY FOR A SHORT WORK FROM A WEB SITE
“Losing a Country, Finding a Home.” Amherst College. Amherst Coll., n.d.
Web. 12 Jan. 2013.
For more on citing sources from Web sites in MLA style, see items 48 and 49.
2 3 4 5
6 7
4
2
INTERNAL PAGE OF WEB SITE
FOOTER
ON PAGE
Courtesy of the Trustees of Amherst College.
Reproduced by permission.
497
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MLA
56b498 MLA documentation style
■ 49. Long work from a Web site
Milton, John. Paradise Lost: Book I. Poetry Foundation. Poetry Foundation,
2014. Web. 10 Mar. 2014.
■ 50. Entire blog Cite a blog as you would an entire Web site
(see item 47).
Kiuchi, Tatsuro. Tatsuro Kiuchi: News & Blog. N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Oct. 2013.
■ 51. Blog post or comment Cite a blog post or comment (a
response to a post) as you would a short work from a Web site
(see item 48). If the post or comment has no title, use the label
“Blog post” or “Blog comment.” Follow with the remaining infor-
mation as for an entire blog (see item 50). (See item 11 for the use
of screen names.)
Eakin, Emily. “Cloud Atlas’s Theory of Everything.” NYR Blog. NYREV,
2 Nov. 2012. Web. 3 Dec. 2013.
mitchellfreedman. Blog comment. “Cloud Atlas’s Theory of Everything,” by
Emily Eakin. NYR Blog. NYREV, 3 Nov. 2012. Web. 3 Dec. 2013.
■ 52. Academic course or department home page Cite as a
short work from a Web site (see item 48). For a course home
page, begin with the name of the instructor and the title of the
course or title of the page (use “Course home page” if there is no
other title). For a department home page, begin with the name of
the department and the label “Dept. home page.”
Masiello, Regina. “355:101: Expository Writing.” Rutgers School of Arts
and Sciences. Writing Program, Rutgers U, 2013. Web. 19 Aug. 2013.
author: last
name fi rst
title of
long work
title of
Web site sponsor
update
date medium
date of
access
author: last
name fi rst title of blog post
title of
blog sponsor
update
date medium
date of
access
author:
screen name label title of blog post
author of
blog post
title of
blog sponsor
update
date medium
date of
access
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499
MLA
56bMLA list of works cited
Comparative Media Studies. Dept. home page. Massachusetts Institute of
Technology. MIT, n.d. Web. 6 Oct. 2013.
Audio, visual, and multimedia sources
■ 53. Podcast If you view or listen to a podcast on the Web,
cite it as you would a short work from a Web site (see item 48). If
you download the podcast and view or listen to it on a computer
or portable player, give the fi le type (such as “MP3 fi le” or “MOV
fi le”) as the medium.
a. Web
Tanner, Laura. “Virtual Reality in 9/11 Fiction.” Literature Lab. Dept. of English,
Brandeis U, n.d. Web. 30 Oct. 2013.
b. Downloaded
Tanner, Laura. “Virtual Reality in 9/11 Fiction.” Literature Lab. Dept. of English,
Brandeis U, n.d. MP3 file.
■ 54. Film (DVD, BD, or other format) Generally, begin the entry
with the title, followed by the director and lead performers, as in
the fi rst example. If your paper emphasizes one or more people
involved with the fi lm, you may begin with those names, as in the
second example.
Typical designations for medium are “Film” (if viewed in a
theater or streamed through a service such as Netfl ix); “DVD”;
“BD” (for Blu-ray Disc); and “Web” (if viewed on a Web site). If
you aren’t sure of the medium, use “Film.”
Argo. Dir. Ben Affleck. Perf. Affleck, Bryan Cranston, and Alan Arkin.
Warner. Bros., 2012. Film.
author: last
name fi rst podcast title Web site title sponsor
no
date medium
date of
access
author: last
name fi rst podcast title Web site title sponsor
no
date medium
fi lm
title director major performers
distributor
release
date medium
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MLA
56b500 MLA documentation style
■ 54. Film (DVD, BD, or other format) (cont.)
Forster, Marc, dir. Finding Neverland. Perf. Johnny Depp, Kate Winslet,
Julie Christie, Radha Mitchell, and Dustin Hoffman. Miramax, 2004.
DVD.
■ 55. Supplementary material accompanying a fi lm Begin with
the title of the supplementary material, in quotation marks, and
the names of any important contributors, as for a fi lm. End with
information about the fi lm, as in item 54.
“Sweeney’s London.” Prod. Eric Young. Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber
of Fleet Street. Dir. Tim Burton. DreamWorks, 2007. DVD. Disc 2.
■ 56. Video or audio from the Web Cite video or audio that you
accessed on the Web as you would a short work from a Web site
(see item 48), giving information about the author before other
information about the video or audio.
Lewis, Paul. “Citizen Journalism.” YouTube. YouTube, 14 May 2011. Web.
24 Sept. 2013.
Fletcher, Antoine. “The Ancient Art of the Atlatl.” Narr. Brenton Bellomy.
Russell Cave National Monument. Natl. Park Service, 12 Feb. 2014.
Web. 24 Feb. 2014.
Burstein, Julie. “Four Lessons in Creativity.” TED: Ideas Worth Spreading.
TED Conf., Mar. 2012. Web. 18 Aug. 2013.
director:
last name fi rst fi lm title major performers
distributor
release
date
medium
author: last
name fi rst title of video
Web site
title sponsor
update
date medium
date of
access
author:
last name fi rst title of video
narrator
(or host or speaker)
Web site title sponsor update date
medium
date of
access
author:
last name fi rst title of video Web site title
sponsor
update
date medium
date of
access
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501
MLA
56bMLA list of works cited
■ 57. Video game List the developer or author of the game (if
any); the title, italicized; the version (“Vers.”), if there is one; the
distributor and date of publication; and the platform or medium.
If the game can be played on the Web, add information as for a
work from a Web site (see item 48).
Firaxis Games. Sid Meier’s Civilization Revolution. Take-Two Interactive,
2008. Xbox 360. Edgeworld. Atom Entertainment, 1 May 2012. Web.
15 June 2013.
■ 58. Computer software or app Cite as a video game (see item
57), giving whatever information is available about the version,
distributor, date, and platform.
Words with Friends. Vers. 5.84. Zynga, 2013. iOS 4.3.
■ 59. Television or radio episode or program If you are cit-
ing an episode or a segment of a program, begin with the title
of the episode or segment, in quotation marks. Th en give the
title of the program, italicized; relevant information about the
program, such as the writer (“By”), director (“Dir.”), performers
(“Perf.”), or narrator or host (“Narr.”); the network; the local sta-
tion and location (if any, as in item 27c; not necessary for cable
networks); the date of broadcast; and the medium (“Television,”
“Radio”).
For a program you accessed on the Web, aft er the informa-
tion about the program give the network, the original broadcast
date, the title of the Web site, the medium (“Web”), and your
date of access. If you are citing an entire program (not an episode
or a segment), begin your entry with the title of the program,
italicized.
a. Broadcast
“Federal Role in Support of Autism.” Washington Journal. Narr. Robb Harleston.
C-SPAN. 1 Dec. 2012. Television.
The Daily Show with Jon Stewart. Comedy Central. 29 Nov. 2012.
Television.
title of episode program title
narrator
(or host or speaker)
network
broadcast
date medium
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MLA
56b502 MLA documentation style
■ 59. Television or radio episode or program (cont.)
b. Web
“Back-to-School Cure.” Currently Concordia. Narr. Melissa Mulligan. CJLO,
22 Sept. 2012. CJLO.com. Web. 6 Jan. 2014.
c. Podcast
“NIH Research Radio.” Episode 0170. Narr. Joe Balintfy. NIH Radio.
Natl. Inst. of Health, 19 Oct. 2012. MP3 file.
title of episode program title
narrator (or host
or speaker) network
date
of posting
Web site
title medium
date
of access
podcast title
episode number
(if any)
narrator (or host
or sponsor)
Web site
title
sponsor
date
of posting medium
How to cite a source reposted from another
source
PROBLEM: Some sources that you fi nd online, particularly on video-
sharing sites, did not originate with the person who uploaded or published
the source online. How do you give proper credit for such sources?
EXAMPLE: Say you need to cite President John F. Kennedy’s inaugural
address. You have found a video on YouTube that provides footage of
the address (see image). Th e video was uploaded by PaddyIrishMan2
on October 29, 2006. But clearly, PaddyIrishMan2 is not the author of
the video or of the address.
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503
MLA
56bMLA list of works cited
■ 60. Transcript You might fi nd a transcript related to an
interview or a program on a radio or television Web site or in a
transcript database, such as in the fi rst example. Cite the source
as you would an interview (see item 27) or a radio or television
program (see item 59). Add the label “Transcript” at the end of
the entry.
Cullen, Heidi. “Weather Warnings for a ‘Climate Changed Planet. ’ ”
Interview by Terry Gross. Fresh Air. Natl. Public Radio, 25 July 2011.
LexisNexis Library Express. Web. 5 Apr. 2013. Transcript.
“Missing Athletes Join a Long List of Olympic Defectors.” Narr. Melissa
Block. All Things Considered. Natl. Public Radio, 9 Aug. 2012. Web.
28 Aug. 2013. Transcript.
STRATEGY: Start with what you know. Th e source is a video that you
viewed on the Web. For this particular video, John F. Kennedy is the
speaker and the author of the inaugural address. PaddyIrishMan2 is
identifi ed as the person who uploaded the source to YouTube.
CITATION: To cite the source, you can combine the basic MLA guidelines
for a lecture or public address (see item 62) and for a video found on the
Web (see item 56).
Kennedy, John F. “JFK Inaugural Address: 1 of 2.” YouTube. YouTube,
29 Oct. 2006. Web. 24 Nov. 2013.
Because Kennedy’s inauguration is a well-known historical event, you can
be fairly certain that this is not the only version of the inauguration video.
It is a good idea, therefore, to include information about which version
you viewed as supplementary information at the end of your citation.
Kennedy, John F. “JFK Inaugural Address: 1 of 2.” YouTube. YouTube,
29 Oct. 2006. Web. 24 Nov. 2013. Uploaded by PaddyIrishMan2.
NOTE: If your work calls for a primary source, you should try to fi nd the
original source of the video; a reference librarian can help.
author/speaker:
last name fi rst title of address
Web site
title sponsor
update date medium date of access
author/speaker:
last name fi rst title of address
Web site
title sponsor
update date medium date of access
supplementary information
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MLA
56b504 MLA documentation style
■ 61. Performance For a live performance of a concert, a
play, a ballet, or an opera, begin with the title of the work per-
formed, italicized (unless it is named by form, number, and
key). Th en give the author or composer of the work (“By”);
relevant information such as the director (“Dir.”), the chore-
ographer (“Chor.”), the conductor (“Cond.”), or the major per-
formers (“Perf.”); the theater, ballet, or opera company, if any;
the theater and location; the date of the performance; and the
label “Performance.”
Wetu in the City: An Urban Black Indian Tale. By Mwalim [Morgan James
Peters]. Dir. Naheem Garcia. Hibernian Hall, Boston. 16 Nov. 2012.
Performance.
Symphony no. 4 in G. By Gustav Mahler. Cond. Mark Wigglesworth. Perf.
Juliane Banse and Boston Symphony Orch. Symphony Hall, Boston.
17 Apr. 2009. Performance.
■ 62. Lecture or public address Begin with the speaker’s name,
followed by the title of the lecture (if any), in quotation marks;
the organization sponsoring the lecture; the location; the date;
and a label such as “Lecture” or “Address.” If you viewed the lec-
ture on the Web, cite as you would a short work from a Web site
(see item 48).
a. Live
Berry, Wendell E. “It All Turns on Affection.” Natl. Endowment for
the Humanities. John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts,
Washington. 23 Apr. 2012. Lecture.
b. Web
Clinton, Hillary Rodham. “Remarks on ‘Creating an AIDS-Free
Generation. ’ ” US Department of State: Diplomacy in Action. US Dept.
of State, 8 Nov. 2011. Web. 29 Oct. 2013.
■ 63. Musical score For both print and online versions,
begin with the composer’s name; the title of the work, italicized
(unless it is named by form, number, and key); and the date of
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505
MLA
56bMLA list of works cited
composition. For a print source, give the place of publication; the
name of the publisher and date of publication; and the medium.
For an online source, give the title of the Web site; the publisher
or sponsor of the site; the date of Web publication; the medium;
and your date of access.
Beethoven, Ludwig van. Symphony no. 5 in C Minor, op. 67. 1807. Center
for Computer Assisted Research in the Humanities. CCARH, Stanford
U, 2000. Web. 23 Aug. 2013.
■ 64. Sound recording Begin with the name of the person you
want to emphasize: the composer, conductor (“Cond.”), or per-
former (“Perf.”). For a long work, give the title, italicized (unless
it is named by form, number, and key); the names of pertinent
artists (such as performers, readers, or musicians); and the
orchestra and conductor, if relevant. End with the manufacturer,
the date, and the medium (“CD,” “Audiocassette”). For a song,
put the title in quotation marks. If you include the name of the
album or CD, italicize it.
a. CD
Bizet, Georges. Carmen. Perf. Jennifer Larmore, Thomas Moser, Angela
Gheorghiu, and Samuel Ramey. Bavarian State Orch. and Chorus.
Cond. Giuseppe Sinopoli. Warner, 1996. CD.
Blige, Mary J. “Don’t Mind.” Life II: The Journey Continues (Act 1).
Geffen, 2011. CD.
b. Downloaded
Blige, Mary J. “Don’t Mind.” Life II: The Journey Continues (Act 1).
Geffen, 2011. MP3 file.
■ 65. Work of art (a) For an original work of art, cite the
artist’s name; the title of the artwork, italicized; the date of
composition; the medium of composition (for instance, “Oil
on canvas,” “Charcoal on paper”); and the institution and city
in which the artwork is located. (b) For artworks found on the
Web, omit the medium of composition and include the title
of the Web site, the medium (“Web”), and your date of access.
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MLA
56b506 MLA documentation style
(c) If you downloaded a digital file from an archive or other
online source, cite as in (a) but include the type of file as the
medium (“JPEG file,” “TIFF file”). (d) If you viewed the art-
work as a reproduction in a print source, omit the medium of
composition and add publication information about the print
source, including the page number or figure number for the
artwork; give the medium of reproduction at the end.
a. Original
Constable, John. Dedham Vale. 1802. Oil on canvas. Victoria and Albert
Museum, London.
b. Web
Hessing, Valjean. Caddo Myth. 1976. Joslyn Art Museum, Omaha. Joslyn
Art Museum. Web. 19 Apr. 2014.
c. Digital fi le
Diebenkorn, Richard. Ocean Park No. 38. 1971. Phillips Collection,
Washington. JPEG file.
d. Reproduction (print)
O’Keeffe, Georgia. Black and Purple Petunias. 1925. Private collection.
Two Lives: A Conversation in Paintings and Photographs. Ed.
Alexandra Arrowsmith and Thomas West. New York: Harper, 1992. 67.
Print.
■ 66. Photograph (a) For an original photograph, cite the
photographer’s name; the title of the photograph, italicized;
the date of composition; the medium (“Photograph”); and the
institution and city in which the photograph is located. (b) For
photographs found on the Web, omit the medium “Photograph”
and include the title of the Web site, the medium “Web,” and
your date of access. (c) If you downloaded a digital file from
an archive or other online source, cite as in (a) but include the
type of file as the medium (“JPEG file,” “TIFF file”). (d) If you
viewed the photograph as a reproduction in a print source, omit
the medium of composition and add publication information
about the print source, including the page number or figure
number for the artwork; give the medium of reproduction at
the end.
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507
MLA
56bMLA list of works cited
a. Original
Feinstein, Harold. Hangin’ Out, Sharing a Public Bench, NYC. 1948.
Photograph. Panopticon Gallery, Boston.
b. Web
McCurry, Steve. A World of Prayer. 29 Oct. 2012. Magnum Photos. Web. 30
Apr. 2013.
c. Digital fi le
Lucy Branham in Occoquan Prison Dress. 1919. Lib. of Cong. JPEG file.
d. Reproduction (print)
Kertész, André. Meudon. 1928. Street Photography: From Atget to Cartier-
Bresson. By Clive Scott. London: Tauris, 2011. 61. Print.
■ 67. Cartoon Give the cartoonist’s name; the title of the car-
toon, if it has one, in quotation marks; the label “Cartoon” or
“Comic strip”; publication information; and the medium. To cite
an online cartoon, give the title of the Web site, the sponsor or
publisher, the medium, and your date of access.
Zyglis, Adam. “Delta and Denial.” Cartoon. Buffalo News. Buffalo News, 11
Jan. 2013. Web. 21 Jan. 2013.
■ 68. Advertisement Name the product or company being
advertised, followed by the word “Advertisement.” Give pub-
lication information for the source in which the advertisement
appears.
UnitedHealthcare. Advertisement. Smithsonian Dec. 2012: 27. Print.
Corolla. Advertisement. Root. Slate Group, 28 Nov. 2012. Web. 3 Dec.
2013.
■ 69. Visual such as a table, a chart, or another graphic Cite a
visual as you would a short work within a longer work. Use the
label “Table,” “Chart,” or “Graphic” following the title. Add the
medium and, for an online source, the sponsor or publisher and
the date of access. If the visual has a number in the source, give
that number immediately before the medium.
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MLA
56b508
How to cite course materials
PROBLEM: Sometimes you will be assigned to work with materials
that an instructor has uploaded to a course Web site or has handed out
in class. Complete publication information may not always be given
for such sources. A PDF fi le or a hard copy article, for instance, may
have a title and an author’s
name but give no other
information. Or a video may
not include information
about the creator or the date
the video was created. When
you write a paper using such
sources, how should you cite
them in your own work?
EXAMPLE: Perhaps your
instructor has included a
PDF fi le of an article in a
collection of readings on the
course Web site (see image
at right). You are writing a
paper in which you use a
passage from the work.
MLA documentation style
“Canada’s Energy Flow 2007.” Chart. Economist. Economist Newspaper,
26 Oct. 2012. Web. 30 Oct. 2013.
“CDC Climate Ready States and Cities Initiative.” Graphic. Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention. Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention, 1 Oct. 2012. Web. 31 Oct. 2013.
■ 70. Map Cite a map as you would a short work within a
longer work. Or, if the map is published on its own, cite it as a
book or another long work. Use the label “Map” following the
title. Add the medium and, for an online source, the sponsor or
publisher and the date of access.
“Population Origin Groups in Rural Texas.” Map. Perry-Castañeda Library
Map Collection. U of Texas at Austin, 1976. Web. 17 Mar. 2013.
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509
MLA
56bMLA list of works cited
■ 71. Digital fi le A digital fi le is any document or image that
exists in digital form, independent of a Web site. Begin with infor-
mation required for the source (such as a photograph, a report,
a sound recording, or a radio program), following the guidelines
throughout section 56b. Th en for the medium, indicate the type
of fi le: “JPEG fi le,” “PDF fi le,” “MP3 fi le,” and so on.
Hine, Lewis W. Girl in Cherryville Mill. 1908. Prints and Photographs Div.,
Lib. of Cong. JPEG file.
“Back to School.” This American Life. Narr. Ira Glass. Episode 474. Chicago
Public Media, 14 Sept. 2012. MP3 file.
photographer
photograph
title
date of
composition location of photograph
medium
STRATEGY: Look through section 56b for a model that matches the type
of source you’re working with. Is it an article? A chapter from a book?
A photograph? A video? Th e model or models you fi nd will give you an
idea of the information you need to gather about the source. Th e usual
required information is (1) the author or creator, (2) the title, (3) the
date the work was published or created, (4) the date you accessed the
source (usually only for sources on the Web), and (5) the medium in
which the source was presented (see p. 471).
CITATION: For your citation, you can give only as much of the required
information as you can fi nd in the source. In this example, you know
the source is an article with an author and a title, and you accessed it as
a PDF fi le. So you can combine items 13a (basic format for an article)
and 71 (digital fi le) to create the works cited entry for the source. Since
you can’t tell when the article was published, you should use “N.d.” for
“No date.” At the end of your citation, it is a good idea to include the
description “Course materials” and supplementary information about
the course (such as its title or number and the term).
Jahn, Gary R. “The Image of the Railroad in Anna Karenina.” N.d. PDF file.
Course materials, EN101, Fall 2013.
NOTE: When in doubt about how much information to include or where
to fi nd it, consult your instructor.
author:
last name fi rst article title
no
date medium
supplementary information
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56b510 MLA documentation style
■ 71. Digital fi le (cont.)
National Institute of Mental Health. What Rescue Workers Can Do.
Washington: US Dept. of Health and Human Services, 2006. PDF file.
Government and legal documents
■ 72. Government document Treat the government agency as
the author, giving the name of the government followed by the
name of the department and the agency, if any. For print sources,
add the medium at the end of the entry. For sources found on the
Web, follow the model for an entire Web site (see item 47) or for
short or long works from a Web site (see items 48 and 49).
United States. Dept. of Agriculture. Food and Nutrition Service. Child
Nutrition Programs. Eligibility Manual for School Meals: Determining
and Verifying Eligibility. National School Lunch Program.
US Dept. of Agriculture, Aug. 2012. Web. 30 Oct. 2013.
Canada. Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern Dev. Gathering Strength:
Canada’s Aboriginal Action Plan. Ottawa: Minister of Public Works and
Govt. Services Can., 2000. Print.
■ 73. Testimony before a legislative body
Carson, Johnnie. “Assessing US Policy on Peacekeeping Operations in
Africa.” Testimony before the US House Foreign Affairs Committee,
Subcommittee on Africa, Global Health, and Human Rights. US
Department of State: Diplomacy in Action. US Dept. of State, 13 Sept.
2012. Web. 29 Sept. 2013.
■ 74. Historical document Th e titles of most historical docu-
ments, such as the US Constitution and the Canadian Charter of
Rights and Freedoms, are neither italicized nor put in quotation
marks. For a print version, cite as for a selection in an anthology
government department agency (or agencies)
title (long work)
Web site title
sponsor
update
date medium
date of
access
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511
MLA
56bMLA list of works cited
(see item 35) or for a book (with the title not italicized). For an
online version, cite as a short work from a Web site (see item 48).
Jefferson, Thomas. First Inaugural Address. 1801. The American Reader.
Ed. Diane Ravitch. New York: Harper, 1990. 42-44. Print.
Constitution of the United States. 1787. The Charters of Freedom. US Natl.
Archives and Records Administration, n.d. Web. 19 Jan. 2013.
■ 75. Legislative act (law) Begin with the name of the act,
neither italicized nor in quotation marks. Th en provide the act’s
Public Law number; its Statutes at Large volume and page num-
bers; its date of enactment; and the medium.
Electronic Freedom of Information Act Amendments of 1996. Pub. L.
104-231. 110 Stat. 3048. 2 Oct. 1996. Print.
■ 76. Court case Name the fi rst plaintiff and the fi rst defen-
dant. Th en give the volume, name, and page number of the law
report; the court name; the year of the decision; and publication
information. Do not italicize the name of the case. (In the text
of the paper, the name of the case is italicized; see item 19 on
p. 465.)
Utah v. Evans. 536 US 452. Supreme Court of the US. 2002. Supreme Court
Collection. Legal Information Inst., Cornell U Law School, n.d. Web.
30 Apr. 2013.
Personal communication and social media
■ 77. E-mail message Begin with the writer’s name and the
subject line. Th en write “Message to” followed by the name of
the recipient. End with the date of the message and the medium
(“E-mail”).
Lowe, Walter. “Review Questions.” Message to the author. 15 Mar. 2013.
E-mail.
■ 78. Text message Cite like an e-mail message, giving the
medium as “Text message.”
Wiley, Joanna. Message to the author. 4 Apr. 2014. Text message.
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MLA
56c512 MLA documentation style
■ 79. Posting to an online discussion list When possible, cite
archived versions of postings. If you cannot locate an archived ver-
sion, keep a copy of the posting for your records. Begin with the
author’s name, followed by the title or subject line, in quotation
marks (use the label “Online posting” if the posting has no title).
Th en proceed as for a short work from a Web site (see item 48).
Baker, Frank. “A New Twist on a Classic.” Developing Digital Literacies.
NCTE, 30 Nov. 2012. Web. 10 Jan. 2013.
■ 80. Facebook post or comment Cite as a short work from
a Web site (see item 48), beginning with the writer’s real name
followed by the screen name in parentheses, if both are given.
Otherwise use whatever name is given in the source. Follow with
the title of the post, if any, in quotation marks. If there is no title,
use the label “Post.”
Bedford/St. Martin’s. “Liz Losh Discusses Teaching about Interactive
Media with Comics: http://ow.ly/imucP.” Facebook. Facebook,
5 Mar. 2013. Web. 26 Mar. 2013.
Erin Houlihan. Post. Facebook. Facebook, 23 Nov. 2013. Web. 26 Nov.
2013.
■ 81. Twitter post (tweet) Begin with the writer’s real name
followed by the screen name in parentheses, if both are given.
Otherwise use whatever name is given in the source. Give the
text of the entire tweet in quotation marks, using the writer’s
capitalization and punctuation. Follow the text with the date and
time noted on the tweet. Use “Tweet” as the medium.
Curiosity Rover. “The journey of 352,000,000 miles begins with a single
launch. One year ago today, I left Earth for Mars http://twitpic.com/
bgq1vn.” 26 Nov. 2012, 10:10 a.m. Tweet.
56c MLA information notes (optional)
Researchers who use the MLA system of parenthetical documen-
tation may also use information notes for one of two purposes:
1. to provide additional material that is important but might
interrupt the fl ow of the paper
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http://ow.ly/imucP
http://twitpic.com/bgq1vn
http://twitpic.com/bgq1vn
513
MLA
57aMLA manuscript format
2. to refer to several sources that support a single point or to
provide comments on sources
Information notes may be either footnotes or endnotes.
Footnotes appear at the foot of the page; endnotes appear on a
separate page at the end of the paper, just before the list of works
cited. For either style, the notes are numbered consecutively
throughout the paper. Th e text of the paper contains a raised
arabic numeral that corresponds to the number of the note.
TEXT
In the past several years, employees have filed a number of lawsuits
against employers because of online monitoring practices.1
NOTE
1. For a discussion of federal law applicable to electronic surveillance
in the workplace, see Kesan 293.
57 MLA manuscript format; sample research paper
Th e following guidelines are consistent with advice given in the
MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, 7th ed. (New York:
MLA, 2009), and with typical requirements for student papers.
For a sample MLA research paper, see pages 517–25.
57a MLA manuscript format
Formatting the paper
Papers written in MLA style should be formatted as follows.
Font If your instructor does not require a specifi c font, choose
one that is standard and easy to read (such as Times New Roman).
Title and identifi cation MLA does not require a title page. On
the fi rst page of your paper, place your name, your instructor’s
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MLA
57a514 MLA manuscript format; sample research paper
name, the course title, and the date on separate lines against the
left margin. Th en center your title. (See p. 517 for a sample fi rst
page.)
If your instructor requires a title page, ask for formatting
guidelines.
Page numbers (running head) Put the page number preceded
by your last name in the upper right corner of each page, one-
half inch below the top edge. Use arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, and
so on).
Margins, line spacing, and paragraph indents Leave margins of
one inch on all sides of the page. Left -align the text.
Double-space throughout the paper. Do not add extra space
above or below the title of the paper or between paragraphs.
Indent the fi rst line of each paragraph one-half inch from the
left margin.
Capitalization, italics, and quotation marks In titles of works, capi-
talize all words except articles (a, an, the), prepositions (to, from,
between, and so on), coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or, nor,
for, so, yet), and the to in infi nitives — unless the word is fi rst or
last in the title or subtitle. Follow these guidelines in your paper
even if the title appears in all capital or all lowercase letters in the
source.
In the text of an MLA paper, when a complete sentence
follows a colon, lowercase the fi rst word following the colon
unless the sentence is a quotation or a well-known expression or
principle.
Italicize the titles of books, journals, magazines, and other
long works, such as Web sites. Use quotation marks around the
titles of articles, short stories, poems, and other short works.
Long quotations When a quotation is longer than four typed
lines of prose or three lines of poetry, set it off from the text by
indenting the entire quotation one inch from the left margin.
Double-space the indented quotation and do not add extra space
above or below it.
Do not use quotation marks when a quotation has been set
off from the text by indenting. See page 522 for an example.
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MLA
57aMLA manuscript format
URLs When you need to break a URL at the end of a line in the
text of your paper, break it only aft er a slash or a double slash and
do not insert a hyphen. For MLA rules on dividing URLs in your
list of works cited, see page 516.
Headings MLA neither encourages nor discourages the use of
headings and provides no guidelines for their use. If you would
like to insert headings in a long essay or research paper, check
fi rst with your instructor.
Visuals MLA classifi es visuals as tables and fi gures (fi gures
include graphs, charts, maps, photographs, and drawings). Label
each table with an arabic numeral (“Table 1,” “Table 2,” and so on)
and provide a clear caption that identifi es the subject. Capitalize
the caption as you would a title (see 45c); do not italicize the label
and caption or place them in quotation marks. Place the label
and caption on separate lines above the table, fl ush with the left
margin.
For a table that you have borrowed or adapted, give the
source below the table in a note like the following:
Source: Boris Groysberg and Michael Slind; “Leadership Is a Conversation”;
Harvard Business Review June 2012: 83; print.
For each fi gure, place the fi gure number (using the abbrevia-
tion “Fig.”) and a caption below the fi gure, fl ush left . Capitalize
the caption as you would a sentence; include source informa-
tion following the caption. (When referring to the fi gure in your
paper, use the abbreviation “fi g.” in parenthetical citations; other-
wise spell out the word.) See page 519 for an example of a fi gure
in a paper.
Place visuals in the text, as close as possible to the sentences
that relate to them, unless your instructor prefers that visuals ap-
pear in an appendix.
Preparing the list of works cited
Begin the list of works cited on a new page at the end of the paper.
Center the title “Works Cited” about one inch from the top of the
page. Double-space throughout. See pages 117 and 524–25 for
sample lists of works cited.
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57b516 MLA manuscript format; sample research paper
Alphabetizing the list Alphabetize the list by the last names of the
authors (or editors); if a work has no author or editor, alphabetize
by the fi rst word of the title other than A, An, or Th e.
If your list includes two or more works by the same author,
use the author’s name for the fi rst entry only. For subsequent en-
tries, use three hyphens followed by a period. List the titles in
alphabetical order. (See items 6 and 7 on p. 473.)
Indenting Do not indent the fi rst line of each works cited entry,
but indent any additional lines one-half inch. Th is technique
highlights the names of the authors, making it easy for readers to
scan the alphabetized list. See page 524.
URLs (Web addresses) If you need to include a URL in a works
cited entry and it must be divided across lines, break the URL
only aft er a slash or a double slash. Do not insert a hyphen at the
end of the line. Insert angle brackets around the URL. (See the
note following item 47 on p. 496.) If your word processing pro-
gram automatically turns URLs into links (by underlining them
and changing the color), turn off this feature.
57b Sample MLA research paper
On the following pages is a research paper on the topic of the
role of government in legislating food choices, written by Sophie
Harba, a student in a composition class. Harba’s paper is docu-
mented with in-text citations and a list of works cited in MLA
style. Annotations in the margins of the paper draw your atten-
tion to Harba’s use of MLA style and her eff ective writing.
macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
57 MLA manuscript format; sample paper
> Sample student writing: Harba, “What’s for Dinner? Personal Choices vs. Public Health”
(research)
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517
MLA
57bSample MLA research paper
Harba 1
Sophie Harba
Professor Baros-Moon
Engl 1101
30 April 2013
What’s for Dinner? Personal Choices vs. Public Health
Should the government enact laws to regulate healthy
eating choices? Many Americans would answer an emphatic
“No,” arguing that what and how much we eat should be
left to individual choice rather than unreasonable laws.
Others might argue that it would be unreasonable for the
government not to enact legislation, given the rise of
chronic diseases that result from harmful diets. In this
debate, both the definition of reasonable regulations
and the role of government to legislate food choices are
at stake. In the name of public health and safety, state
governments have the responsibility to shape health
policies and to regulate healthy eating choices, especially
since doing so offers a potentially large social benefit for a
relatively small cost.
Debates surrounding the government’s role in
regulating food have a long history in the United States.
According to Lorine Goodwin, a food historian,
nineteenth-century reformers who sought to purify the food
supply were called “fanatics” and “radicals” by critics who
argued that consumers should be free to buy and eat what
they want (77). Thanks to regulations, though, such as
the 1906 federal Pure Food and Drug Act, food, beverages,
and medicine are largely free from toxins. In addition, to
prevent contamination and the spread of disease, meat and
dairy products are now inspected by government agents to
ensure that they meet health requirements. Such regulations
Title is centered.
Opening research
question engages
readers.
Writer highlights
the research
conversation.
Thesis answers the
research question
and presents
Harba’s main
point.
Signal phrase
names the author.
The parenthetical
citation includes a
page number.
Historical
background
provides context
for debate.
Marginal annotations indicate MLA-style formatting and effective writing.
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57b518 MLA manuscript format; sample research paper
Harba 2
can be considered reasonable because they protect us from
harm with little, if any, noticeable consumer cost. It is
not considered an unreasonable infringement on personal
choice that contaminated meat or arsenic-laced cough drops
are unavailable at our local supermarket. Rather, it is an
important government function to stop such harmful items
from entering the marketplace.
Even though our food meets current safety standards,
there is a need for further regulation. Not all food dangers,
for example, arise from obvious toxins like arsenic and E. coli.
A diet that is low in nutritional value and high in sugars,
fats, and refined grains—grains that have been processed
to increase shelf life but that contain little fiber, iron, and
B vitamins—can be damaging over time (United States,
Dept. of Agriculture and Dept. of Health and Human Services
36). A graph from the government’s Dietary Guidelines for
Americans, 2010 provides a visual representation of the
American diet and how far off it is from the recommended
nutritional standards (see fig. 1).
Michael Pollan, who has written extensively about
Americans’ unhealthy eating habits, notes that “[t]he
Centers for Disease Control estimates that fully three
quarters of US health care spending goes to treat chronic
diseases, most of which are preventable and linked to diet:
heart disease, stroke, type 2 diabetes, and at least a third of
all cancers.” In fact, the amount of money the United States
spends to treat chronic illnesses is increasing so rapidly
that the Centers for Disease Control has labeled chronic
disease “the public health challenge of the 21st century”
(United States, Dept. of Health and Human Services 1).
In fighting this epidemic, the primary challenge
Transition
helps readers
move from one
paragraph to the
next.
No page number
is available for
this Web source.
Harba establishes
common ground
with the reader.
Harba explains
her use of a key
term, reasonable.
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57bSample MLA research paper
Harba 3
is not the need to find a cure; the challenge is to prevent
chronic diseases from striking in the first place.
Legislation, however, is not a popular solution when it
comes to most Americans and the food they eat. According
to a nationwide poll, 75% of Americans are opposed to laws
that restrict or put limitations on access to unhealthy foods
(Neergaard and Agiesta). When New York mayor Michael
Bloomberg proposed a regulation in 2012 banning the sale
of soft drinks in servings greater than twelve ounces in
restaurants and movie theaters, he was ridiculed as “Nanny
Bloomberg.” In California in 2011, legislators failed to pass
a law that would impose a penny-per-ounce tax on soda,
Harba sets forth
the urgency of her
argument.
Harba treats both
sides fairly.
How Do Typical American Diets Compare to
Recommended Intake Levels or Limits?
Source: USDA & HHS: Dietary Guidelines for Americans. 2010 * Solid Fats and Added Sugars
Fig. 1. This graph shows that Americans consume about
three times more fats and sugars and twice as many refined
grains as is recommended but only half of the recommended
foods (United States, Dept. of Agriculture and Dept. of
Health and Human Services, fig. 5-1).
The visual
includes a
fi gure number,
descriptive
caption,
and source
information.
Harba uses a
graph to illustrate
Americans’ poor
nutritional choices.
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57b520 MLA manuscript format; sample research paper
Harba 4
which would have funded obesity prevention programs. And
in Mississippi, legislators passed “a ban on bans—a law that
forbids . . . local restrictions on food or drink” (Conly A23).
Why is the public largely resistant to laws that would
limit unhealthy choices or penalize those choices with so-called
fat taxes? Many consumers and civil rights advocates find such
laws to be an unreasonable restriction on individual freedom of
choice. As health policy experts Mello, Studdert, and Brennan
point out, opposition to food and beverage regulation is similar
to the opposition to early tobacco legislation: the public views
the issue as one of personal responsibility rather than one
requiring government intervention (2602). In other words, if
a person eats unhealthy food and becomes ill as a result, that
is his or her choice. But those who favor legislation claim that
freedom of choice is a myth because of the strong influence of
food and beverage industry marketing on consumers’ dietary
habits. According to one nonprofit health advocacy group, food
and beverage companies spend roughly two billion dollars per
year marketing directly to children. As a result, kids see nearly
four thousand ads per year encouraging them to consume
unhealthy food and drinks (“Facts on Junk Food”). As was the
case with antismoking laws passed in recent decades, taxes and
legal restrictions on junk food sales could help to counter the
strong marketing messages that promote unhealthy products.
The United States has a history of state and local
public health laws that have successfully promoted a
particular behavior by punishing an undesirable behavior.
The decline in tobacco use as a result of antismoking
taxes and laws is perhaps the most obvious example.
Another example is legislation requiring the use of seat
belts, which have significantly reduced fatalities in car
An analogy
extends Harba’s
argument.
Harba
anticipates
objections
to her idea.
She counters
opposing views
and provides
support for her
argument.
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57bSample MLA research paper
Harba 5
crashes. One government agency reports that seat belt use saved
an average of more than fourteen thousand lives per year in the
United States between 2000 and 2010 (United States, Dept.
of Transportation, Natl. Highway Traffic Safety Administration
231). Perhaps seat belt laws have public support because the
cost of wearing a seat belt is small, especially when compared
with the benefit of saving fourteen thousand lives per year.
Laws designed to prevent chronic disease by
promoting healthier food and beverage consumption also
have potentially enormous benefits. To give just one
example, Marion Nestle, New York University professor of
nutrition and public health, notes that “a 1% reduction in
intake of saturated fat across the population would prevent
more than 30,000 cases of coronary heart disease annually
and save more than a billion dollars in health care costs”
(7). Few would argue that saving lives and dollars is not an
enormous benefit. But three-quarters of Americans say they
would object to the costs needed to achieve this benefit—
the regulations needed to reduce saturated fat intake.
Why do so many Americans believe there is a degree of
personal choice lost when regulations such as taxes, bans, or
portion limits on unhealthy foods are proposed? Some critics
of anti-junk-food laws believe that even if state and local laws
were successful in curbing chronic diseases, they would still be
unacceptable. Bioethicist David Resnik emphasizes that such
policies, despite their potential to make our society healthier,
“open the door to excessive government control over food,
which could restrict dietary choices, interfere with cultural,
ethnic, and religious traditions, and exacerbate socioeconomic
inequalities” (31). Resnik acknowledges that his argument
relies on “slippery slope” thinking, but he insists that “social
Harba
acknowledges
critics and
counterarguments.
Harba introduces
a direct
quotation with
a signal phrase
and follows with
a comment that
shows readers
why she chose to
use the source.
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57b522 MLA manuscript format; sample research paper
Harba 6
and political pressures” regarding food regulation make his
concerns valid (31). Yet the social and political pressures that
Resnik cites are really just the desire to improve public health, and
limiting access to unhealthy, artificial ingredients seems a small
price to pay. As legal scholars L. O. Gostin and K. G. Gostin explain,
“[I]nterventions that do not pose a truly significant burden on
individual liberty” are justified if they “go a long way towards
safeguarding the health and well-being of the populace” (214).
To improve public health, advocates such as Bowdoin
College philosophy professor Sarah Conly contend that it
is the government’s duty to prevent people from making
harmful choices whenever feasible and whenever public
benefits outweigh the costs. In response to critics who
claim that laws aimed at stopping us from eating whatever
we want are an assault on our freedom of choice, Conly
offers a persuasive counterargument:
[L]aws aren’t designed for each one of us
individually. Some of us can drive safely at 90 miles
per hour, but we’re bound by the same laws as the
people who can’t, because individual speeding
laws aren’t practical. Giving up a little liberty is
something we agree to when we agree to live in a
democratic society that is governed by laws. (A23)
As Conly suggests, we need to change our either/or
thinking (either we have complete freedom of choice or we
have government regulations and lose our freedom) and
instead need to see health as a matter of public good, not
individual liberty. Proposals such as Mayor Bloomberg’s that
seek to limit portions of unhealthy beverages aren’t about
giving up liberty; they are about asking individuals to choose
substantial public health benefits at a very small cost.
Including
the source’s
credentials
makes Harba
more credible.
Long quotation
is introduced
with a signal
phrase naming
the author.
Long quotation
is set off
from the text.
Quotation marks
are omitted.
Long quotation
is followed
with comments
that connect
the source
to Harba’s
argument.
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MLA
57bSample MLA research paper
Harba 7
Despite arguments in favor of regulating unhealthy
food as a means to improve public health, public opposition
has stood in the way of legislation. Americans freely eat
as much unhealthy food as they want, and manufacturers
and sellers of these foods have nearly unlimited freedom to
promote such products and drive increased consumption,
without any requirements to warn the public of potential
hazards. Yet mounting scientific evidence points to
unhealthy food as a significant contributing factor to
chronic disease, which we know is straining our health care
system, decreasing Americans’ quality of life, and leading
to unnecessary premature deaths. Americans must consider
whether to allow the costly trend of rising chronic disease
to continue in the name of personal choice or whether to
support the regulatory changes and public health policies
that will reverse that trend.
Conclusion
sums up Harba‘s
argument and
provides closure.
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57b524 MLA manuscript format; sample research paper
Harba 8
Works Cited
Conly, Sarah. “Three Cheers for the Nanny State.” New York
Times 25 Mar. 2013: A23.
“The Facts on Junk Food Marketing and Kids.” Prevention
Institute. Prevention Inst., n.d. Web. 21 Apr. 2013.
Goodwin, Lorine Swainston. The Pure Food, Drink, and Drug
Crusaders, 1879-1914. Jefferson: McFarland, 2006. Print.
Gostin, L. O., and K. G. Gostin. “A Broader Liberty: J. S. Mill,
Paternalism, and the Public’s Health.” Public Health
123.3 (2009): 214-21. Academic Search Premier. Web.
17 Apr. 2013.
Mello, Michelle M., David M. Studdert, and Troyen A.
Brennan. “Obesity—The New Frontier of Public Health
Law.” New England Journal of Medicine 354.24 (2006):
2601-10. Expanded Academic ASAP. Web. 22 Apr. 2013.
Neergaard, Lauran, and Jennifer Agiesta. “Obesity’s a Crisis
but We Want Our Junk Food, Poll Shows.” Huffington
Post. TheHuffingtonPost.com, 4 Jan. 2013. Web. 20
Apr. 2013.
Nestle, Marion. Food Politics: How the Food Industry
Influences Nutrition and Health. Berkeley: U of
California P, 2013. Print.
Pollan, Michael. “The Food Movement, Rising.” New York Review
of Books. NYREV, 10 June 2010. Web. 19 Apr. 2013.
Resnik, David. “Trans Fat Bans and Human Freedom.”
American Journal of Bioethics 10.3 (2010): 27-32.
Academic Search Premier. Web. 17 Apr. 2013.
United States. Dept. of Agriculture and Dept. of Health
and Human Services. Dietary Guidelines for Americans,
2010. Dept. of Agriculture and Dept. of Health and
Human Services, 2010. Web. 17 Apr. 2013.
Double-spacing
is used
throughout.
The government
agency is used
as the author of
a government
document.
First line of
each entry is at
the left margin;
extra lines are
indented ½″.
Heading is
centered.
Abbreviation
“n.d.” indicates
that the online
source has no
update date.
List is
alphabetized
by authors’ last
names (or by
title when a work
has no author).
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525
MLA
57bSample MLA research paper
Harba 9
United States. Dept. of Health and Human Services. Centers
for Disease Control and Prevention. The Power of
Prevention. Natl. Center for Chronic Disease Prevention
and Health Promotion, 2009. Web. 19 Apr. 2013.
United States. Dept. of Transportation. Natl. Highway Traffic
Safety Administration. Traffic Safety Facts 2010: A
Compilation of Motor Vehicle Crash Data from the
Fatality Analysis Reporting System and the General
Estimates System. US Dept. of Transportation, 2010.
Web. 12 Apr. 2013.
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Writing
Papers in
APA Style
DIRECTORY TO APA IN-TEXT CITATION MODELS, 528
DIRECTORY TO APA REFERENCE LIST MODELS, 528
58 Supporting a thesis, 530
59 Citing sources; avoiding plagiarism, 534
60 Integrating sources, 537
61 Documenting sources in APA style, 546
62 APA manuscript format; sample research paper, 580
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528
1. Basic format for a
quotation, 547
2. Basic format for a summary or
a paraphrase, 548
3. Work with two authors, 548
4. Work with three to fi ve
authors, 548
5. Work with six or more
authors, 549
6. Work with unknown author, 549
7. Organization as author, 549
8. Authors with the same last
name, 550
9. Two or more works by the same
author in the same year, 550
10. Two or more works in the same
parentheses, 550
11. Multiple citations to the same
work in one paragraph, 550
12. Web source, 551
a. No page numbers, 551
b. Unknown author, 551
c. Unknown date, 551
13. An entire Web site, 552
14. Multivolume work, 552
15. Personal communication, 552
16. Course materials, 552
17. Part of a source (chapter,
fi gure), 552
18. Indirect source (source quoted
in another source), 552
19. Sacred or classical text, 553
Directory to APA in-text citation models
General guidelines for
listing authors
1. Single author, 556
2. Two to seven authors, 556
3. Eight or more authors, 556
4. Organization as author, 556
5. Unknown author, 557
6. Author using a pseudonym
(pen name) or screen
name, 557
7. Two or more works by the
same author, 557
8. Two or more works by the
same author in the same
year, 557
9. Editor, 558
10. Author and editor, 558
11. Translator, 558
12. Editor and translator, 558
Articles and other short works
13. Article in a journal, 559
a. Print, 559
b. Web, 559
c. Database, 559
14. Article in a magazine, 563
a. Print, 563
b. Web, 563
c. Database, 563
15. Article in a newspaper, 563
a. Print, 563
b. Web, 564
16. Abstract, 564
a. Abstract of a journal article,
564
b. Abstract of a paper, 564
17. Supplemental material, 564
18. Article with a title in its
title, 564
19. Letter to the editor, 565
20. Editorial or other unsigned
article, 565
21. Newsletter article, 565
22. Review, 565
23. Published interview, 566
24. Article in a reference work
(encyclopedia, dictionary, wiki),
566
a. Print, 566
b. Web, 566
25. Comment on an online article,
566
26. Testimony before a legislative
body, 566
27. Paper presented at a
meeting or symposium
(unpublished), 566
28. Poster session at a
conference, 567
Directory to APA reference list models
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Books and other long works
29. Basic format for a book, 567
a. Print, 567
b. Web (or online library), 567
c. E-book, 567
d. Database, 567
30. Edition other than the fi rst, 569
31. Selection in an anthology or a
collection, 569
a. Entire anthology, 569
b. Selection in an
anthology, 569
32. Multivolume work, 569
a. All volumes, 569
b. One volume, with title, 570
33. Introduction, preface, foreword,
or afterword, 570
34. Dictionary or other reference
work, 570
35. Republished book, 570
36. Book with a title in its title, 570
37. Book in a language other than
English, 570
38. Dissertation, 570
a. Published, 570
b. Unpublished, 571
39. Conference proceedings, 571
40. Government document, 571
41. Report from a private
organization, 571
42. Legal source, 571
43. Sacred or classical text, 572
Web sites and parts of
Web sites
44. Entire Web site, 572
45. Document from a Web site,
572
46. Section in a Web
document, 572
47. Blog post, 573
48. Blog comment, 573
Audio, visual, and
multimedia sources
49. Podcast, 573
50. Video or audio on the Web, 573
51. Transcript of an audio or a
video fi le, 574
52. Film (DVD, BD, or other format),
574
53. Television or radio
program, 574
a. Series, 574
b. Episode on the air, 574
c. Episode on the Web, 575
54. Music recording, 575
55. Lecture, speech, or
address, 575
56. Data set or graphic
representation of data (graph,
chart, table), 575
57. Mobile application software
(app), 578
58. Video game, 578
59. Map, 578
60. Advertisement, 578
61. Work of art or photograph, 578
62. Brochure or fact sheet, 579
63. Press release, 579
64. Presentation slides, 579
65. Lecture notes or other course
materials, 579
Personal communication
and social media
66. E-mail, 579
67. Online posting, 580
68. Twitter post (tweet), 580
69. Facebook post, 580
Directory to APA reference list models, continued
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Supporting a thesis530 58
APA
Most instructors in the social sciences and some instructors in
other disciplines will ask you to document your sources with the
American Psychological Association (APA) system of in-text
citations and references described in section 61.
When writing an APA-style paper that draws on sources, you
face three main challenges: (1) supporting a thesis, (2) citing your
sources accurately and avoiding plagiarism, and (3) integrating
source material eff ectively.
Examples in this section are drawn from one student’s
research for a review of the literature on treatments for child-
hood obesity. Luisa Mirano’s paper appears on pages 585–96.
NOTE: For advice on fi nding and evaluating sources and on man-
aging information in all your college courses, see sections 50–52.
58 Supporting a thesis
Most research assignments ask you to form a thesis, or main
idea, and to support that thesis with well-organized evidence.
In a paper reviewing the literature on a topic, the thesis ana-
lyzes the oft en competing conclusions drawn by a variety of
researchers.
58a Form a working thesis.
Once you have read a range of sources, considered your issue
from diff erent perspectives, and chosen an entry point in the
research conversation (see 50b), you are ready to form a work-
ing thesis to focus your project: a one-sentence (or occasionally
a two-sentence) statement of your central idea. (See also 1c.) Th e
working thesis expresses more than your opinion; it expresses
your informed, reasoned answer to your research question — a
question about which people might disagree. As you learn more
about your subject, your ideas may change, and your working
thesis will evolve, too. You can revise your thesis as you draft .
Here, for example, is a research question posed by Luisa Mirano,
a student in a psychology class, followed by her thesis in answer
to that question.
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Organize your ideas 531
APA
58b
RESEARCH QUESTION
Is medication the right treatment for the escalating problem of
childhood obesity?
WORKING THESIS
Treating cases of childhood obesity with medication alone is too
narrow an approach for this growing problem.
Th e thesis usually appears at the end of the introductory para-
graph. To read Luisa Mirano’s thesis in the context of her intro-
duction, see page 587.
macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
58 Supporting a thesis
> Exercises: 58–1 and 58–2
Testing your thesis
When draft ing and revising a thesis statement, make sure it answers
your central research question and that you can eff ectively develop it
with the sources available to you.
Keeping the following guidelines in mind will help you develop
an eff ective thesis statement.
● A thesis should take a position that needs to be argued and sup-
ported. It should not be a fact or description.
● A thesis should match the scope of the research project. If your
thesis is too broad, explore a subtopic of your original topic. If
your thesis is too narrow, pose a research question that has more
than one answer.
● A thesis should be sharply focused. Avoid vague words such as
interesting or good. Use concrete language and make sure your
thesis lets readers know your position.
● A thesis should stand up to the “So what?” question. Ask yourself
why readers should care about your thesis. If your thesis matters
to you, your readers are more likely to fi nd your ideas engaging.
58b Organize your ideas.
Th e American Psychological Association (APA) encourages the
use of headings to help readers follow the organization of a paper.
For an original research report, the major headings oft en follow
a standard model: Method, Results, Discussion. Th e introduction
does not have a heading; it consists of the material between the
title of the paper and the fi rst heading.
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58c
For a literature review, headings will vary. Luisa Mirano used
four questions to focus her research into treatments for childhood
obesity; the questions then became headings in her paper (see 62b).
58c Use sources to inform and support your
argument.
Sources can play several diff erent roles to support your thesis and
develop your points.
Providing background information or context
You can use facts and statistics to support generalizations or to
establish the importance of your topic, as student writer Luisa
Mirano does in her introduction.
In March 2004, U.S. Surgeon General Richard Carmona called
attention to a health problem in the United States that, until recently,
has been overlooked: childhood obesity. Carmona said that the
“astounding” 15% child obesity rate constitutes an “epidemic.” Since
the early 1980s, that rate has “doubled in children and tripled in
adolescents.” Now more than nine million children are classified as obese.
Explaining terms or concepts
If readers are unfamiliar with a term or a concept important to
your topic, you will want to defi ne or explain it; or if your argu-
ment depends on a term with multiple meanings, you will want
to explain your use of the term. Quoting or paraphrasing a source
can help you defi ne terms and concepts in accessible language.
Luisa Mirano uses a scholarly source to explain how one of the
major obesity drugs functions.
Sibutramine suppresses appetite by blocking the reuptake of
the neurotransmitters serotonin and norepinephrine in the brain
(Yanovski & Yanovski, 2002, p. 594).
Supporting your claims
As you develop your points, back up your assertions with facts,
examples, and other evidence from your research (see also 6h).
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Use sources to inform and support your argument 533
APA
58c
Luisa Mirano, for example, uses one source’s fi ndings to support
her central idea that the medical treatment of childhood obesity
has limitations.
As journalist Greg Critser (2003) noted in his book Fat Land, use of
weight-loss drugs is unlikely to have an effect without the proper
“support system”—one that includes doctors, facilities, time, and
money (p. 3).
Lending authority to your argument
Expert opinion can add weight and credibility to your argument
(see also 6h). But don’t rely on experts to make your points for you.
State your ideas in your own words and, when appropriate, cite the
judgment of an authority in the fi eld to support your position.
Both medical experts and policymakers recognize that solutions
might come not only from a laboratory but also from policy,
education, and advocacy. A handbook designed to educate doctors
on obesity called for “major changes in some aspects of western
culture” (Hoppin & Taveras, 2004, Conclusion section, para. 1).
Anticipating and countering alternative interpretations
Do not ignore sources that seem contrary to your position. Instead,
use them to give voice to opposing points of view and alternative
interpretations before you counter them (see 6i). Readers oft en have
objections in mind already, whether or not they agree with you.
Mirano uses a source to acknowledge value in her opponents’ posi-
tion that medication alone can successfully treat childhood obesity.
As researchers Yanovski and Yanovski (2002) have explained, obesity
was once considered “either a moral failing or evidence of underlying
psychopathology” (p. 592). But this view has shifted: Many medical
professionals now consider obesity a biomedical rather than a moral
condition, influenced by both genetic and environmental factors.
Yanovski and Yanovski have further noted that the development of
weight-loss medications in the early 1990s showed that “obesity
should be treated in the same manner as any other chronic disease . . .
through the long-term use of medication” (p. 592).
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534
59 Citing sources; avoiding plagiarism
In a research paper, you will draw on the work of other research-
ers and writers, and you must document their contributions by
citing your sources. Sources are cited for two reasons:
1. to tell readers where your information comes from — so
that they can assess its reliability and, if interested, fi nd and
read the original source
2. to give credit to the writers from whom you have borrowed
words and ideas
You must cite anything you borrow from a source, including
direct quotations; statistics and other specifi c facts; visuals such
as tables, graphs, and diagrams; and any ideas you present in a
summary or paraphrase. Borrowing without proper acknowledg-
ment is a form of dishonesty known as plagiarism.
Th e only exception is common knowledge — information
that your readers may know or could easily locate in any number
of reference sources.
59a Understand how the APA system works.
Th e American Psychological Association recommends an
author-date system of citations. Th e following is a brief descrip-
tion of how the author-date system usually works.
1. Th e source is introduced by a signal phrase that includes the
last name of the author followed by the date of publication
in parentheses.
2. Th e material being cited is followed by a page number
in parentheses (unless the source is an unpaginated Web
source).
3. At the end of the paper, an alphabetized list of references
gives complete publication information for the source.
IN-TEXT CITATION
As researchers Yanovski and Yanovski (2002) have explained,
obesity was once considered “either a moral failing or evidence of
underlying psychopathology” (p. 592).
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535
APA
Avoid plagiarism when quoting,
summarizing, and paraphrasing sources 59b
ENTRY IN THE LIST OF REFERENCES
Yanovski, S. Z., & Yanovski, J. A. (2002). Drug therapy: Obesity. The
New England Journal of Medicine, 346, 591-602.
Th is basic APA format varies for diff erent types of sources.
For a detailed discussion and other models, see 61.
59b Avoid plagiarism when quoting,
summarizing, and paraphrasing sources.
In a research paper, you draw on the work of other writers and
you must document their contributions by citing your sources.
When you acknowledge your sources, you avoid plagiarism, a
serious academic off ense.
In general, these three acts are considered plagiarism:
(1) failing to cite quotations and borrowed ideas, (2) failing to
enclose borrowed language in quotation marks, and (3) failing to
put summaries and paraphrases in your own words. Defi nitions
of plagiarism may vary; it’s a good idea to fi nd out how your
school defi nes and addresses academic dishonesty.
Citing quotations and borrowed ideas
To indicate that you are using a source’s exact phrases or sen-
tences, you must enclose them in quotation marks unless they
have been set off from the text by indenting (see 60b). To omit
the quotation marks is to claim — falsely — that the language is
your own, as in the example below. Such an omission is plagia-
rism even if you have cited the source.
ORIGINAL SOURCE
In an eff ort to seek the causes of this disturbing trend, experts have
pointed to a range of important potential contributors to the rise in
childhood obesity that are unrelated to media: a reduction in physical
education classes and aft er-school athletic programs, an increase in
the availability of sodas and snacks in public schools, the growth in
the number of fast-food outlets across the country, the trend toward
“super-sizing” food portions in restaurants, and the increasing number
of highly processed high-calorie and high-fat grocery products.
— Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation,
“Th e Role of Media in Childhood Obesity” (2004), p. 1
macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
59 Citing sources; avoiding plagiarism
> Exercises: 59–1 to 59–7
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APA
59b
PLAGIARISM
According to the Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation (2004), experts
have pointed to a range of important potential contributors to the
rise in childhood obesity that are unrelated to media (p. 1).
BORROWED LANGUAGE IN QUOTATION MARKS
According to the Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation (2004), “experts
have pointed to a range of important potential contributors to the
rise in childhood obesity that are unrelated to media” (p. 1).
NOTE: Quotation marks are not used when quoted sentences are
set off from the text by indenting (see 60b).
Putting summaries and paraphrases in your own words
Summaries and paraphrases are written in your own words. A
summary condenses information from a source; a paraphrase
uses roughly the same number of words as the original source
to convey information. When you summarize or paraphrase, it
is not enough to name the source; you must restate the source’s
meaning using your own language. (See also 51c and 60a.)
Half-copying the author’s sentences by using the author’s
phrases in your own sentences without quotation marks or by
plugging synonyms into the author’s sentence structure (some-
times called patchwriting) is a form of plagiarism.
Th e following paraphrases are plagiarized — even though the
source is cited — because their language and sentence structure
are too close to those of the source.
ORIGINAL SOURCE
In an eff ort to seek the causes of this disturbing trend, experts have
pointed to a range of important potential contributors to the rise
in childhood obesity that are unrelated to media.
— Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation,
“Th e Role of Media in Childhood Obesity” (2004), p. 1
UNACCEPTABLE BORROWING OF PHRASES
According to the Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation (2004), experts
have indicated a range of significant potential contributors to the
rise in childhood obesity that are not linked to media (p. 1).
UNACCEPTABLE BORROWING OF STRUCTURE
According to the Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation (2004),
experts have identified a variety of key factors causing a
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APA
Integrating sources 60
rise in childhood obesity, factors that are not tied to
media (p. 1).
To avoid plagiarizing an author’s language, resist the temp-
tation to look at the source while you are summarizing or para-
phrasing. Aft er you have read the passage you want to paraphrase,
set the source aside. Ask yourself, “What is the author’s meaning?”
In your own words, state your understanding of the author’s ideas.
Return to the source and check that you haven’t used the au-
thor’s language or sentence structure or misrepresented the author’s
ideas. When you fully understand another writer’s meaning, you can
more easily and accurately present those ideas in your own words.
ACCEPTABLE PARAPHRASE
A report by the Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation (2004) described
causes other than media for the childhood obesity crisis.
60 Integrating sources
Your research paper draws on and borrows from the work of
others — your sources — to help you develop and support your
ideas. As you conduct research, you gather language and ideas from
your sources that you might want to use in your paper. Section 59
shows you how to acknowledge those sources to avoid plagiarism.
Th is section will help you integrate those sources seamlessly and
eff ectively into your paper, so that readers understand how your
use of quotation, summary, and paraphrase contributes to your
argument. As you integrate sources, you need to fi nd a balance
between the words of your sources and your own voice. Readers
should always know who is speaking in your paper — you or your
source. You can use several strategies to integrate research sources
into your paper while maintaining your own voice.
• Use sources as concisely as possible so that your own
thinking and voice aren’t lost (60a and 60b).
• Use signal phrases and avoid dropped quotations. Clearly
indicate the boundary between your words and the source’s
words (60c).
• Discuss and analyze your sources to show readers how each
source supports your points and how the sources relate to
one another (60d).
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Integrating sources538
APA
60a
60a Summarize and paraphrase effectively.
In your academic writing, keep the emphasis on your ideas and your
language; use your own words to summarize and to paraphrase
your sources and to explain your points. Whether you choose to
summarize or paraphrase a source depends on your purpose.
Summarizing
When you summarize a source, you express another writer’s
ideas in your own words, condensing the author’s key points and
using fewer words than the author. Even though a summary is in
your own words, the original idea remains the intellectual prop-
erty of the author, so you must include a citation.
WHEN TO USE A SUMMARY
• When a passage is lengthy and you want to condense a
chapter to a short paragraph or a paragraph to a single
sentence
• When you want to state the source’s main ideas simply and
briefl y in your own words
• When you want to compare or contrast arguments or ideas
from various sources
• When you want to provide readers with an understanding
of the source’s argument before you respond to it or launch
your own
Paraphrasing
When you paraphrase, you express an author’s ideas in your
own words, using approximately the same number of words and
details as in the source. Even though the words are your own,
the original idea is the author’s intellectual property, so you must
give a citation.
WHEN TO USE A PARAPHRASE
• When the ideas and information are important but the
author’s exact words are not needed for accuracy or emphasis
• When you want to restate the source’s ideas in your own words
• When you need to simplify and explain a technical or
complicated source
• When you need to reorder a source’s ideas
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APA
60b
Even though you use your own words to summarize and para-
phrase, the original idea remains the intellectual property of the
author, so you must include a citation. (See 59b.)
60b Use quotations effectively.
When you quote a source, you borrow some of the author’s exact
words and enclose them in quotation marks. Quotation marks
show your readers that both the idea and the words belong to the
author.
WHEN TO USE QUOTATIONS
• When language is especially vivid or expressive
• When exact wording is needed for technical accuracy
• When it is important to let the debaters of an issue explain
their positions in their own words
• When the words of an authority lend weight to an argument
• When you want to discuss the language of a source
Limiting your use of quotations
Although it is tempting to insert many quotations in your paper
and to use your own words only for connecting passages, do not
quote excessively.
It is not always necessary to quote full sentences from a
source. To reduce your reliance on the words of others, you can in-
tegrate language from a source into your own sentence structure.
(For the use of signal phrases in integrating quotations, see 60c.)
Carmona (2004) advised the subcommittee that the situation
constitutes an “epidemic” and that the skyrocketing statistics are
“astounding.”
As researchers continue to face a number of unknowns about
obesity, it may be helpful to envision treating the disorder, as
Yanovski and Yanovski (2002) suggested, “in the same manner as
any other chronic disease” (p. 592).
macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
60 Integrating sources
> Exercises: 60–1 to 60–7
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60b
Using the ellipsis mark
To condense a quoted passage, you can use the ellipsis mark
(three periods, with spaces between) to indicate that you have
omitted words. What remains must be grammatically complete.
Roman (2003) reported that “social factors are nearly as significant
as individual metabolism in the formation of . . . dietary habits of
adolescents” (p. 345).
Th e writer has omitted the words both healthy and unhealthy
from the source.
When you want to leave out one or more full sentences, use a
period before the three ellipsis dots.
According to Sothern and Gordon (2003), “Environmental factors
may contribute as much as 80% to the causes of childhood
obesity. . . . Research suggests that obese children demonstrate
decreased levels of physical activity and increased psychosocial
problems” (p. 104).
Ordinarily, do not use an ellipsis mark at the beginning or
at the end of a quotation. Readers will understand that you have
taken the quoted material from a longer passage. Th e only ex-
ception occurs when you feel it is necessary, for clarity, to in-
dicate that your quotation begins or ends in the middle of a
sentence.
USING SOURCES RESPONSIBLY: Make sure that omissions and
ellipsis marks do not distort the meaning of your source.
Using brackets
Brackets allow you to insert your own words into quoted mate-
rial. You can insert words in brackets to clarify a confusing refer-
ence or to keep a sentence grammatical in your context.
The cost of treating obesity currently totals $117 billion per year—a
price, according to the surgeon general, “second only to the cost of
[treating] tobacco use” (Carmona, 2004).
To indicate an error such as a misspelling in a quotation, in-
sert [sic], italicized and in brackets, right aft er the error.
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60c
Setting off long quotations
When you quote forty or more words from a source, set off the
quotation by indenting it one-half inch from the left margin. Use
the normal right margin and do not single-space the quotation.
Long quotations should be introduced by an informative
sentence, oft en followed by a colon. Quotation marks are unnec-
essary because the indented format tells readers that the passage
is taken word-for-word from the source.
Yanovski and Yanovski (2002) have described earlier treatments of
obesity that focused on behavior modification:
With the advent of behavioral treatments for obesity in the
1960s, hope arose that modification of maladaptive eating and
exercise habits would lead to sustained weight loss, and that
time-limited programs would produce permanent changes in
weight. Medications for the treatment of obesity were proposed
as short-term adjuncts for patients, who would presumably
then acquire the skills necessary to continue to lose weight,
reach “ideal body weight,” and maintain a reduced weight
indefinitely. (p. 592)
Notice that at the end of an indented quotation the parentheti-
cal citation goes outside the fi nal mark of punctuation. (When a
quotation is run into your text, the opposite is true. See the sam-
ple citations on p. 540.)
60c Use signal phrases to integrate sources.
Whenever you include a paraphrase, summary, or direct quota-
tion of another writer’s work in your paper, prepare your read-
ers for it with introductory words called a signal phrase. A signal
phrase usually names the author of the source, gives the publi-
cation year in parentheses, and oft en provides some context. It
is generally acceptable in APA style to call authors by their last
name only, even on a fi rst mention. If your paper refers to two
authors with the same last name, use initials as well.
When you write a signal phrase, choose a verb that is ap-
propriate for the way you are using the source. Are you providing
background, explaining a concept, supporting a claim, lending
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Integrating sources542
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60c
authority, or refuting an argument (see 58c)? See the chart on
page 543 for a list of verbs commonly used in signal phrases. Note
that APA requires using verbs in the past tense or present perfect
tense (explained or has explained) to introduce source material.
Use the present tense only for discussing the applications or ef-
fects of your own results (the data suggest) or knowledge that has
been clearly established (researchers agree).
Marking boundaries
Readers need to move from your words to the words of a source
without feeling a jolt. Avoid dropping direct quotations into
your text without warning. Instead, provide clear signal phrases,
including at least the author’s name and the year of publication.
Signal phrases mark the boundaries between source material
and your own words; they can also tell readers why a source is
worth quoting. (Th e signal phrase is highlighted in the second
example.)
DROPPED QUOTATION
Obesity was once considered in a very different light. “For many
years, obesity was approached as if it were either a moral failing
or evidence of underlying psychopathology” (Yanovski & Yanovski,
2002, p. 592).
QUOTATION WITH SIGNAL PHRASE
Obesity was once considered in a very different light. As researchers
Yanovski and Yanovski (2002) have explained, obesity was widely
thought of as “either a moral failing or evidence of underlying
psychopathology” (p. 592).
Using signal phrases with summaries and paraphrases
As with quotations, you should introduce most summaries and
paraphrases with a signal phrase that mentions the author and
the year and places the material in the context of your own writ-
ing. Readers will then understand where the summary or para-
phrase begins.
Without the signal phrase (highlighted) in the following ex-
ample, readers might think that only the last sentence is being
cited, when in fact the whole paragraph is based on the source.
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60c
Carmona (2004) advised a Senate subcommittee that the problem of
childhood obesity is dire and that the skyrocketing statistics—which
put the child obesity rate at 15%—are cause for alarm. More than
nine million children, double the number in the early 1980s, are
classified as obese. Carmona warned that obesity can cause myriad
physical problems that only worsen as children grow older.
Th ere are times, however, when a summary or a paraphrase
does not require a signal phrase naming the author. When the
context makes clear where the cited material begins, you may
omit the signal phrase and include the author’s name and the
year in parentheses.
Using signal phrases in APA papers
To avoid monotony, try to vary both the language and the placement
of your signal phrases.
Model signal phrases
In the words of Carmona (2004), “. . .”
As Yanovski and Yanovski (2002) have noted, “. . .”
Hoppin and Taveras (2004), medical researchers, pointed out that “. . .”
“. . . ,” claimed Critser (2003).
“. . . ,” wrote Duenwald (2004), “. . .”
Researchers McDuffi e et al. (2003) have off ered a compelling argument
for this view: “. . .”
Hilts (2002) answered objections with the following analysis: “. . .”
Verbs in signal phrases
admitted contended reasoned
agreed declared refuted
argued denied rejected
asserted emphasized reported
believed insisted responded
claimed noted suggested
compared observed thought
confi rmed pointed out wrote
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Integrating statistics and other facts
When you are citing a statistic or another specifi c fact, a sig-
nal phrase is oft en not necessary. In most cases, readers will
understand that the citation refers to the statistic or fact (not
the whole paragraph).
In purely financial terms, the drugs cost more than $3 a day on
average (Duenwald, 2004).
Th ere is nothing wrong, however, with using a signal phrase to
introduce a statistic or another fact.
Putting source material in context
Readers should not have to guess why source material appears in
your paper. A signal phrase can help you make the connection
between your own ideas and those of another writer by clarifying
how the source will contribute to your paper.
If you use another writer’s words, you must explain how they
relate to your writing. Quotations don’t speak for themselves; you
must support them by creating a context for readers. Embed each
quotation between sentences of your own: Introduce the quota-
tion with a signal phrase, and follow it with interpretive com-
ments that link the quotation to your own ideas. (See also 60c.)
QUOTATION WITH EFFECTIVE CONTEXT
A report by the Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation (2004) outlined
trends that may have contributed to the childhood obesity
crisis, including food advertising for children as well as
a reduction in physical education classes . . . , an increase
in the availability of sodas and snacks in public schools,
the growth in the number of fast-food outlets . . . , and the
increasing number of highly processed high-calorie and high-
fat grocery products. (p. 1)
Addressing each of these areas requires more than a
doctor armed with a prescription pad; it requires a broad
mobilization not just of doctors and concerned parents but of
educators, food industry executives, advertisers, and media
representatives.
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60d
60d Synthesize sources.
When you synthesize multiple sources in a research paper, you
create a conversation about your research topic. Your paper
includes your active analysis and integration of ideas, not just a
series of quotations and paraphrases. Your synthesis will show
how your sources relate to one another; one source may support,
extend, or counter the ideas of another. Not every source has to
“speak” to another in a research paper, but readers should be able
to see how each one functions in your argument.
SAMPLE SYNTHESIS (DRAFT)
Medical treatments have clear costs for
individual patients, including unpleasant side
effects, little information about long-term use,
and uncertainty that they will yield significant
weight loss. The financial burden is heavy as well;
the drugs cost more than $3 a day on average
(Duenwald, 2004). In each of the clinical trials,
use of medication was accompanied by expensive
behavioral therapies, including counseling,
nutrition education, fitness advising, and
monitoring. As Critser (2003) noted in his book
Fat Land, use of weight-loss drugs is unlikely
to have an effect without the proper “support
system”—one that includes doctors, facilities,
time, and money (p. 3). For many families, this
level of care is prohibitively expensive.
Both medical experts and policymakers
recognize that solutions might come not
only from a laboratory but also from policy,
education, and advocacy. A handbook designed
to educate doctors on obesity called for “major
changes in some aspects of western culture”
(Hoppin & Taveras, 2004, Conclusion section,
para. 1). Solving the childhood obesity problem
Student writer
Luisa Mirano
begins with
a claim that
needs support.
Student
writer
Signal phrases
indicate
how sources
contribute
to Mirano’s
paper and
show that the
ideas that
follow are not
her own.
Source 1
Student
writer
Mirano
interprets
and connects
sources. Each
paragraph
ends with her
own thoughts.
Source 2
Student
writer
Source 3
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546 APA documentation style 61
APA
will require broad mobilization of doctors and
concerned parents and also of educators, food
industry executives, advertisers, and media
representatives.
In this synthesis, Mirano uses her own analyses to shape the
conversation among her sources. She does not simply string quo-
tations and statistics together or allow her sources to overwhelm
her writing. Th e fi nal sentence, written in her own voice, gives
her an opportunity to explain to readers how her sources support
and extend her argument.
When synthesizing sources, ask yourself these questions:
• How do your sources speak to your research question?
• How do your sources speak to each other?
• Have you varied the functions of sources — to provide
background, explain concepts, lend authority, and anticipate
counterarguments?
• Do you explain how your sources support your argument?
• Do you connect and analyze sources in your own voice?
• Is your own argument easy to identify and to understand,
with or without your sources?
61 Documenting sources in APA style
In most social science classes and some humanities classes, you
will be asked to use the APA system for documenting sources,
which is set forth in the Publication Manual of the American
Psychological Association, 6th ed. (Washington, DC: APA, 2010).
APA recommends in-text citations that refer readers to
a list of references. An in-text citation gives the author of the
source (oft en in a signal phrase), the year of publication, and
oft en a page number in parentheses. At the end of the paper,
a list of references provides publication information about the
source; the list is alphabetized by authors’ last names (or by titles
for works with no authors). Th e direct link between the in-text
Student
writer
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61a
citation and the entry in the reference list is highlighted in the
following example.
IN-TEXT CITATION
Yanovski and Yanovski (2002) reported that “the current state of
the treatment for obesity is similar to the state of the treatment of
hypertension several decades ago” (p. 600).
ENTRY IN THE LIST OF REFERENCES
Yanovski, S. Z., & Yanovski, J. A. (2002). Drug therapy: Obesity. The
New England Journal of Medicine, 346, 591-602.
For a reference list that includes this entry, see pages 595–96.
61a APA in-text citations
APA’s in-text citations provide the author’s last name and the year
of publication, usually before the cited material, and a page num-
ber in parentheses directly aft er the cited material. In the follow-
ing models, the elements of the in-text citation are highlighted.
NOTE: APA style requires the use of the past tense or the present
perfect tense in signal phrases introducing cited material: Smith
(2012) reported, Smith (2012) has argued. (See also p. 543.)
■ 1. Basic format for a quotation Ordinarily, introduce the
quotation with a signal phrase that includes the author’s last
name followed by the year of publication in parentheses. Put the
page number (preceded by “p.”) in parentheses aft er the quota-
tion. For sources from the Web without page numbers, see item
12a on page 551.
Critser (2003) noted that despite growing numbers of overweight
Americans, many health care providers still “remain either in
ignorance or outright denial about the health danger to the poor
and the young” (p. 5).
If the author is not named in the signal phrase, place the author’s
name, the year, and the page number in parentheses aft er the
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61a
quotation: (Critser, 2003, p. 5). (See items 6 and 12 for citing
sources that lack authors; item 12 also explains how to handle
sources without dates or page numbers.)
NOTE: Do not include a month in an in-text citation, even if the
entry in the reference list includes the month.
■ 2. Basic format for a summary or a paraphrase As with a quo-
tation (see item 1), include the author’s last name and the year
either in a signal phrase introducing the material or in parenthe-
ses following it. Use a page number, if one is available, following
the cited material. For sources from the Web without page num-
bers, see item 12a on page 551.
Yanovski and Yanovski (2002) explained that sibutramine suppresses
appetite by blocking the reuptake of the neurotransmitters serotonin
and norepinephrine in the brain (p. 594).
Sibutramine suppresses appetite by blocking the reuptake of
the neurotransmitters serotonin and norepinephrine in the brain
(Yanovski & Yanovski, 2002, p. 594).
■ 3. Work with two authors Name both authors in the sig-
nal phrase or in parentheses each time you cite the work. In the
parentheses, use “&” between the authors’ names; in the signal
phrase, use “and.”
According to Sothern and Gordon (2003), “Environmental factors
may contribute as much as 80% to the causes of childhood obesity”
(p. 104).
Obese children often engage in limited physical activity (Sothern &
Gordon, 2003, p. 104).
■ 4. Work with three to fi ve authors Identify all authors in the
signal phrase or in parentheses the fi rst time you cite the source.
In 2003, Berkowitz, Wadden, Tershakovec, and Cronquist
concluded, “Sibutramine . . . must be carefully monitored in
adolescents, as in adults, to control increases in [blood pressure]
and pulse rate” (p. 1811).
In subsequent citations, use the fi rst author’s name followed by
“et al.” in either the signal phrase or the parentheses.
APA documentation style
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61a
As Berkowitz et al. (2003) advised, “Until more extensive safety and
efficacy data are available, . . . weight-loss medications should be
used only on an experimental basis for adolescents” (p. 1811).
■ 5. Work with six or more authors Use the fi rst author’s name
followed by “et al.” in the signal phrase or in parentheses.
McDuffie et al. (2002) tested 20 adolescents, aged 12-16, over
a three-month period and found that orlistat, combined with
behavioral therapy, produced an average weight loss of 4.4 kg, or
9.7 pounds (p. 646).
■ 6. Work with unknown author If the author is unknown,
mention the work’s title in the signal phrase or give the fi rst word
or two of the title in the parentheses. Titles of short works such
as articles are put in quotation marks; titles of long works such as
books and reports are italicized.
Children struggling to control their weight must also struggle
with the pressures of television advertising that, on the one
hand, encourages the consumption of junk food and, on the other,
celebrates thin celebrities (“Television,” 2002).
NOTE: In the rare case when “Anonymous” is specifi ed as the
author, treat it as if it were a real name: (Anonymous, 2001). In
the list of references, also use the name Anonymous as author.
■ 7. Organization as author If the author is an organization or
a government agency, name the organization in the signal phrase
or in the parentheses the fi rst time you cite the source.
Obesity puts children at risk for a number of medical complications,
including Type 2 diabetes, hypertension, sleep apnea, and
orthopedic problems (Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, 2004,
p. 1).
If the organization has a familiar abbreviation, you may in-
clude it in brackets the fi rst time you cite the source and use the
abbreviation alone in later citations.
FIRST CITATION (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC],
2012)
LATER CITATIONS (CDC, 2012)
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■ 8. Authors with the same last name To avoid confusion if
your reference list includes two or more authors with the same
last name, use initials with the last names in your in-text citations.
Research by E. Smith (1989) revealed that. . . .
One 2012 study contradicted . . . (R. Smith, p. 234).
■ 9. Two or more works by the same author in the same year
When your list of references includes more than one work by the
same author in the same year, you will use lowercase letters (“a,”
“b,” and so on) with the year to order the entries in the reference
list. (See item 8 on p. 557.) Use those same letters with the year in
the in-text citation.
Research by Durgin (2003b) has yielded new findings about the role
of counseling in treating childhood obesity.
■ 10. Two or more works in the same parentheses Put the
works in the same order that they appear in the reference list,
separated with semicolons.
Researchers have indicated that studies of pharmacological
treatments for childhood obesity are inconclusive (Berkowitz et al.,
2003; McDuffie et al., 2002).
■ 11. Multiple citations to the same work in one paragraph If
you give the author’s name in the text of your paper (not in
parentheses) and you mention that source again in the text of the
same paragraph, give only the author’s name, not the date, in the
later citation. If any subsequent reference in the same paragraph
is in parentheses, include both the author and the date in the
parentheses.
Principal Jean Patrice said, “You have to be able to reach students
where they are instead of making them come to you. If you don’t,
you’ll lose them” (personal communication, April 10, 2006). Patrice
expressed her desire to see all students get something out of their
educational experience. This feeling is common among members of
Waverly’s faculty. With such a positive view of student potential, it
is no wonder that 97% of Waverly High School graduates go on to a
four-year university (Patrice, 2006).
APA documentation style
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61a
■ 12. Web source Cite sources from the Web as you would
cite any other source, giving the author and the year when they
are available.
Atkinson (2001) found that children who spent at least four hours
a day watching TV were less likely to engage in adequate physical
activity during the week.
Usually a page number is not available; occasionally a Web source
will lack an author or a date (see items 12a, 12b, and 12c).
a. No page numbers When a Web source lacks stable numbered
pages, you may include paragraph numbers or headings to help
readers locate the passage being cited.
If the source has numbered paragraphs, use the paragraph
number preceded by the abbreviation “para.”: (Hall, 2012, para.
5). If the source has no numbered paragraphs but contains head-
ings, cite the appropriate heading in parentheses; you may also
indicate which paragraph under the heading you are referring to,
even if the paragraphs are not numbered.
Hoppin and Taveras (2004) pointed out that several other medications
were classified by the Drug Enforcement Administration as having the
“potential for abuse” (Weight-Loss Drugs section, para. 6).
NOTE: For PDF documents that have stable page numbers, give
the page number in the parenthetical citation.
b. Unknown author If no author is named in the source, mention the
title of the source in a signal phrase or give the fi rst word or two of
the title in parentheses (see also item 6). (If an organization
serves as the author, see item 7.)
The body’s basal metabolic rate, or BMR, is a measure of its at-rest
energy requirement (“Exercise,” 2003).
c. Unknown date When the source does not give a date, use the
abbreviation “n.d.” (for “no date”).
Attempts to establish a definitive link between television
programming and children’s eating habits have been problematic
(Magnus, n.d.).
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61a
■ 13. An entire Web site If you are citing an entire Web site,
not an internal page or a section, give the URL in the text of your
paper but do not include it in the reference list.
The U.S. Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion website (http://
www.cnpp.usda.gov/) provides useful information about diet and
nutrition for children and adults.
■ 14. Multivolume work If you have used more than one
volume from a multivolume work, add the volume number in
parentheses with the page number.
Banford (2009) has demonstrated stable weight loss over time from
a combination of psychological counseling, exercise, and nutritional
planning (Volume 2, p. 135).
■ 15. Personal communication Interviews that you conduct,
memos, letters, e-mail messages, social media posts, and simi-
lar communications that would be diffi cult for your readers to
retrieve should be cited in the text only, not in the reference list.
(Use the fi rst initial with the last name in parentheses.)
One of Atkinson’s colleagues, who has studied the effect of the
media on children’s eating habits, has contended that advertisers
for snack foods will need to design ads responsibly for their younger
viewers (F. Johnson, personal communication, October 20, 2013).
■ 16. Course materials Cite lecture notes from your instruc-
tor or your own class notes as personal communication (see item
15). If your instructor distributes or posts materials that con-
tain publication information, cite as you would the appropriate
source (for instance, an article, a section in a Web document, or a
video). See also item 65 on page 579.
■ 17. Part of a source (chapter, fi gure) To cite a specifi c part of
a source, such as a whole chapter or a fi gure or table, identify the
element in parentheses. Don’t abbreviate terms such as “Figure,”
“Chapter,” and “Section”; “page” is always abbreviated “p.” (or
“pp.” for more than one page).
The data support the finding that weight loss stabilizes with consistent
therapy and ongoing monitoring (Hanniman, 2010, Figure 8-3, p. 345).
■ 18. Indirect source (source quoted in another source) When
a writer’s or a speaker’s quoted words appear in a source written by
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61bAPA list of references
someone else, begin the parenthetical citation with the words “as
cited in.” In the following example, Critser is the author of the source
given in the reference list; that source contains a quotation by Satcher.
Former surgeon general Dr. David Satcher described “a nation of
young people seriously at risk of starting out obese and dooming
themselves to the difficult task of overcoming a tough illness”
(as cited in Critser, 2003, p. 4).
■ 19. Sacred or classical text Identify the text, the version or
edition you used, and the relevant part (chapter, verse, line). It is
not necessary to include the source in the reference list.
Peace activists have long cited the biblical prophet’s vision
of a world without war: “And they shall beat their swords into
plowshares, and their spears into pruning hooks; nation shall not
lift up sword against nation, neither shall they learn war any more”
(Isaiah 2:4, Revised Standard Version).
61b APA list of references
As you gather sources for an assignment, you will likely fi nd sources
in print, on the Web, and in other places. Th e information you will
need for the reference list at the end of your paper will diff er slightly
for some sources, but the main principles apply to all sources: You
should identify an author, a creator, or a producer whenever pos-
sible; give a title; and provide the date on which the source was pro-
duced. Some sources will require page numbers; some will require a
publisher; and some will require retrieval information.
▶ General guidelines for the reference list, page 554
Section 61b provides specifi c requirements for and examples
of many of the sources you are likely to encounter. When you cite
sources, your goals are to show that the sources you’ve used are reli-
able and relevant to your work, to provide your readers with enough
information so that they can fi nd your sources easily, and to provide
that information in a consistent way according to APA conventions.
In the list of references, include only sources that you have
quoted, summarized, or paraphrased in your paper.
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61b APA documentation style
General guidelines for listing authors
Th e formatting of authors’ names in items 1–12 applies to all
sources in print and on the Web — books, articles, Web sites, and
so on. For more models of specifi c source types, see items 13–69.
General guidelines for the reference list
In APA style, the alphabetical list of works cited, which appears at
the end of the paper, is titled “References.”
Authors and dates
● Alphabetize entries in the list of references by authors’ last
names; if a work has no author, alphabetize it by its title.
● For all authors’ names, put the last name fi rst, followed by a
comma; use initials for the fi rst and middle names.
● With two or more authors, use an ampersand (&) before the
last author’s name. Separate the names with commas. Include
names for the fi rst seven authors; if there are eight or more
authors, give the fi rst six authors, three ellipsis dots, and the
last author.
● If the author is a company or an organization, give the name in
normal order.
● Put the date of publication immediately aft er the fi rst element
of the citation. Enclose the date in parentheses, followed by a
period (outside the parentheses).
● For books, give the year of publication. For magazines, newspa-
pers, and newsletters, give the exact date as in the publication
(the year plus the month or the year plus the month and the
day). For sources on the Web, give the date of posting, if it is
available. Use the season if the publication gives only a season
and not a month.
Titles
● Italicize the titles and subtitles of books, journals, and other long
works.
● Use no italics or quotation marks for the titles of articles.
● For books and articles, capitalize only the fi rst word of the title
and subtitle and all proper nouns.
● For the titles of journals, magazines, and newspapers, capitalize
all words of four letters or more (and all nouns, pronouns, verbs,
adjectives, and adverbs of any length).
19_HAC_01131_PT11_527_596.indd 55419_HAC_01131_PT11_527_596.indd 554 01/09/15 4:58 PM01/09/15 4:58 PM
555
APA
61bAPA list of references
Place of publication and publisher
● Take the information about a book from its title page and copy-
right page. If more than one place of publication is listed, use
only the fi rst.
● Give the city and state for all US cities. Use postal abbreviations
for all states.
● Give the city and country for all non-US cities; include the
province for Canadian cities. Do not abbreviate the country and
province.
● Do not give a state if the publisher’s name includes it (Ann
Arbor: University of Michigan Press, for example).
● In publishers’ names, omit terms such as “Company” (or “Co.”)
and “Inc.” but keep “Books” and “Press.” Omit fi rst names or ini-
tials (Norton, not W. W. Norton, for example).
● If the publisher is the same as the author, use the word “Author”
in the publisher position.
Volume, issue, and page numbers
● For a journal or a magazine, give only the volume number if the
publication is paginated continuously through each volume; give
the volume and issue numbers if each issue begins on page 1.
● Italicize the volume number and put the issue number, not itali-
cized, in parentheses.
● For monthly magazines, give the year and the month; for weekly
magazines, add the day.
● For daily and weekly newspapers, give the month, day, and year;
use “p.” or “pp.” before page numbers (if any). For journals and
magazines, do not add “p.” or “pp.”
● When an article appears on consecutive pages, provide the range
of pages. When an article does not appear on consecutive pages,
give all page numbers: A1, A17.
URLs, DOIs, and other retrieval information
● For articles and books from the Web, use the DOI (digital object
identifi er) if the source has one, and do not give a URL. If a
source does not have a DOI, give the URL.
● Use a retrieval date for a Web source only if the content is likely
to change. Most of the examples in 61b do not show a retrieval
date because the content of the sources is stable. If you are
unsure about whether to use a retrieval date, include the date or
consult your instructor.
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556
APA
61b APA documentation style
■ 1. Single author
Brown, S. (2014). Mean streak. New York, NY: Grand Central.
■ 2. Two to seven authors List up to seven authors by last
names followed by initials. Use an ampersand (&) before the
name of the last author. (See items 3–5 on pp. 548–49 for citing
works with multiple authors in the text of your paper.)
Stanford, D. J., & Bradley, B. A. (2012). Across the Atlantic ice: The origins
of America’s Clovis culture. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Ludwig, J., Duncan, G. J., Gennetian, L. A., Katz, L. F., Kessler, R. C.,
Kling, J. R., & Sanbonmatsu, L. (2012). Neighborhood effects on
the long-term well-being of low-income adults. Science, 337,
1505-1510. doi:10.1126/science.1224648
■ 3. Eight or more authors List the fi rst six authors followed by
three ellipsis dots and the last author’s name.
Tøttrup, A. P., Klaassen, R. H. G., Kristensen, M. W., Strandberg, R.,
Vardanis, Y., Lindström, Å., . . . Thorup, K. (2012). Drought in Africa
caused delayed arrival of European songbirds. Science, 338, 1307.
doi:10.1126/science.1227548
■ 4. Organization as author
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical
manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
author: last
name +
initial(s)
year
(book) title (book)
place of
publication publisher
all authors:
last name + initial(s)
year
(book) title (book)
place of
publication publisher
all authors:
last name + initial(s)
year
(journal) title (article)
journal
title volume
page(s) DOI
author:
organization name year title (book)
edition
place
of publication
organization
as author
and publisher
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557
APA
61bAPA list of references
■ 5. Unknown author Begin the entry with the work’s title.
The rise of the sharing economy. (2013, March 9). The Economist,
406(8826), 14.
New concise world atlas. (2010). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
■ 6. Author using a pseudonym (pen name) or screen name Use
the author’s real name, if known, and give the pseudonym or
screen name in brackets exactly as it appears in the source. If
only the screen name is known, begin with that name and do not
use brackets. (See also items 47 and 68 on citing screen names in
social media.)
littlebigman. (2012, December 13). Re: Who’s watching? Privacy concerns
persist as smart meters roll out [Comment]. National Geographic
Daily News. Retrieved from http://news.nationalgeographic.com/
■ 7. Two or more works by the same author Use the author’s
name for all entries. List the entries by year, the earliest fi rst.
Heinrich, B. (2009). Summer world: A season of bounty. New York, NY: Ecco.
Heinrich, B. (2012). Life everlasting: The animal way of death. New York,
NY: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
■ 8. Two or more works by the same author in the same year List
the works alphabetically by title. In the parentheses, following the
year add “a,” “b,” and so on. Use these same letters when giving
the year in the in-text citation. (See also p. 584 and item 9 on
p. 550.)
Bower, B. (2012a, December 15). Families in flux. Science News, 182(12), 16.
Bower, B. (2012b, November 3). Human-Neandertal mating gets a new
date. Science News, 182(9), 8.
title (article)
year + month + day
(weekly publication) journal title
volume,
issue page(s)
title (book) year
place of
publication publisher
screen name
year + month + day
(daily publication) title of original article
label title of publication
URL for Web publication
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http://news.nationalgeographic.com/
558
APA
61b APA documentation style
■ 9. Editor Begin with the name of the editor or editors; place
the abbreviation “Ed.” (or “Eds.” for more than one editor) in
parentheses following the name. (See item 10 for a work with
both an author and an editor.)
Carr, S. C., MacLachlan, M., & Furnham, A. (Eds.). (2012).
Humanitarian work psychology. New York, NY: Palgrave.
■ 10. Author and editor Begin with the name of the author,
followed by the name of the editor and the abbreviation “Ed.”
For an author with two or more editors, use the abbreviation
“Ed.” aft er each editor’s name: Gray, W., & Jones, P. (Ed.), &
Smith, A. (Ed.).
James, W., & Pelikan, J. (Ed.). (2009). The varieties of religious experience.
New York, NY: Library of America. (Original work published 1902)
■ 11. Translator Begin with the name of the author. Aft er the
title, in parentheses place the name of the translator (in normal
order) and the abbreviation “Trans.” (for “Translator”). Add the
original date of publication at the end of the entry.
Scheffer, P. (2011). Immigrant nations (L. Waters, Trans.). Cambridge,
England: Polity Press. (Original work published 2007)
■ 12. Editor and translator If the editor and translator are the
same person, the same name appears in both the editor position
and the translator position.
Girard, R., & Williams, J. G. (Ed.). (2012). Resurrection from the
underground (J. G. Williams, Trans.). East Lansing: Michigan State
University Press. (Original work published 1996)
all editors:
last name + initial(s) year
title (book)
place of
publication publisher
author editor year title (book)
place of
publication publisher
original
publication information
author year title (book) translator
place of
publication
publisher
original
publication information
19_HAC_01131_PT11_527_596.indd 55819_HAC_01131_PT11_527_596.indd 558 01/09/15 4:58 PM01/09/15 4:58 PM
559
APA
61bAPA list of references
Articles and other short works
▶ Citation at a glance: Article in a journal or magazine, page 560
▶ Citation at a glance: Article from a database, page 562
■ 13. Article in a journal If an article from the Web or a data-
base has no DOI, include the URL for the journal’s home page.
a. Print
Bippus, A. M., Dunbar, N. E., & Liu, S.-J. (2012). Humorous responses
to interpersonal complaints: Effects of humor style and nonverbal
expression. The Journal of Psychology, 146, 437-453.
b. Web
Vargas, N., & Schafer, M. H. (2013). Diversity in action: Interpersonal
networks and the distribution of advice. Social Science Research,
42(1), 46-58. doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2012.08.013
Brenton, S. (2011). When the personal becomes political: Mitigating
damage following scandals. Current Research in Social Psychology.
Retrieved from http://www.uiowa.edu/~grpproc/crisp/crisp.html
c. Database
Sohn, K. (2012). The social class origins of U.S. teachers, 1860-1920.
Journal of Social History, 45(4), 908-935. doi:10.1093/jsh/shr121
all authors: last name + initial(s) year article title
journal title volume page(s)
all authors:
last name + initial(s) year article title
journal title
volume,
issue page(s) DOI
author year article title
journal title (no volume available)
URL for journal home page
author
year
( journal) article title
journal title
volume,
issue page(s) DOI
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http://www.uiowa.edu/~grpproc/crisp/crisp.html
Citation at a glance
Article in a journal or magazine (APA)
To cite an article in a print journal or magazine in APA style, include the
following elements:
1 Author(s)
2 Year of publication for
journal; complete date for
magazine
3 Title and subtitle of article
4 Name of journal or magazine
5 Volume number; issue
number, if required
(see p. 555)
6 Page number(s) of article
JOURNAL TABLE OF CONTENTS
4 2
5
1
4
3
6
560
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REFERENCE LIST ENTRY FOR AN ARTICLE IN A PRINT JOURNAL OR MAGAZINE
Butcher, J. (2013). School choice marches forward. Education Next, 13(1),
20-27.
For more on citing articles in APA style, see items 13–15.
1 2 3 4 5
6
Reprinted by permission of Harvard Kennedy School.
FIRST PAGE OF ARTICLE
1
2 4
3
561
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Citation at a glance
Article from a database (APA)
To cite an article from a database in APA style, include the following:
1 Author(s)
2 Year of publication for
journal; complete date for
magazine or newspaper
3 Title and subtitle of article
4 Name of periodical
5 Volume number; issue
number, if required
(see p. 555)
6 Page number(s)
7 DOI (digital object identifi er)
8 URL for periodical’s home
page (if there is no DOI)
7
3
DATABASE RECORD
Reprinted by permission of EBSCO Publishing.
1
2 64 5
562
For more on citing articles from a database in APA style, see items 13–15.
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563
■ 14. Article in a magazine If an article from the Web or a data-
base has no DOI, include the URL for the magazine’s home page.
a. Print
Comstock, J. (2012, December). The underrated sense. Psychology Today,
45(6), 46-47.
b. Web
Burns, J. (2012, December 3). The measure of all things. The American
Prospect. Retrieved from http://prospect.org/
c. Database
Tucker, A. (2012, November). Primal instinct. Smithsonian, 43(7), 54-63.
Retrieved from http://www.smithsonianmag.com/
■ 15. Article in a newspaper
a. Print
Swarns, R. L. (2012, December 9). A family, for a few days a year.
The New York Times, pp. 1, 20.
author
year + month
(monthly magazine) article title
magazine
title
volume,
issue page(s)
author
date of posting
(when available) article title magazine title
URL for home page
author
year + month
(monthly magazine) article title magazine title
volume,
issue page(s)
URL for magazine home page
author year + month + day article title
newspaper title page(s)
REFERENCE LIST ENTRY FOR AN ARTICLE FROM A DATABASE
Cojanu, V. (2013). Economics, Darwinism, and the case of disciplinary
imports. American Journal of Economics & Sociology, 72, 179-198.
doi:10.1111/j.1536-7150.2012.00867.x
1 2 3
4 5 6
7
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http://prospect.org/
http://www.smithsonianmag.com/
564
APA
61b APA documentation style
■ 15. Article in a newspaper (cont.)
b. Web
Villanueva-Whitman, E. (2012, November 27). Working to stimulate
memory function. Des Moines Register. Retrieved from
http://www.desmoinesregister.com/
■ 16. Abstract Add the label “Abstract,” in brackets, aft er the title.
a. Abstract of a journal article
Morales, J., Calvo, A., & Bialystok, E. (2013). Working memory
development in monolingual and bilingual children [Abstract].
Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 114, 187-202. Retrieved
from http://www.sciencedirect.com/
b. Abstract of a paper
Denham, B. (2012). Diffusing deviant behavior: A communication
perspective on the construction of moral panics [Abstract]. Paper
presented at the AEJMC 2012 Conference, Chicago, IL. Retrieved
from http://www.aejmc.org/home/2012/04/ctm-2012-abstracts/
■ 17. Supplemental material If an article on the Web contains
supplemental material that is not part of the main article, cite the
material as you would an article and add the label “Supplemental
material” in brackets following the title.
Reis, S., Grennfelt, P., Klimont, Z., Amann, M., ApSimon, H., Hettelingh,
J.-P., . . . Williams, M. (2012). From acid rain to climate change
[Supplemental material]. Science 338(6111), 1153-1154.
doi:10.1126/science.1226514
■ 18. Article with a title in its title If an article title contains
another article title or a term usually placed in quotation marks,
use quotation marks around the internal title or the term.
Easterling, D., & Millesen, J. L. (2012, Summer). Diversifying civic
leadership: What it takes to move from “new faces” to adaptive
author: last
name + initial(s) year + month + day article title
newspaper title
URL for home page
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http://www.desmoinesregister.com/
http://www.sciencedirect.com/
http://www.aejmc.org/home/2012/04/ctm-2012-abstracts/
565
APA
61bAPA list of references
problem solving. National Civic Review, 20-27. doi:10.1002
/ncr.21073
■ 19. Letter to the editor Insert the words “Letter to the editor”
in brackets aft er the title of the letter. If the letter has no title, use
the bracketed words as the title (as in the following example).
Lim, C. (2012, November-December). [Letter to the editor]. Sierra.
Retrieved from http://www.sierraclub.org/sierra/
■ 20. Editorial or other unsigned article
The business case for transit dollars [Editorial]. (2012, December 9). Star
Tribune. Retrieved from http://www.startribune.com/
■ 21. Newsletter article Cite as you would an article in a
magazine, giving whatever publication information is available
(volume, issue, page numbers, and so on).
Scrivener, L. (n.d.). Why is the minimum wage issue important for food
justice advocates? Food Workers—Food Justice, 15. Retrieved from
http://www.thedatabank.com/dpg/199/pm.asp?nav=1&ID=41429
■ 22. Review Give the author and title of the review (if any)
and, in brackets, the type of work, the title, and the author for a
book or the year for a fi lm. If the review has no author or title, use
the material in brackets as the title.
Aviram, R. B. (2012). [Review of the book What do I say? The therapist’s
guide to answering client questions, by L. N. Edelstein & C. A. Waehler].
Psychotherapy, 49(4), 570-571. doi:10.1037/a0029815
Bradley, A., & Olufs, E. (2012). Family dynamics and school violence
[Review of the motion picture We need to talk about Kevin, 2011].
PsycCRITIQUES, 57(49). doi:10.1037/a0030982
author
of review
year
(journal) book title
book author(s)
journal title
volume,
issue page(s) DOI
author(s)
year
(journal) review title
fi lm title
year
(fi lm)
journal title
volume,
issue DOI
19_HAC_01131_PT11_527_596.indd 56519_HAC_01131_PT11_527_596.indd 565 01/09/15 4:59 PM01/09/15 4:59 PM
http://www.sierraclub.org/sierra/
http://www.startribune.com/
http://www.thedatabank.com/dpg/199/pm.asp?nav=1&ID=41429
566
APA
61b APA documentation style
■ 23. Published interview Begin with the person interviewed,
and put the interviewer in brackets following the title (if any).
Githongo, J. (2012, November 20). A conversation with John Githongo
[Interview by Baobab]. The Economist. Retrieved from http://www
.economist.com/
■ 24. Article in a reference work (encyclopedia, dictionary, wiki)
a. Print See also item 32 on citing a volume in a multivolume work.
Konijn, E. A. (2008). Affects and media exposure. In W. Donsbach (Ed.),
The international encyclopedia of communication (Vol. 1, pp. 123-129).
Malden, MA: Blackwell.
b. Web
Ethnomethodology. (2006). In STS wiki. Retrieved December 15, 2012,
from http://www.stswiki.org/index.php?title=Ethnomethodology
■ 25. Comment on an online article Begin with the writer’s real
name or screen name. If both are given, put the real name fi rst,
followed by the screen name in brackets. Before the title, use “Re”
and a colon. Add “Comment” in brackets following the title.
Danboy125. (2012, November 9). Re: No flowers on the psych ward
[Comment]. The Atlantic. Retrieved from http://www.theatlantic
.com/
■ 26. Testimony before a legislative body
Carmona, R. H. (2004, March 2). The growing epidemic of childhood
obesity. Testimony before the Subcommittee on Competition, Foreign
Commerce, and Infrastructure of the U.S. Senate Committee on
Commerce, Science, and Transportation. Retrieved from http://www
.hhs.gov/asl/testify/t040302.html
■ 27. Paper presented at a meeting or symposium (unpublished)
Karimi, S., Key, G., & Tat, D. (2011, April 22). Complex predicates in
focus. Paper presented at the West Coast Conference on Formal
Linguistics, Tucson, AZ.
19_HAC_01131_PT11_527_596.indd 56619_HAC_01131_PT11_527_596.indd 566 01/09/15 4:59 PM01/09/15 4:59 PM
http://www.stswiki.org/index.php?title=Ethnomethodology
http://www.economist.com/
http://www.economist.com/
http://www.theatlantic.com/
http://www.theatlantic.com/
http://www.hhs.gov/asl/testify/t040302.html
http://www.hhs.gov/asl/testify/t040302.html
567
APA
61bAPA list of references
■ 28. Poster session at a conference
Lacara, N. (2011, April 24). Predicate which appositives. Poster session
presented at the West Coast Conference on Formal Linguistics,
Tucson, AZ.
Books and other long works
▶ Citation at a glance: Book, page 568
■ 29. Basic format for a book
a. Print
Child, B. J. (2012). Holding our world together: Ojibwe women and the
survival of community. New York, NY: Viking.
b. Web (or online library) Give the URL for the home page of the Web
site or the online library.
Amponsah, N. A., & Falola, T. (2012). Women’s roles in sub-Saharan Africa.
Retrieved from http://books.google.com/
c. E-book Give the version in brackets aft er the title (“Kindle ver-
sion,” “Nook version,” and so on). Include the DOI or, if a DOI is
not available, the URL for the home page of the site from which
you downloaded the book.
Wolf, D. A., & Folbre, N. (Eds.). (2012). Universal coverage of long-term
care in the United States [Adobe Digital Editions version]. Retrieved
from https://www.russellsage.org/
d. Database Give the URL for the database.
Beasley, M. H. (2012). Women of the Washington press: Politics, prejudice,
and persistence. Retrieved from http://muse.jhu.edu/
author(s):
last name
+ initial(s) year book title
place of
publication publisher
author(s) year book title
URL
19_HAC_01131_PT11_527_596.indd 56719_HAC_01131_PT11_527_596.indd 567 01/09/15 4:59 PM01/09/15 4:59 PM
http://books.google.com/
https://www.russellsage.org/
http://muse.jhu.edu/
REFERENCE LIST ENTRY FOR A PRINT BOOK
Smith, P. D. (2012). City: A guidebook for the urban age. London, England:
Bloomsbury.
For more on citing books in APA style, see items 29–37.
1 2 3 4
5
Citation at a glance
Book (APA)
To cite a print book in APA style, include the following elements:
1 Author(s)
2 Year of publication
3 Title and subtitle
4 Place of publication
5 Publisher
2
1
4
5
FROM
COPYRIGHT
PAGE
TITLE PAGE
3
568
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569
APA
61bAPA list of references
■ 30. Edition other than the fi rst Include the edition number
(abbreviated) in parentheses aft er the title.
Harvey, P. (2013). An introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, history, and
practices (2nd ed.). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
■ 31. Selection in an anthology or a collection An anthology
is a collection of works on a common theme, oft en with diff erent
authors for the selections and usually with an editor for the entire
volume.
a. Entire anthology
Warren, A. E. A., Lerner, R. M., & Phelps, E. (Eds.). (2011). Thriving and
spirituality among youth: Research perspectives and future possibilities.
Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
b. Selection in an anthology
Lazar, S. W. (2012). Neural correlates of positive youth development. In
A. E. A. Warren, R. M. Lerner, & E. Phelps (Eds.), Thriving and spirituality
among youth: Research perspectives and future possibilities (pp. 77-90).
Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
■ 32. Multivolume work If the volumes have been published
over several years, give the span of years in parentheses. If you
have used only one volume of a multivolume work, indicate the
volume number aft er the title of the complete work; if the volume
has its own title, add that title aft er the volume number.
a. All volumes
Khalakdina, M. (2008-2011). Human development in the Indian context: A
socio-cultural focus (Vols. 1-2). New Delhi, India: Sage.
editor(s) year
title of anthology
place of
publication publisher
author of
selection year title of selection
editors of anthology title of anthology
page numbers
of selection
place of
publication publisher
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570
APA
61b APA documentation style
b. One volume, with title
Jensen, R. E. (Ed.). (2012). Voices of the American West: Vol. 1. The
Indian interviews of Eli S. Ricker, 1903-1919. Lincoln: University of
Nebraska Press.
■ 33. Introduction, preface, foreword, or afterword
Zachary, L. J. (2012). Foreword. In L. A. Daloz, Mentor: Guiding the
journey of adult learners (pp. v-vii). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
■ 34. Dictionary or other reference work
Leong, F. T. L. (Ed.). (2008). Encyclopedia of counseling (Vols. 1-4).
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Nichols, J. D., & Nyholm, E. (2012). A concise dictionary of Minnesota
Ojibwe. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
■ 35. Republished book
Mailer, N. (2008). Miami and the siege of Chicago: An informal history of
the Republican and Democratic conventions of 1968. New York, NY:
New York Review Books. (Original work published 1968)
■ 36. Book with a title in its title If the book title contains
another book title or an article title, do not italicize the internal
title and do not put quotation marks around it.
Marcus, L. (Ed.). (1999). Sigmund Freud’s The interpretation of dreams:
New interdisciplinary essays. Manchester, England: Manchester
University Press.
■ 37. Book in a language other than English Place the English
translation, not italicized, in brackets.
Carminati, G. G., & Méndez, A. (2012). Étapes de vie, étapes de soins [Stages
of life, stages of care]. Chêne-Bourg, Switzerland: Médecine & Hygiène.
■ 38. Dissertation
a. Published
Hymel, K. M. (2009). Essays in urban economics (Doctoral dissertation).
Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database.
(AAT 3355930)
19_HAC_01131_PT11_527_596.indd 57019_HAC_01131_PT11_527_596.indd 570 01/09/15 4:59 PM01/09/15 4:59 PM
571
APA
61bAPA list of references
b. Unpublished
Mitchell, R. D. (2007). The Wesleyan Quadrilateral: Relocating the
conversation (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Claremont School
of Theology, Claremont, CA.
■ 39. Conference proceedings
Yu, F.-Y., Hirashima, T., Supnithi, T., & Biswas, G. (2011). Proceedings
of the 19th International Conference on Computers in Education:
ICCE 2011. Retrieved from http://www.apsce.net:8080/icce2011
/program/proceedings/
■ 40. Government document If the document has a number,
place the number in parentheses aft er the title.
U.S. Transportation Department, Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety
Administration. (2012). Emergency response guidebook 2012.
Washington, DC: Author.
U.S. Census Bureau, Bureau of Economic Analysis. (2012, December). U.S.
international trade in goods and services, October 2012 (Report No.
CB12-232, BEA12-55, FT-900 [12-10]). Retrieved from http://www
.census.gov/foreign-trade/Press-Release/2012pr/10/
■ 41. Report from a private organization If the publisher and
the author are the same, begin with the publisher. For a print
source, use “Author” as the publisher at the end of the entry (see
item 4 on p. 556); for an online source, give the URL. If the report
has a number, put it in parentheses following the title.
Ford Foundation. (2012, November). Eastern Africa. Retrieved from http://
www.fordfoundation.org/pdfs/library/Eastern-Africa-brochure-2012
Atwood, B., Beam, M., Hindman, D. B., Hindman, E. B., Pintak, L., & Shors,
B. (2012, May 25). The Murrow Rural Information Initiative: Final report.
Pullman: Murrow College of Communication, Washington State University.
■ 42. Legal source Th e title of a court case is italicized in an
in-text citation, but it is not italicized in the reference list.
Sweatt v. Painter, 339 U.S. 629 (1950). Retrieved from Cornell University
Law School, Legal Information Institute website: http://www.law
.cornell.edu/supct/html/historics/USSC_CR_0339_0629_ZS.html
19_HAC_01131_PT11_527_596.indd 57119_HAC_01131_PT11_527_596.indd 571 01/09/15 4:59 PM01/09/15 4:59 PM
http://www.fordfoundation.org/pdfs/library/Eastern-Africa-brochure-2012
http://www.fordfoundation.org/pdfs/library/Eastern-Africa-brochure-2012
http://www.apsce.net:8080/icce2011/program/proceedings/
http://www.apsce.net:8080/icce2011/program/proceedings/
http://www.census.gov/foreign-trade/Press-Release/2012pr/10/
http://www.census.gov/foreign-trade/Press-Release/2012pr/10/
http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/historics/USSC_CR_0339_0629_ZS.html
http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/historics/USSC_CR_0339_0629_ZS.html
572
APA
61b APA documentation style
■ 43. Sacred or classical text It is not necessary to list sacred
works such as the Bible or the Qur’an or classical Greek and Roman
works (such as the Odyssey) in your reference list. See item 19 on
page 553 for how to cite these sources in the text of your paper.
Web sites and parts of Web sites
▶ Citation at a glance: Section in a Web document, page 576
NOTE: In an APA paper or an APA reference list entry, the word
“website” is spelled all lowercase, as one word.
■ 44. Entire Web site Do not include an entire Web site in the
reference list. Give the URL in parentheses when you mention it
in the text of your paper. (See item 13 on p. 552.)
■ 45. Document from a Web site List as many of the follow-
ing elements as are available: author’s name, publication date (or
“n.d.” if there is no date), title (in italics), publisher (if any), and
URL. If the publisher is known and is not named as the author,
include the publisher in your retrieval statement.
Wagner, D. A., Murphy, K. M., & De Korne, H. (2012, December).
Learning first: A research agenda for improving learning in
low-income countries. Retrieved from Brookings Institution
website: http://www.brookings.edu/research/papers/2012/12
/learning-first-wagner-murphy-de-korne
Gerber, A. S., & Green, D. P. (2012). Field experiments: Design, analysis, and
interpretation. Retrieved from Yale Institution for Social and Policy
Studies website: http://isps.yale.edu/research/data/d081#.UUy2HFdPL5w
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2012, December 10).
Concussion in winter sports. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov
/Features/HockeyConcussions/index.html
■ 46. Section in a Web document Cite as you would a chapter
in a book or a selection in an anthology (see item 31b on p. 569).
Pew Research Center. (2012, December 12). About the 2012 Pew global
attitudes survey. In Social networking popular across globe. Retrieved
from http://www.pewglobal.org/2012/12/12/social-networking
-popular-across-globe
19_HAC_01131_PT11_527_596.indd 57219_HAC_01131_PT11_527_596.indd 572 01/09/15 4:59 PM01/09/15 4:59 PM
http://isps.yale.edu/research/data/d081#.UUy2HFdPL5w
http://www.brookings.edu/research/papers/2012/12/learning-first-wagner-murphy-de-korne
http://www.brookings.edu/research/papers/2012/12/learning-first-wagner-murphy-de-korne
http://www.cdc.gov/Features/HockeyConcussions/index.html
http://www.cdc.gov/Features/HockeyConcussions/index.html
http://www.pewglobal.org/2012/12/12/social-networking-popular-across-globe
http://www.pewglobal.org/2012/12/12/social-networking-popular-across-globe
573
APA
61bAPA list of references
Chang, W.-Y., & Milan, L. M. (2012, October). Relationship
between degree field and emigration. In International
mobility and employment characteristics among recent
recipients of U.S. doctorates. Retrieved from National Science
Foundation website: http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/infbrief
/nsf13300
■ 47. Blog post Begin with the writer’s real name or screen
name. If both are given, put the real name fi rst, followed by the
screen name in brackets. Add the date of the post (or “n.d.” if the
post is undated). Place the label “Blog post” in brackets following
the title of the post. If there is no title, use the bracketed material
as the title. End with the URL for the post.
Kerssen, T. (2012, October 5). Hunger is political: Food Sovereignty Prize
honors social movements [Blog post]. Retrieved from http://www
.foodfirst.org/en/node/4020
■ 48. Blog comment Cite as a blog post, but add “Re” and a
colon before the title of the original post and the label “Blog com-
ment” in brackets following the title.
Studebakerhawk_14611. (2012, December 5). Re: A people’s history of
MOOCs [Blog comment]. Retrieved from http://www.insidehighered
.com/blogs/library-babel-fish/people’s-history-moocs
Audio, visual, and multimedia sources
■ 49. Podcast
Schulz, K. (2011, March). Kathryn Schulz: On being wrong [Video podcast].
Retrieved from TED on http://itunes.apple.com/
Taylor, A., & Parfitt, G. (2011, January 13). Physical activity and mental
health: What’s the evidence? [Audio podcast]. Retrieved from Open
University on http://itunes.apple.com/
■ 50. Video or audio on the Web
Kurzen, B. (2012, April 5). Going beyond Muslim-Christian conflict in
Nigeria [Video file]. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com
/watch?v=JD8MIJOA050
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http://itunes.apple.com/
http://itunes.apple.com/
http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/infbrief/nsf13300
http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/infbrief/nsf13300
http://www.foodfirst.org/en/node/4020
http://www.foodfirst.org/en/node/4020
http://www.insidehighered.com/blogs/library-babel-fish/people�s-history-moocs
http://www.insidehighered.com/blogs/library-babel-fish/people�s-history-moocs
574
APA
61b APA documentation style
■ 50. Video or audio on the Web (cont.)
Malone, T. W. Collective intelligence [Video file]. Retrieved from
http://edge.org/conversation/collective-intelligence
Bever, T., Piattelli-Palmarini, M., Hammond, M., Barss, A., & Bergesen,
A. (2012, February 2). A basic introduction to Chomsky’s linguistics
[Audio file]. Retrieved from University of Arizona, College of Social
& Behavioral Sciences, Department of Linguistics website: http://
linguistics.arizona.edu/node/711
■ 51. Transcript of an audio or a video fi le
Malone, T. W. Collective intelligence [Transcript of video file]. Retrieved
from http://edge.org/conversation/collective-intelligence
Glass, I. (2012, September 14). Back to school [Transcript of audio file No. 474].
In This American life. Retrieved from http://www.thisamericanlife.org/
■ 52. Film (DVD, BD, or other format) Give the director, pro-
ducer, and other relevant contributors, followed by the year of the
fi lm’s release and the title. In brackets, add a description of the
medium. Use “Motion picture” if you viewed the fi lm in a theater;
“Video fi le” if you downloaded the fi lm from the Web or through
a streaming service such as Netfl ix; “DVD” or “BD” if you viewed
the fi lm on DVD or Blu-ray Disc. For a motion picture or a DVD
or BD, add the location where the fi lm was made and the studio.
If you retrieved the fi lm from the Web or used a streaming ser-
vice, give the URL for the home page.
Affleck, B. (Director). (2012). Argo [Motion picture]. Burbank, CA: Warner Bros.
Ross, G. (Director and Writer), & Collins, S. (Writer). (2012). The hunger
games [Video file]. Retrieved from http://netflix.com/
■ 53. Television or radio program
a. Series
Hager, M. (Executive producer), & Schieffer, B. (Moderator). (2012). Face
the nation [Television series]. Washington, DC: CBS News.
b. Episode on the air
Harleston, R. (Host). (2012, December 1). Federal role in support of autism
[Television series episode]. In Washington journal. Washington, DC: C-SPAN.
19_HAC_01131_PT11_527_596.indd 57419_HAC_01131_PT11_527_596.indd 574 01/09/15 4:59 PM01/09/15 4:59 PM
http://edge.org/conversation/collective-intelligence
http://linguistics.arizona.edu/node/711
http://linguistics.arizona.edu/node/711
http://edge.org/conversation/collective-intelligence
http://www.thisamericanlife.org/
http://netflix.com/
575
APA
61bAPA list of references
c. Episode on the Web
Morton, D. (Producer). (2012). Fast times at West Philly High [Television
series episode]. In M. Hager (Executive producer), Frontline.
Retrieved from http://www.wgbh.org/
Glass, I. (Host). (2012, November 23). Little war on the prairie (No. 479)
[Radio series episode]. In This American life. Retrieved from
http://www.thisamericanlife.org/
■ 54. Music recording
Chibalonza, A. Jubilee. (2012). On African voices [CD]. Merenberg,
Germany: ZYX Music.
African voices [CD]. (2012). Merenberg, Germany: ZYX Music.
■ 55. Lecture, speech, or address
Verghese, A. (2012, December 6). Colonialism and patterns of ethnic
conflict in contemporary India. Address at the Freeman Spogli
Institute, Stanford University, Stanford, CA.
Donovan, S. (2012, June 12). Assisted housing mobility in challenging
times [Video file]. Address at the 5th National Conference on
Assisted Housing Mobility, Urban Institute, Washington, DC.
Retrieved from http://www.urban.org/events/HUD-Secretary-Shaun
-Donovan-Speaks-on-Housing-Mobility.cfm
■ 56. Data set or graphic representation of data (graph,
chart, table) Give information about the type of source in
brackets following the title. If there is no title, give a brief
description of the content of the source in brackets in place
of the title. If the item is numbered in the source, indicate the
number in parentheses after the title. If the graphic appears
within a larger document, do not italicize the title of the
graphic.
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. (2011). Daily
intake of nutrients by food source: 2005-08 [Data set]. Retrieved
from http://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/food-consumption
-and-nutrient-intakes.aspx
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http://www.wgbh.org/
http://www.thisamericanlife.org/
http://www.urban.org/events/HUD-Secretary-Shaun-Donovan-Speaks-on-Housing-Mobility.cfm
http://www.urban.org/events/HUD-Secretary-Shaun-Donovan-Speaks-on-Housing-Mobility.cfm
http://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/food-consumption-and-nutrient-intakes.aspx
http://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/food-consumption-and-nutrient-intakes.aspx
Citation at a glance
Section in a Web document (APA)
To cite a section in a Web document in APA style, include the following
elements:
1 Author(s)
2 Date of publication or most
recent update (“n.d.” if there
is no date)
3 Title of section
4 Title of document
5 URL of section
1
4
3
WEB DOCUMENT CONTENTS PAGE
576
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REFERENCE LIST ENTRY FOR A SECTION IN A WEB DOCUMENT
Minnesota Department of Health. (n.d.). Fertility. In 2010 Minnesota
health statistics annual summary. Retrieved from http://www.health
.state.mn.us/divs/chs/annsum/10annsum/Fertility2010
For more on citing documents from Web sites in APA style, see items 45 and 46.
1 2 3 4
5
5
Courtesy of the Minnesota Department of Health.
ON-SCREEN VIEW OF DOCUMENT
577
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http://www.health.state.mn.us/divs/chs/annsum/10annsum/Fertility2010
http://www.health.state.mn.us/divs/chs/annsum/10annsum/Fertility2010
578
APA
61b APA documentation style
■ 56. Data set or graphic representation of data (cont.)
Gallup. (2012, December 5). In U.S., more cite obesity as most urgent
health problem [Graphs]. Retrieved from http://www.gallup.com
/poll/159083/cite-obesity-urgent-health-problem.aspx
■ 57. Mobile application software (app) Begin with the devel-
oper of the app, if known (as in the second example).
MindNode Touch 2.3 [Mobile application software]. (2012). Retrieved
from http://itunes.apple.com/
Source Tree Solutions. (2012). mojoPortal [Mobile application software].
Retrieved from http://www.microsoft.com/web/gallery/
■ 58. Video game Begin with the creator of the video game, if
known. Add the label “Video game” in brackets aft er the title of the
program. If the game can be played on the Web or was downloaded
from the Web, give the URL instead of publication information.
Firaxis Games. (2010). Sid Meier’s Civilization V [Video game]. New York,
NY: Take-Two Interactive. Xbox 360.
Atom Entertainment. (2012). Edgeworld [Video game]. Retrieved from
http://www.addictinggames.com/
■ 59. Map
Ukraine [Map]. (2008). Retrieved from the University of Texas at Austin
Perry-Castañeda Library Map Collection website: http://www.lib
.utexas.edu/maps/cia08/ukraine_sm_2008.gif
Syrian uprising map [Map]. (2012, October). Retrieved from http://www
.polgeonow.com/2012/10/syria-uprising-map-october-2012-7.html
■ 60. Advertisement
VMware [Advertisement]. (2012, September). Harvard Business Review,
90(9), 27.
■ 61. Work of art or photograph
Olson, A. (2011). Short story [Painting]. Museum of Contemporary Art,
Chicago, IL.
Crowner, S. (2012). Kurtyna fragments [Painting]. Retrieved from http://
www.walkerart.org/
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http://itunes.apple.com/
http://www.microsoft.com/web/gallery/
http://www.addictinggames.com/
http://www.walkerart.org/
http://www.walkerart.org/
http://www.gallup.com/poll/159083/cite-obesity-urgent-health-problem.aspx
http://www.gallup.com/poll/159083/cite-obesity-urgent-health-problem.aspx
http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/cia08/ukraine_sm_2008.gif
http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/cia08/ukraine_sm_2008.gif
http://www.polgeonow.com/2012/10/syria-uprising-map-october-2012-7.html
http://www.polgeonow.com/2012/10/syria-uprising-map-october-2012-7.html
579
APA
61bAPA list of references
Weber, J. (1992). Toward freedom [Outdoor mural]. Sherman Oaks, CA.
■ 62. Brochure or fact sheet
National Council of State Boards of Nursing. (2011). A nurse’s guide to
professional boundaries [Brochure]. Retrieved from https://www
.ncsbn.org/
World Health Organization. (2012, September). Road traffic injuries (No.
358) [Fact sheet]. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/mediacentre
/factsheets/fs358/en/index.html
■ 63. Press release Generally, list the organization respon-
sible for the press release. Give the exact date.
Urban Institute. (2012, October 11). Two studies address health policy on
campaign trail [Press release]. Retrieved from http://www.urban
.org/publications/901537.html
■ 64. Presentation slides
Boeninger, C. F. (2008, August). Web 2.0 tools for reference and
instructional services [Presentation slides]. Retrieved from http://
libraryvoice.com/archives/2008/08/04/opal-20-conference
-presentation-slides
■ 65. Lecture notes or other course materials Cite materials
that your instructor has posted on the Web as you would a Web
document or a section in a Web document (see item 45 or 46). If
the materials are handouts or printouts, cite whatever informa-
tion is available in the source. Cite the instructor’s personal notes
or material that is not posted (such as slides) as personal commu-
nication in the text of your paper (see items 15 and 16 on p. 552).
Blum, R. (2011). Neurodevelopment in the first decade of life [Lecture
notes and audio file]. In R. Blum & L. M. Blum, Child health and
development. Retrieved from http://ocw.jhsph.edu/index.cfm/go
/viewCourse/course/childhealth/coursePage/lectureNotes/
Personal communication and social media
■ 66. E-mail E-mail messages, letters, and other personal com-
munication are not included in the list of references. (See item 15
on p. 552 for citing these sources in the text of your paper.)
19_HAC_01131_PT11_527_596.indd 57919_HAC_01131_PT11_527_596.indd 579 01/09/15 4:59 PM01/09/15 4:59 PM
https://www.ncsbn.org/
https://www.ncsbn.org/
http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs358/en/index.html
http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs358/en/index.html
http://www.urban.org/publications/901537.html
http://www.urban.org/publications/901537.html
http://ocw.jhsph.edu/index.cfm/go/viewCourse/course/childhealth/coursePage/lectureNotes/
http://ocw.jhsph.edu/index.cfm/go/viewCourse/course/childhealth/coursePage/lectureNotes/
580 APA manuscript format; sample research paper62
APA
■ 67. Online posting If an online posting is not archived, cite it
as a personal communication in the text of your paper and do not
include it in the list of references. If the posting is archived, give the
URL and the name of the discussion list if it is not part of the URL.
McKinney, J. (2006, December 19). Adult education-healthcare
partnerships [Electronic mailing list message]. Retrieved from
http://www.nifl.gov/pipermail/healthliteracy/2006/000524.html
■ 68. Twitter post (tweet) Use the author’s real name, if it is
given, and put the screen name in brackets exactly as it appears in
the source (including capitalization and punctuation). If only the
screen name is known, begin with that name and do not enclose
it in brackets. Include the entire text of the tweet as the title, fol-
lowed by the label “Tweet” in brackets; end with the URL.
CQ Researcher. (2012, December 5). Up to 80 percent of the 600,000
processed foods sold in America have sugar added to their recipes.
See http://bit.ly/UmfA4L [Tweet]. Retrieved from https://twitter
.com/cqresearcher/status/276449095521038336
■ 69. Facebook post Use the author’s name exactly as it appears
in the post. In place of a title, give a few words of the post followed
by the label “Facebook post” in brackets. Include the date you
retrieved the source and the URL for the poster’s Facebook page.
If you are citing a personal Facebook page that will not be acces-
sible to your readers, cite it as personal communication in your
text, not in the reference list (see item 15 on p. 552).
U.S. Department of Education. (2012, October 9). They are resilient
[Facebook post]. Retrieved October 15, 2012, from http://www
.facebook.com/ED.gov
62 APA manuscript format; sample research paper
Th e guidelines in this section are consistent with advice given in
the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association,
6th ed. (Washington, DC: APA, 2010), and with typical require-
ments for undergraduate papers.
19_HAC_01131_PT11_527_596.indd 58019_HAC_01131_PT11_527_596.indd 580 01/09/15 4:59 PM01/09/15 4:59 PM
http://www.nifl.gov/pipermail/healthliteracy/2006/000524.html
http://bit.ly/UmfA4L
http://www.facebook.com/ED.gov
http://www.facebook.com/ED.gov
Up to 80 percent of the 600,000 processed foods sold in America have sugar added to their recipes. See http://t.co/1h0h2vXw.
— CQ Researcher (@cqresearcher) December 5, 2012
Up to 80 percent of the 600,000 processed foods sold in America have sugar added to their recipes. See http://t.co/1h0h2vXw.
— CQ Researcher (@cqresearcher) December 5, 2012
APA manuscript format 581
APA
62a
62a APA manuscript format
Formatting the paper
Th e guidelines on pages 581–83 describe APA’s recommenda-
tions for formatting the text of your paper. For guidelines on pre-
paring the reference list, see pages 583–84.
Font If your instructor does not require a specifi c font, choose
one that is standard and easy to read (such as Times New Roman).
Title page Begin at the top left , with the words “Running head,”
followed by a colon and the title of your paper (shortened to
no more than fi ft y characters) in all capital letters. Put the page
number 1 fl ush with the right margin.
About halfway down the page, on separate lines, center the
full title of your paper, your name, and your school’s name. At the
bottom of the page, you may add the heading “Author Note,” cen-
tered, followed by a brief paragraph that lists specifi c information
about the course or department or provides acknowledgments or
contact information. See page 585 for a sample title page.
Page numbers and running head Number all pages with arabic
numerals (1, 2, 3, and so on) in the upper right corner one-half
inch from the top of the page. Flush with the left margin on the
same line as the page number, type a running head consisting of the
title of the paper (shortened to no more than fi ft y characters) in all
capital letters. On the title page only, include the words “Running
head” followed by a colon before the title. See pages 585–96.
Margins, line spacing, and paragraph indents Use margins of one
inch on all sides of the page. Left -align the text.
Double-space throughout the paper. Indent the fi rst line of
each paragraph one-half inch.
Capitalization, italics, and quotation marks In headings and in
titles of works that appear in the text of the paper, capitalize all
words of four letters or more (and all nouns, pronouns, verbs,
adjectives, and adverbs of any length). Capitalize the fi rst word
following a colon if the word begins a complete sentence.
In the body of your paper, italicize the titles of books, journals,
magazines, and other long works, such as Web sites. Use quotation
marks around the titles of articles, short stories, and other short works.
NOTE: APA has diff erent requirements for titles in the reference
list. See page 584.
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582
APA
62a APA manuscript format; sample research paper
Long quotations When a quotation is forty or more words, set it
off from the text by indenting it one-half inch from the left mar-
gin. Double-space the quotation. Do not use quotation marks
around it. (See p. 594 for an example. See also p. 541 for more
information about integrating long quotations.)
Footnotes If you insert a footnote number in the text of your
paper, place the number, raised above the line, immediately follow-
ing any mark of punctuation except a dash. At the bottom of the
page, begin the note with a one-half-inch indent and the superscript
number corresponding to the number in the text. Insert an extra
double-spaced line between the last line of text on the page and the
footnote. Double-space the footnote. (See p. 587 for an example.)
Abstract and keywords An abstract is a 150-to-250-word para-
graph that provides readers with a quick overview of your essay. It
should express your main idea and your key points; it might also
briefl y suggest any implications or applications of the research
you discuss in the paper.
If your instructor requires one, include an abstract on a new
page aft er the title page. Center the word “Abstract” (in regular
font, not boldface) one inch from the top of the page. Double-
space the abstract and do not indent the fi rst line.
A list of keywords follows the abstract; the keywords help
readers search for a published paper on the Web or in a data-
base. Leave one line of space aft er the abstract and begin the next
line with the word “Keywords,” italicized and indented one-half
inch, followed by a colon. Th en list important words related to
your paper. Check with your instructor for requirements in your
course. (See p. 586 for an example of an abstract.)
Headings Although headings are not always necessary, their use
is encouraged in the social sciences. For most undergraduate
papers, one level of heading is usually suffi cient. (See pp. 588–92.)
First-level headings are centered and boldface. In research papers
and laboratory reports, the major headings are “Method,” “Results,”
and “Discussion.” In other types of papers, the major headings should
be informative and concise, conveying the structure of the paper.
Second-level headings are fl ush left and boldface. Th ird-level
headings are indented and boldface, followed by a period and the
text on the same line.
In fi rst- and second-level headings, capitalize the fi rst and
last words and all words of four or more letters (and nouns, pro-
nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs of any length). In third-
level headings, capitalize only the fi rst word, any proper nouns,
and the fi rst word aft er a colon.
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APA manuscript format 583
APA
62a
First-Level Heading Centered
Second-Level Heading Flush Left
Third-level heading indented. Text immediately follows.
Visuals (tables and fi gures) APA classifi es visuals as tables and fi g-
ures (fi gures include graphs, charts, drawings, and photographs).
Label each table with an arabic numeral (Table 1, Table 2,
and so on) and provide a clear title. Place the label and title on
separate lines above the table, fl ush left and double-spaced. Type
the table number in regular font; italicize the table title.
If you have used data from an outside source or have taken
or adapted the table from a source, give the source information
in a note below the table. Begin with the word “Note,” italicized
and followed by a period. If any data in the table require an ex-
planatory footnote, use a superscript lowercase letter in the table
and in a footnote following the source note. Double-space source
notes and footnotes; do not indent the fi rst line of each note. (For
an example of a note in a table, see p. 591.)
For each fi gure, place the fi gure number and a caption below
the fi gure, fl ush left and double-spaced. Begin with the word
“Figure” and an arabic numeral, both italicized, followed by a
period. Place the caption, not italicized, on the same line. If you
have taken or adapted the fi gure from an outside source, give the
source information immediately following the caption. Use the
term “From” or “Adapted from” before the source information.
In the text of your paper, discuss the most signifi cant fea-
tures of each visual. Place the visual as close as possible to the
sentences that relate to it unless your instructor prefers that visu-
als appear in an appendix.
Preparing the list of references
Begin your list of references on a new page at the end of the paper.
Center the title “References” one inch from the top of the page.
Double-space throughout. For a sample reference list, see page 595.
Indenting entries Type the fi rst line of each entry fl ush left and
indent any additional lines one-half inch.
Alphabetizing the list Alphabetize the reference list by the last
names of the authors (or editors) or by the fi rst word of an orga-
nization name (if the author is an organization). When a work
has no author or editor, alphabetize by the fi rst word of the title
other than A, An, or Th e.
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584
APA
62b APA manuscript format; sample research paper
If your list includes two or more works by the same author,
arrange the entries by year, the earliest fi rst. If your list includes
two or more works by the same author in the same year, arrange
the works alphabetically by title. Add the letters “a,” “b,” and so on
within the parentheses aft er the year. For journal articles, use only
the year and the letter: (2012a). For articles in magazines and news-
papers, use the full date and the letter in the reference list: (2012a,
July 7); use only the year and the letter in the in-text citation.
Authors’ names Invert all authors’ names and use initials instead
of fi rst names. Separate the names with commas. For two to seven
authors, use an ampersand (&) before the last author’s name. For
eight or more authors, give the fi rst six authors, three ellipsis
dots, and the last author (see item 3 on p. 556).
Titles of books and articles In the reference list, italicize the titles
and subtitles of books. Do not italicize or use quotation marks
around the titles of articles. For both books and articles, capi-
talize only the fi rst word of the title and subtitle (and all proper
nouns). Capitalize names of journals, magazines, and newspa-
pers as you would capitalize them normally (see 45c).
Abbreviations for page numbers Abbreviations for “page” and “pages”
(“p.” and “pp.”) are used before page numbers of newspaper articles
and selections in anthologies (see item 15 on p. 563 and item 31
on p. 569). Do not use “p.” or “pp.” before page numbers of articles
in journals and magazines (see items 13 and 14 on pp. 559 and 563).
Breaking a URL or DOI When a URL or a DOI (digital object
identifi er) must be divided, break it aft er a double slash or before
any other mark of punctuation. Do not insert a hyphen; do not
add a period at the end.
62b Sample APA research paper
On the following pages is a research paper on the eff ectiveness of
treatments for childhood obesity, written by Luisa Mirano, a student
in a psychology class. Mirano’s assignment was to write a literature
review paper documented with APA-style citations and references.
macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
62 APA manuscript format; sample paper
> Sample student writing: Mirano, “Can Medication Cure Obesity in Children?
A Review of the Literature” (literature review)
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585
APA
Sample APA research paper 62b
Running head: CAN MEDICATION CURE OBESITY IN CHILDREN? 1
Can Medication Cure Obesity in Children?
A Review of the Literature
Luisa Mirano
Northwest-Shoals Community College
Author Note
This paper was prepared for Psychology 108, Section
B, taught by Professor Kang.
A running head
consists of a
title (shortened
to no more than
fi fty characters)
in all capital
letters. On the
title page, it
is preceded
by the label
“Running head.”
Page numbers
appear in the
upper right
corner.
Full title, writer’s
name, and
school name
are centered
halfway down
the page.
An author’s note
lists specifi c
information
about the course
or department
and can provide
acknowledgments
and contact
information.
Marginal annotations indicate APA-style formatting and effective writing.
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APA
62b586 APA manuscript format; sample research paper 62b
CAN MEDICATION CURE OBESITY IN CHILDREN? 2
Abstract
In recent years, policymakers and medical experts have
expressed alarm about the growing problem of childhood
obesity in the United States. While most agree that the
issue deserves attention, consensus dissolves around how to
respond to the problem. This literature review examines one
approach to treating childhood obesity: medication. The
paper compares the effectiveness for adolescents of the only
two drugs approved by the Food and Drug Administration
(FDA) for long-term treatment of obesity, sibutramine and
orlistat. This examination of pharmacological treatments
for obesity points out the limitations of medication
and suggests the need for a comprehensive solution
that combines medical, social, behavioral, and political
approaches to this complex problem.
Keywords: obesity, childhood, adolescence, medication,
public policy
Keywords help
readers search
for a paper on
the Web or in a
database.
Abstract
appears on a
separate page.
Heading is
centered and
not boldface.
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587
APA
Sample APA research paper 62b
CAN MEDICATION CURE OBESITY IN CHILDREN? 3
Can Medication Cure Obesity in Children?
A Review of the Literature
In March 2004, U.S. Surgeon General Richard Carmona
called attention to a health problem in the United States
that, until recently, has been overlooked: childhood obesity.
Carmona said that the “astounding” 15% child obesity rate
constitutes an “epidemic.” Since the early 1980s, that rate
has “doubled in children and tripled in adolescents.” Now
more than nine million children are classified as obese.
1
While the traditional response to a medical epidemic is
to hunt for a vaccine or a cure-all pill, childhood obesity
is more elusive. The lack of success of recent initiatives
suggests that medication might not be the answer for
the escalating problem. This literature review considers
whether the use of medication is a promising approach for
solving the childhood obesity problem by responding to the
following questions.
1. What are the implications of childhood obesity?
2. Is medication effective at treating childhood obesity?
3. Is medication safe for children?
4. Is medication the best solution?
Understanding the limitations of medical treatments for
children highlights the complexity of the childhood obesity
problem in the United States and underscores the need for
physicians, advocacy groups, and policymakers to search for
other solutions.
1
Obesity is measured in terms of body-mass index
(BMI): weight in kilograms divided by square of height in
meters. A child or an adolescent with a BMI in the 95th
percentile for his or her age and gender is considered obese.
Full title,
centered and
not boldface.
Mirano sets up
her organization
by posing four
questions.
Mirano states
her thesis.
Mirano uses
a footnote
to defi ne an
essential term
that would be
cumbersome
to defi ne within
the text.
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588 APA manuscript format; sample research paper 62b
CAN MEDICATION CURE OBESITY IN CHILDREN? 4
What Are the Implications of Childhood Obesity?
Obesity can be a devastating problem from both an
individual and a societal perspective. Obesity puts children at
risk for a number of medical complications, including Type 2
diabetes, hypertension, sleep apnea, and orthopedic problems
(Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, 2004, p. 1). Researchers
Hoppin and Taveras (2004) have noted that obesity is often
associated with psychological issues such as anxiety, depression,
and binge eating (Complications section, Table 4).
Obesity also poses serious problems for a society
struggling to cope with rising health care costs. The cost
of treating obesity currently totals $117 billion per year—a
price, according to the surgeon general, “second only to the
cost of [treating] tobacco use” (Carmona, 2004). And as
the number of children who suffer from obesity grows, long-
term costs will only increase.
Is Medication Effective at Treating Childhood Obesity?
The widening scope of the obesity problem has
prompted medical professionals to rethink old conceptions
of the disorder and its causes. As researchers Yanovski
and Yanovski (2002) have explained, obesity was once
considered “either a moral failing or evidence of underlying
psychopathology” (p. 592). But this view has shifted: Many
medical professionals now consider obesity a biomedical
rather than a moral condition, influenced by both genetic and
environmental factors. Yanovski and Yanovski have further
noted that the development of weight-loss medications in the
early 1990s showed that “obesity should be treated in the
same manner as any other chronic disease . . . through the
long-term use of medication” (p. 592).
Ellipsis mark
indicates
omitted words.
Because
the author
(Carmona) is
not named
in the signal
phrase, his
name and the
date appear in
parentheses.
Headings,
centered and
boldface,
help readers
follow the
organization.
In a signal
phrase, the
word “and” links
the names of
two authors; the
date is given in
parentheses.
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Sample APA research paper 62b
CAN MEDICATION CURE OBESITY IN CHILDREN? 5
The search for the right long-term medication has
been complicated. Many of the drugs authorized by the Food
and Drug Administration (FDA) in the early 1990s proved to
be a disappointment. Two of the medications—fenfluramine
and dexfenfluramine—were withdrawn from the market
because of severe side effects (Yanovski & Yanovski, 2002,
p. 592), and several others were classified by the Drug
Enforcement Administration as having the “potential for
abuse” (Hoppin & Taveras, 2004, Weight-Loss Drugs section,
para. 6). Currently only two medications have been approved
by the FDA for long-term treatment of obesity: sibutramine
(marketed as Meridia) and orlistat (marketed as Xenical).
This section compares studies on the effectiveness of each.
Sibutramine suppresses appetite by blocking
the reuptake of the neurotransmitters serotonin and
norepinephrine in the brain (Yanovski & Yanovski, 2002,
p. 594). Though the drug won FDA approval in 1998,
experiments to test its effectiveness for younger patients
came considerably later. In 2003, University of Pennsylvania
researchers Berkowitz, Wadden, Tershakovec, and Cronquist
released the first double-blind placebo study testing the
effect of sibutramine on adolescents, aged 13-17, over a
12-month period. Their findings are summarized in Table 1.
After 6 months, the group receiving medication had lost
4.6 kg (about 10 pounds) more than the control group.
But during the second half of the study, when both groups
received sibutramine, the results were more ambiguous. In
months 6-12, the group that continued to take sibutramine
gained an average of 0.8 kg, or roughly 2 pounds; the
control group, which switched from placebo to sibutramine,
lost 1.3 kg, or roughly 3 pounds (Berkowitz et al., 2003,
Mirano draws
attention to
an important
article.
In a
parenthetical
citation, an
ampersand
links the names
of two authors.
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CAN MEDICATION CURE OBESITY IN CHILDREN? 6
p. 1808). Both groups received behavioral therapy covering
diet, exercise, and mental health.
These results paint a murky picture of the
effectiveness of the medication: While initial data seemed
promising, the results after one year raised questions about
whether medication-induced weight loss could be sustained
over time. As Berkowitz et al. (2003) advised, “Until more
extensive safety and efficacy data are available, . . . weight-
loss medications should be used only on an experimental
basis for adolescents” (p. 1811).
A study testing the effectiveness of orlistat in
adolescents showed similarly ambiguous results. The FDA
approved orlistat in 1999 but did not authorize it for
adolescents until December 2003. Roche Laboratories
(2003), maker of orlistat, released results of a one-year
study testing the drug on 539 obese adolescents, aged
12-16. The drug, which promotes weight loss by blocking fat
absorption in the large intestine, showed some effectiveness
in adolescents: an average loss of 1.3 kg, or roughly 3
pounds, for subjects taking orlistat for one year, as opposed
to an average gain of 0.67 kg, or 1.5 pounds, for the control
group (pp. 8-9). See Table 1.
Short-term studies of orlistat have shown slightly
more dramatic results. Researchers at the National
Institute of Child Health and Human Development tested
20 adolescents, aged 12-16, over a three-month period
and found that orlistat, combined with behavioral therapy,
produced an average weight loss of 4.4 kg, or 9.7 pounds
(McDuffie et al., 2002, p. 646). The study was not
controlled against a placebo group; therefore, the relative
effectiveness of orlistat in this case remains unclear.
When this
article was
fi rst cited, all
four authors
were named.
In subsequent
citations of a
work with three
to fi ve authors,
“et al.” is used
after the fi rst
author’s name.
For a source
with six or more
authors, the
fi rst author’s
surname
followed by
“et al.” is used
for the fi rst and
subsequent
references.
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Sample APA research paper 62b
CAN MEDICATION CURE OBESITY IN CHILDREN? 7
Table 1
Effectiveness of Sibutramine and Orlistat in Adolescents
Medication Subjects Treatment
a
Side effects
Average weight
loss/gain
Sibutramine Control 0-6 mos.:
placebo
6-12 mos.:
sibutramine
Mos. 6-12:
increased
blood
pressure;
increased
pulse rate
After 6 mos.:
loss of 3.2 kg
(7 lb)
After 12 mos.:
loss of 4.5 kg
(9.9 lb)
Medicated 0-12 mos.:
sibutramine
Increased
blood
pressure;
increased
pulse rate
After 6 mos.:
loss of 7.8 kg
(17.2 lb)
After 12 mos.:
loss of 7.0 kg
(15.4 lb)
Orlistat Control 0-12 mos.:
placebo
None Gain of 0.67 kg
(1.5 lb)
Medicated 0-12 mos.:
orlistat
Oily spotting;
flatulence;
abdominal
discomfort
Loss of 1.3 kg
(2.9 lb)
Note. The data on sibutramine are adapted from
“Behavior Therapy and Sibutramine for the Treatment of
Adolescent Obesity,” by R. I. Berkowitz, T. A. Wadden,
A. M. Tershakovec, & J. L. Cronquist, 2003, Journal of the
American Medical Association, 289, pp. 1807–1809. The data
on orlistat are adapted from Xenical (Orlistat) Capsules:
Complete Product Information, by Roche Laboratories,
December 2003, retrieved from http://www.rocheusa.com
/products/xenical/pi
a
The medication and/or placebo were combined with
behavioral therapy in all groups over all time periods.
Mirano uses
a table to
summarize
the fi ndings
presented in
two sources.
A note gives the
source of the
data.
A content note
explains data
common to all
subjects.
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592 APA manuscript format; sample research paper62b
CAN MEDICATION CURE OBESITY IN CHILDREN? 8
Is Medication Safe for Children?
While modest weight loss has been documented for both
medications, each carries risks of certain side effects.
Sibutramine has been observed to increase blood pressure
and pulse rate. In 2002, a consumer group claimed that
the medication was related to the deaths of 19 people
and filed a petition with the Department of Health and
Human Services to ban the medication (Hilts, 2002). The
sibutramine study by Berkowitz et al. (2003) noted elevated
blood pressure as a side effect, and dosages had to be
reduced or the medication discontinued in 19 of the 43
subjects in the first six months (p. 1809).
The main side effects associated with orlistat were
abdominal discomfort, oily spotting, fecal incontinence,
and nausea (Roche Laboratories, 2003, p. 13). More
serious for long-term health is the concern that orlistat,
being a fat-blocker, would affect absorption of fat-soluble
vitamins, such as vitamin D. However, the study found
that this side effect can be minimized or eliminated if
patients take vitamin supplements two hours before or after
administration of orlistat (p. 10). With close monitoring of
patients taking the medication, many of the risks can be
reduced.
Is Medication the Best Solution?
The data on the safety and efficacy of pharmacological
treatments of childhood obesity raise the question of
whether medication is the best solution for the problem.
The treatments have clear costs for individual patients,
including unpleasant side effects, little information
about long-term use, and uncertainty that they will yield
significant weight loss.
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Sample APA research paper 62b
CAN MEDICATION CURE OBESITY IN CHILDREN? 8
In purely financial terms, the drugs cost more than $3
a day on average (Duenwald, 2004). In each of the clinical
trials, use of medication was accompanied by an expensive
regime of behavioral therapies, including counseling,
nutritional education, fitness advising, and monitoring.
As journalist Greg Critser (2003) noted in his book Fat
Land, use of weight-loss drugs is unlikely to have an effect
without the proper “support system”—one that includes
doctors, facilities, time, and money (p. 3). For some, this
level of care is prohibitively expensive.
A third complication is that the studies focused on
adolescents aged 12-16, but obesity can begin at a much
younger age. Little data exist to establish the safety or efficacy
of medication for treating very young children.
While the scientific data on the concrete effects of these
medications in children remain somewhat unclear, medication
is not the only avenue for addressing the crisis. Both medical
experts and policymakers recognize that solutions might come
not only from a laboratory but also from policy, education,
and advocacy. A handbook designed to educate doctors on
obesity called for “major changes in some aspects of western
culture” (Hoppin & Taveras, 2004, Conclusion section, para.
1). Cultural change may not be the typical realm of medical
professionals, but the handbook urged doctors to be proactive
and “focus [their] energy on public policies and interventions”
(Conclusion section, para. 1).
The solutions proposed by a number of advocacy groups
underscore this interest in political and cultural change.
A report by the Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation (2004)
outlined trends that may have contributed to the childhood
obesity crisis, including food advertising for children as well as
Mirano
develops the
paper’s thesis.
Brackets
indicate
Mirano’s
change in
the quoted
material.
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594 APA manuscript format; sample research paper62b
CAN MEDICATION CURE OBESITY IN CHILDREN? 9
a reduction in physical education classes and
after-school athletic programs, an increase in the
availability of sodas and snacks in public schools, the
growth in the number of fast-food outlets . . . , and
the increasing number of highly processed high-calorie
and high-fat grocery products. (p. 1)
Addressing each of these areas requires more than a
doctor armed with a prescription pad; it requires a broad
mobilization not just of doctors and concerned parents but
of educators, food industry executives, advertisers, and
media representatives.
The barrage of possible approaches to combating
childhood obesity—from scientific research to political
lobbying—indicates both the severity and the complexity
of the problem. While none of the medications currently
available is a miracle drug for curing the nation’s nine
million obese children, research has illuminated some of the
underlying factors that affect obesity and has shown the need
for a comprehensive approach to the problem that includes
behavioral, medical, social, and political change.
Mirano
interprets the
evidence; she
doesn’t just
report it.
The tone of the
conclusion is
objective.
A quotation
longer than
forty words
is indented
without
quotation
marks.
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595
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Sample APA research paper 62b
CAN MEDICATION CURE OBESITY IN CHILDREN? 10
References
Berkowitz, R. I., Wadden, T. A., Tershakovec, A. M.,
& Cronquist, J. L. (2003). Behavior therapy and
sibutramine for the treatment of adolescent obesity.
Journal of the American Medical Association, 289,
1805-1812.
Carmona, R. H. (2004, March 2). The growing epidemic of
childhood obesity. Testimony before the Subcommittee
on Competition, Foreign Commerce, and Infrastructure
of the U.S. Senate Committee on Commerce, Science,
and Transportation. Retrieved from http://www.hhs
.gov/asl/testify/t040302.html
Critser, G. (2003). Fat land. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
Duenwald, M. (2004, January 6). Slim pickings: Looking
beyond ephedra. The New York Times, p. F1. Retrieved
from http://nytimes.com/
Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation. (2004, February). The
role of media in childhood obesity. Retrieved from
http://www.kff.org/entmedia/7030.cfm
Hilts, P. J. (2002, March 20). Petition asks for removal of
diet drug from market. The New York Times, p. A26.
Retrieved from http://nytimes.com/
Hoppin, A. G., & Taveras, E. M. (2004, June 25). Assessment
and management of childhood and adolescent obesity.
Clinical Update. Retrieved from http://www.medscape
.com/viewarticle/481633
McDuffie, J. R., Calis, K. A., Uwaifo, G. I., Sebring, N. G.,
Fallon, E. M., Hubbard, V. S., & Yanovski, J. A. (2002).
Three-month tolerability of orlistat in adolescents
with obesity-related comorbid conditions. Obesity
Research, 10, 642-650.
List of
references
begins on a
new page.
Heading is
centered and
not boldface.
List is
alphabetized
by authors’
last names. All
authors’ names
are inverted.
The fi rst line of
an entry is at
the left margin;
subsequent
lines indent ½″.
Double-spacing
is used
throughout.
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http://nytimes.com/
http://www.kff.org/entmedia/7030.cfm
http://nytimes.com/
http://www.hhs.gov/asl/testify/t040302.html
http://www.hhs.gov/asl/testify/t040302.html
http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/481633
http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/481633
APA
596 APA manuscript format; sample research paper62b
CAN MEDICATION CURE OBESITY IN CHILDREN? 11
Roche Laboratories. (2003, December). Xenical (orlistat)
capsules: Complete product information. Retrieved
from http://www.rocheusa.com/products/xenical
/pi
Yanovski, S. Z., & Yanovski, J. A. (2002). Drug therapy:
Obesity. The New England Journal of Medicine, 346,
591-602.
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http://www.rocheusa.com/products/xenical/pi
597
Appendix
A document design gallery
Good document design promotes readability and increases the
chances that you will achieve your purpose for writing and reach
your readers. How you design a document — how you format
it for the printed page or for a computer screen, for example —
affects your readers’ response to it. Most readers have expecta-
tions about document design and format, usually depending on
the context and the purpose of the piece of writing.
This gallery features pages from both academic and business
documents. The annotations on the sides of the pages point out
design choices as well as important features of the writing.
▶ Pages from an MLA-style research paper, 598–99
▶ Pages from an APA-style review of the literature, 600–2
▶ Page from a business report (showing a visual), 603
▶ Business letter, 604
▶ Résumé, 605
▶ Professional memo, 606
▶ E-mail message, 607
Standard academic formatting
Use the manuscript format that is recommended for your aca-
demic discipline. In most English and some other humani-
ties classes, you will be asked to use MLA (Modern Language
Association) format (see 57). In most social science, business,
education, and health-related classes, you’ll be asked to use APA
(American Psychological Association) format (see 62).
Pages 598–602 show basic formatting in MLA and APA
styles. For complete student papers in MLA and APA formats,
see 57b and 62b.
Standard professional formatting
It helps to look at examples when you are preparing to write a
professional document such as a letter, a memo, or a résumé.
(See pp. 604–6 for examples.) In general, business and profes-
sional writing is direct, clear, and courteous, and documents are
designed to be read easily and quickly. When writing less for-
mal documents such as e-mail messages in academic contexts, it’s
just as important to craft the document for easy readability. (See
p. 607 for a sample e-mail message.)
21_HAC_01131_APP_597_607.indd 597 6/23/15 12:06 PM
Larson 1
Dan Larson
Professor Duncan
English 102
19 April 2013
The Transformation of Mrs. Peters:
An Analysis of “A Jury of Her Peers”
In Susan Glaspell’s 1917 short story “A Jury of Her Peers,”
two women accompany their husbands and a county attorney to an
isolated house where a farmer named John Wright has been choked
to death in his bed with a rope. The chief suspect is Wright’s wife,
Minnie, who is in jail awaiting trial. The sheriff’s wife, Mrs. Peters, has
come along to gather some personal items for Minnie, and Mrs. Hale
has joined her. Early in the story, Mrs. Hale sympathizes with Minnie
and objects to the way the male investigators are “snoopin’ round and
criticizin’ ” her kitchen (249). In contrast, Mrs. Peters shows respect
for the law, saying that the men are doing “no more than their duty”
(249). By the end of the story, however, Mrs. Peters has joined Mrs.
Hale in a conspiracy of silence, lied to the men, and committed a
crime—hiding key evidence. What causes this dramatic change?
One critic, Leonard Mustazza, argues that Mrs. Hale recruits
Mrs. Peters “as a fellow ‘juror’ in the case, moving the sheriff’s wife
away from her sympathy for her husband’s position and towards
identification with the accused wom[a]n” (494). While this is true,
Mrs. Peters also reaches insights on her own. Her observations in
the kitchen lead her to understand Minnie’s grim and lonely plight
as the wife of an abusive farmer, and her identification with both
Minnie and Mrs. Hale is strengthened as the men conducting the
investigation trivialize the lives of women.
The first evidence that Mrs. Peters reaches understanding on
her own surfaces in the following passage:
The sheriff’s wife had looked from the stove to the sink—
to the pail of water which had been carried in from
outside. . . . That look of seeing into things, of seeing
through a thing to something else, was in the eyes of
the sheriff’s wife now. (251-52)
Something about the stove, the sink, and the pail of water connects
MLA ESSAY FORMAT
1″
½″
1″
½″
1″
1″
Writer’s last
name and page
number in upper
right corner of
each page.
Writer’s name,
instructor’s
name, course
title, date flush
left on first page;
title centered.
Double-spacing
throughout.
Quotations
from source
cited with page
numbers in
parentheses.
A long quotation
is set off by
indenting;
no quotation
marks are
needed; ellipsis
dots indicate
a sentence
omitted from
the source.
21_HAC_01131_APP_597_607.indd 598 8/6/15 7:00 PM
Appendix: A document design gallery 599
Larson 7
Works Cited
Ben-Zvi, Linda. “ ‘Murder, She Wrote’: The Genesis of Susan
Glaspell’s Trifles.” Theatre Journal 44.2 (1992): 141-62. Rpt.
in Susan Glaspell: Essays on Her Theater and Fiction. Ed.
Ben-Zvi. Ann Arbor: U of Michigan P, 1995. 19-48. Print.
Glaspell, Susan. “A Jury of Her Peers.” Literature and Its Writers:
A Compact Introduction to Fiction, Poetry, and Drama. Ed.
Ann Charters and Samuel Charters. 6th ed. Boston: Bedford,
2013. 243-58. Print.
Hedges, Elaine. “Small Things Reconsidered: ‘A Jury of Her Peers. ’ ”
Women’s Studies 12.1 (1986): 89-110. Rpt. in Susan Glaspell:
Essays on Her Theater and Fiction. Ed. Linda Ben-Zvi. Ann
Arbor: U of Michigan P, 1995. 49-69. Print.
Mustazza, Leonard. “Generic Translation and Thematic Shift in
Susan Glaspell’s Trifles and ‘A Jury of Her Peers. ’ ” Studies in
Short Fiction 26.4 (1989): 489-96. Print.
MLA WORKS CiTed pAGe
List alphabetized
by authors’ last
names (or by
title for works
with no author).
Double-spacing
throughout;
no extra space
between entries.
Heading
centered.
First line of
each entry at
left margin;
extra lines
indented ½″.
21_HAC_01131_APP_597_607.indd 599 6/8/15 3:45 PM
Appendix: A document design gallery600
Running head: REACTION TIMES IN VISUAL SEARCH TASKS 1
Author Note
Allison Leigh Johnson, Department of Psychology,
Carthage College. This research was conducted for
Psychology 2300, Cognition: Theories and Application, taught
by Professor Leslie Cameron.
ApA TiTLe pAGe
Reaction Times for Detection of Objects
in Two Visual Search Tasks
Allison Leigh Johnson
Carthage College
Header consists
of shortened
title (no more
than 50
characters)
in all capital
letters at left
margin and
page number at
right margin; on
title page only,
words “Running
head” and
colon precede
shortened title.
Full title, writer’s
name, and
school centered
halfway down
page.
Author’s note
(optional) gives
writer’s affiliation,
information
about course,
and possibly
acknowledgments
and contact
information.
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Appendix: A document design gallery 601
REACTION TIMES IN VISUAL SEARCH TASKS 2
Abstract
Visual detection of an object can be automatic or can
require attention. The reaction time varies depending on the
type of search task being performed. In this visual search
experiment, 3 independent variables were tested: type of
search, number of distracters, and presence or absence
of a target. A feature search contains distracters notably
different from the target, while a conjunctive search
contains distracters with features similar to the target. For
this experiment, 14 Carthage College students participated
in a setting of their choice. A green circle was the target.
During the feature search, reaction times were similar
regardless of the number of distracters and the presence
or absence of the target. In the conjunctive search, the
number of distracters and the presence or absence of the
target affected reaction times. This visual search experiment
supports the idea that feature searches are automatic and
conjunctive searches require attention from the viewer.
Keywords: visual search, cognition, feature search,
conjunctive search
ApA AbSTRACT
Abstract, a
150-to-250-
word overview
of paper,
appears on
separate
page. Heading
centered, not
boldface.
Keywords
(optional) help
readers search
for paper on
the Web or in
a database.
Shortened
title and page
number on
every page.
Numerals for
all numbers
in abstract,
including
numbers
under 10.
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Appendix: A document design gallery602
REACTION TIMES IN VISUAL SEARCH TASKS 3
Reaction Times for Detection of Objects
in Two Visual Search Tasks
Vision is one of the five senses, and it is the sense
trusted most by humans (Reisberg, 2010). We use our vision
for everything. We are always looking for things, whether
it is where we are going or finding a friend at a party.
Our vision detects the object(s) we are looking for. Some
objects are easier to detect than others. Spotting your sister
wearing a purple shirt in a crowd of boring white shirts
is automatic and can be done with ease. However, if your
sister was also wearing a white shirt, it would take much
time and attention to spot her in that same crowd.
The “pop out effect” describes the quick identification
of an object being searched for because of its salient features
(Reeves, 2007). When you look for your sister wearing a
purple shirt, for example, you use the pop out effect for quick
identification. The pop out effect works when attention is drawn
to a specific object that is different from the surrounding objects.
REACTION TIMES IN VISUAL SEARCH TASKS 8
References
Reeves, R. (2007). The Norton psychology labs workbook. New
York, NY: Norton.
Reisberg, D. (2010). Cognition: Exploring the science of the
mind. New York, NY: Norton.
Treisman, A. (1986). Features and objects in visual
processing. Scientific American, 255, 114-125.
Wolfe, J. M. (1998). What do 1,000,000 trials tell us about
visual search? Psychological Science, 9, 33-39.
ZAPS: The Norton psychology labs. (2004). Retrieved from
http://wwnorton.com/ZAPS/
ApA eSSAY FORMAT
1″
1″
1″
½″
½″
ApA LiST OF ReFeRenCeS
Full title,
repeated and
centered, not
boldface.
Sources cited
in parentheses
with author’s
last name and
date.
List of references
begins on new
page; heading
centered, not
boldface.
List alphabetized
by authors’ last
names.
First line of each
entry flush left;
additional lines
indented ½″.
Double-spacing
throughout.
21_HAC_01131_APP_597_607.indd 602 6/8/15 3:45 PM
http://wwnorton.com/ZAPS/
Appendix: A document design gallery 603
Employee Motivation 5
Doug Ames, manager of operations for OAISYS, noted that
some of these issues keep the company from outperforming
expectations: “Communication is not timely or uniform,
expectations are not clear and consistent, and some
employees do not contribute significantly yet nothing is
done” (personal communication, February 28, 2006).
Recommendations
It appears that a combination of steps can be used to
unlock greater performance for OAISYS. Most important,
steps can be taken to strengthen the corporate culture
in key areas such as communication, accountability, and
appreciation. Employee feedback indicates that these are
areas of weakness or motivators that can be improved. This
feedback is summarized in Figure 1.
A plan to use communication effectively to set
expectations, share results in a timely fashion, and
publicly offer appreciation to specific contributors will
likely go a long way toward aligning individual motivation
with corporate goals. Additionally, holding individuals
accountable for results will bring parity to the workplace.
bUSineSS RepORT WiTH A viSUAL
Report formatted
in typical
business style,
with citations in
APA style.
Visual referred
to in body of
report.
Communication Accountability Appreciation
100%
75%
50%
25%
0%
Figure 1. Areas of greatest need for improvements in motivation.
Figure, a
bar graph,
appears at
bottom of page
on which it is
mentioned.
Figure number
and caption
placed below
figure.
21_HAC_01131_APP_597_607.indd 603 6/8/15 3:45 PM
Appendix: A document design gallery604
March 16, 2013
Jonathan Ross
Managing Editor
Latino World Today
2971 East Oak Avenue
Baltimore, MD 21201
Dear Mr. Ross:
Thank you very much for taking the time yesterday to speak to the
University of Maryland’s Latino Club. A number of students have
told me that they enjoyed your presentation and found your job
search suggestions to be extremely helpful.
As I mentioned to you, the club publishes a monthly newsletter,
Latino Voice. Our purpose is to share up-to-date information and
expert advice with members of the university’s Latino population.
Considering how much students benefited from your talk, I would
like to publish excerpts from it in our newsletter.
I have transcribed parts of your presentation and organized them
into a question-and-answer format for our readers. Would you mind
looking through the enclosed article and letting me know if I may
have your permission to print it? I’m hoping to include this article
in our next newsletter, so I would need your response by April 4.
Once again, Mr. Ross, thank you for sharing your experiences with
us. I would love to be able to share your thoughts with students
who couldn’t hear you in person.
Sincerely,
Jeffrey Richardson
Associate Editor
Enc.
Date
Salutation
Body
Close
Signature
Inside
address
Paragraphs
single-spaced,
not indented;
double-spacing
between
paragraphs.
Indicates
something
enclosed
with letter.
bUSineSS LeTTeR in FULL bLOCK STYLe
21_HAC_01131_APP_597_607.indd 604 6/8/15 3:45 PM
Appendix: A document design gallery 605
Alexis A. Smith
404 Ponce de Leon NE, #B7 404-231-1234
Atlanta, GA 30308 asmith@smith.localhost
SKiLLS SUMMARY
• Writing: competent communicating to different
audiences, using a range of written forms (articles,
reports, flyers, pamphlets, memos, letters)
• Design: capable of creating visually appealing, audience
appropriate documents; skilled at taking and editing
photographs
• Technical: proficient in Microsoft Office; comfortable
with Dreamweaver, Photoshop, InDesign
• Language: fluent in spoken and written Spanish
edUCATiOn
Bachelor of Arts, English expected May 2014
Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA
• Emphasis areas: journalism and communication
• Study Abroad, Ecuador (Fall 2012)
• Dean’s List (Fall 2012, Fall 2013, Spring 2014)
expeRienCe
Copyeditor Sept. 2013-present
The Signal, Atlanta, GA
• copyedit articles for spelling, grammar, and style
• fact-check articles
• prepare copy for Web publication in Dreamweaver
Writing Tutor Oct. 2011-present
Georgia State University Writing Studio, Atlanta, GA
• work with undergraduate and graduate students on
writing projects in all subject areas
• provide technical support for multimedia projects
OUTReACH And ACTiviTieS
• Publicity Director, English Department
Student Organization Aug. 2013-present
• Coordinator, Georgia State University
Relay for Life Student Team April 2013, 2014
Limit résumé
to one page, if
possible, two
pages at most.
Information
organized
into clear
categories —
Skills Summary,
Education,
Experience,
etc. — and
formatted for
easy scanning.
Information
presented
in reverse
chronological
order.
Bulleted
lists organize
information.
Present-tense
verbs ( provide)
used for current
activities.
RéSUMé
21_HAC_01131_APP_597_607.indd 605 6/8/15 3:45 PM
mailto:asmith@smith.localhost
Appendix: A document design gallery606
Commonwealth Press
memorandum
February 26, 2013
To: Editorial assistants, Advertising Department
cc: Stephen Chapman
From: Helen Brown
Subject: Training for new database software
The new database software will be installed on your computers
next week. I have scheduled a training program to help you
become familiar with the software and with our new procedures
for data entry and retrieval.
training program
A member of our IT staff will teach in-house workshops on how to
use the new software. If you try the software before the workshop,
please be prepared to discuss any problems you encounter.
We will keep the training groups small to encourage hands-on
participation and to provide individual attention. The workshops
will take place in the training room on the third floor from 10:00
a.m. to 2:00 p.m.
Lunch will be provided in the cafeteria.
sign-up
Please sign up by March 1 for one of the following dates by adding
your name in the department’s online calendar:
• Monday, March 4
• Wednesday, March 6
• Friday, March 8
If you will not be in the office on any of those dates, please let me
know by March 1.
Subject line
describes topic
clearly and
concisely.
Headings guide
readers and
promote quick
scanning of
document.
List calls
attention to
important
information.
Date, name of
recipient, name
of sender on
separate lines.
Introduction
states point of
memo.
pROFeSSiOnAL MeMO
21_HAC_01131_APP_597_607.indd 606 6/8/15 3:45 PM
Appendix: A document design gallery 607
Hello, Professor Watterson.
Thank you for taking the time to meet with me
yesterday to talk about my research project. I am
excited to start the project this week. As we discussed,
I am planning to meet with a reference librarian to
learn more about NSU’s online resources. And I will
also develop an online survey to gather my fellow
nursing students’ perspectives on the topic. In the
meantime, I have two questions:
• Do I need approval from the college’s institutional
review board before I conduct my survey?
• Do I need students’ approval to quote their
responses in my paper?
I know this is a busy time of year, but if possible,
please let me know the answers to these questions
before the end of the week.
Thanks for all your help with my project.
Sincerely,
Vanessa Tarsky
Clear, specific
subject line
gives purpose of
message.
Message
formatted to
be read quickly.
Bullets draw
reader’s eye to
important details.
Introduction
explains reason
for writing.
Desired outcome
of message:
request stated
briefly.
Formal tone
and language
appropriate for
communicating
with professor.
Message ends
with brief,
friendly closing.
e-MAiL MeSSAGe
21_HAC_01131_APP_597_607.indd 607 6/8/15 3:45 PM
608
Appendix
Glossary of usage
This glossary includes words commonly confused (such as ac-
cept and except), words commonly misused (such as aggravate),
and words that are nonstandard (such as hisself ). It also lists col-
loquialisms and jargon. Colloquialisms are casual expressions
that may be appropriate in informal speech but are inappropriate
in formal writing. Jargon is needlessly technical or pretentious
language that is inappropriate in most contexts. If an item is not
listed here, consult the index. For irregular verbs (such as sing,
sang, sung), see 27a. For idiomatic use of prepositions, see 18d.
a, an Use an before a vowel sound, a before a consonant sound: an
apple, a peach. Problems sometimes arise with words beginning with h
or u. If the h is silent, the word begins with a vowel sound, so use an: an
hour, an honorable deed. If the h is pronounced, the word begins with a
consonant sound, so use a: a hospital, a historian, a hotel. Words such as
university and union begin with a consonant sound (a y sound), so use
a: a union. Words such as uncle and umbrella begin with a vowel sound,
so use an: an underground well. When an abbreviation or an acronym
begins with a vowel sound, use an: an EKG, an MRI, an AIDS prevention
program.
accept, except Accept is a verb meaning “to receive.” Except is usually
a preposition meaning “excluding.” I will accept all the packages except
that one. Except is also a verb meaning “to exclude.” Please except that
item from the list.
adapt, adopt Adapt means “to adjust or become accustomed”; it is
usually followed by to. Adopt means “to take as one’s own.” Our family
adopted a Vietnamese child, who quickly adapted to his new life.
adverse, averse Adverse means “unfavorable.” Averse means “opposed”
or “reluctant”; it is usually followed by to. I am averse to your proposal
because it could have an adverse impact on the economy.
advice, advise Advice is a noun, advise a verb. We advise you to follow
John’s advice.
affect, effect Affect is usually a verb meaning “to influence.” Effect is
usually a noun meaning “result.” The drug did not affect the disease, and
it had adverse side effects. Effect can also be a verb meaning “to bring
about.” Only the president can effect such a dramatic change.
aggravate Aggravate means “to make worse or more troublesome.”
Overgrazing aggravated the soil erosion. In formal writing, avoid the use
of aggravate meaning “to annoy or irritate.” Her babbling annoyed (not
aggravated) me.
22_HAC_01131_GLOSS_608_621.indd 608 6/4/15 4:51 PM
609Appendix: Glossary of usage usage
agree to, agree with Agree to means “to give consent to.” Agree
with means “to be in accord with” or “to come to an understand-
ing with.” He agrees with me about the need for change, but he won’t
agree to my plan.
ain’t Ain’t is nonstandard. Use am not, are not (aren’t), or is not (isn’t). I
am not (not ain’t) going home for spring break.
all ready, already All ready means “completely prepared.” Already means
“previously.” Susan was all ready for the concert, but her friends had
already left.
all right All right, written as two words, is correct. Alright is nonstandard.
all together, altogether All together means “everyone or everything in
one place.” Altogether means “entirely.” We were not altogether certain
that we could bring the family all together for the reunion.
allude To allude to something is to make an indirect reference to it. Do
not use allude to mean “to refer directly.” In his lecture, the professor re-
ferred (not alluded) to several pre-Socratic philosophers.
allusion, illusion An allusion is an indirect reference. An illusion is a mis-
conception or false impression. Did you catch my allusion to Shakespeare?
Mirrors give the room an illusion of depth.
a lot A lot is two words. Do not write alot. Sam lost a lot of weight. See
also lots, lots of.
among, between See between, among.
amongst In American English, among is preferred.
amoral, immoral Amoral means “neither moral nor immoral”; it also
means “not caring about moral judgments.” Immoral means “morally
wrong.” Until recently, most business courses were taught from an amoral
perspective. Murder is immoral.
amount, number Use amount with quantities that cannot be counted;
use number with those that can. This recipe calls for a large amount of
sugar. We have a large number of toads in our garden.
an See a, an.
and etc. Et cetera (etc.) means “and so forth”; and etc. is redundant. See
also etc.
and/or Avoid the awkward construction and/or except in technical or
legal documents.
angry at, angry with Use angry with, not angry at, when referring to a
person. The coach was angry with the referee.
ante-, anti- The prefix ante- means “earlier” or “in front of ”; the prefix
anti- means “against” or “opposed to.” William Lloyd Garrison was a
leader of the antislavery movement during the antebellum period. Anti-
should be used with a hyphen when it is followed by a capital letter
(anti-Semitic) or a word beginning with i (anti-intellectual).
22_HAC_01131_GLOSS_608_621.indd 609 6/4/15 4:51 PM
610 Appendix: Glossary of usageusage
anxious Anxious means “worried” or “apprehensive.” In formal writing,
avoid using anxious to mean “eager.” We are eager (not anxious) to see
your new house.
anybody, anyone Anybody and anyone are singular. (See 21e and 22a.)
anymore Use the adverb anymore in a negative context to mean “any
longer” or “now.” The factory isn’t producing shoes anymore. Using any-
more in a positive context is colloquial; in formal writing, use now in-
stead. We order all our food online now (not anymore).
anyone See anybody, anyone.
anyone, any one Anyone, an indefinite pronoun, means “any person at
all.” Any one, the pronoun one preceded by the adjective any, refers to
a particular person or thing in a group. Anyone from the winning team
may choose any one of the games on display.
anyplace Anyplace is colloquial. In formal writing, use anywhere.
anyways, anywheres Anyways and anywheres are nonstandard. Use any-
way and anywhere.
as Do not use as to mean “because” if there is any chance of ambiguity.
We canceled the picnic because (not as) it began raining. As here could
mean either “because” or “when.”
as, like See like, as.
as to As to is jargon for about. He inquired about (not as to) the job.
averse See adverse, averse.
awful The adjective awful and the adverb awfully are not appropriate in
formal writing.
awhile, a while Awhile is an adverb; it can modify a verb, but it cannot
be the object of a preposition such as for. The two-word form a while is a
noun preceded by an article and therefore can be the object of a preposi-
tion. Stay awhile. Stay for a while.
back up, backup Back up is a verb phrase. Back up the car carefully. Be
sure to back up your hard drive. Backup is a noun meaning “a copy of
electronically stored data.” Keep your backup in a safe place. Backup can
also be used as an adjective. I regularly create backup disks.
bad, badly Bad is an adjective, badly an adverb. They felt bad about ruin-
ing the surprise. Her arm hurt badly after she slid into second base. (See
26a, 26b, and 26c.)
being as, being that Being as and being that are nonstandard expres-
sions. Write because instead. Because (not Being as) I slept late, I had to
skip breakfast.
beside, besides Beside is a preposition meaning “at the side of ” or “next
to.” Annie sleeps with a flashlight beside her bed. Besides is a preposition
meaning “except” or “in addition to.” No one besides Terrie can have that
ice cream. Besides is also an adverb meaning “in addition.” I’m not hun-
gry; besides, I don’t like ice cream.
22_HAC_01131_GLOSS_608_621.indd 610 6/4/15 4:51 PM
611Appendix: Glossary of usage usage
between, among Ordinarily, use among with three or more entities, be-
tween with two. The prize was divided among several contestants. You
have a choice between carrots and beans.
bring, take Use bring when an object is being transported toward you,
take when it is being moved away. Please bring me a glass of water. Please
take these forms to Mr. Scott.
burst, bursted; bust, busted Burst is an irregular verb meaning “to come
open or fly apart suddenly or violently.” Its past tense is burst. The past-
tense form bursted is nonstandard. Bust and busted are slang for burst
and, along with bursted, should not be used in formal writing.
can, may The distinction between can and may is fading, but some writ-
ers still observe it in formal writing. Can is traditionally reserved for
ability, may for permission. Can you speak French? May I help you?
capital, capitol Capital refers to a city, capitol to a building where law-
makers meet. Capital also refers to wealth or resources. The residents
of the state capital protested plans to close the streets surrounding the
capitol.
censor, censure Censor means “to remove or suppress material consid-
ered objectionable.” Censure means “to criticize severely.” The adminis-
tration’s policy of censoring books has been censured by the media.
cite, site Cite means “to quote as an authority or example.” Site is usu-
ally a noun meaning “a particular place.” He cited the zoning law in his
argument against the proposed site of the gas station. Locations on the
Internet are usually referred to as sites. The library’s Web site improves
every week.
climactic, climatic Climactic is derived from climax, the point of great-
est intensity in a series or progression of events. Climatic is derived from
climate and refers to meteorological conditions. The climactic period
in the dinosaurs’ reign was reached just before severe climatic conditions
brought on an ice age.
coarse, course Coarse means “crude” or “rough in texture.” The coarse
weave of the wall hanging gave it a three-dimensional quality. Course usu-
ally refers to a path, a playing field, or a unit of study; the expression of
course means “certainly.” I plan to take a course in car repair this summer.
Of course, you are welcome to join me.
compare to, compare with Compare to means “to represent as similar.”
She compared him to a wild stallion. Compare with means “to examine
similarities and differences.” The study compared the language ability of
apes with that of dolphins.
complement, compliment Complement is a verb meaning “to go with or
complete” or a noun meaning “something that completes.” As a verb,
compliment means “to flatter”; as a noun, it means “flattering remark.”
Her skill at rushing the net complements his skill at volleying. Martha’s
flower arrangements receive many compliments.
22_HAC_01131_GLOSS_608_621.indd 611 6/4/15 4:51 PM
612 Appendix: Glossary of usageusage
conscience, conscious Conscience is a noun meaning “moral principles.”
Conscious is an adjective meaning “aware or alert.” Let your conscience be
your guide. Were you conscious of his love for you?
continual, continuous Continual means “repeated regularly and fre-
quently.” She grew weary of the continual telephone calls. Continuous
means “extended or prolonged without interruption.” The broken siren
made a continuous wail.
could care less Could care less is nonstandard. Write couldn’t care less
instead. He couldn’t (not could) care less about his psychology final.
could of Could of is nonstandard for could have. We could have (not
could of ) taken the train.
council, counsel A council is a deliberative body, and a councilor is a
member of such a body. Counsel usually means “advice” and can also
mean “lawyer”; a counselor is one who gives advice or guidance. The
councilors met to draft the council’s position paper. The pastor offered wise
counsel to the troubled teenager.
criteria Criteria is the plural of criterion, which means “a standard or
rule or test on which a judgment or decision can be based.” The only
criterion for the scholarship is ability.
data Data is a plural noun technically meaning “facts or propositions.”
But data is increasingly being accepted as a singular noun. The new data
suggest (or suggests) that our theory is correct. (The singular datum is
rarely used.)
different from, different than Ordinarily, write different from. Your sense
of style is different from Jim’s. However, different than is acceptable to
avoid an awkward construction. Please let me know if your plans are dif-
ferent than (to avoid from what) they were six weeks ago.
differ from, differ with Differ from means “to be unlike”; differ with means
“to disagree with.” My approach to the problem differed from hers. She dif-
fered with me about the wording of the agreement.
disinterested, uninterested Disinterested means “impartial, objective”;
uninterested means “not interested.” We sought the advice of a disinter-
ested counselor to help us solve our problem. Mark was uninterested in
anyone’s opinion but his own.
don’t Don’t is the contraction for do not. I don’t want any. Don’t should
not be used as the contraction for does not, which is doesn’t. He doesn’t
(not don’t) want any.
due to Due to is an adjective phrase and should not be used as a prep-
osition meaning “because of.” The trip was canceled because of (not
due to) lack of interest. Due to is acceptable as a subject complement
and usually follows a form of the verb be. His success was due to hard
work.
each Each is singular. (See 21e and 22a.)
effect See affect, effect.
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613Appendix: Glossary of usage usage
e.g. In formal writing, replace the Latin abbreviation e.g. with its
English equivalent: for example or for instance.
either Either is singular. (See 21e and 22a.) For either . . . or construc-
tions, see 21d and 22a.
elicit, illicit Elicit is a verb meaning “to bring out” or “to evoke.” Illicit
is an adjective meaning “unlawful.” The reporter was unable to elicit any
information from the police about illicit drug traffic.
emigrate from, immigrate to Emigrate means “to leave one country or
region to settle in another.” In 1903, my great-grandfather emigrated from
Russia to escape the religious pogroms. Immigrate means “to enter an-
other country and reside there.” More than fifty thousand Bosnians im-
migrated to the United States in the 1990s.
eminent, imminent Eminent means “outstanding” or “distinguished.” We
met an eminent professor of Greek history. Imminent means “about to
happen.” The snowstorm is imminent.
enthused Avoid using enthused as an adjective. Use enthusiastic instead.
The children were enthusiastic (not enthused) about baking.
etc. Avoid ending a list with etc. It is more emphatic to end with an
example, and in most contexts readers will understand that the list is not
exhaustive. When you don’t wish to end with an example, and so on is
more graceful than etc. (See also and etc.)
eventually, ultimately Often used interchangeably, eventually is the bet-
ter choice to mean “at an unspecified time in the future,” and ultimately
is better to mean “the furthest possible extent or greatest extreme.” He
knew that eventually he would complete his degree. The existentialists con-
sidered suicide the ultimately rational act.
everybody, everyone Everybody and everyone are singular. (See 21e
and 22a.)
everyone, every one Everyone is an indefinite pronoun. Every one, the
pronoun one preceded by the adjective every, means “each individual or
thing in a particular group.” Every one is usually followed by of. Everyone
wanted to go. Every one of the missing books was found.
except See accept, except.
expect Avoid the informal use of expect meaning “to believe, think, or
suppose.” I think (not expect) it will rain tonight.
explicit, implicit Explicit means “expressed directly” or “clearly defined”;
implicit means “implied, unstated.” I gave him explicit instructions not to
go swimming. My mother’s silence indicated her implicit approval.
farther, further Farther usually describes distances. Further usually sug-
gests quantity or degree. Chicago is farther from Miami than I thought. I
would be grateful for further suggestions.
fewer, less Use fewer for items that can be counted; use less for items
that cannot be counted. Fewer people are living in the city. Please put less
sugar in my tea.
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614 Appendix: Glossary of usageusage
finalize Finalize is jargon meaning “to make final or complete.” Use ordi-
nary English instead. The architect prepared final drawings (not finalized
the drawings).
firstly Firstly sounds pretentious, and it leads to the ungainly series
firstly, secondly, thirdly, and so on. Write first, second, third instead.
further See farther, further.
get Get has many colloquial uses. In writing, avoid using get to mean
the following: “to evoke an emotional response” (That music always gets
to me); “to annoy” (After a while, his sulking got to me); “to take revenge
on” (I got back at her by leaving the room); “to become” (He got sick); “to
start or begin” (Let’s get going). Avoid using have got to in place of must.
I must (not have got to) finish this paper tonight.
good, well Good is an adjective, well an adverb. (See 26a, 26b, and 26c.)
He hasn’t felt good about his game since he sprained his wrist last season.
She performed well on the uneven parallel bars.
graduate Both of the following uses of graduate are standard: My sister
was graduated from UCLA last year. My sister graduated from UCLA last
year. It is nonstandard, however, to drop the word from: My sister gradu-
ated UCLA last year. Though this usage is common in informal English,
many readers object to it.
grow Phrases such as to grow the economy and to grow a business are
jargon. Usually the verb grow is intransitive (it does not take a direct ob-
ject). Our business has grown very quickly. Use grow in a transitive sense,
with a direct object, to mean “to cultivate” or “to allow to grow.” We plan
to grow tomatoes this year. John is growing a beard.
hanged, hung Hanged is the past-tense and past-participle form of the
verb hang meaning “to execute.” The prisoner was hanged at dawn.
Hung is the past-tense and past-participle form of the verb hang
meaning “to fasten or suspend.” The stockings were hung by the chim-
ney with care.
hardly Avoid expressions such as can’t hardly and not hardly, which are
considered double negatives. I can (not can’t) hardly describe my surprise
at getting the job. (See 26e.)
has got, have got Got is unnecessary and awkward in such construc-
tions. It should be dropped. We have (not have got) three days to prepare
for the opening.
he At one time he was commonly used to mean “he or she.” Today such
usage is inappropriate. (See 17e and 22a.)
he/she, his/her In formal writing, use he or she or his or her. For alter-
natives to these wordy constructions, see 17e and 22a.
hisself Hisself is nonstandard. Use himself.
hopefully Hopefully means “in a hopeful manner.” We looked hopefully
to the future. Some usage experts object to the use of hopefully as a sen-
tence adverb, apparently on grounds of clarity. To be safe, avoid using
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615Appendix: Glossary of usage usage
hopefully in sentences such as the following: Hopefully, your son will re-
cover soon. Instead, indicate who is doing the hoping: I hope that your
son will recover soon.
however In the past, some writers objected to the conjunctive adverb
however at the beginning of a sentence, but current experts allow plac-
ing the word according to the intended meaning and emphasis. All of
the following sentences are correct. Pam decided, however, to attend the
lecture. However, Pam decided to attend the lecture. (She had been con-
sidering other activities.) Pam, however, decided to attend the lecture.
(Unlike someone else, Pam chose to attend the lecture.) (See 32f.)
hung See hanged, hung.
i.e. In formal writing, use “in other words” or “that is” rather than the
Latin abbreviation i.e. to introduce a clarifying statement. Exposure to
borax usually causes only mild skin irritation; in other words (not i.e.), it’s
not especially toxic.
if, whether Use if to express a condition and whether to express alterna-
tives. If you go on a trip, whether to Nebraska or Italy, remember to bring
traveler’s checks.
illusion See allusion, illusion.
immigrate See emigrate from, immigrate to.
imminent See eminent, imminent.
immoral See amoral, immoral.
implement Implement is a pretentious way of saying “do,” “carry out,” or
“accomplish.” Use ordinary language instead. We carried out (not imple-
mented) the director’s orders.
implicit See explicit, implicit.
imply, infer Imply means “to suggest or state indirectly”; infer means “to
draw a conclusion.” John implied that he knew all about computers, but
the interviewer inferred that John was inexperienced.
in, into In indicates location or condition; into indicates movement or
a change in condition. They found the lost letters in a box after moving
into the house.
in regards to In regards to confuses two different phrases: in regard to
and as regards. Use one or the other. In regard to (or As regards) the con-
tract, ignore the first clause.
irregardless Irregardless is nonstandard. Use regardless.
is when, is where These mixed constructions are often incorrectly used
in definitions. A runoff election is a second election held to break a tie (not
is when a second election is held to break a tie). (See 11c.)
its, it’s Its is a possessive pronoun; it’s is a contraction of it is. (See 36c
and 36e.) It’s always fun to watch a dog chase its tail.
kind(s) Kind is singular and should be treated as such. Don’t write These
kind of chairs are rare. Write instead This kind of chair is rare. Kinds is
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616 Appendix: Glossary of usageusage
plural and should be used only when you mean more than one kind.
These kinds of chairs are rare.
kind of, sort of Avoid using kind of or sort of to mean “somewhat.” The
movie was somewhat (not sort of ) boring. Do not put a after either
phrase. That kind of (not kind of a) salesclerk annoys me.
lay, lie See lie, lay.
lead, led Lead is a metallic element; it is a noun. Led is the past tense of
the verb lead. He led me to the treasure.
learn, teach Learn means “to gain knowledge”; teach means “to impart
knowledge.” I must teach (not learn) my sister to read.
leave, let Leave means “to exit.” Avoid using it with the nonstandard
meaning “to permit.” Let (not Leave) me help you with the dishes.
led See lead, led.
less See fewer, less.
let, leave See leave, let.
liable Liable means “obligated” or “responsible.” Do not use it to mean
“likely.” You’re likely (not liable) to trip if you don’t tie your shoelaces.
lie, lay Lie is an intransitive verb meaning “to recline or rest on a sur-
face.” Its forms are lie, lay, lain. Lay is a transitive verb meaning “to put
or place.” Its forms are lay, laid, laid. (See 27b.)
like, as Like is a preposition, not a subordinating conjunction. It can be
followed only by a noun or a noun phrase. As is a subordinating con-
junction that introduces a subordinate clause. In casual speech, you may
say She looks like she hasn’t slept or You don’t know her like I do. But in
formal writing, use as. She looks as if she hasn’t slept. You don’t know her
as I do. (See also 46f and 46g.)
loose, lose Loose is an adjective meaning “not securely fastened.” Lose is
a verb meaning “to misplace” or “to not win.” Did you lose your only loose
pair of work pants?
lots, lots of Lots and lots of are informal substitutes for many, much, or a
lot. Avoid using them in formal writing.
mankind Avoid mankind whenever possible. It offends many readers
because it excludes women. Use humanity, humans, the human race, or
humankind instead. (See 17e.)
may See can, may.
maybe, may be Maybe is an adverb meaning “possibly.” Maybe the sun
will shine tomorrow. May be is a verb phrase. Tomorrow may be brighter.
may of, might of May of and might of are nonstandard for may have and
might have. We might have (not might of ) had too many cookies.
media, medium Media is the plural of medium. Of all the media that
cover the Olympics, television is the medium that best captures the spec-
tacle of the events.
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617Appendix: Glossary of usage usage
might of See may of, might of.
most Most is informal when used to mean “almost” and should be
avoided. Almost (not Most) everyone went to the parade.
must of See may of, might of. Must of is nonstandard for must have.
myself Myself is a reflexive or intensive pronoun. Reflexive: I cut myself.
Intensive: I will drive you myself. Do not use myself in place of I or me.
He gave the pie to Ed and me (not myself ). (See also 24a and 24b.)
neither Neither is singular. For neither . . . nor constructions, see 21d,
22a, and 22d.
none None may be singular or plural. (See 21e.)
nowheres Nowheres is nonstandard. Use nowhere instead.
number See amount, number.
of Use the verb have, not the preposition of, after the verbs could,
should, would, may, might, and must. They must have (not must of ) left
early.
off of Off is sufficient. Omit of. The ball rolled off (not off of ) the table.
OK, O.K., okay All three spellings are acceptable, but avoid these expres-
sions in formal speech and writing.
parameters Parameter is a mathematical term that has become jargon
for “boundary” or “guideline.” Use ordinary English instead. The task
force worked within certain guidelines (not parameters).
passed, past Passed is the past tense of the verb pass. Ann passed me
another slice of cake. Past usually means “belonging to a former time” or
“beyond a time or place.” Our past president spoke until past midnight.
The hotel is just past the next intersection.
percent, per cent, percentage Percent (also spelled per cent) is always
used with a specific number. Percentage is used with a descriptive term
such as large or small, not with a specific number. The candidate won 80
percent of the primary vote. A large percentage of registered voters turned
out for the election.
phenomena Phenomena is the plural of phenomenon, which means “an
observable occurrence or fact.” Strange phenomena occur at all hours
of the night in that house, but last night’s phenomenon was the strangest
of all.
plus Plus should not be used to join independent clauses. This raincoat
is dirty; moreover (not plus), it has a hole in it.
precede, proceed Precede means “to come before.” Proceed means “to go
forward.” As we proceeded up the mountain path, we noticed fresh tracks
in the mud, evidence that a group of hikers had preceded us.
principal, principle Principal is a noun meaning “the head of a school
or an organization” or “a sum of money.” It is also an adjective meaning
“most important.” Principle is a noun meaning “a basic truth or law.” The
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618 Appendix: Glossary of usageusage
principal expelled her for three principal reasons. We believe in the prin-
ciple of equal justice for all.
proceed, precede See precede, proceed.
quote, quotation Quote is a verb; quotation is a noun. Avoid using quote
as a shortened form of quotation. Her quotations (not quotes) from cur-
rent movies intrigued us.
raise, rise Raise is a transitive verb meaning “to move or cause to move
upward.” It takes a direct object. I raised the shades. Rise is an intransitive
verb meaning “to go up.” Heat rises.
real, really Real is an adjective; really is an adverb. Real is sometimes
used informally as an adverb, but avoid this use in formal writing. She
was really (not real) angry. (See 26a and 26b.)
reason . . . is because Use that instead of because. The reason she’s cranky
is that (not because) she didn’t sleep last night. (See 11c.)
reason why The expression reason why is redundant. The reason (not The
reason why) Jones lost the election is clear.
relation, relationship Relation describes a connection between things.
Relationship describes a connection between people. There is a rela-
tion between poverty and infant mortality. Our business relationship has
cooled over the years.
respectfully, respectively Respectfully means “showing or marked by re-
spect.” Respectively means “each in the order given.” He respectfully sub-
mitted his opinion to the judge. John, Tom, and Larry were a butcher, a
baker, and a lawyer, respectively.
rise See raise, rise.
sensual, sensuous Sensual means “gratifying the physical senses,” espe-
cially those associated with sexual pleasure. Sensuous means “pleasing to
the senses,” especially those involved in the experience of art, music, and
nature. The sensuous music and balmy air led the dancers to more sensual
movements.
set, sit Set is a transitive verb meaning “to put” or “to place.” Its past
tense is set. She set the dough in a warm corner of the kitchen. Sit is an
intransitive verb meaning “to be seated.” Its past tense is sat. The cat sat
in the doorway.
shall, will Shall was once used in place of the helping verb will with I or
we: I shall, we shall. Today, however, will is generally accepted even when
the subject is I or we. The word shall occurs primarily in polite questions
(Shall I find you a pillow?) and in legalistic sentences suggesting duty or
obligation (The applicant shall file form A by December 31).
should of Should of is nonstandard for should have. They should have
(not should of ) been home an hour ago.
since Do not use since to mean “because” if there is any chance of am-
biguity. Because (not Since) we won the game, we have been celebrating
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619Appendix: Glossary of usage usage
with a pitcher of root beer. Since here could mean “because” or “from the
time that.”
sit See set, sit.
site See cite, site.
somebody, someone Somebody and someone are singular. (See 21e and
22a.)
something Something is singular. (See 21e.)
sometime, some time, sometimes Sometime is an adverb meaning “at an
indefinite time.” Some time is the adjective some modifying the noun
time and means “a period of time.” Sometimes is an adverb meaning “at
times, now and then.” I’ll see you sometime soon. I haven’t lived there for
some time. Sometimes I see him at work.
suppose to Suppose to is nonstandard for supposed to. I was supposed to
(not suppose to) be there by noon.
sure and Write sure to. We were all taught to be sure to (not sure and)
look both ways before crossing a street.
take See bring, take.
than, then Than is a conjunction used in comparisons; then is an adverb
denoting time. That pizza is more than I can eat. Tom laughed, and then
we recognized him.
that See who, which, that.
that, which Many writers reserve that for restrictive clauses, which for
nonrestrictive clauses. (See 32e.)
theirselves Theirselves is nonstandard for themselves. The crash victims
pushed the car out of the way themselves (not theirselves).
them The use of them in place of those is nonstandard. Please take those
(not them) flowers to the patient in room 220.
then, than See than, then.
there, their, they’re There is an adverb specifying place; it is also an ex-
pletive (placeholder). Adverb: Sylvia is sitting there patiently. Expletive:
There are two plums left. Their is a possessive pronoun: Fred and Jane
finally washed their car. They’re is a contraction of they are: They’re later
than usual today.
they The use of they to indicate possession is nonstandard. Use their in-
stead. Cindy and Sam decided to sell their (not they) 1975 Corvette.
they, their The use of the plural pronouns they and their to refer to sin-
gular nouns or pronouns is nonstandard. No one handed in his or her
(not their) draft on time. (See 22a.)
this kind See kind(s).
to, too, two To is a preposition; too is an adverb; two is a number. Too
many of your shots slice to the left, but the last two were just right.
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620 Appendix: Glossary of usageusage
toward, towards Toward and towards are generally interchangeable, al-
though toward is preferred in American English.
try and Try and is nonstandard for try to. The teacher asked us all to try
to (not try and) write an original haiku.
ultimately, eventually See eventually, ultimately.
unique Avoid expressions such as most unique, more straight, less perfect,
very round. Either something is unique or it isn’t. It is illogical to suggest
degrees of uniqueness. (See 26d.)
usage The noun usage should not be substituted for use when the mean-
ing is “employment of.” The use (not usage) of insulated shades has cut
fuel costs dramatically.
use to Use to is nonstandard for used to. I used to (not use to) take the
bus to work.
utilize Utilize means “to make use of.” It often sounds pretentious; in
most cases, use is sufficient. I used (not utilized) the laser printer.
wait for, wait on Wait for means “to be in readiness for” or “to await.”
Wait on means “to serve.” We’re waiting for (not waiting on) Ruth to take
us to the museum.
ways Ways is nonstandard when used to mean “distance.” The city is a
long way (not ways) from here.
weather, whether The noun weather refers to the state of the atmosphere.
Whether is a conjunction referring to a choice between alternatives. We
wondered whether the weather would clear.
well, good See good, well.
where Do not use where in place of that. I heard that (not where) the
crime rate is increasing.
whether See if, whether.
which See that, which and who, which, that.
while Avoid using while to mean “although” or “whereas” if there is
any chance of ambiguity. Although (not While) Gloria lost money in the
slot machine, Tom won it at roulette. Here While could mean either “al-
though” or “at the same time that.”
who, which, that Do not use which to refer to persons. Use who instead.
That, though generally used to refer to things, may be used to refer to
a group or class of people. The player who (not that or which) made
the basket at the buzzer was named MVP. The team that scores the most
points in this game will win the tournament.
who, whom Who is used for subjects and subject complements; whom is
used for objects. (See 25.)
who’s, whose Who’s is a contraction of who is; whose is a possessive pro-
noun. Who’s ready for more popcorn? Whose coat is this? (See 36c and 36e.)
will See shall, will.
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621usageAppendix: Glossary of usage
would of Would of is nonstandard for would have. She would have (not
would of ) had a chance to play if she had arrived on time.
you In formal writing, avoid you in an indefinite sense meaning “any-
one.” (See 23d.) Any spectator (not You) could tell by the way John caught
the ball that his throw would be too late.
your, you’re Your is a possessive pronoun; you’re is a contraction of you
are. Is that your new bike? You’re in the finals. (See 36c and 46b.)
22_HAC_01131_GLOSS_608_621.indd 621 6/9/15 4:49 PM
622
Answers to Lettered Exercises
ExErcisE 6–1, page 102
a. hasty generalization; b. false analogy; c. either . . . or fallacy; d. biased
language; e. faulty cause-and-effect reasoning
ExErcisE 8–1, page 129 Possible revisions:
a. The Prussians defeated the Saxons in 1745.
b. Ahmed, the producer, manages the entire operation.
c. The tour guides expertly paddled the sea kayaks.
d. Emphatic and active; no change
e. Protesters were shouting on the courthouse steps.
ExErcisE 9–1, page 132 Possible revisions:
a. Police dogs are used for finding lost children, tracking criminals, and
detecting bombs and illegal drugs.
b. Hannah told her rock-climbing partner that she bought a new harness and
that she wanted to climb Otter Cliffs.
c. It is more difficult to sustain an exercise program than to start one.
d. During basic training, I was told not only what to do but also what to think.
e. Jan wanted to drive to the wine country or at least to Sausalito.
ExErcisE 10–1, page 136 Possible revisions:
a. A grapefruit or an orange is a good source of vitamin C.
b. The women entering the military academy can expect haircuts as short as
those of the male cadets.
c. Looking out the family room window, Sarah saw that her favorite tree,
which she had climbed as a child, was gone.
d. The graphic designers are interested in and knowledgeable about
producing posters for the balloon race.
e. The Great Barrier Reef is larger than any other coral reef in the world.
ExErcisE 11–1, page 140 Possible revisions:
a. Using surgical gloves is a precaution now taken by dentists to prevent
contact with patients’ blood and saliva.
b. A career in medicine, which my brother is pursuing, requires at least ten
years of challenging work.
c. The pharaohs had bad teeth because tiny particles of sand found their way
into Egyptian bread.
d. Recurring bouts of flu caused the team to forfeit a record number of games.
e. This box contains the key to your future.
ExErcisE 12–1, page 143 Possible revisions:
a. More research is needed to evaluate effectively the risks posed by
volcanoes in the Pacific Northwest.
b. Many students graduate from college with debt totaling more than fifty
thousand dollars.
23_HAC_01131_SE_ANS_622_635.indd 622 6/8/15 4:22 PM
Answers to lettered exercises 623
c. It is a myth that humans use only 10 percent of their brains.
d. A coolhunter is a person who can find the next wave of fashion in the
unnoticed corners of modern society.
e. Not all geese fly beyond Narragansett for the winter.
ExErcisE 12–6, page 146 Possible revisions:
a. To complete an online purchase with a credit card, you must enter the
expiration date and the security code.
b. Though Martha was only sixteen, UCLA accepted her application.
c. As I settled in the cockpit, the pounding of the engine was muffled only
slightly by my helmet.
d. After studying polymer chemistry, Phuong found computer games less
complex.
e. When I was a young man, my mother enrolled me in tap dance classes.
ExErcisE 13–5, page 151 Possible revisions:
a. An incredibly talented musician, Ray Charles mastered R&B, soul, and
gospel styles. He even performed country music well.
b. Environmentalists point out that shrimp farming in Southeast Asia
is polluting water and making farmlands useless. They warn that
governments must act before it is too late.
c. We observed the samples for five days before we detected any growth. Or
The samples were observed for five days before any growth was detected.
d. In his famous soliloquy, Hamlet contemplates whether death would
be preferable to his difficult life and, if so, whether he is capable of
committing suicide.
e. The lawyer told the judge that Miranda Hale was innocent and asked that
she be allowed to prove the allegations false. Or The lawyer told the judge,
“Miranda Hale is innocent. Please allow her to prove the allegations false.”
ExErcisE 13–6, page 152 Possible revisions:
a. Courtroom lawyers need to have more than a touch of theater in their blood.
b. The interviewer asked if we had brought our proof of citizenship and our
passports.
c. Experienced reconnaissance scouts know how to make fast decisions and
use sophisticated equipment to keep their teams from being detected.
d. After the animators finish their scenes, the production designer arranges
the clips according to the storyboard and makes synchronization notes for
the sound editor and the composer.
e. Madame Defarge is a sinister figure in Dickens’s A Tale of Two Cities. On a
symbolic level, she represents fate; like the Greek Fates, she knits the fabric
of individual destiny.
ExErcisE 14–1, page 155 Possible revisions:
a. Williams played for the Boston Red Sox from 1939 to 1960, and he
managed the Washington Senators and Texas Rangers for several years
after retiring as a player.
b. In 1941, Williams finished the season with a batting average of .406; no
player has hit over .400 for a season since then.
c. Although he acknowledged that Joe DiMaggio was a better all-around
player, Williams felt that he was a better hitter than DiMaggio.
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d. Williams was a stubborn man; for example, he always refused to tip his
cap to the crowd after a home run because he claimed that fans were fickle.
e. Williams’s relationship with the media was unfriendly at best; he sarcastically
called baseball writers the “knights of the keyboard” in his memoir.
ExErcisE 14–2, page 158 Possible revisions:
a. The X-Men comic books and Japanese woodcuts of kabuki dancers, all
part of Marlena’s research project on popular culture, covered the tabletop
and the chairs.
b. Our waitress, costumed in a kimono, had painted her face white and
arranged her hair in a lacquered beehive.
c. Students can apply for a spot in the leadership program, which teaches
thinking and communication skills.
d. Shore houses were flooded up to the first floor, beaches were washed away,
and Brant’s Lighthouse was swallowed by the sea.
e. Laura Thackray, an engineer at Volvo Car Corporation, addressed
women’s safety needs by designing a pregnant crash-test dummy.
ExErcisE 14–8, page 159 Possible revisions:
a. These particles, known as “stealth liposomes,” can hide in the body for a
long time without detection.
b. Irena, a competitive gymnast majoring in biochemistry, intends to apply
her athletic experience and her science degree to a career in sports
medicine.
c. Because students, textile workers, and labor unions have loudly protested
sweatshop abuses, apparel makers have been forced to examine their labor
practices.
d. Developed in a European university, IRC (Internet relay chat) was created
as a way for a group of graduate students to talk from their dorm rooms
about projects.
e. The cafeteria’s new menu, which has an international flavor, includes
everything from enchiladas and pizza to pad thai and sauerbraten.
ExErcisE 14–10, page 161 Possible revisions:
a. To help the relief effort, Gina distributed food and medical supplies.
b. Janbir, who spent every Saturday learning tabla drumming, noticed with
each hour of practice that his memory for complex patterns was growing
stronger.
c. When the rotor hit, it gouged a hole about an eighth of an inch deep in my
helmet.
d. My grandfather, who was born eighty years ago in Puerto Rico, raised his
daughters the old-fashioned way.
e. By reversing the depressive effect of the drug, the Narcan saved the
patient’s life.
ExErcisE 15–1, page 165 Possible revisions:
a. Across the hall from the fossils exhibit are the exhibits for insects and
spiders.
b. After growing up desperately poor, Sayuri becomes a successful geisha.
c. Researchers who have been studying Mount St. Helens for years believe
that earthquakes may have caused the 1980 eruption.
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d. Ice cream typically contains 10 percent milk fat, but premium ice
cream may contain up to 16 percent milk fat and has considerably
less air in it.
e. If home values climb, the economy may recover quickly.
ExErcisE 16–1, page 169 Possible revisions:
a. Martin Luther King Jr. set a high standard for future leaders.
b. Alice has loved cooking since she could first peek over a kitchen
tabletop.
c. Bloom’s race for the governorship is futile.
d. A successful graphic designer must have technical knowledge and an eye
for color and balance.
e. You will deliver mail to all employees.
ExErcisE 17–1, page 173 Possible revisions:
a. When I was young, my family was poor.
b. This conference will help me serve my clients better.
c. The meteorologist warned the public about the possible dangers of the
coming storm.
d. Government studies show a need for after-school programs.
e. Passengers should try to complete the customs declaration form before
leaving the plane.
ExErcisE 17–6, page 178 Possible revisions:
a. Dr. Geralyn Farmer is the chief surgeon at University Hospital. Dr. Paul
Green is her assistant.
b. All applicants want to know how much they will earn.
c. Elementary school teachers should understand the concept of nurturing if
they intend to be effective.
d. Obstetricians need to be available to their patients at all hours.
e. If we do not stop polluting our environment, we will perish.
ExErcisE 18–2, page 182 Possible revisions:
a. We regret this delay; thank you for your patience.
b. Ada’s plan is to acquire education and experience to prepare herself for a
position as property manager.
c. Serena Williams, the ultimate competitor, has earned millions of dollars
just in endorsements.
d. Many people take for granted that public libraries have up-to-date
computer systems.
e. The effect of Gao Xingjian’s novels on other Chinese exiles is hard to
gauge.
ExErcisE 18–5, page 183 Possible revisions:
a. Queen Anne was so angry with Sarah Churchill that she refused to see her
again.
b. Correct
c. The parade moved off the street and onto the beach.
d. The frightened refugees intend to make the dangerous trek across the
mountains.
e. What type of wedding are you planning?
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ExErcisE 18–8, page 186 Possible revisions:
a. John stormed into the room like a hurricane.
b. Some people insist that they’ll always be available to help, even when they
haven’t been before.
c. The Cubs easily beat the Mets, who were in trouble early in the game
today at Wrigley Field.
d. We worked out the problems in our relationship.
e. My mother accused me of evading her questions when in fact I was just
saying the first thing that came to mind.
ExErcisE 19–1, page 194 Possible revisions:
a. Listening to the CD her sister had sent, Mia was overcome with a mix of
emotions: happiness, homesickness, and nostalgia.
b. Cortés and his soldiers were astonished when they looked down from the
mountains and saw Tenochtitlán, the magnificent capital of the Aztecs.
c. Although my spoken Spanish is not very good, I can read the language
with ease.
d. There are several reasons for not eating meat. One reason is that dangerous
chemicals are used throughout the various stages of meat production.
e. To learn how to sculpt beauty from everyday life is my intention in
studying art and archaeology.
ExErcisE 20–1, page 200 Possible revisions:
a. The city had one public swimming pool that stayed packed with children
all summer long.
b. The building is being renovated, so at times we have no heat, water, or
electricity.
c. The view was not what the travel agent had described. Where were the
rolling hills and the shimmering rivers?
d. Walker’s coming-of-age novel is set against a gloomy scientific backdrop;
the earth’s rotation has begun to slow down.
e. City officials had good reason to fear a major earthquake: Most [or most]
of the business district was built on landfill.
ExErcisE 20–2, page 201 Possible revisions:
a. Wind power for the home is a supplementary source of energy that can be
combined with electricity, gas, or solar energy.
b. Correct
c. In the Middle Ages, when the streets of London were dangerous places, it
was safer to travel by boat along the Thames.
d. “He’s not drunk,” I said. “He’s in a state of diabetic shock.”
e. Are you able to endure extreme angle turns, high speeds, frequent jumps,
and occasional crashes? Then supermoto racing may be a sport for you.
ExErcisE 21–1, page 211
a. One of the main reasons for elephant poaching is the profits received from
selling the ivory tusks.
b. Correct
c. A number of students in the seminar were aware of the importance of
joining the discussion.
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d. Batik cloth from Bali, blue and white ceramics from Delft, and a bocce
ball from Turin have made Angelie’s room the talk of the dorm.
e. Correct
ExErcisE 22–1, page 217 Possible revisions:
a. Every presidential candidate must appeal to a wide variety of ethnic and
social groups to win the election.
b. David lent his motorcycle to someone who allowed a friend to use it.
c. The aerobics teacher motioned for all the students to move their arms in
wide, slow circles.
d. Correct
e. Applicants should be bilingual if they want to qualify for this position.
ExErcisE 23–1, page 221 Possible revisions:
a. Some professors say that engineering students should have hands-on
experience with dismantling and reassembling machines.
b. Because she had decorated her living room with posters from chamber
music festivals, her date thought that she was interested in classical music.
Actually, she preferred rock.
c. In my high school, students didn’t need to get all A’s to be considered a
success; they just needed to work to their ability.
d. Marianne told Jenny, “I am worried about your mother’s illness.”
[or “. . . about my mother’s illness.”]
e. Though Lewis cried for several minutes after scraping his knee, eventually
his crying subsided.
ExErcisE 24–1, page 226
a. Correct [But the writer could change the end of the sentence: . . . than he
was.]
b. Correct [But the writer could change the end of the sentence: . . . that she
was the coach.]
c. She appreciated his telling the truth in such a difficult situation.
d. The director has asked you and me to draft a proposal for a new recycling
plan.
e. Five close friends and I rented a station wagon, packed it with food, and
drove two hundred miles to Mardi Gras.
ExErcisE 25–1, page 230
a. Correct
b. The environmental policy conference featured scholars whom I had never
heard of. [or . . . scholars I had never heard of.]
c. Correct
d. Daniel always gives a holiday donation to whoever needs it.
e. So many singers came to the audition that Natalia had trouble deciding
whom to select for the choir.
ExErcisE 26–1, page 236
a. Do you expect to perform well on the exam next week?
b. With the budget deadline approaching, our office has hardly had time to
handle routine correspondence.
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c. Correct
d. The customer complained that he hadn’t been treated nicely by the agent
on the phone.
e. Of all the smart people in my family, Aunt Ida is the cleverest. [or . . . most
clever.]
ExErcisE 27–1, page 242
a. When I get the urge to exercise, I lie down until it passes.
b. Grandmother had driven our new hybrid to the sunrise church service, so
we were left with the station wagon.
c. A pile of dirty rags was lying at the bottom of the stairs.
d. How did the game know that the player had gone from the room with the
blue ogre to the hall where the gold was heaped?
e. Abraham Lincoln took good care of his legal clients; the contracts he drew
for the Illinois Central Railroad could never be broken.
ExErcisE 27–5, page 247
a. The glass sculptures of the Swan Boats were prominent in the brightly lit
lobby.
b. Visitors to the glass museum were not supposed to touch the exhibits.
c. Our church has all the latest technology, even a closed-circuit
television.
d. Christos didn’t know about Marlo’s promotion because he never listens.
He is [or He’s] always talking.
e. Correct
ExErcisE 27–9, page 254 Possible revisions:
a. Correct
b. Watson and Crick discovered the mechanism that controls inheritance in
all life: the workings of the DNA molecule.
c. When city planners proposed rezoning the waterfront, did they
know that the mayor had promised to curb development in that
neighborhood?
d. Tonight’s concert begins at 9:30. If it were earlier, I’d consider going.
e. Correct
ExErcisE 28–1, page 261
a. In the past, tobacco companies denied any connection between smoking
and health problems.
b. The volunteer’s compassion has touched many lives.
c. I want to register for a summer tutoring session.
d. By the end of the year, the state will have tested 139 birds for avian flu.
e. The golfers were prepared for all weather conditions.
ExErcisE 28–4, page 263
a. A major league pitcher can throw a baseball more than ninety-five miles
per hour.
b. The writing center tutor will help you revise your essay.
c. A reptile must adjust its body temperature to its environment.
d. Correct
e. My uncle, a cartoonist, could sketch a face in less than two minutes.
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ExErcisE 28–7, page 267 Possible revisions:
a. The electrician might have discovered the broken circuit if she had gone
through the modules one at a time.
b. If Verena wins a scholarship, she will go to graduate school.
c. Whenever a rainbow appears after a storm, everybody comes out to see it.
d. Sarah did not understand the terms of her internship.
e. If I lived in Budapest with my cousin Szusza, she would teach me
Hungarian cooking.
ExErcisE 28–10, page 270 Possible answers:
a. I enjoy riding my motorcycle.
b. The tutor told Samantha to come to the writing center.
c. The team hopes to work hard and win the championship.
d. Ricardo and his brothers miss surfing during the winter.
e. Jon remembered to lock the door. Or Jon remembered seeing that movie
years ago.
ExErcisE 29–1, page 278
a. Doing volunteer work often brings satisfaction.
b. As I looked out the window of the plane, I could see Cape Cod.
c. Melina likes to drink her coffee with lots of cream.
d. Correct
e. I completed my homework assignment quickly. Or I completed the
homework assignment quickly.
ExErcisE 30–1, page 283
a. There are some cartons of ice cream in the freezer.
b. I don’t use the subway because I am afraid.
c. The prime minister is the most popular leader in my country.
d. We tried to get in touch with the same manager whom we spoke to earlier.
e. Recently there have been a number of earthquakes in Turkey.
ExErcisE 30–4, page 285 Possible revisions:
a. Although freshwater freezes at 32 degrees Fahrenheit, ocean water freezes
at 28 degrees Fahrenheit.
b. Because we switched cable packages, our channel lineup has changed.
c. The competitor confidently mounted his skateboard.
d. My sister performs the legong, a Balinese dance, well.
e. Correct
ExErcisE 30–7, page 286
a. Listening to everyone’s complaints all day was irritating.
b. The long flight to Singapore was exhausting.
c. Correct
d. After a great deal of research, the scientist made a fascinating discovery.
e. Surviving that tornado was one of the most frightening experiences I’ve
ever had.
ExErcisE 30–10, page 288
a. an intelligent young Vietnamese sculptor
b. a dedicated Catholic priest
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c. her old blue wool sweater
d. Joe’s delicious Scandinavian bread
e. many beautiful antique jewelry boxes
ExErcisE 31–1, page 289
a. Whenever we eat at the Centerville Café, we sit at a small table in the
corner of the room.
b. Correct
c. On Thursday, Nancy will attend her first home repair class at the
community center.
d. Correct
e. We decided to go to a restaurant because there was no fresh food in the
refrigerator.
ExErcisE 32–1, page 296
a. Alisa brought the injured bird home and fashioned a splint out of Popsicle
sticks for its wing.
b. Considered a classic of early animation, The Adventures of Prince Achmed
used hand-cut silhouettes against colored backgrounds.
c. If you complete the evaluation form and return it within two weeks, you
will receive a free breakfast during your next stay.
d. Correct
e. Roger had always wanted a handmade violin, but he couldn’t afford one.
ExErcisE 32–2, page 296
a. J. R. R. Tolkien finished writing his draft of The Lord of the Rings trilogy in
1949, but the first book in the series wasn’t published until 1954.
b. In the first two minutes of its ascent, the space shuttle had broken the
sound barrier and reached a height of over twenty-five miles.
c. German shepherds can be gentle guide dogs, or they can be fierce attack
dogs.
d. Some former professional cyclists admit that the use of performance-
enhancing drugs is widespread in cycling, but they argue that no rider can
be competitive without doping.
e. As an intern, I learned most aspects of the broadcasting industry, but I
never learned about fundraising.
ExErcisE 32–5, page 298
a. The cold, impersonal atmosphere of the university was unbearable.
b. An ambulance threaded its way through police cars, fire trucks, and irate
citizens.
c. Correct
d. After two broken arms, three cracked ribs, and one concussion, Ken quit
the varsity football team.
e. Correct
ExErcisE 32–6, page 299
a. NASA’s rovers on Mars are equipped with special cameras that can take
close-up, high-resolution pictures of the terrain.
b. Correct
c. Correct
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d. Love, vengeance, greed, and betrayal are common themes in Western
literature.
e. Many experts believe that shark attacks on surfers are a result of the
sharks’ mistaking surfboards for small injured seals.
ExErcisE 32–9, page 302
a. Choreographer Alvin Ailey’s best-known work, Revelations, is more than
just a crowd-pleaser.
b. Correct
c. Correct
d. A member of an organization that provides job training for teens was also
appointed to the education commission.
e. Brian Eno, who began his career as a rock musician, turned to meditative
compositions in the late 1970s.
ExErcisE 32–11, page 307
a. Cricket, which originated in England, is also popular in Australia, South
Africa, and India.
b. At the sound of the starting pistol, the horses surged forward toward the
first obstacle, a sharp incline three feet high.
c. After seeing an exhibition of Western art, Gerhard Richter escaped from
East Berlin and smuggled out many of his notebooks.
d. Corrie’s new wet suit has an intricate blue pattern.
e. We replaced the rickety old spiral staircase with a sturdy new ladder.
ExErcisE 32–12, page 308
a. On January 15, 2012, our office moved to 29 Commonwealth Avenue,
Mechanicsville, VA 23111.
b. Correct
c. Ms. Carlson, you are a valued customer whose satisfaction is very
important to us.
d. Mr. Mundy was born on July 22, 1939, in Arkansas, where his family had
lived for four generations.
e. Correct
ExErcisE 33–1, page 312
a. Correct
b. Tricia’s first artwork was a bright blue clay dolphin.
c. Some modern musicians (trumpeter John Hassell is an example) blend
several cultural traditions into a unique sound.
d. Myra liked hot, spicy foods such as chili, kung pao chicken, and buffalo
wings.
e. On the display screen was a soothing pattern of light and shadow.
ExErcisE 34–1, page 316
a. Do not ask me to be kind; just ask me to act as though I were.
b. When men talk about defense, they always claim to be protecting women
and children, but they never ask the women and children what they think.
c. When I get a little money, I buy books; if any is left, I buy food and clothes.
d. Correct
e. Wit has truth in it; wisecracking is simply calisthenics with words.
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ExErcisE 34–2, page 317
a. Strong black coffee will not sober you up; the truth is that time is the only
way to get alcohol out of your system.
b. Margaret was not surprised to see hail and vivid lightning; conditions had
been right for violent weather all day.
c. There is often a fine line between right and wrong, good and bad, truth
and deception.
d. Correct
e. Severe, unremitting pain is a ravaging force, especially when the patient
tries to hide it from others.
ExErcisE 35–1, page 319
a. Correct [Either It or it is correct.]
b. If we have come to fight, we are far too few; if we have come to die, we are
far too many.
c. The travel package includes a round-trip ticket to Athens, a cruise through
the Cyclades, and all hotel accommodations.
d. The news article portrays the land use proposal as reckless, although 62
percent of the town’s residents support it.
e. Psychologists Kindlon and Thompson (2000) offer parents a simple
starting point for raising male children: “Teach boys that there are many
ways to be a man” (p. 256).
ExErcisE 36–1, page 322
a. Correct
b. The innovative shoe fastener was inspired by the designer’s young son.
c. Each day’s menu features a different European country’s dish.
d. Sue worked overtime to increase her family’s earnings.
e. Ms. Jacobs is unwilling to listen to students’ complaints about computer
failures.
ExErcisE 37–1, page 328
a. As for the advertisement “Sailors have more fun,” if you consider chipping
paint and swabbing decks fun, then you will have plenty of it.
b. Correct
c. After winning the lottery, Juanita said that she would give half the money
to charity.
d. After the movie, Vicki said, “The reviewer called this flick ‘trash of the first
order.’ I guess you can’t believe everything you read.”
e. Correct
ExErcisE 39–1, page 335
a. A client left his or her [or a] cell phone in our conference room after the
meeting.
b. The films we made of Kilauea on our trip to Hawaii Volcanoes National
Park illustrate a typical spatter cone eruption.
c. Correct
d. Of three engineering fields — chemical, mechanical, and materials — Keegan
chose materials engineering for its application to toy manufacturing.
e. Correct
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ExErcisE 40–1, page 341
a. Correct
b. Some combat soldiers are trained by government diplomats to be sensitive
to issues of culture, history, and religion.
c. Correct
d. How many pounds have you lost since you began running four miles a
day?
e. Denzil spent all night studying for his psychology exam.
ExErcisE 41–1, page 342
a. MLA style: The carpenters located three maple timbers, twenty-one sheets
of cherry, and ten oblongs of polished ebony for the theater set. APA style:
The carpenters located three maple timbers, 21 sheets of cherry, and 10
oblongs of polished ebony for the theater set.
b. Correct
c. Correct
d. Eight students in the class had been labeled “learning disabled.”
e. The Vietnam Veterans Memorial in Washington, DC, had 58,132 names
inscribed on it when it was dedicated in 1982.
ExErcisE 42–1, page 345
a. Howard Hughes commissioned the Spruce Goose, a beautifully built but
thoroughly impractical wooden aircraft.
b. The old man screamed his anger, shouting to all of us, “I will not leave my
money to you worthless layabouts!”
c. I learned the Latin term ad infinitum from an old nursery rhyme about
fleas: “Great fleas have little fleas upon their back to bite ’em, / Little fleas
have lesser fleas and so on ad infinitum.”
d. Correct
e. Neve Campbell’s lifelong interest in ballet inspired her involvement in the
film The Company, which portrays a season with the Joffrey Ballet.
ExErcisE 44–1, page 356
a. Correct
b. The swiftly moving tugboat pulled alongside the barge and directed it
away from the oil spill in the harbor.
c. Correct
d. Your dog is well known in our neighborhood.
e. Roadblocks were set up along all the major highways leading out of the city.
ExErcisE 45–1, page 360
a. Assistant Dean Shirin Ahmadi recommended offering more world
language courses.
b. Correct
c. Kalindi has an ambitious semester, studying differential calculus, classical
Hebrew, brochure design, and Greek literature.
d. Lydia’s aunt and uncle make modular houses as beautiful as modernist
works of art.
e. We amused ourselves on the long flight by discussing how spring in Kyoto
stacks up against summer in London.
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ExErcisE 46–1, page 362
a. stage, confrontation, proportions; b. courage, mountain (noun/adjective),
climber, inspiration, rescuers; c. need, guest, honor, fog; d. defense (noun/
adjective), attorney, appeal, jury; e. museum, women (noun/adjective),
artists, 1987
ExErcisE 46–5, page 365
a. his; b. that, our (pronoun/adjective); c. he, himself, some, his (pronoun/
adjective); d. I, my (pronoun/adjective), you, one; e. no one, her
ExErcisE 46–9, page 367
a. told; b. were, killed; c. brought down; d. Stay, ’ll [will] arrive;
e. struggled, was trapped
ExErcisE 46–13, page 369
a. Adjectives: weak, unfocused; b. Adjectives: The (article), Spanish, flexible;
adverb: wonderfully; c. Adjectives: The (article), fragrant, the (article),
steady; adverb: especially; d. Adjectives: hot, cold; adverbs: rather, slightly,
bitterly; e. Adjectives: The (article), its (pronoun/adjective), wicker (noun/
adjective); adverb: soundly
ExErcisE 47–1, page 377
a. Complete subjects: The hills and mountains, the snow atop them; simple
subjects: hills, mountains, snow; b. Complete subject: points; simple subject:
points; c. Complete subject: (You); d. Complete subject: hundreds of
fireflies; simple subject: hundreds; e. Complete subject: The evidence against
the defendant; simple subject: evidence
ExErcisE 47–5, page 381
a. Subject complement: expensive; b. Direct object: death; c. Direct object:
their players’ efforts; d. Subject complement: the capital of the Russian
Empire; e. Subject complement: bitter
ExErcisE 47–6, page 381
a. Direct objects: adults and children; object complement: weary; b. Indirect
object: students; direct object: healthy meal choices; c. Direct object: the
work; object complement: finished; d. Indirect objects: the agent, us; direct
objects: our tickets, boarding passes; e. Direct object: community service;
object complement: her priority
ExErcisE 48–1, page 385
a. In northern Italy (adverb phrase modifying met); as their first language
(adverb phrase modifying speak); b. through the thick forest (adjective
phrase modifying hike); with ease (adverb phrase modifying completed);
c. To my boss’s dismay (adverb phrase modifying was); for work (adverb
phrase modifying late); d. of Mayan artifacts (adjective phrase modifying
exhibit); into pre-Columbian culture (adjective phrase modifying insight);
e. In 2002, in twelve European countries (adverb phrases modifying
became)
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ExErcisE 48–6, page 388
a. Updating your software (gerund phrase used as subject); b. decreasing
the town budget (gerund phrase used as object of the preposition
in); identifying nonessential services (gerund phrase used as subject
complement); c. to help her mother by raking the lawn (infinitive phrase
used as direct object); raking the lawn (gerund phrase used as object of the
preposition by); d. Understanding little (participial phrase modifying I );
passing my biology final (gerund phrase used as object of the preposition
of ); e. Working with animals (gerund phrase used as subject)
ExErcisE 48–10, page 391
a. so that every vote would count (adverb clause modifying adjusted); b. that
targets baby boomers (adjective clause modifying campaign); c. After
the Tambora volcano erupted in the southern Pacific in 1815 (adverb
clause modifying realized ); that it would contribute to the “year without a
summer” in Europe and North America (noun clause used as direct object of
realized ); d. that at a certain point there will be no more oil to extract from
the earth (noun clause used as direct object of implies); e. when you are
rushing (adverb clause modifying are overlooked)
ExErcisE 49–1, page 394
a. Complex; that are ignited in dry areas (adjective clause); b. Compound;
c. Simple; d. Complex; Before we leave for the station (adverb clause);
e. Compound-complex; when you want to leave (noun clause)
23_HAC_01131_SE_ANS_622_635.indd 635 6/8/15 4:22 PM
636
Index
A
a, an. See also the
a vs. an, 271, 608
choosing, with common
nouns, 274–76
defined, 270
multilingual/ESL challenges with,
270–71, 274–76
needed, 136
omission of, 136, 274–76
Abbreviations, 338–41
acronyms, 339
in APA reference list, 584
common, 338–39
inappropriate, 340
Latin, 340
in MLA works cited list, 470
periods with, 330–31, 338–39
plurals of, 322, 340
for titles with proper names, 338
for units of measurement, 339–40
abide by (not with) a decision, 182
Absolute concepts (such as unique),
235
Absolute phrases
commas with, 304
defined, 388
Abstract nouns, 181
Abstracts
in APA papers, 582, 586, 601
citing
APA style, 562
MLA style, 482–83
in databases, 421
keywords in, 580, 584, 601
Academic degrees, abbreviations for,
338–39
Academic habits, developing. See
Habits of mind
Academic writing, 66–123. See also
Sample student writing
analysis papers, 66–91
APA papers, 527–96
argument papers, 91–119
assignments, understanding, 6–7
audience for, 4, 8–9
e-mail, 607
genre (type of writing) and, 4, 10
manuscript formats, 597–99
APA style, 580–84
MLA style, 45–48, 513–16,
598–99
MLA papers, 431–525
oral presentations, 119–23
purpose of, 4, 7–8
reading for, 66–73
research papers, 396–430
speeches, 119–23
accept, except, 608
according to (not with), 182
Acronyms, 339
Active reading. See Reading
Active verbs, 126–29. See also Active
voice
Active voice
vs. be verbs, 127–28
changing to passive, 379, 383
vs. passive, 126–29, 383
shifts between passive and,
avoiding, 149–50
verb tenses in, 257–59
and wordy sentences, 168
adapt, adopt, 608
AD, BC (CE, BCE), 339
Addresses. See also URLs
commas with, 306
e-mail, 355–56
numbers in, 342
ad hominem fallacy, 98–100
Adjective clauses
avoiding repetition in, 282–83
defined, 389
punctuation of, 301
words introducing, 389, 390
Adjective phrases
infinitive, 387
introductory, with comma,
295
participial, 386
prepositional, 384–85
punctuation of, 301–02
restrictive (essential) vs.
nonrestrictive (nonessential),
301–02
Adjectives
and absolute concepts, 235
and adverbs, 230–37, 368–69
24_HAC_01131_SE_INDEX_636_673.indd 636 7/14/15 10:17 AM
Index 637
commas with coordinate, 297–98
comparative forms (with -er or
more), 234–35
defined, 367
after direct objects (object
complements), 232, 379
hyphens with, 354
after linking verbs (subject
complements), 231–32, 378
no commas with cumulative,
297–98, 309–10
order of, 287
with prepositions (idioms), 291
superlative forms (with -est or
most), 234–35
adopt. See adapt, adopt, 608
Adverb clauses
comma with, 295
defined, 390
no comma with, 310–11
punctuation of, 295, 310–11
words introducing, 390
Adverb phrases
infinitive, 387
prepositional, 384–85
Adverbs. See also Conjunctive
adverbs
and adjectives, 230–37
comparative forms (with -er or
more), 234–35
defined, 368
introducing clauses, 282–83, 389
placement of, 284
relative, 282–83, 389, 390
repetition of, avoiding, 282–83
superlative forms (with -est or
most), 234–35
adverse, averse, 608
Advertisements, writing about. See
Multimodal texts
advice, advise, 608
affect, effect, 608
aggravate, 608
Agreement of pronoun and
antecedent, 213–18
with antecedents joined
by and, 215
with antecedents joined by or or
nor, 216–17
with collective nouns (audience,
family, team, etc.), 215
with generic nouns, 214–15
with indefinite pronouns, 213–14
and sexist language, avoiding,
213–14, 216
Agreement of subject and verb,
202–12
with collective nouns (audience,
family, team, etc.), 207–08
with company names, 211
with gerund phrases, 211
with indefinite pronouns, 206–07
with intervening words, 202–03
with nouns of plural form,
singular meaning (athletics,
economics, etc.), 211
standard subject-verb
combinations, 202, 204–05
with subject, not subject
complement, 209–10
with subject after verb, 209
with subjects joined with and,
203, 206
with subjects joined with or or
nor, 206
with the number, a number, 208
with there is, there are, 209
with titles of works, 211
with units of measurement, 208
with who, which, that, 210
with words between subject and
verb, 202–03
with words used as words, 211
agree to, agree with, 182, 609
ain’t (nonstandard), 609
Aircraft, italics for names of, 344
Alignment of text (left, right,
centered, justified)
in APA papers, 581
in MLA papers, 514, 598–99
all (singular or plural), 206–07
all-, as prefix, with hyphen, 355
all ready, already, 609
all right (not alright), 609
all together, altogether, 609
allude, 609
allusion, illusion, 609
almost, placement of, 140–41
a lot (not alot), 609
already. See all ready, already, 609
alright (nonstandard). See all right,
609
although
avoiding with but or however,
283–84
introducing subordinate clause,
370
no comma after, 312
altogether. See all together, altogether,
609
24_HAC_01131_SE_INDEX_636_673.indd 637 7/14/15 10:17 AM
Index638
American Psychological Association.
See APA papers
among, between. See between, among,
611
amongst, 609
amoral, immoral, 609
amount, number, 609
a.m., p.m., AM, PM, 339
am vs. is or are. See Agreement of
subject and verb
an, a. See a, an
Analogy
as argument strategy, 93–94
false, 93–94
as paragraph pattern, 56
Analysis. See also Analysis papers
critical thinking, 66–73
evaluating sources, 403–04, 416–30
synthesizing sources
APA style, 545–46
MLA style, 454–56
of visual and multimodal texts,
80–91
of written texts, 66–80, 410, 412
Analysis papers, 66–91. See also
Analysis
and critical thinking, 66–73, 81–84
drafting, 73–77
evidence for, 73–74, 86–87
judgment in, 75, 76, 86–87
interpretation in, 73–75, 86–88
revising, 77
sample papers, 78–80, 88–91
summaries in, 72–73
balancing with analysis, 74,
76, 86–87
revising, 77
writing, 73, 85
thesis in, 75, 76–77, 87
writing guide for, 76–77
and
antecedents joined by, 215
comma with, 294–95
as coordinating conjunction,
131, 370
excessive use of, 158–60
no comma with, 308–09, 311
no semicolon with, 316
parallelism and, 131
subjects joined by, 203, 206
and etc. (nonstandard), 609
and/or
avoiding, 609
slash with, 335
angry with (not at), 182, 609
Annotated bibliography, 427–30
sample entry (MLA style), 430
writing guide for, 428–29
Annotating texts
electronic texts, 67, 72
to generate ideas, 13, 67–68,
412–13
guidelines for, 70
visual or multimodal texts,
81–82, 83
sample annotated visual text,
83
written texts, 67–68, 70
sample annotated written
texts, 67–68, 413, 454
ante-, anti-, 609
Antecedent
agreement of pronoun and,
213–18
defined, 213, 218, 363
pronoun reference, 218–22
singular vs. plural, 213–18
unclear or unstated, 219–20
of who, which, that, 210
Anthology or collection, citing
APA style, 569
MLA style, 464–65, 490–91
citation at a glance, 492–93
anti-, ante-. See ante-, anti-, 609
Antonyms (opposites), 350
a number (plural), the number
(singular), 208
anxious, 610
any, 206–07
anybody (singular), 206–07, 213–14,
610
anymore, 610
anyone (singular), 206–07, 213–14, 610
anyone, any one, 610
anyplace, 610
anything (singular), 206–07, 213–14
anyways, anywheres (nonstandard),
610
APA papers, 527–96
abstracts in, 582, 586, 601
authority in, 405, 533
author note in (optional), 600
citation at a glance
article from a database,
562–63
article in a journal or
magazine, 560–61
book, 568
section in a Web document,
576–77
24_HAC_01131_SE_INDEX_636_673.indd 638 7/14/15 10:17 AM
Index 639
citations, in-text
directory to models for, 528
models for, 547–53
DOIs (digital object identifiers)
in, 555, 562–63, 584
evidence for, 532–33
footnotes in
formatting, 582
sample, 587
keywords in, 582, 586, 601
manuscript format, 580–84,
600–02
numbers in, 341–42, 601
organizing, 531–32
plagiarism in, avoiding, 534–37
reference list
directory to models for, 528–29
formatting, 583–84, 602
general guidelines for, 554–55
models for, 553–80
sample, 595–96, 602
sample paper, 585–96
signal phrases in, 541–44
sources in
citing, 534–37, 546–80
integrating, 537–44
synthesizing, 545–46
uses of, 532–33
supporting arguments in, 532–33,
545–46
tables and figures in
citing sources of, 585
formatting, 583
sample, 591, 603
tenses in, 250, 542, 547
thesis in, 530–31
title page
formatting, 581, 600
samples, 585
URLs in, 555, 572, 584
Apostrophes, 319–23
in contractions, 321
misuse of, 322
in plurals, 321–22
in possessives, 319–20
Appeals, in arguments. See Ethos
(ethical appeals); Logos (logical
appeals); Pathos (emotional
appeals)
Apposition, faulty, 139
Appositive phrases, 156, 388
Appositives (nouns that rename
other nouns)
case of pronouns with, 224
colon with, 317
commas with, 302
dashes with, 332
defined, 302
no commas with, 310
as sentence fragments, 191–92
Appropriate language (avoiding
jargon, slang, etc.), 170–79
Apps
citing
APA style, 578
MLA style, 501
italics for titles of, 344
are vs. is. See Agreement of subject
and verb
Argument papers, 91–119. See also
Arguments, evaluating
appeals in, 104, 105
audience for, 103–05
common ground in, 104, 105–06,
111, 118
context in, 103, 118
counterarguments in, 32, 100–02,
109–11, 118
credibility in, 104, 105–06
drafting, 103–11, 119
evidence in, 104, 107–09, 118
introduction to, 105–06
lines of argument in, 106–07
oral presentations of, 119–23
purpose in, 103
researching, 103
sample paper, 112–17
support for, 106–09
thesis in, 105–07, 118
writing guide for, 118–19
Arguments, evaluating, 91–102. See
also Argument papers
argumentative tactics, 91–97, 102
assumptions, 96
bias, 423–24
claims, 96
deductive reasoning, 96–97
ethos (ethical appeals), 99, 100
fairness, 98–100
generalizations, faulty, 93
inductive reasoning, 91–92, 94
logical fallacies, 91–99
logos (logical appeals), 91–97, 99
pathos (emotional appeals), 98–100
Article from a database, citing. See
also Articles in periodicals
APA style, 559–67
citation at a glance, 562–63
MLA style, 477–87
citation at a glance, 480–81
24_HAC_01131_SE_INDEX_636_673.indd 639 7/14/15 10:17 AM
Index640
Articles (a, an, the), 270–79. See also
a, an; the
Articles in periodicals. See also
Article from a database
abstracts of, 421
capitalizing titles of, 358–59
APA style, 554, 581, 584
MLA style, 470, 514
citation at a glance
APA style, 560–61
MLA style, 478–79
citing
APA style, 559–67
MLA style, 477–87
finding, 402–06
keeping records of, 409, 410
previewing, 418, 420
quotation marks for titles of,
325
APA style, 554, 581, 584
MLA style, 470, 514
Artwork, italics for title of, 343–44
as
ambiguous use of, 610
needed word, 135
parallelism and, 131–32
pronoun after, 225
as, like. See like, as, 616
Assignments, understanding, 6–7
Assumptions, in arguments, 96
as to, 610
at, in idioms (common expressions)
with adjectives, 291
vs. in, on, to show time and place,
288–89
with verbs, 291–92
athletics (singular), 211
audience. See Collective nouns
Audience
for argument paper, 103–05
assessing, 4, 8–9
and document design, 597
for e-mail, 9
and genre (type of writing), 10
and global (big-picture) revision,
38–39
and level of formality, 175–76
for speech or oral presentation,
120
and thesis, 14–15, 16
Authority, establishing in research
papers, 405
in APA papers, 533
in MLA papers, 438, 451–52
Author note, in APA papers, 600
Authors, of sources
in APA reference list, 554
identifying, 425, 474–75
in MLA works cited list, 469–76
in reposted files, 502–03
Auxiliary verbs. See Helping verbs
averse. See adverse, averse, 608
awful, 610
awhile, a while, 610
Awkward sentences, 137–40
B
back up, backup, 610
bad, badly, 233–34, 610
Bandwagon appeal fallacy, 100
Base form of verb, 237–38, 366–67
modal (can, should, etc.) with,
246, 261–63
in negatives with do, 264
BC, AD (BCE, CE), 339
be, as irregular verb, 237–38, 244,
256–57
be, forms of, 204, 256–57, 366–67
vs. active verbs, 127–28
and agreement with subject,
202–12
in conditional sentences, 266
as helping verbs, 127–28, 258–60,
366
as linking verbs, 127–28, 246,
280, 378
in passive voice, 126–27, 259–61
in progressive forms, 248–49, 258
and subjunctive mood, 252–53
in tenses, 238, 247–49
as weak verbs, 127–28
because
avoiding after reason is, 139, 618
avoiding with so or therefore,
283–84
introducing subordinate clause,
370
not omitting, 132
Beginning of essays. See Introduction
Beginning of sentences
capitalizing words at, 359
numbers at, 342
varying, 163
being as, being that (nonstandard),
610
beside, besides, 610
better, best, 234–35
between, among, 611
Bias, signs of, 423
24_HAC_01131_SE_INDEX_636_673.indd 640 7/14/15 10:17 AM
Index 641
Biased language, avoiding, 98, 179.
See also Sexist language,
avoiding
Bible. See Sacred texts (Bible, Qur’an)
Bibliography. See also Reference
list (APA); Works cited list
(MLA)
annotated, 427–30
sample entry (MLA style), 430
for finding sources, 405–06
working, 409
information for, 29, 411
Block quotation. See Quotations, long
Blog
citing
APA style, 573
MLA style, 498
to explore ideas, 14
Body
of essay, 24–27
of speech or oral presentation,
120–21
Books
capitalizing titles of, 358–59
APA style, 554, 581, 584
MLA style, 470, 514
citation at a glance
APA style, 568
MLA style, 489, 492–93
citing
APA style, 567–72
MLA style, 488–95
italics for titles of, 343
APA style, 554, 581, 584
MLA style, 470, 514
library catalog for finding, 403,
418
previewing, 406, 418, 420
Borrowed language and ideas. See
Citing sources; Plagiarism,
avoiding
both . . . and, 370–71
parallelism and, 131
Brackets, 334
APA style, 540
MLA style, 449
Brainstorming, 13
Bridges. See Transitions
bring, take, 611
Broad reference of this, that, which,
it, 219
burst, bursted; bust, busted, 611
Business writing, 597, 603–07
abbreviations in, 604
audience for, 8–9
e-mail, 9, 607
letters, 604
memos, 606
reports, 603
résumés, 605
but
avoiding with although or
however, 283–84
comma with, 294–95
as coordinating conjunction,
131, 370
excessive use of, 158–60
no comma with, 308–09, 311
no semicolon with, 316
parallelism and, 131
as preposition, 370
by, not omitting, 132
C
can, as modal verb, 261, 262,
366
can, may, 611
capable of (not to), 182
capital, capitol, 611
Capitalization, 356–60
after colon, 318, 359–60
APA style, 581
MLA style, 514
of first word of sentence, 359
of Internet terms, 358, 572
misuse of, 356–58
of proper nouns, 356–58
in quotations, 359
of titles of persons, 358
of titles of works, 358–59
APA style, 554, 581, 584
MLA style, 470, 514
capitol. See capital, capitol, 611
Captions
APA style, 583, 603
MLA style, 515, 519
Case. See Pronoun case
Catalog, library, 403, 418
Causative verbs, 269
Cause and effect
as paragraph pattern, 56–57
reasoning, 95
CE, BCE (AD, BC), 339
censor, censure, 611
Central idea. See Focus; Thesis
cf., 340
Charts, 26. See also Visuals, in
documents
Choppy sentences, 157
24_HAC_01131_SE_INDEX_636_673.indd 641 7/14/15 10:17 AM
Index642
Citation at a glance
APA style
article from a database, 562–63
article in a journal or
magazine, 560–61
book, 568
section in a Web document,
576–77
MLA style
article from a database, 480–81
article in a journal, 478–79
book, 489
selection from an anthology
or a collection, 492–93
short work from a Web site,
497
Citations. See Citation at a glance;
Citing sources
cited in, for a source in another
source, 552–53. See also
quoted in
cite, site, 611
Citing sources. See also Integrating
sources; Plagiarism, avoiding;
Quotations
APA style
in-text citations, 534–37
reference list, 546–80
common knowledge
in APA papers, 534
in MLA papers, 442–43
MLA style
in-text citations, 441–45
works cited list, 458–513
software for, 409
in speeches or presentations, 121
Claims. See Arguments, evaluating;
Thesis
class. See Collective nouns
Classification, as paragraph pattern,
57–58
Clauses. See Independent clauses;
Subordinate clauses
Clichés, 184–85
climactic, climatic, 611
coarse, course, 611
Coherence, 59–63
Collaborative writing. See Peer
review
Collection. See Anthology or
collection, citing
Collective nouns (audience, family,
team, etc.)
agreement of pronouns with, 215
agreement of verbs with, 207–08
College writing. See Academic
writing
Colloquial words, 175, 350–51
Colon, 317–19
with appositives (nouns that
rename other nouns), 317
capitalization after, 318, 359–60
APA style, 581
MLA style, 514
for emphasis, 317–18
to fix run-on sentences, 198–99
with greetings and salutations,
318, 604
between hours and minutes, 318
introducing quotations, 317, 327
with lists, 317
misuse of, 318
outside quotation marks, 326
with ratios, 318
between titles and subtitles of
works, 318
Combining sentences (coordination
and subordination), 152–61
Commands. See Imperative mood;
Imperative sentences
Commas, 294–313. See also Commas,
unnecessary
with absolute phrases, 304
in addresses, 306
with and, but, etc., 294–95
with contrasted elements, 305
between coordinate adjectives,
297–98
before coordinating conjunctions,
154, 294–95
in dates, 306
with interrogative tags
(questions), 305
with interruptions (he writes etc.),
303–05
after introductory elements, 295,
327
with items in a series, 297
with mild interjections, 305
with modifiers, 297–98
with nonrestrictive (nonessential)
elements, 299–303
with nouns of direct address, 305
in numbers, 306–07
with parenthetical expressions,
304
to prevent confusion, 307
with quotation marks, 305, 326
with semicolons, 314–15
to set off words or phrases, 303–05
24_HAC_01131_SE_INDEX_636_673.indd 642 7/14/15 10:17 AM
Index 643
with titles following names, 306
with transitional expressions,
303–04
before which or who, 301
with yes and no, 305
Commas, unnecessary, 308–13
between adjective and noun,
309–10
after although, 312
after and, but, etc., 311
between compound elements,
308–09
before concluding adverb clauses,
310–11
after a coordinating conjunction,
311
between cumulative adjectives,
297–98, 309–10
with indirect quotations, 312
in an inverted sentence (verb
before subject), 311
before a parenthesis, 312
with a question mark or an
exclamation point, 312
with restrictive (essential)
elements, 310
before or after a series, 309
between subject and verb, 309
after such as or like, 312
between verb and object, 309
Comma splices. See Run-on
sentences
Comments on a draft, understanding.
See Revising with comments
Comments on online articles, citing
APA style, 566
MLA style, 484
committee. See Collective nouns
Common ground, establishing,
in argument papers, 104, 105–06,
111, 118
in MLA papers, 438
Common knowledge
in APA papers, 534
in MLA papers, 442–43
Common nouns, 271–76, 356–58
Company names
abbreviations in, 338–39,
340–41
agreement of verb with, 211
Comparative form of adjectives and
adverbs (with -er or more),
234–35. See also Superlative
form of adjectives and
adverbs
compare to, compare with, 611
Comparisons
with adjectives and adverbs,
234–35
needed words in, 134–35
as paragraph pattern, 55–56
parallel elements in, 131–32
with pronoun following than or
as, 225
complement, compliment, 611
Complements, object, 379
Complements, subject
adjectives as, 231–32, 378
case of pronouns as, 223
defined, 378
and subject-verb agreement,
209–10
Complete subject, 375–76
Complex sentences, 393
compliment. See complement,
compliment, 611
comply with (not to), 183
Compound antecedents, 215–17
Compound-complex sentences,
393–94
Compound elements
case of pronoun in, 223–24
comma with, 294–95
needed words in, 133–34
no comma with, 308–09
parallelism and, 130–32
Compound nouns (father-in-law etc.)
plural of, 347
possessive of, 320
Compound numbers, hyphens with,
354
Compound predicates
fragmented, 192
no comma in, 294–95, 308–09
Compound sentences
comma in, 294–95
defined, 393
excessive use of, 158–60
semicolon in, 313–15
Compound subjects
agreement of pronoun with,
215–17
agreement of verb with, 203, 206
defined, 376
Compound verbs. See Compound
predicates
Compound words
in dictionary entry, 349
hyphens with, 353–54
plural of, 347
24_HAC_01131_SE_INDEX_636_673.indd 643 7/14/15 10:17 AM
Index644
Conciseness, 166–70
Conclusion
in deductive reasoning, 96–97
of essay, 25, 28
in inductive reasoning, 91–92, 94
of speech or presentation, 120–21,
122
strategies for drafting, 25
Concrete nouns, 181
Conditional sentences, 265–66. See
also Subjunctive mood
Confused words, 181–82. See also
Glossary of usage
Conjunctions, 370–71. See also
Conjunctive adverbs
in coordination and
subordination, 153–55
to fix run-on sentences, 197–98
Conjunctive adverbs
comma after, 303–04, 371
and coordination, 153, 154
defined, 371
and run-on sentences, 197, 198
semicolon with, 314–15, 371
Connections. See Transitions
Connotation (implied meaning of
word), 180
conscience, conscious, 612
Consistency
in mood and voice, 149–50
in paragraphs, 61
in point of view, 147–48
in questions and quotations,
150–51
in verb tense, 148–49
Constructive criticism, 33–34
Context, establishing
in APA papers, 544
in argument papers, 103, 118
in MLA papers, 453–54
when researching, 397–98, 406
in speech or presentation, 120
continual, continuous, 612
Contractions
apostrophe in, 321
in informal language, 175
needed verbs and, 246
Contrary-to-fact clauses, 252–53, 266
Contrast, as paragraph pattern,
55–56
Contrasted elements, comma with,
305
Conversations, academic and
research. See Synthesizing
sources; Talking and listening
Conversing with a text, 68–69, 82–84
Coordinate adjectives, comma with,
297–98
Coordinating conjunctions
comma before, 294–95
coordination and, 153, 154
defined, 370
to fix run-on sentences, 197–98
no comma after, 308–09, 312
no semicolon with, 316
parallelism and, 131
Coordination
for combining ideas of equal
importance, 153, 154
comma and coordinating
conjunction for, 294–95
excessive use of, 158–60
to fix choppy sentences, 157
to fix run-on sentences, 197–98
and subordination, 158–59
Copies, of drafts, saving, 29
Correlative conjunctions
defined, 370–71
parallelism with, 131
could, as modal verb, 261, 262, 366
could care less (nonstandard), 612
could of (nonstandard), 612
council, counsel, 612
Counterarguments
addressing, 109–11, 118
in APA papers, 533
evaluating, 70, 100–02, 423–24
in MLA papers, 438–39
revising for, 32
Count nouns, articles (a, an, the)
with, 271–75
Country names, abbreviations for,
338–39
couple. See Collective nouns
course. See coarse, course, 611
Course materials, citing
APA style, 552, 579
MLA style, 498–99, 508–09
Cover letters, for portfolios, 49
Credibility, establishing. See also
Authority
in argument papers, 104, 105–06
in research papers, 417
criteria, 612
Critical reading. See Reading
Critical thinking
for analysis, 66–73, 81–84
about arguments, 91–102
evaluating sources, 403–04,
416–30
24_HAC_01131_SE_INDEX_636_673.indd 644 7/14/15 10:17 AM
Index 645
Criticism, constructive, 33–34
crowd. See Collective nouns
Cumulative adjectives
no comma with, 297–98, 309–10
order of, 287
Curiosity. See Habits of mind
D
-d, -ed, verb ending, 237–38, 245–46,
257
Dangling modifiers, 144–46
Dashes, 332–33
for emphasis, 332
to fix run-on sentences, 198–99
data, 612
Database, article from. See Article
from a database
Databases, for finding sources, 403,
405, 418
Dates
abbreviations in, 339, 340
in APA reference list, 554
capitalization of, 357
commas with, 306
in MLA works cited list, 470–71
numbers in, 342
Days of the week
abbreviations of, 340
capitalization of, 357
Deadlines, 5, 396–97
Debates. See Argument papers;
Arguments, evaluating
Declarative sentences, 394
Deductive reasoning, 96–97
Definite article. See the
Definition
of key terms or concepts,
providing
in APA papers, 532
in MLA papers, 437–38
as paragraph pattern, 58–59
of words, 180, 350
Degree of adjectives and adverbs.
See Comparative form of
adjectives and adverbs;
Superlative form of adjectives
and adverbs
Degrees, academic, abbreviations for,
338–39
Demonstrative pronouns, 364
Denotation (dictionary definition),
180
Dependent clauses. See Subordinate
clauses
Description, as paragraph pattern,
54
Descriptive word groups. See
Adjective phrases; Adverb
phrases
Design. See Document design;
Visuals, in documents
desirous of (not to), 183
Detail, adequate, 52. See also
Development, of ideas;
Evidence
Determiners, 270–79
Development, of ideas, 24, 41–42,
52. See also Paragraph
patterns
Diagrams, 27. See also Visuals, in
documents
Dialects, 174–75
Dialogue
paragraphing of, 324
quotation marks in, 324
Diction. See Words
Dictionaries
guide to use of, 347–51
sample online entry, 349
sample print entry, 348
different from, different than, 183,
612
differ from, differ with, 612
Digital file, citing (MLA style),
505–06, 509–10
Digital object identifier (DOI), 555,
584
Digital texts. See Electronic
documents; Multimodal texts;
Web and digital sources
Direct address, commas with, 305
Direct language, 167–68
Direct objects
case of pronouns as, 223–24
defined, 378
followed by adjective or noun
(object complement), 379
placement of adverbs and, 284
transitive verbs and, 378–79
Directories, to documentation
models
APA style, 528–29
MLA style, 432–34
Direct questions. See Questions,
direct and indirect
Direct quotations. See Quotations,
direct and indirect
disinterested, uninterested, 612
Division, as paragraph pattern, 58
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Index646
Division of words
in dictionary entry, 348–50
hyphen and, 355–56
do, as irregular verb, 239
do, forms of
in forming negatives, 264
as helping verbs, 366
and subject-verb agreement, 204,
244
do vs. does. See Agreement of subject
and verb
Document design, 597–607
academic manuscripts, 597–98
APA format, 580–84, 600–02
MLA format, 513–16, 598–99
business letters, 604
and critical reading, 81–82
e-mail, 9, 607
format options, 5, 11
genre (type of writing) and, 4, 10
headings
in APA papers, 601
in memos, 606
in MLA papers, 599
lists, displayed, 606
memos, 606
model documents, 597–607
résumés, 605
visuals, 25, 26–27, 603
Documenting sources. See Citing
sources
does vs. do. See Agreement of subject
and verb
DOI (digital object identifier), 555, 584
don’t vs. doesn’t, 612. See also
Agreement of subject and
verb
Dots, ellipsis. See Ellipsis mark
Double comparatives and
superlatives, avoiding, 235
Double-entry notebook, 68–69, 84
Double negatives, avoiding, 235–36,
264
Doublespeak, avoiding, 171–72
Double subjects, avoiding, 281–82
Draft, comments on. See Revising
with comments
Drafting
analysis papers, 73–77
annotated bibliographies, 429
argument papers, 103–11, 119
body, 24–27
conclusion, 25, 28
introduction, 22–24
sample rough draft, 35–37
and saving files, 29, 48
thesis, 14–19, 22–24
Drawing conclusions (deductive
reasoning), 96–97
Dropped quotation, avoiding
in APA papers, 542
in MLA papers, 451
due to, 612
E
each (singular), 206–07, 213–14, 612
E-books, citing
APA style, 567
MLA style, 482, 488
economics (singular), 211
-ed, verb ending, 237–38, 245–46, 257
Editing log, 31, 44
Editing sentences, 30, 43–44
effect. See affect, effect, 608
Effect. See Cause and effect
e.g. (“for example”), 340, 613
either (singular), 206–07, 213–14, 613
either . . . or
and parallelism, 131
and pronoun-antecedent
agreement, 216–17
and subject-verb agreement, 206
either . . . or fallacy, 95–96
-elect, hyphen with, 355
Electronic documents. See also
Multimodal texts; Web and
digital sources
annotating, 67, 72
avoiding plagiarism from, 410, 412
double-entry notebooks, 68–69
e-mail messages, 9, 607
managing, 29
reading, 72
elicit, illicit, 613
Ellipsis mark
in arguments, 101–02
for deleted lines of poetry, 334
for omissions in sources, 334
APA style, 540
MLA style, 448
Elliptical clause, dangling, 144–45
Elliptical constructions, 391
E-mail
addresses, division of, 355–56
audience for, 9
effective, 9, 607
formatting, 607
italics in, 343
emigrate from, immigrate to, 613
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Index 647
eminent, imminent, 613
Emotional appeals (pathos), in
argument, 98–100, 104, 105
Emphasis, 152–62
active verbs for, 126–29
choppy sentences and, 157
colon for, 317–18
dash for, 332
exclamation point for, 331
parallel structure and, 162
sentence endings for, 162, 164
subordinating minor ideas for, 160
Enc. (“enclosure”), in business
writing, 604
Ending. See Conclusion
Endnotes. See Footnotes or endnotes
End punctuation, 330–32
Engagement. See Habits of mind
English as a second language (ESL).
See Multilingual writers
enough, with infinitive, 269
enthused, 613
-er ending (faster, stronger), 234–35
Errors
identifying, 44
sic for, 334
in APA papers, 540
in MLA papers, 449
ESL (English as a second language).
See Multilingual writers
especially, and sentence fragments, 193
-es, -s
spelling rules, for plurals, 340,
346–47
as verb ending, 202, 204–05,
242–43
Essays. See also Sample student
writing
adapting for a speech or
presentation, 123
drafting, 22–28
editing, 43–44
planning, 3–22
researching, 396–430
reviewing, 30–38
revising, 38–42
saving drafts of, 29
-est ending (fastest, strongest), 234–35
et al. (“and others”), 340
in APA papers, 548–49
in MLA papers, 461–62, 472
etc., 340, 613
Ethos (ethical appeals), in arguments,
99, 100, 104, 105
Etymology, 350
Euphemisms, avoiding, 171–72
Evaluating arguments. See
Arguments, evaluating
Evaluating sources, 403–04, 416–30
even, placement of, 140–41
eventually, ultimately, 613
everybody, everyone (singular),
206–07, 213–14, 613
everyone, every one, 613
Evidence
in analysis papers, 73–74, 86–87
in APA papers, 532–33
in argument papers, 104, 107–09,
118
in MLA papers, 437–39
in speeches or presentations, 120
writing situation and, 5
ex-, hyphen with, 355
Exact language, 180–86
Examples
as evidence, 108
as paragraph pattern, 53
as sentence fragments, 193
except. See accept, except, 608
Excerpts, of articles and books,
online, 421–22
Exclamation points, 331
with in-text citations (MLA
style), 327, 459–60
no comma with, 312
with quotation marks, 326–27
Exclamations (interjections), 305,
331, 371
Exclamatory sentence, 394
expect, 613
Expert opinion, using as support, 109
Expletives there, it
and subject following verb, 209,
280–81, 376–77, 382
and subject-verb agreement, 209
and wordy sentences, 168
explicit, implicit, 613
Expressions
idiomatic (common), 182–84
regional, 174–75
transitional, 303–04, 314–15
trite or worn-out (clichés),
184–85
F
Facebook. See Social media, citing
Facts
in APA papers, 532, 544
in argument papers, 107–08
24_HAC_01131_SE_INDEX_636_673.indd 647 7/14/15 10:17 AM
Index648
Facts (continued )
in MLA papers, 437, 457
scientific, and verb tense, 249–50
Fairness, in arguments, 98–100,
109–11
Fallacies, logical
ad hominem, 98–100
bandwagon appeal, 100
biased language, 98
either . . . or, 95–96
false analogy, 93–94
hasty generalization, 93
non sequitur, 96
post hoc, 95
red herring, 100
stereotype, 93
straw man, 101
transfer, 100
False analogy, 93–94
family. See Collective nouns
farther, further, 613
Faulty apposition, 139
Faulty predication, 138–39
Feedback, giving, 33–34
Feedback, seeking and using, 30–34.
See also Peer review
fewer, less, 613
Field research, 406–07
Figures. See Numbers; Visuals, in
documents
Figures of speech, 185
Files, managing, 29, 48
finalize, 614
firstly, 614
First-person point of view
consistency with, 147
revising for, 42
Flow (coherence), 59–63
Flowcharts, 27. See also Visuals, in
documents
Focus. See also Thesis
of argument paper, 105–07
of essay, 5–7, 14–19, 22–24, 42
of introduction, 32
of paragraph, 49–51
of research paper, 399–400
sharpening, 39
of speech or presentation, 120
Footnotes or endnotes
APA style, 582, 587
MLA style, 512–13
for
comma before, 294–95
as coordinating conjunction,
131, 370
parallelism and, 131
as preposition, 370
Foreign words, italics for, 344
for example
no colon after, 318
and sentence fragments, 193
Formality, level of, 175–76
Formal outline, 20–21, 71–72.
See also Informal outline
Format. See Document design;
Manuscript formats
Fractions
hyphens with, 354
numerals for, 342
Fragments, sentence
acceptable, 194
clauses as, 190–91
for emphasis or effect, 194
examples as, 193
finding and recognizing, 188–89
fixing, 188, 190–93
lists as, 192–93
phrases as, 191–92
predicates as, 192
testing for, 189
Freewriting, 13
Full-block style, for business letters,
604
further. See farther, further, 613
Fused sentences. See Run-on
sentences
Future perfect tense, 248
Future progressive forms, 248–49
Future tense, 247–48, 257, 260
G
Gender, and pronoun agreement,
213–14, 216
Gender-neutral language, 176–79,
213–14, 216
Generalization, hasty, 93
Generic he, 177, 214, 216, 614
Generic nouns, 214–15
Genre (type of writing)
and document design, 4, 10
and language, 170
of multimodal texts, 80–81
purpose and, 4, 10, 23
thesis and, 23
writing situation and, 4
Geographic names, the with, 277–79
Gerunds
defined, 386–87
following prepositions, 290
24_HAC_01131_SE_INDEX_636_673.indd 648 7/14/15 10:17 AM
Index 649
following verbs, 267–68
phrases, agreement of verb with,
211
possessives as modifiers of, 226
get, 614
Global (big-picture) revisions,
38–42. See also Revising with
comments
Glossary of usage, 608–21
good, well, 233–34, 614
Government documents, citing
APA style, 571
MLA style, 510–11
graduate, 614
Grammar, mixed. See Mixed
constructions
Graphic narrative, citing (MLA
style), 475–76
Graphs, 26. See also Visuals, in
documents
Greetings and salutations, colon
with, 318, 604
grow, 614
Guides to writing. See Writing guides
H
Habits of mind, 2
curiosity, 2, 3, 5–6, 91
engagement, 2, 91, 396
reflection, 2, 48–49
responsibility, 2
Handouts (course materials), citing
APA style, 552, 579
MLA style, 498–99, 508–09
hanged, hung, 614
hardly, 614
avoiding double negative with,
235–36
placement of, 140–41
has got, have got, avoiding, 614
Hasty generalization, 93
has vs. have, 204, 243–44. See also
Agreement of subject and verb
have, as irregular verb, 240
have, forms of
as helping verbs, 258–60, 366
and passive voice, 259–60
and perfect tenses, 258, 260
and subject-verb agreement, 204,
243–44
have got, has got, avoiding, 614
have vs. has, 204, 243–44. See also
Agreement of subject and
verb
Headings
in APA papers, 531–32, 582–83,
601
in document design, 599, 601,
606
in MLA papers, 515, 599
to organize ideas, 41, 531–32
planning with, 21–22, 531–32
he, him, his, sexist use of, 177, 214,
216, 614
Helping verbs
contractions with, 246
defined, 246, 366
and forming passive voice, 238,
259–61
and forming perfect tenses, 238,
248, 250–51, 258
and forming verb tenses, 238,
258–60
modals (can, should, etc.) as, 246,
261–63, 366
needed, 246
and progressive forms, 258–59
here, not used as subject, 281
her vs. she, 222–27
he/she, his/her, 335, 614
he vs. him, 222–27
he writes, she writes, comma with,
305, 327
hisself (nonstandard), 614
Homophones (words that sound
alike), 351
Hook, in introduction, 22–23, 32, 439
hopefully, 614–15
however
avoiding with but or although,
283–84
at beginning of sentence, 615
comma with, 303–04
semicolon with, 314–15
“How to” boxes
citing a source reposted from
another source, 502–03
citing course materials, 508–09
identifying authors, 474–75
Humanities, writing in. See MLA
papers
hung. See hanged, hung, 614
Hyphens, 353–56
with adjectives, 354
to avoid confusion, 355
in compound words, 353–54
and division of words, 355–56
in e-mail addresses, 355–56
to form dash, 332
24_HAC_01131_SE_INDEX_636_673.indd 649 7/14/15 10:17 AM
Index650
Hyphens (continued )
in fractions, 354
in numbers, 354
with prefixes and suffixes, 355
in a series, 354
in URLs, 355–56
APA style, 584
MLA style, 515, 516
I
I
vs. me, 222–27
point of view, 42, 147
shifts with you, he, or she,
avoiding, 147
Idioms (common expressions)
adjective + preposition
combinations, 291
with prepositions showing time
and place (at, on, in, etc.),
288–89
standard, 182–84
verb + preposition combinations,
291–92
i.e. (“that is”), 340, 615
-ie, -ei, spelling rule, 345–46
if clauses
conditional sentences, 265–66
contrary to fact (subjunctive),
252–53
if, whether, 615
illicit. See elicit, illicit, 613
illusion. See allusion, illusion, 609
Illustrated work, citing (MLA style),
475–76
Illustrations (examples). See also
Visuals, in documents
as evidence, 108
as paragraph pattern, 53
Images. See Visuals, in documents;
Visual texts
immigrate. See emigrate from,
immigrate to, 613
imminent. See eminent, imminent, 613
immoral. See amoral, immoral, 609
Imperative mood, 252
Imperative sentences
defined, 376, 394
you understood in, 280, 376, 382
implement, 615
implicit. See explicit, implicit, 613
Implied meaning of word
(connotation), 180
imply, infer, 615
in, in idioms (common expressions)
with adjectives, 291
vs. at, on, to show time and place,
288–89
with verbs, 291–92
including, no colon after, 318
Inclusive language, 176–79, 216
Incomplete comparison, 134–35
Incomplete construction, 133–36
Incomplete sentences. See Fragments,
sentence
Indefinite articles. See a, an
Indefinite pronouns
agreement of verb with, 206–07
as antecedents, 213–14
apostrophe with, 320
defined, 364
Indenting
in APA reference list, 583, 602
of long quotations, 324–25
APA style, 541, 582, 594
MLA style, 449–50, 514, 522,
598
no quotation marks with,
324–25
in MLA works cited list, 516, 599
in outlines, 20–21
Independent clauses
colon between, 317–18
combined with subordinate
clauses, 393–94
and comma with coordinating
conjunction, 294–95
defined, 392
and run-on sentences, 195–201
semicolon between, 313–15
Indexes to periodical articles.
See Databases, for finding
sources
Indicative mood, 252
Indirect objects
case of pronouns as, 223–24
defined, 379
Indirect questions
no question mark after, 331
shifts to direct questions,
avoiding, 150–51
Indirect quotations
no comma with, 312
shifts to direct quotations,
avoiding, 150–51
Indirect source (source quoted in
another source), citing
APA style, 552–53
MLA style, 466–67, 476–77
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Index 651
Inductive reasoning, 91–92, 94
infer. See imply, infer, 615
Infinitive phrases, 387
Infinitives
case of pronouns with, 225–26
dangling, 144–45
following verbs, 267–68
marked (with to), 267–68, 290
and sequence of tenses, 251–52
split, 142–43
subject of, objective case for,
225–26
to, infinitive marker vs.
preposition, 290
with too and enough, 269
unmarked (without to), 269
Inflated phrases, 167–68
Infographics, 26. See also Visuals, in
documents; Visual texts
Informal language, 175–76
Informal outline, 19–20, 84–85.
See also Formal outline
Information, for essay
finding, 396–408
managing, 408–15
sources of, 4–5, 10–11
working bibliography, 409
Information notes (MLA), 512–13
-ing verb ending. See Gerunds;
Present participles
in, into, 615
in regards to, 615
Inserted material, in quotations. See
Brackets
Institutional review board (IRB), for
research subjects, 406
Instructor’s comments, responding
to. See Revising with
comments
Integrating sources
in APA papers, 537–44
in MLA papers, 445–57
parallelism and, 132
in speeches and presentations,
121
intend to do (not on doing), 183
Intensive pronouns, 363–64
Interjections (exclamations), 305,
331, 371
Internet. See also URLs; Web and
digital sources
avoiding plagiarism from, 410,
412, 415
capitalization of terms for, 358,
572
reading on, 72
searching, 403–04, 405
Interpretation
in analysis papers, 73–75, 86–88
different perspectives and, 70
of visual and multimodal texts,
80–91
of written texts, 66–80
Interrogative pronouns
defined, 364
who, whom, 227–30
Interrogative sentences, 394
Interrogative tags (questions),
commas with, 305
Interruptions, commas with, 303–05
Interviews, as information source, 11,
406–07
In-text citations. See also Integrating
sources
APA style
directory to models for, 528
models for, 547–53
MLA style
directory to models for, 432
models for, 458–68
periods with, 326
into. See in, into, 615
Intransitive verbs
defined, 380–81
not used in passive voice, 261
Introduction. See also Thesis
of argument paper, 105–06
of essay, 22–24
hook in, 22–23, 32
of MLA paper, 439–40
revising, 32, 40
of speech or presentation,
120–21, 122
strategies for drafting, 23
to portfolio, 48–49
Introductory word groups, comma
with, 295
Inverted sentence order
for emphasis, 162, 164
with expletives there, it, 209,
280–81, 376–77, 382
no comma with, 311
and position of subject, 376–77,
382
in questions, 377, 382
and subject-verb agreement, 209
for variety, 164
IRB (institutional review board), for
research subjects, 406
irregardless (nonstandard), 615
24_HAC_01131_SE_INDEX_636_673.indd 651 7/14/15 10:17 AM
Index652
Irregular verbs, 237–42
be, am, is, are, was, were, 237–38, 244
do, does, 239, 244
have, has, 240, 243–44
lie, lay, 241–42
list of, 238–41
Issue and volume numbers, in APA
reference list, 555
is vs. are. See Agreement of subject
and verb
is when, is where, avoiding, 139, 615
it
broad reference of, 219
as expletive (placeholder), 280–81
indefinite use of, 220
as subject of sentence, 280–81
Italics, 343–45
in e-mail, 343
for foreign words, 344
for names of ships, spacecraft,
and aircraft, 344
for titles of works, 343–44
APA style, 554, 581, 584
MLA style, 470, 514
for words as words, 344–45
its, it’s, 321, 322, 351, 615
J
Jargon, avoiding, 171
Journal, keeping a, 13
Journalist’s questions, 13
Journals. See Periodicals
Judgment, in analysis papers, 75, 76,
86–87
jury. See Collective nouns
just, placement of, 140–41
K
Key words
in APA abstracts, 582, 586, 601
defining for readers
in APA papers, 532
in MLA papers, 437–38
repeating for coherence, 60, 121
kind(s), 615–16
kind of, sort of, 616
L
Labels for visuals. See Captions
Language. See also Tone; Words
appropriate, 170–79
biased, avoiding, 179
borrowed. See Citing sources;
Plagiarism, avoiding
clichés, avoiding, 184–85
colloquial, 175, 350–51
direct, 121, 167–68
doublespeak, avoiding, 171–72
euphemisms, avoiding, 171–72
exact, 180–86
formality of, 175–76
idioms (common expressions),
182–84
jargon, avoiding, 171
nonstandard English, avoiding,
174–75
offensive, avoiding, 179
plain, 121, 171–73
pretentious, avoiding, 171–72
regionalisms, avoiding, 174–75
sexist, avoiding, 176–79
slang, avoiding, 174–75
wordy, 166–70
Latin abbreviations, 340
lay, lie; laying, lying, 241–42, 616
Layout of documents. See Document
design
lead, led, 616
learn, teach, 616
leave, let, 616
Length
of paper, 5, 11
of paragraph, 49, 63–64
less. See fewer, less, 613
let. See leave, let, 616
Letters, writing
for business, 604
for a portfolio, 49
Letters of the alphabet
capitalizing, 356–60
italics for, 344–45
plural of, 321
liable, 616
Library resources, 403, 405–06,
418
lie, lay; lying, laying, 241–42, 616
like
no comma after, 312
and sentence fragments, 193
like, as, 616
Limiting modifiers (only, almost,
etc.), 140–41
Line spacing
in APA paper, 581, 602
and document design, 598–99,
602, 604
in MLA paper, 514
24_HAC_01131_SE_INDEX_636_673.indd 652 7/14/15 10:17 AM
Index 653
Linking verbs
adjective after, 231–32, 378
defined, 378
omission of, 246, 280
pronoun after, 223
Listening, 121. See also Talking and
listening
Listing ideas, 13
List of sources. See Reference list
(APA); Works cited list
(MLA)
Lists. See also Series
with colon, 317
with dash, 333
and document design, 606
as fragments, 192–93
for generating ideas, 13
Literacy narrative, 45–48
sample student writing, 35–37,
45–48
Literary present tense, 148–49,
249–50
Literature review, sample paper
(APA style), 585–96
Logic
analogies, 93–94
cause-and-effect reasoning, 95
deductive reasoning, 96–97
fallacies. See Fallacies, logical
inductive reasoning, 91–92, 94
logos (logical appeals), 91–97,
99, 104
of sentences, 138–39
Logos (logical appeals), in arguments,
91–97, 99, 104. See also Logic
Logs
editing, 31, 44
reading, 68–69
research, 396–97, 398, 402
revision, 31
loose, lose, 616
lots, lots of, 616
-ly ending on adverbs, 230, 354
lying vs. laying, 241–42
M
Magazines. See Periodicals
Main clauses. See Independent
clauses
Main point. See Focus; Thesis; Topic
sentence
Main verbs, 256, 366–67
with modals (can, should, etc.),
246, 261–63
man, mankind, sexist use of, 177, 616
Manuscript formats. See also
Document design
academic formats, 5, 597–99
APA style, 580–84, 600–02
MLA style, 45–48, 513–16,
598–99
business and professional
formats, 597, 603–07
writing situation and, 11
Mapping. See Outlines
Maps, 27. See also Visuals, in
documents
Margins
in APA papers, 581, 602
in MLA papers, 514, 598
Mass (noncount) nouns, 271–77
mathematics (singular), 211
may. See can, may, 611
may, as modal verb, 261, 262, 366
maybe, may be, 616
may of, might of (nonstandard), 616
Meaning, finding in a text, 73–75,
86–88, 410, 412
measles (singular), 211
Measurement, units of
abbreviations for, 339–40
and agreement of subject and
verb, 208
media, medium, 616
Medium of publication, in MLA
works cited list, 471
Memos, 606
Metaphor, 185
me vs. I, 222–27
might, as modal verb, 261, 262, 366
might of (nonstandard). See may of,
might of, 616
Minor ideas. See Subordination
Misplaced modifiers, 140–43. See also
Modifiers
Missing claims, in arguments, 96
Missing words. See Needed words
Misspelled words, common, 351–52
Misuse of words, 181–82
Mixed constructions
illogical connections, 138–39
is when, is where, 139, 615
mixed grammar, 137–38
reason . . . is because, 139, 618
Mixed metaphors, 185
MLA Handbook for Writers of
Research Papers, 458, 513
MLA papers, 431–525
authority in, 405, 438, 451–52
24_HAC_01131_SE_INDEX_636_673.indd 653 7/14/15 10:17 AM
Index654
MLA papers (continued )
citation at a glance
article from a database,
480–81
article in a journal, 478–79
book, 489
selection from an anthology
or a collection, 492–93
short work from a Web site,
497
citations, in-text
directory to models for, 432
models for, 458–68
evidence for, 437–39
information notes (optional),
512–13
manuscript format, 45–48,
513–16, 598–99
organizing, 436–37
plagiarism, avoiding, 441–45
sample papers
analysis, 78–80, 88–91
argument, 112–17
research, 517–25
signal phrases in, 450–54
sources in
citing, 441–45, 458–513
integrating, 445–57
synthesizing, 454–56
uses of, 437–39
supporting arguments in, 437–39,
454–56
tenses in, 148–49, 249–50, 451
thesis in, 435–36
URLs in, 471, 496, 516
voice (tone) in, 440
works cited list
directory to models for,
432–34
formatting, 515–16
general guidelines for, 470–72
models for, 468–512
sample, 524–25
Modal verbs (can, should, etc.), 246,
261–63, 366. See also Helping
verbs
Model documents, gallery of,
597–607
Modern Language Association. See
MLA papers
Modes. See Multimodal texts;
Paragraph patterns
Modifiers
adjectives as, 230–37, 367–68
adverbs as, 230–37, 368–69
commas with, 297–98
dangling, 144–46
of gerunds, 226
limiting, 140–41
misplaced, 140–43
redundant, 166
restrictive (essential) and
nonrestrictive (nonessential),
299–303
split infinitives, 142–43
squinting, 142
Money
abbreviations for, 339
numerals for, 342
Mood of verbs, 252–53. See also
Conditional sentences
shifts in, avoiding, 149–50
more, most (comparative,
superlative), 234–35
moreover
comma with, 303–04
semicolon with, 314–15
most, 617
Motive. See Purpose in writing;
Writing situation
Multilingual writers, 256–91
adjectives, 285–87
adjectives and adverbs, placement
of, 287
articles (a, an, the), 270–79
idioms (common expressions),
288–92
nouns, types of, 271
omitted subjects or expletives,
280–81
omitted verbs, 280
participles, present vs. past,
285–86
prepositions, in idioms (common
expressions)
with adjectives, 291
with nouns and -ing forms, 290
to show time and place (at, in,
on, etc.), 288–89
with verbs, 291–92
repeated objects or adverbs, 157,
282–83
repeated subjects, 138, 281–82
sentence structure, 279–87
verbs
active voice, 257–59
conditional, 265–66
forms of, 256–59
with gerunds or infinitives,
267–70
24_HAC_01131_SE_INDEX_636_673.indd 654 7/14/15 10:17 AM
Index 655
modals (can, should, etc.),
261–63
negative forms, 264
passive voice, 259–61
tenses, 256–61, 265–66
Multimedia sources, citing. See also
Web and digital sources
APA style, 573–79
MLA style, 499–510
Multimodal texts. See also Genre
(type of writing)
analyzing, 80–91
annotating, 10, 72, 81–82, 83
conversing with, 82–84
defined, 80
purpose and, 10, 121
reading, 10, 72
writing about, 85–87
Multitasking, avoiding, 72
must, as modal verb, 261, 262, 366
must of (nonstandard). See may of,
might of, 616
myself, 224, 617
N
namely, and sentence fragments, 193
Narration, as paragraph
pattern, 54
Narrative writing. See Literacy
narrative
Narrowing a subject. See Topic
N.B. (“note well”), 340
n.d. (“no date”)
in APA papers, 551
in MLA papers, 471
nearly, placement of, 140–41
Needed words, 133–36
articles (a, an, the), 136, 270–79
in comparisons, 134–35
in compound structures, 133–34
it, 280–81
in parallel structures, 132
subjects, 280–81
that, 134
there, 280–81
verbs, 246, 280
Negatives
double, avoiding, 235–36, 264
forming, 264
not and never, 368–69
neither (singular), 206–07, 213–14,
617
neither . . . nor
and parallel structure, 131
and pronoun-antecedent
agreement, 216–17
and subject-verb agreement, 206
never
as adverb, 368–69
in double negatives, avoiding,
235–36
nevertheless
comma with, 303–04
semicolon with, 314–15
news (singular), 211
Newspapers. See Periodicals
no
comma with, 305
in double negatives, avoiding,
235–36, 264
nobody (singular), 206–07, 213–14
Noncount nouns, 271–77
none, 206–07, 617
Nonrestrictive (nonessential)
elements, commas with,
299–303
Non sequitur, 96
Nonsexist language, 176–79, 213–14,
216
Nonstandard English, avoiding,
174–75
no one (singular), 206–07, 213–14
nor
comma with, 294–95
as coordinating conjunction,
131, 370
parallelism and, 131
and pronoun-antecedent
agreement, 216–17
and subject-verb agreement,
206
not
as adverb, 264, 368–69
in double negatives, avoiding,
235–36, 264
in forming negatives, 264
placement of, 140–41
Notes. See Footnotes or endnotes;
Information notes (MLA)
Note taking
for analysis, 67–70, 81–84
and avoiding plagiarism, 410–15
double-entry notebook for,
68–69, 84
on drafts, 29
on electronic documents, 72
to generate ideas, 13
research log for, 396–97, 398, 402
sample notes, 67–68, 69, 83
24_HAC_01131_SE_INDEX_636_673.indd 655 7/14/15 10:17 AM
Index656
nothing (singular), 206–07, 213–14
not only . . . but also, 370–71
and parallel structure, 131
and pronoun-antecedent
agreement, 216–17
and subject-verb agreement, 206
Noun/adjectives, 362, 368
Noun clauses, 391
words introducing, 390
Noun markers, 270–79
Nouns. See also Nouns, types of
adjectives with, 367–68
articles with, 270–79
capitalizing, 356–58
defined, 362
of direct address, comma with,
305
plural form, singular meaning
(athletics, economics, etc.), 211
plural of, 346–47
after prepositions, 290
renaming other nouns. See
Appositives
shifts between singular and
plural, avoiding, 147–48
Nouns, types of. See also Nouns
abstract, 181
collective (audience, family, team,
etc.), 207–08, 215
common, 271–76, 356–58
concrete, 181
count, 271–75
defined, 362
general vs. specific, 181, 274
generic, 214–15
noncount, 271–77
possessive, 319–20
proper, 271, 273, 277–79, 356–58
singular and plural, 271, 273
specific, concrete, 181, 271
specific vs. general, 181, 274
Novels, titles of
capitalization of, 358–59
italics for, 343
nowheres (nonstandard), 617
N.p. (“No publisher”), in MLA
papers, 470
n. pag. (“no pagination”), in MLA
papers, 471
number. See amount, number, 609
number, agreement of verb with, 208
Number and person
shifts in, avoiding, 147–48
and subject-verb agreement,
202–06
Numbers
commas in, 306–07
consistency of, 341–42
hyphens with, 354
italics for, 344–45
plural of, 321
spelled out vs. numerals, 341–42
APA style, 341–42, 601
MLA style, 341–42
O
Object complements, 379
adjectives as, following direct
object, 232
Objections, to arguments. See
Counterarguments
Objective case, of pronouns
for objects, 223–24
for subjects and objects of
infinitives, 225–26
whom, 227–30
Objectivity
assessing, in sources, 100–02, 423
in writing a summary, 72–73
Objects
direct, 378–79
indirect, 379
of infinitives, 225–26
no comma between verb and, 309
objective case for, 223–24, 227–30
of prepositions, 384
pronouns as, 223–24
repetition of, avoiding, 282–83
Observation, as information source,
11, 407
of, after could, would, may, etc.
(nonstandard), 617
Offensive language, 179
off of (nonstandard), 183, 617
OK, O.K., okay, 617
Omission of needed words. See
Needed words
Omissions of letters and words
apostrophe for, 321
comma for, 307
ellipsis mark for, 334–35
on, in idioms (common expressions)
with adjectives, 291
vs. at, in, to show time and place,
288–89
with verbs, 291–92
one of the, agreement of verb with, 210
Online sources. See Web and digital
sources
24_HAC_01131_SE_INDEX_636_673.indd 656 7/14/15 10:17 AM
Index 657
only, placement of, 140–41
only one of the, agreement of verb
with, 210
Opening. See Introduction
Opinion, expert, using as support, 109
Opposing arguments. See
Counterarguments
or
comma with, 294–95
as coordinating conjunction,
131, 370
excessive use of, 158–60
parallelism and, 131
and pronoun-antecedent
agreement, 216–17
and subject-verb agreement, 206
Oral presentations. See Speaking
Organization. See also Outlines
of APA papers, 531–32
improving, 40–42
of MLA papers, 436–37
patterns of. See Paragraph
patterns
of speeches or presentations,
120–21
Organizations, abbreviations for,
338–39
ought to, as modal verb, 366
Outlines
for essay, 19–21
formal, 20–21, 71–72
informal, 19–20, 84–85
for MLA paper, 436–37
for summary or analysis, 71–72,
84–85
Ownership. See Possessive case
P
Page numbers (of sources). See also
Pagination (of paper)
APA style, 555
MLA style, 471
Page setup. See Document design;
Manuscript formats
Pagination (of paper)
APA style, 581, 600–01
MLA style, 514, 598
Paired ideas, parallelism and, 130–32
Paragraph patterns. See also
Paragraphs
analogy, 56
cause and effect, 56–57
classification, 57–58
comparison and contrast, 55–56
definition, 58–59
description, 54
division, 58
examples, 53
illustrations, 53
narration, 54
process, 54–55
Paragraphs, 49–64. See also
Paragraph patterns
coherence in, 59–63
concluding, 25, 28
defined, 49
details in, 52
development of, 41–42, 52–59
drafting, 24
focus of, 49–51
introductory, 22–24
length of, 49, 63–64
main point in, 50–52
organizing, 40
revising, 41–42
sample student writing, 39
topic sentences in, 40, 50–51
transitions in, 61–63
unity of, 51
Parallelism
for emphasis, 162
in paragraphs, 60
in sentences, 129–33
parameters, 617
Paraphrases
acceptable and unacceptable
in APA papers, 536–37
in MLA papers, 444–45
effective use of
in APA papers, 538
in MLA papers, 446–47, 457
integrating
in APA papers, 542–43
in MLA papers, 452–54
no quotation marks for, 324
and note taking, 410, 412, 414
quotations within, 414
Parentheses, 333
capitalizing sentence in, 359
no comma before, 312
periods with, 442
Parenthetical citations. See In-text
citations
Parenthetical elements
commas with, 304
dashes with, 332
Participial phrases. See also Past
participles; Present participles
for combining sentences, 156
24_HAC_01131_SE_INDEX_636_673.indd 657 7/14/15 5:24 PM
Index658
Participial phrases (continued )
dangling, 144–45
defined, 386
Participles. See Past participles;
Present participles
Particles, with verbs, 367
Parts of speech, 362–74
adjectives, 367–68
adverbs, 368–69
conjunctions, 370–71
in dictionary entry, 350
interjections (exclamations),
371
nouns, 362–63
prepositions, 369–70
pronouns, 363–65
verbs, 365–67
passed, past, 617
Passive voice
vs. active voice, 126–29, 383
appropriate uses of, 126–27
forming, 259–61
shifts between active and,
avoiding, 149–50
and wordy sentences, 168
past. See passed, past, 617
Past participles
as adjectives, 285–86
defined, 237–38
of irregular verbs, 237–41
in participial phrases, 386
and passive voice, 259–61, 383
and perfect tenses, 248, 250–51,
258, 260
vs. present participles, 285–86
of regular verbs, 245–46
as verbals, 386
Past perfect tense, 248, 250–51, 258–60
Past progressive form, 248–49,
258–59, 260
Past tense
in APA papers, 250, 542, 547
and -d, -ed endings, 237–38,
245–46
defined, 247–48, 257, 260
of irregular verbs, 237–41
vs. past perfect, 250–51
of regular verbs, 237–38, 245–46
Patchwriting, avoiding, 398, 410
in APA papers, 536
in MLA papers, 444–45
Pathos (emotional appeals), in
arguments, 98–100, 104, 105
Patterns of organization. See
Paragraph patterns
PDF documents, citing (MLA style),
508–09
Peer review
acknowledging, 31
for an analytical essay, 77
for an annotated bibliography,
429
for an argument paper, 119
engagement with, 2
guidelines for, 31, 33–34
sample comments, 34–38
seeking feedback, 30–34, 38–39
Percentages, numerals for, 342. See
also Statistics
percent, per cent, percentage, 617
Perfect progressive forms, 248–49, 259
Perfect tenses, 248, 250–51, 258–60
Periodicals. See also Articles in
periodicals
capitalizing titles of, 358–59
APA style, 554, 581, 584
italics for titles of, 343
APA style, 554, 581, 584
MLA style, 470, 514
Periods, 330–31
with abbreviations, 330–31,
338–39
and ellipsis mark, 334
to end a sentence, 330
with in-text citations, 326
with quotation marks, 326
Personal experience, writing about, 6
Personal pronouns
case of, 222–27
defined, 363
Personal titles. See Titles of persons
Person and number
shifts in, avoiding, 147–48
and subject-verb agreement,
202–06
Persons, names of. See Nouns
Persuasive writing. See Argument
papers
phenomena, 617
Photographs, 27. See also Visuals, in
documents; Visual texts
Phrasal verbs. See Particles, with
verbs
Phrases. See also Phrases, types of
dangling, 144–46
empty or inflated, 167–68
fragmented, 191–92
introductory, comma after, 295
misplaced, 141–42
as modifiers, 386
24_HAC_01131_SE_INDEX_636_673.indd 658 7/14/15 10:17 AM
Index 659
nonrestrictive (nonessential),
with commas, 299–303
restrictive (essential), with no
commas, 299–303, 310
separating subject and
verb, 142
Phrases, types of. See also Phrases
absolute, 388
appositive, 388
gerund, 386–87
infinitive, 387
participial, 386
prepositional, 384
verbal, 385–88
physics (singular), 211
Pictures, using in documents, 25,
26–27. See also Visuals, in
documents; Visual texts
Place of publication
in APA reference list, 555
in MLA works cited list, 470
Places, names of. See Nouns
Plagiarism, avoiding
in APA papers, 534–37
and drafting, 24–25
in MLA papers, 441–45
and note taking, 410–15
responsibility and, 2, 398
and Web sources, 410, 412, 415
working bibliography and, 409,
411
Planning an essay. See also Outlines
assessing the writing situation,
3–12
exploring ideas, 12–14
working thesis, 14–19
plan to do (not plan on doing), 183
Plays, titles of
capitalizing, 358–59
italics for, 343
Plurals. See also Agreement of
pronoun and antecedent;
Agreement of subject and
verb; Singular vs. plural
of abbreviations, 322, 340
of compound nouns, 347
of letters, 321
of numbers, 321
spelling of, 346–47
of words used as words, 322
plus, 617
p.m., a.m., PM, AM, 339
Podcast, citing
APA style, 573
MLA style, 499, 502
Poems, titles of
capitalizing, 358–59
quotation marks with, 325
Point of view
consistency in, 61, 147–48
dominant, 42
opposing, in arguments. See
Counterarguments
revising for, 42
politics (singular), 211
Portfolios, 48–49
Position, stating. See Thesis
Possessive case
apostrophe for, 319–20
with gerund, 226
Possessive pronouns
defined, 363
no apostrophe in, 322
post hoc fallacy, 95
precede, proceed, 617
Predicate
compound, 192
defined, 192, 378
fragmented, 192
Predicate adjective. See Subject
complements
Predicate noun. See Subject
complements
Predication, faulty, 138–39
preferable to (not than), 183
Prefixes, hyphen after, 355
Premises, in deductive reasoning,
96–97
Prepositional phrases
defined, 384–85
fragmented, 191–92
restrictive (essential) vs.
nonrestrictive (nonessential),
301–02
between subject and verb, 203
Prepositions
after adjectives, 291
at, in, on, to show time and place,
288–89
defined, 369
followed by nouns or -ing forms,
not verbs, 290
in idioms (common expressions),
182–84, 288–92
list of, 370
objects of, 384
repeating, for parallel structure, 132
after verbs, 291–92, 367
Presentations. See Multimodal texts;
Speaking
24_HAC_01131_SE_INDEX_636_673.indd 659 7/14/15 10:17 AM
Index660
Present participles
as adjectives, 285–86
in gerund phrases, 386–87
in participial phrases, 386
vs. past participles, 285–86
and progressive forms, 248–49,
258–59
and sequence of tenses, 251–52
Present perfect tense, 248, 252,
258–60
in APA papers, 250, 542, 547
Present progressive form, 248, 258
Present tense, 247–48, 257
subject-verb agreement in,
202–06
in summaries, 85
and tense shifts, avoiding, 148–49
in writing about literature,
148–49, 249–50
in writing about science, 249–50
Pretentious language, avoiding,
171–72
Previewing
sources, 418–22
visual and multimodal texts, 81
written texts, 66–67, 70
Prewriting strategies, 12–14
Primary sources
for authenticity, 406
vs. secondary sources, 423
on the Web, 502–03
principal, principle, 617
prior to (not than), 183
Problem/strategy approach, for
revising a thesis, 16–18
proceed. See precede, proceed, 617
Process
of evaluating sources, 416, 417
as paragraph pattern, 54–55
of writing an essay
drafting, 22–28
editing, 43–44
planning, 3–22
reviewing, 30–38
revising, 38–42
as social activity, 2, 30
Professional documents. See Business
writing
Progressive forms, 248–49, 258–59
Pronoun/adjectives, 363
Pronoun-antecedent agreement,
213–18
with collective nouns (jury, class,
etc.), 215
with compounds with and, 215
with compounds with either . . .
or or neither . . . nor, 216–17
with compounds with or,
216–17
with indefinite pronouns (anyone,
each, etc.), 213–14
sexist language with, avoiding,
213–14, 216
Pronoun case
I vs. me etc., 222–27
who vs. whom, 227–30
you vs. your, 226
Pronoun reference, 218–22
ambiguous, 218–19
broad this, that, which, it, 219
implied, 219–20
indefinite they, it, you, 220
remote, 218–19
unstated antecedent, 219–20
who (not that, which) for persons,
221, 621
Pronouns. See also Pronouns, types of
adjectives with, 367–68
agreement of verbs with, 202–06
agreement with antecedent,
213–18
as appositives, 224
case (I vs. me etc.), 222–27
defined, 363
lists of, 363–65
as objects, 223–24
pronoun/adjectives, 363
reference of, 218–22
shifts in person and number,
avoiding, 147–48
singular vs. plural, 147–48,
213–18
as subjects, 223
who, whom, 227–30
Pronouns, types of, 363–65. See also
Pronouns
demonstrative (those, that, etc.),
364
indefinite (some, any, etc.), 364
intensive (herself, themselves, etc.),
363–64
interrogative (who, which, etc.),
364
personal (you, they, etc.), 363
possessive (your, his, etc.), 226,
363
reciprocal (each other etc.), 365
reflexive (myself, yourselves, etc.),
363–64
relative (that, which, etc.), 364
24_HAC_01131_SE_INDEX_636_673.indd 660 7/14/15 10:17 AM
Index 661
Pronunciation, in dictionary entry, 350
Proof. See Evidence
Proofreading, 44
Proper nouns, 271, 273
capitalizing, 356–58
the with, 277–79
Proposal, research, 408
Publication Manual of the American
Psychological Association, 546,
580. See also APA papers
Public speaking. See Speaking
Public writing, audience for, 9
Publisher names
in APA reference list, 555
in MLA works cited list, 470
Punctuation, 294–336
apostrophe, 319–23
brackets, 334
colon, 317–19
comma, 294–313
dash, 332–33
ellipsis mark, 334
exclamation point, 331
parentheses, 333
period, 330–31
question mark, 331
quotation marks, 323–29
with quotation marks, 326–28
semicolon, 313–17
Purpose in writing
for argument papers, 103
assignments and, 6–7
curiosity and, 2
and document design, 597
and finding sources, 398–402
and genre (type of writing), 4, 10
for research papers, 398–402
for speeches or presentations, 120
and writing situation, 4, 7–8
Q
Quantifiers with noncount nouns,
276–77
Question mark, 331
and APA citations, 327
and MLA citations, 327, 459–60
no comma with, 312
with quotation marks, 326–27
Questionnaires, as information
source, 11, 407
Questions
commas with, 305
direct and indirect, 150–51, 331
pronouns for, 364
punctuation of, 331
recognizing in assignments, 7
subject in, 377, 382
Questions to ask
for an analysis paper, 75, 76–77
for an annotated bibliography,
428–29
about arguments, 41, 99, 118–19
about audience, 8
to generate ideas, 2, 3, 13
about genre (type of writing), 10
of peer reviewers, 30–31
about reading, 70
about a research subject, 398–401,
408
for APA papers, 530–31
for MLA papers, 435, 456
to shape a thesis, 15
when drafting, 24
Quotation marks, 323–29. See also
Quotations
to avoid plagiarism, 414–15
with direct quotations (exact
language), 324–25, 414–15
misuses of, 328
not used with indented (long)
quotations, 324–25
not used with paraphrases and
summaries, 324
other punctuation with, 326–28
single, 325
with titles of works, 325
APA style, 554, 581, 584
MLA style, 470, 514
with words used as words, 325–26
quotation, quote. See quote, quotation,
618
Quotations. See also Quotation marks
in APA papers
accuracy of, 540
avoiding plagiarism in,
534–37
brackets with, 540
citing, 534–37, 546–80
context for, 544
dropped, avoiding, 542
effective use of, 539–41
ellipsis mark with, 540
embedding, 544
indenting, 541, 582, 594
integrating, 537–44
long (indented), 541, 582, 594
parallelism with, 132
quotation marks for, 535–36
sic for errors in, 540
24_HAC_01131_SE_INDEX_636_673.indd 661 7/14/15 10:17 AM
Index662
Quotations (continued )
in APA papers (continued )
with signal phrase, 541–44
synthesizing, 545–46
in argument papers, 101–02
capitalization in, 359
commas with, 305
direct and indirect, 150–51, 324–25
ellipsis marks for cuts in, 334
integrating, 50
from interviews, 407
long (indented), 324–25
in MLA papers
accuracy of, 448–49
avoiding plagiarism in,
442–43
brackets with, 449
citing, 442–43, 458–513
context for, 453–54
dropped, avoiding, 451
effective use of, 447–50, 457
ellipsis mark with, 448
embedding, 453–54
indenting, 449–50, 514, 522,
598
integrating, 447–50
long (indented), 449–50, 514,
522, 598
quotation marks for, 443
“sic” for errors in, 449
with signal phrase, 450–54
synthesizing, 454–56
within paraphrases, 414
punctuation of, 323–29
within quotations, 325
quoted in (qtd. in), for a source in
another source, 466–67,
476–77. See also cited in
quote, quotation, 618
Quotes. See Quotations
R
raise, rise, 618
Ratios, colon with, 318
Readability, document design for, 597
Readers, engaging, 22–23, 32
Reading
active and critical
for analysis, 66–73, 81–84
of arguments, 91–102
of research sources, 422–27
of visual and multimedia
texts, 81–84
of written texts, 66–73
annotating. See Annotating texts
conversing with a text, 68–69,
82–84
engagement with, 2, 91–94
evaluating arguments, 91–102
evaluating sources, 403–04, 416–30
to explore a subject, 11, 13
previewing sources, 418–22
previewing texts, 66–67, 70, 81
and thinking like a researcher, 398
visual and multimodal texts, 80–88
on the Web, 72
real, really, 233, 618
Reasoning. See also Argument
papers
deductive, 96–97
inductive, 91–92, 94
logical fallacies, 91–99
reason . . . is because (nonstandard),
139, 618
reason why (nonstandard), 618
Reciprocal pronouns, 365
Red herring fallacy, 100
Redundancies, 166
Reference list (APA). See also Works
cited list (MLA)
directory to models for, 528–29
formatting, 583–84, 602
general guidelines for, 554–55
models for, 553–80
sample, 595–96, 602
Reference of pronouns. See Pronoun
reference
Reflection. See also Habits of mind
for literacy narrative, 45–48
for portfolio, 48–49
Reflexive pronouns, 363–64
Regional expressions, 174–75
Regular verbs
-d, -ed endings on, 237–38,
245–46
defined, 237–38, 366
-s forms of, 242–43
relation, relationship, 618
Relative adverbs
defined, 389
introducing adjective clauses,
282–83, 389
Relative pronouns
agreement with verb, 210
defined, 364, 389, 390
introducing adjective clauses,
282–83, 389
in noun clauses, 390
who, whom, 227–30
24_HAC_01131_SE_INDEX_636_673.indd 662 7/17/15 4:08 PM
Index 663
Repetition
of function words, for parallel
structure, 132
of key words, 60
in speeches or presentations, 121
unnecessary
ideas, 166–67
nouns and pronouns, 281–82
objects or adverbs, 282–83
words, 166–67
Report, business, 603
Reposted source, citing (MLA style),
502–03
Requests, subjunctive mood for, 253
Researched writing. See also
Researching a topic;
Responsibility, with sources
APA papers, 527–96
MLA papers, 431–525
sample student writing
APA style, 585–96
MLA style, 517–25
Researching a topic, 396–430. See also
Researched writing
for argument papers, 103
bibliography
annotated, 427–30
scholarly, 405
working, 409, 411
catalog, library, 403, 418
databases, 403, 405
evaluating sources, 403–04,
416–30
field research, 406–07
getting started, 396–402
keeping a research log, 396–97,
398, 402
keeping track of sources, 410
library resources, 401–06
managing information, 396–98,
408–15
narrowing the focus, 399–400
note taking, 396–97, 410–15
planning, 396, 397, 417
purpose and, 398–402
reading critically, 417, 422–27
reading selectively, 418–21
reference librarians, 401, 403
research proposals, 408
research questions, 398–401,
408
for APA papers, 530–31
for MLA papers, 435–36
schedule for, 396, 397
search strategy, 401–02, 408, 417
shortcuts to good sources, 404–06
thinking like a researcher, 398
tips for smart searching, 405–06
Web resources, 403–04, 405
respectfully, respectively, 618
Response papers. See Analysis papers
Responsibility, with sources
altering quotations, 407
in APA papers, 540
in MLA papers, 448
copying from electronic files, 412
documenting evidence, 107
keeping records, 24–25, 69, 402,
409
and note taking, 408–15
reading critically, 422
and thinking like a researcher,
398
Restrictive (essential) elements, no
commas with, 299–303, 310
Résumés, 605
Reviewers. See Peer review
Review of the literature, sample of,
585–96
Revising with comments, 30–34
“Consider opposing viewpoints,”
32
giving comments, 33–34
“Unfocused introduction,” 32
sample peer review process, 34–37
Revision, 30–42
with comments, 30–34
cycles of, 38–42
vs. editing, 30, 43
global (big-picture), 38–42
revision and editing logs, 31
sample revised draft, 45–48
sentence-level, 30, 43–44
as social process, 30
strategies for, 32
of thesis, 15–18, 39–40, 42
rise. See raise, rise, 618
Running heads. See also Pagination
(of paper)
in APA papers, 581, 585, 600–02
in MLA papers, 514, 598
Run-on sentences
finding and recognizing, 195–96
fixing, 197–200
with colon or dash, 198–99
with comma and coordinating
conjunction, 197–98
by making two sentences, 199
by restructuring, 200
with semicolon, 198
24_HAC_01131_SE_INDEX_636_673.indd 663 7/14/15 10:17 AM
Index664
S
-s
and apostrophe, 319–22
and plurals of abbreviations, 340
and spelling, 346–47
as verb ending, 202, 204–05,
242–43
Sacred texts (Bible, Qur’an)
citing
APA style, 556, 572
MLA style, 468, 493
no italics for, 344
punctuation between chapter and
verse, 318
Salutations and greetings, colon with,
318, 604
Sample student writing
analysis, 78–80, 88–91
argument, 112–17
literacy narrative, 45–48
paragraphs, 39
research
APA style, 585–96
MLA style, 517–25
revised draft, 45–48
rough draft with peer comments,
35–37
speech (excerpt), 123
Scholarly sources, identifying, 405,
421
Scientific facts, and verb tense,
249–50
Scores, numerals for, 342
Search engines, 403–04
Search strategy, 401–02, 408
Secondary sources, 423
Second-person point of view, 42, 147
self-, hyphen with, 355
Self-assessment. See Reflection
Semicolon, 313–17
for combining sentences, 154
with commas, 314–15
to fix run-on sentences, 198
and independent clauses, 313–15
misuse of, 315–16
with quotation marks, 326
with series, 315
transitional expressions with,
314–15
sensual, sensuous, 618
Sentence fragments. See Fragments,
sentence
Sentence patterns, 375–83
Sentence purposes, 394
Sentences. See also Sentence types
awkward, 137–40
choppy, combining, 157
conditional, 265–66
fragments. See Fragments, sentence
fused. See Run-on sentences
incomplete. See Fragments,
sentence
inverted (verb before subject),
164, 209, 280–81, 376–77, 382
logical, 138–39
parts of, 375–81
patterns of, 375–83
purposes of, 394
revising and editing, 30, 43–44
run-on. See Run-on sentences
thesis. See Thesis
topic, 50–51
transitional, 61–63, 121
variety in, 163–65
wordy, 166–70
Sentence structure
mixed constructions, 137–40
multilingual/ESL challenges with,
279–87
adjectives, placement of, 287
adverbs, placement of, 284
although, because, 283–84
linking verb between subject
and complement, 280
present participle vs. past
participle, 285–86
repetition of object or adverb,
avoiding, 282–83
repetition of subject,
avoiding, 281–82
subject, needed, 280–81
there, it, 280–81
paraphrases and, 414
simplifying, 168
variety in, 163–65
Sentence types, 392–94
complex, 393
compound, 393
compound-complex, 393–94
declarative, 394
exclamatory, 394
imperative, 394
interrogative, 394
simple, 392–93
Series. See also Lists
comma with, 297
parallelism and, 130
parentheses with, 333
semicolon with, 315
24_HAC_01131_SE_INDEX_636_673.indd 664 7/14/15 10:17 AM
Index 665
set, sit, 618
Setup, page. See Document design;
Manuscript formats
Sexist language, avoiding, 176–79,
213–14, 216
shall, as modal verb, 261, 366
shall, will, 618
she, her, hers, sexist use of, 177, 214, 216
she vs. her, 222–27
she writes, he writes, comma with,
305, 327
Shifts, avoiding
from indirect to direct questions
or quotations, 150–51
in levels of formality, 175–76
in mood or voice, 149–50
in point of view (person and
number), 147–48
in verb tense, 148–49
Ships, italics for names of, 344
Short stories, titles of
capitalizing, 358–59, 581
quotation marks for, 325
APA style, 581
MLA style, 470, 514
should, as modal verb, 261, 262, 366
should of (nonstandard), 618
sic, 334
in APA paper, 540
in MLA paper, 449
Signal phrases
APA style, 541–44
MLA style, 450–54
Signposts, in speeches or
presentations, 121
Simile, 185
Simple sentences, 392–93
Simple subjects, 376
Simple tenses, 247–48, 257, 260
since, 618–19
Singular vs. plural
antecedents, 213–14
nouns, 202–12, 242–44
pronouns, 213–14
subjects, 202–12, 242–44
sit. See set, sit, 618
site. See cite, site, 611
Skimming. See Previewing
Slang, avoiding, 174–75
Slash, 335
Slides, presentation, 121
so
comma with, 294–95
as coordinating conjunction, 370
Social activity, writing as, 2, 30
Social media, citing
APA style, 552, 579–80
MLA style, 466, 511–12
Social sciences, writing in. See APA
papers
Software. See Word processing
programs
some, 206–07
somebody, someone (singular),
206–07, 213–14, 619
something (singular), 206–07,
213–14
sometime, some time, sometimes, 619
Songs, titles of, quotation marks for,
325
sort of. See kind of, sort of, 616
Sound-alike words (homophones), 351
Sources
citing. See Citing sources
documenting. See APA papers;
MLA papers
evaluating, 403–04, 416–30
finding, 401–06
integrating, 50
in APA papers, 537–44
in MLA papers, 445–57
in speeches or presentations,
121
introducing. See Signal phrases
keeping records of, 396–97, 410
list of. See Reference list (APA);
Works cited list (MLA)
online. See Web and digital
sources
primary, 406, 423
and purpose of research project,
398–402, 416–17
quoted in another source
in APA papers, 552–53
in MLA papers, 466–67, 476–77
responsible use of. See
Responsibility, with sources
scholarly, 405, 421
secondary, 423
selecting, 418–22
synthesizing
in APA papers, 545–46
in MLA papers, 454–56
uses of, 416–17
in APA papers, 532–33
in MLA papers, 437–39
of visuals, crediting, 25
in APA papers, 573–79, 583
in MLA papers, 465–66,
499–510
24_HAC_01131_SE_INDEX_636_673.indd 665 7/14/15 10:17 AM
Index666
“So what?” test
critical reading and, 69, 70
revision and, 15–18, 38, 42
thesis and, 14, 15–18
in APA papers, 531
in MLA papers, 436
Spacecraft, italics for names of, 344
Spacing. See Line spacing
Speaking, 119–23
adapting essays for presentations,
123
audience for, 120
conclusions for, 122
context for, 120
delivering, 122
introductions for, 122
preparing for, 120–21
purpose of, 120
sample student speech (excerpt),
123
slides for, 121
Specific nouns, 181
the with, 271–74
Speeches. See Speaking
Spelling, 345–53
Split infinitives, 142–43
Sponsor, of Web sources, 403–04, 425
in MLA works cited list, 470
Squinting modifiers, 142. See also
Misplaced modifiers
Standard English, 174–75
Standard (US) units, abbreviations
for, 339–40
Statements contrary to fact, 252–53,
266
statistics (singular), 211
Statistics
in APA papers, 544
in argument papers, 107–08
in MLA papers, 453, 457
numerals for, 342
Stereotypes, avoiding, 93, 179
Straw man fallacy, 101
Student essays. See Sample student
writing
Subject, of paper or presentation. See
Topic
Subject, of sentence
and agreement with verb, 202–12
case of, 223
complete, 375–76
compound, 376
following verb, 164, 209, 280–81,
376–77, 382
identifying, 209–10
of infinitive, 225–26
naming the actor (active voice),
126–29
naming the receiver (passive
voice), 126–29
pronoun as, 223
in questions, 377, 382
repeated, 281–82
required in sentences, 280–81
separated from verb, 142
simple, 376
singular vs. plural, 202–12
understood (you), 280, 376, 382
Subject complements
adjectives as, 231–32, 378
case of pronouns as, 223
defined, 378
with linking verbs, 378
and subject-verb agreement,
209–10
Subjective case, of pronouns, 223
who, whom, 227–30
Subjects, of field research, 406
Subject-verb agreement. See
Agreement of subject and verb
Subjunctive mood, 252–53. See also
Conditional sentences
Subordinate clauses, 389–92
adjective (beginning with who,
that, etc.), 389
adverb (beginning with if, when,
where, etc.), 390–91
avoiding repeated elements in,
282–83
defined, 389, 392
fragmented, 190–91
with independent clauses,
393–94
minor ideas in, 160
misplaced, 141–42
noun, 391
and sentence types, 393–94
words introducing, 389–91
Subordinate word groups, 383–92
Subordinating conjunctions, 371,
390
Subordination
for combining ideas of unequal
importance, 154–56, 158–59
and coordination, 158–59
for fixing run-on sentences, 200
for fixing sentence fragments,
190–93
of major ideas, avoiding, 160
overuse of, 160–61
24_HAC_01131_SE_INDEX_636_673.indd 666 7/14/15 10:17 AM
Index 667
Subtitles of works
capitalizing, 358–59
APA style, 554, 584
MLA style, 470, 514
colon between title and, 318
such as
no colon after, 318
no comma after, 312
and sentence fragments, 193
Suffixes
hyphen before, 355
spelling rules for, 346
Summary
acceptable and unacceptable
in APA papers, 536–37
in MLA papers, 444–45
vs. analysis, 74, 76, 86–87
in annotated bibliographies,
427–30
effective use of
in APA papers, 538
in MLA papers, 446, 457
integrating
in APA papers, 542–43
in MLA papers, 452–53
no quotation marks for, 324
and note taking, 412–13
outlining a text for, 71–72, 84–85
writing, 72–73, 85–87
superior to (not than), 183
Superlative form of adjectives and
adverbs (with -est or most),
234–35. See also Comparative
form of adjectives and
adverbs
Support. See Evidence
suppose to (nonstandard), 619
sure and (nonstandard), 183, 619
Surveys, as information source, 407
Syllables, division of words into
in dictionary, 348–50
hyphen for, 355–56
Synonyms, 180, 350
Synthesizing sources
in APA papers, 532–33
in MLA papers, 454–56
T
Tables, 26. See also Visuals, in
documents
in APA papers, 575, 583, 591
in MLA papers, 507–08, 515
take. See bring, take, 611
Taking notes. See Note taking
Talking and listening
to generate ideas, 2, 12
in speeches and presentations,
121, 122
Talking back to a text, 68–69, 82–84
teach. See learn, teach, 616
Teacher’s comments, responding to.
See Revising with comments
team. See Collective nouns
Teamwork. See Peer review
Tenses, verb, 247–52
in active voice, 257–59
and agreement with subject,
202–12
in APA papers, 250, 542, 547
conditional, 265–66
in MLA papers, 451
multilingual/ESL challenges with,
256–61, 265–66
in passive voice, 260
present
in summaries, 85
in writing about literature,
148–49, 249–50
in writing about science,
249–50
sequence of, 251–52
shifts in, avoiding, 148–49
Text messages, citing (MLA style),
511–12
Texts. See Multimodal texts; Visual
texts; Written texts
than
in comparisons, 134–35
parallelism with, 131–32
pronoun after, 225
than, then, 619
that
agreement of verb with, 210
broad reference of, 219
needed word, 132, 134
vs. which, 301, 619
vs. who, 221. See also who, which,
that, 620
the. See also a, an
with geographic names, 277–79
multilingual/ESL challenges with,
270–79
omission of, 136, 277–79
with proper nouns, 277–79
their
misuse of, with singular
antecedent, 147, 213–14, 216
vs. there, they’re, 619
vs. they, 619
24_HAC_01131_SE_INDEX_636_673.indd 667 7/14/15 10:17 AM
Index668
theirselves (nonstandard), 619
them vs. they, 222–27
them vs. those, 619
then, than. See than, then, 619
the number, a number, 208
there, as expletive (placeholder)
not used as subject, 281
and sentence order (verb before
subject), 280–81, 376–77,
382
and subject-verb agreement, 209
with verb, 280–81
and wordy sentences, 168
therefore
comma with, 303–04
semicolon with, 314–15
there, their, they’re, 619
Thesis
active reading for, 69, 70
in analysis papers, 75, 87
in APA papers, 530–31
in argument papers, 105–07, 118
audience and, 14–15, 16
developing, 24
drafting, 14–15
effective, 14, 16–18, 75, 87
in essays, 14–19, 22–24, 42
evaluating, 16–18
in MLA papers, 435–36
of paragraph, 50–51
of research paper, 398–401
revising, 15–18, 39–40, 42
testing, 16
for APA papers, 531
for MLA papers, 436
working, 14–19
in APA papers, 530–31
in MLA papers, 435–36
they
indefinite reference of, 220
vs. I or you, 147
misuse of, with singular
antecedent, 213–14, 216
nonstandard for their, 619
vs. them, 222–27
they’re. See there, their, they’re, 619
Third-person point of view, 42, 85,
147
this, broad reference of, 219
this kind. See kind(s), 615–16
Time
abbreviations for, 339
colon with, 318
managing, 396
numerals for, 342
Title page
for APA paper
formatting, 581, 600
sample, 585
for MLA paper (optional)
formatting, 513–14
Titles of persons
abbreviations with names, 338
capitalizing, 358
comma with, 306
Titles of works
capitalizing, 358–59
APA style, 554, 581, 584
MLA style, 470, 514
italics for, 343–44
APA style, 554, 581, 584
MLA style, 470, 514
quotation marks for, 325
APA style, 554, 581, 584
MLA style, 470, 514
treated as singular, 211
to
needed word, 132
as preposition vs. infinitive
marker, 290
Tone (voice). See also Language
in APA paper, 537
in argument paper, 105
in MLA paper, 440, 445–46
revising for, 38–39
in e-mail, 607
too, with infinitive, 269
Topic
big picture for, 397–98
curiosity and, 2, 3
exploring, 5–7, 12–14, 120
narrowing, 4, 399–400
of research paper, 397–98
working thesis and, 14–19
writing situation and, 4, 5–7
Topic sentence, 50–51
to, too, two, 619
toward, towards, 620
Transfer (fallacy), 100
Transitional expressions
commas with, 303–04
list of, 314
semicolon with, 314–15
Transitions, for coherence, 61–63, 121
Transitive verbs, 261, 378–79, 383
Trite expressions. See Clichés
troop. See Collective nouns
try and (nonstandard), 183, 620
Tutorials. See Writing guides
Tutors, working with. See Peer review
24_HAC_01131_SE_INDEX_636_673.indd 668 7/14/15 10:17 AM
Index 669
Twitter. See Social media, citing
two. See to, too, two, 619
type of (not of a), 183
Types of writing. See Genre (type of
writing)
Typing. See Document design
U
ultimately. See eventually, ultimately,
613
Unclear thesis, revising, 18
Underlining. See Italics
Understood subject (you), 280, 376,
382
uninterested. See disinterested,
uninterested, 612
unique, 235, 620
Unity. See Focus
Unmarked infinitives, 269
Uploaded materials, citing (MLA
style), 474–75, 502–03,
508–09
URLs
in citations
APA style, 555, 559, 572
MLA style, 471, 496
dividing, 355–56
APA style, 584
MLA style, 515, 516
evaluating, 403
Usage
glossary of, 608–21
labels in dictionary, 350–51
usage, 620
use to (nonstandard), 620
us vs. we, 222–27
utilize, 620
V
Vague thesis, revising, 18
Variety
in sentences, 163–65
in signal phrases
APA style, 543
MLA style, 450
in speeches or presentations,
121
Verbal phrases, 385–88
fragmented, 191–92
gerund, 386–87
infinitive, 387
participial, 386
Verbs. See also Verbs, types of
active, 126–29, 257–59, 383
adverbs with, 368–69
agreement with subjects, 202–12
be, forms of, vs. active, 127–28
compound predicates, 192
in conditional sentences, 265–66
-d, -ed ending on, 237–38,
245–46
defined, 365
followed by gerunds or infinitives,
267–70
forms of, 256–59
mood of, 252–53
multilingual/ESL challenges with.
See Multilingual writers, verbs
needed, 246
negative forms of, 264
without objects, 380–81
passive, 126–29, 259–61, 383
with prepositions (idioms),
291–92
separated from subjects, 142
-s form of, 202, 204–05, 242–43
shifts in tense, mood, voice,
avoiding, 148–50
in signal phrases
APA style, 541–42, 543
MLA style, 450–51
with singular vs. plural subjects,
242–44
standard forms of, 237–41
strong, vs. be and passive verbs,
126–29, 168
before subjects (inverted
sentences), 164, 209, 280–81,
376–77
tenses of. See Tenses, verb
two-word, 367
voice of (active, passive), 126–29,
257–61, 383
Verbs, types of. See also Verbs
helping. See Helping verbs
intransitive (no direct object),
380–81
irregular, 237–41, 256–59, 366–67
linking, 231–32, 280, 378
main, 247–53, 261–63, 366–67
modal (can, should, etc.). See
Modal verbs
phrasal. See Particles, with verbs
regular, 237–38, 245–46, 256–59,
366
transitive (with direct object),
378–79
24_HAC_01131_SE_INDEX_636_673.indd 669 7/14/15 10:17 AM
Index670
Video, online, citing
APA style, 573
MLA style, 474–75, 500, 502–03
Video game, citing
APA style, 578
MLA style, 501
Visuals, in documents. See also Visual
texts
choosing, 25, 26–27
citing sources of, 25
APA style, 573–79, 583
MLA style, 465–66, 499–510
in document design, 603
as evidence, 108–09
labeling
APA style, 583, 603
MLA style, 515, 519
purposes for, 25, 26–27, 108–09,
121
types of
bar graph, 26
diagram, 27
flowchart, 27
infographic, 26
line graph, 26
map, 27
photograph, 27
pie chart, 26
table, 26
Visual sources. See Visuals, in
documents; Visual texts
Visual texts (photograph,
advertisement, etc.). See also
Multimodal texts; Visuals, in
documents
analyzing, 80–91
annotating, 81–82, 83
conversing with, 82–84
writing about, 85–87
Voice. See also Tone (voice)
active (preferred), 126–29,
257–61, 379, 383
passive, 126–27, 168, 259–61,
383
shifts between active and passive,
avoiding, 149–50
Volume and issue numbers, in APA
reference list, 555
W
wait for, wait on, 620
was vs. were
in conditional sentences,
265–66
and subject-verb agreement, 204,
244
and subjunctive mood, 252–53
ways, 620
we
vs. us, 222–27
vs. you or they, 147
weather, whether, 620
Web and digital sources. See also
Electronic documents;
Internet
abstracts of, 421
authors of, identifying, 425,
474–75, 502–03
avoiding plagiarism from, 410,
412, 415
citation at a glance
APA style, 562–63, 576–77
MLA style, 480–81, 497
citing
APA style, 551–52, 559–67,
572–73
MLA style, 466, 477–87,
495–99
course materials, citing
APA style, 552, 559
MLA style, 498–99,
508–09
databases for, 402, 403, 405
evaluating, 403–04, 419, 421,
424–27
finding, 402–06
keeping records of, 409, 410
library catalog for, 403, 418
previewing, 397–98, 418–22
reading, 72
reposted sources, citing (MLA
style), 502–03
search engines for, 403–04
selecting appropriate versions of,
421–22
well, good, 233–34. See also good,
well, 614
were, in conditional sentences,
252–53, 265–66
were vs. was. See was vs. were
when clauses, 252–53, 265–66
where vs. that, 620
whether. See if, whether, 615; weather,
whether, 620
whether . . . or, 131, 370–71
which
agreement of verb with, 210
broad reference of, 219
vs. that, 301, 619
24_HAC_01131_SE_INDEX_636_673.indd 670 7/14/15 10:17 AM
Index 671
vs. who, 221. See also who, which,
that, 620
while, 620
who
agreement of verb with, 210
omission of, 133–34
vs. which or that, 221. See also
who, which, that, 620
vs. whom, 227–30, 620
who’s, whose, 322, 620
who, which, that, 620
will, as modal verb, 261, 263, 366
will, shall. See shall, will, 618
Wishes, subjunctive mood for,
253
Word groups. See Independent
clauses; Phrases; Subordinate
clauses
Wordiness, 166–70
Word processing programs
and automatic division of words,
355–56
and citing sources, 409
and double-entry notebooks,
68–69
and keeping track of files, 29,
412
Words. See also Language; Spelling
abstract vs. concrete, 181
antonyms (opposites), 350
colloquial, 175, 350–51
compound, 349, 353–54
confused, 181–82. See also
Glossary of usage
connotation and denotation of,
180
division of, 348–50, 355–56
foreign, italics for, 344
general vs. specific, 181, 271,
274
homophones (sound-alike),
351
meaning of, 180, 350
misuse of, 181–82
needed. See Needed words
origin of (etymology), 350
prefixes (beginnings of ), 355
sound-alike (homophones),
351
spelling of, 345–53
suffixes (endings of ), 346, 355
synonyms (words with similar
meanings), 180, 350
unnecessary repetition of,
166–67
using your own. See Paraphrases;
Summary
Words used as words
italics for, 344–45
plural of, 322
quotation marks for, 325–26
treated as singular, 211
Work in an anthology. See Anthology
or collection, citing
Working bibliography. See also
Annotated bibliography
information for, 411
maintaining, 409
research log for, 396–97
Working thesis. See Thesis,
working
Works cited list (MLA)
directory to models for,
432–34
formatting, 515–16, 599
general guidelines for,
470–72
models for, 468–512
sample, 117, 524–25
World Wide Web. See Electronic
documents; Internet; Web
and digital sources
would, as modal verb, 261, 263,
366
would of (nonstandard), 621
Writing guides
for analytical essay, 76–77
for annotated bibliography,
428–29
for argument paper, 118–19
Writing in the disciplines. See
Academic writing; Genre
(type of writing)
Writing process
drafting, 22–28
editing, 43–44
planning, 3–22
reviewing, 30–38
revising, 38–42
as social activity, 2, 30
Writing situation, 3–12
Writing tutors, working with. See
Peer review
Written texts. See also Reading
analyzing, 66–80
annotating, 67–68, 70, 413
conversing with, 68–69
sample paper analyzing,
78–80
writing about, 72–77
24_HAC_01131_SE_INDEX_636_673.indd 671 7/14/15 10:17 AM
Index672
Y
yes, no, commas with, 305
yet
comma before, 294–95
as coordinating conjunction, 370
you
appropriate use of, 147, 220
inappropriate use of, 220, 621
vs. I or they, 147
and shifts in point of view,
avoiding, 147
understood, 280, 376, 382
your, you’re, 621
YouTube. See Video, online, citing
24_HAC_01131_SE_INDEX_636_673.indd 672 7/14/15 10:17 AM
05_HAC_01131_PT2_065_124.indd 124 5/4/15 12:04 PM
this page left intentionally blank
Multilingual Menu
A complete section for
multilingual writers:
28 Verbs 256
a Form and tense 256
b Passive voice 259
c Base form after
modal 261
d Negative forms 264
e Conditional sentences
265
f With gerunds or
infinitives 267
29 Articles 270
a Articles; other noun
markers 270
b When to use the 271
c When to use a or an 274
d When not to use a
or an 276
e With general nouns 277
f With proper nouns 277
30 Sentence structure 279
a Linking verb with subject
and complement 280
b Omitted subjects 280
c Repeated nouns,
pronouns 281
d Repeated objects,
adverbs 282
e Mixed constructions
283
f Adverb placement 284
g Present and past
participles 285
h Order of adjectives 287
31 Prepositions
and idiomatic
expressions 288
a at, on, in 288
b Noun (-ing form) after
preposition 290
c Adjective + preposition
291
d Verb + preposition 291
Multilingual and Academic
English notes in other sections:
The Writing Process
• The writing situation 5
• Using a direct approach 24
• Choosing transitions 62
Academic Reading, Writing,
and Speaking
• Avoiding hasty
generalizations 93
• Making an argument 105
Clarity
• Passive voice 126
• Missing words 133
• Articles 136
• Double subjects, repeated
objects 138
• Adverb placement 142
• Repeated objects, or
adverbs 157
• Idioms 183
Grammar
• Problems with verbs 190
• Pronoun-antecedent gender
agreement 213
• Adjective and adverb
placement 231
• No plural adjectives 231
• Omitted verbs 246
• Verb tenses 249
Mechanics
• American and British spelling
347
Research
• Recognizing intellectual
property 412
25_HAC_01131_Multilingual_menu.indd 2 8/5/15 12:11 PM
Revision Symbols
Boldface numbers refer to sections of the handbook.
abbr faulty abbreviation 40
adj/adv misuse of adjective or
adverb 26
add add needed word 10
agr faulty agreement 21, 22
appr inappropriate language 17
art article (a, an, the) 29
awk awkward
cap capital letter 45
case error in case 24, 25
cliché cliché 18e
coh coherence 3d
coord faulty coordination 14a
cs comma splice 20
dev inadequate
development 3b, 6h
dm dangling modifier 12e
-ed -ed ending 27d
emph emphasis 14
ESL English as a second language,
multilingual 28–31
exact inexact language 18
frag sentence fragment 19
fs fused sentence 20
gl/us see glossary of usage
hyph hyphen 44
idiom idioms 18d
inc incomplete
construction 10
irreg irregular verb 27a
ital italics 42
jarg jargon 17a
lc lowercase letter 45
mix mixed construction 11
mm misplaced modifier 12a–d
mood mood 27g
nonst nonstandard usage 17c, 27
num use of numbers 41
om omitted word 10, 30b
p punctuation
,̂ comma 32
no , no comma 33
; semicolon 34
: colon 35
^
’ apostrophe 36
“ ” quotation marks 37
. ? period, question mark 38a–b
! exclamation point 38c
— ( ) dash, parentheses 39a–b
[ ] . . . brackets, ellipsis mark 39c–d
/ slash 39e
¶ new paragraph 3e
pass ineffective passive 8
pn agr pronoun agreement 22
proof proofreading problem 2g
ref pronoun reference 23
run-on run-on sentence 20
-s -s ending 21, 27c
sexist sexist language 17e, 22a
shift distracting shift 13
sl slang 17c
sp misspelled word 43
sub subordination 14
sv agr subject-verb agreement
21, 27c
t verb tense 27f
trans transition needed 3d
usage see glossary of usage
v voice 8a
var lack of variety in sentence
structure 14, 15
vb verb problem 27, 28
w wordy 16
// parallelism 9
^ insert
# insert space
( ) close up space
29_HAC_01131_SYMBOL.indd 1 8/5/15 12:23 PM
Detailed Menu
The Writing
Process 1
1 Exploring, drafting
plan/draft 3
2 Revising, reflecting
rev 30
Sample revision 45
3 Paragraphs par 49
Reading, Writing,
Speaking 65
4 Reading, writing
critically crit 66
Sample article 67
Sample analysis 78
5 Multimodal texts
texts 80
Sample
advertisement 83
Sample analysis 88
6 Reading, writing
arguments arg 91
Sample argument 112
7 Speaking
confidently spk 119
Clarity 125
8 Active verbs
active 126
a vs. passive verbs
b vs. be verbs
c actor as subject
9 Parallelism // 129
a series
b pairs
c repeated words
10 Needed words
add 133
a compound
structures
b that
c in comparisons
d a, an, and the
11 Mixed constructions
mix 137
a mixed grammar
b illogical
connections
c is when, is where,
etc.
12 Misplaced and
dangling modifiers
mm/dm 140
a limiting modifiers
b misplaced
modifiers
c awkward
placement
d split infinitives
e dangling
modifiers
13 Shifts shift 147
a person, number
b tense
c mood, voice
d indirect to direct
14 Emphasis emph 152
a coordination and
subordination
b choppy sentences
c ineffective
coordination
d ineffective
subordination
e excessive
subordination
f other techniques
15 Variety var 163
16 Wordy sentences
w 166
17 Appropriate
language appr 170
a jargon
b pretentious
language,
euphemisms
c slang,
nonstandard
English
d levels of formality
e sexist language
f offensive language
18 Exact words
exact 180
a connotations
b concrete nouns
c misused words
d idioms
e clichés
f figures of speech
Grammar 187
19 Sentence fragments
frag 188
a subordinate
clauses
b phrases
c other word groups
d acceptable
fragments
20 Run-on sentences
run-on 195
a revision with and,
but, etc.
b with semicolon,
colon, or dash
c separating
sentences
d restructuring
21 Subject-verb
agreement sv agr
202
a standard
combinations
b words between
subject and verb
c subjects with and
d subjects with or,
nor, etc.
e indefinite
pronouns
f collective nouns
g subject after verb
h subject
complement
i who, which, that
j plural form
k titles, words as
words, etc.
22 Pronoun-antecedent
agreement pn agr
213
a indefinite
pronouns, generic
nouns
b collective nouns
c with and
d with or, nor, etc.
23 Pronoun
reference ref 218
a ambiguous,
remote
b broad this, that,
which, it
c implied
antecedents
d indefinite they, it,
you
e who, which, that
24 Case of personal
pronouns case 222
a subjective case
b objective case
c appositives
d after than or as
e we, us before a
noun
30_HAC_01131_LBP.indd 2 8/5/15 12:24 PM
mech_HackerSommers-Rules8-SE-080715
Brief Menu
The Writing Process 1
1 Exploring, planning, and drafting 3
2 Revising, editing, and reflecting 30
3 Building effective paragraphs 49
Academic Reading, Writing, and Speaking 65
4 Reading and writing critically 66
5 Reading and writing about multimodal texts 80
6 Reading and writing arguments 91
7 Speaking confidently 119
Clarity 125
8 Active verbs 126
9 Parallel ideas 129
10 Needed words 133
11 Mixed constructions 137
12 Misplaced and dangling modifiers 140
13 Shifts 147
14 Emphasis 152
15 Variety 163
16 Wordy sentences 166
17 Appropriate language 170
18 Exact words 180
Grammar 187
19 Sentence fragments 188
20 Run-on sentences 195
21 Subject-verb agreement (is or are etc.) 202
22 Pronoun-antecedent agreement (singular or plural) 213
23 Pronoun reference (clarity) 218
24 Pronoun case (I and me etc.) 222
25 who and whom 227
26 Adjectives and adverbs 230
27 Standard English verb forms, tenses, and moods 237
Multilingual Writers and ESL Challenges 255
28 Verbs 256
29 Articles 270
30 Sentence structure 279
31 Prepositions and idiomatic expressions 288
Rules8_SE_IFC_IBC.indd 2 6/17/15 7:51 AM
f with infinitives
g with gerunds
25 Case of who and
whom case 227
26 Adjectives and
adverbs adj/adv 230
a adjectives
b adverbs
c good, well, bad,
badly
d comparatives and
superlatives
e double negatives
27 Verb forms, tenses,
moods vb 237
a irregular verbs
b lie and lay
c -s (or -es) endings
d -ed endings
e omitted verbs
f tense
g mood
Multilingual/ESL 255
28 Verbs ESL 256
29 Articles; types of
nouns ESL 270
30 Structure ESL 279
31 Prepositions and
idioms ESL 288
Punctuation 293
32 The comma ,̂ 294
a with and, but, etc.
b introductory
elements
c series
d coordinate
adjectives
e nonrestrictive
elements
f transitions
g direct address, yes
and no, etc.
h he said etc.
i dates, addresses,
titles, numbers
j to prevent
confusion
33 Unnecessary
commas no , 308
34 The semicolon ;
313
a independent
clauses
b transitional
expressions
c series
d misuses
35 The colon : 317
a with lists,
appositives,
quotations
b conventional uses
c misuses
36 The apostrophe
^
’
319
a possessive nouns
b indefinite
pronouns
c contractions
d plurals of
numbers, letters,
etc.
e misuses
37 Quotation marks
“ ” 323
a direct quotations
b quotation within a
quotation
c titles of short
works
d words as words
e with other
punctuation
marks
f misuses
38 End
punctuation 330
a period .
b question mark ?
c exclamation
point !
39 Other punctuation
marks 332
a dash —
b parentheses ( )
c brackets [ ]
d ellipsis mark . . .
e slash /
Mechanics 337
40 Abbreviations
abbr 338
41 Numbers num 341
42 Italics ital 343
43 Spelling sp 345
44 The hyphen
hyph 353
45 Capitalization
cap 356
Grammar Basics 361
46 Parts of speech
basic 362
47 Sentence patterns
basic 375
48 Subordinate word
groups basic 383
49 Sentence types
basic 392
Research 395
50 Conducting research
res 396
51 Managing
information; taking
notes res 408
52 Evaluating sources
res 416
MLA Papers 431
53 Thesis MLA 435
54 Avoiding plagiarism
MLA 441
55 Integrating sources
MLA 445
56 Documenting
sources MLA 458
57 Manuscript format
MLA 513
Sample paper 517
APA Papers 527
58 Thesis APA 530
59 Avoiding plagiarism
APA 534
60 Integrating sources
APA 537
61 Documenting
sources APA 546
62 Manuscript format
APA 580
Sample paper 585
Appendixes 597
Document design 597
Glossary of usage 608
Answers to lettered
exercises 622
Index 636
Rules8_SE_IFC_IBC.indd 3 6/17/15 7:51 AM
mech_HackerSommers-Rules8-SE-080715
Diana Hacker
Nancy Sommers
E i g h t h E d i t i o n
Rules for
WRITERS
macmillanhighered.com
You’re a writer.
Rules for Writers is here for you.
No one learns everything about writing in a single course or
even two; we all need to consult the rules or seek out advice
sometimes. Having a reliable support system is key. Your
peers, your instructor, and your writing center are part of your
support system — and so is your Rules for Writers. Whatever the
assignment, whatever your purpose for writing, Rules for Writers
has answers and advice you need for papers and projects in
every course. The more you rely on your handbook and learn
from its advice, the more successful you’ll be as a college writer.
More support for you online
If your instructor has assigned this book with LaunchPad Solo
for Rules for Writers, use the activation code to access even
more support. Visit macmillanhighered.com/rules8e to check
out 192 grammar and research exercises, 39 sample student
papers, and 30 LearningCurve adaptive quizzes.
According to a recent survey of 700
students at 50 colleges, 79% of students
feel that their handbook makes them
more effective academic writers.
http://www.macmillanhighered.com
http://www.macmillanhighered.com/rules8e
Cover
Inside Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
A Letter from the Author
Making the Most of your Handbook
Preface for Instructors
Acknowledgments
Contents
The Writing Process
1. Exploring, Planning, and Drafting
A. Assess the Writing Situation.
B. Explore your Subject.
C. Draft and Revise a Working Thesis Statement.
D. Draft a Plan.
E. Draft an Introduction.
F. Draft the Body.
G. Draft a Conclusion.
H. Manage your Files.
2. Revising, Editing, and Reflecting
A. See Revision as a Social Process.
B. Use Peer Review: Revise with Comments.
C. Use Peer Review: Give Constructive Comments.
D. Highlights of One Student’s Peer Review Process
E. Approach Global Revision in Cycles.
F. Revise and Edit Sentences.
G. Proofread the Final Manuscript.
H. Sample Student Revision
I. Prepare a Portfolio; Reflect on your Writing.
3. Building Effective Paragraphs
A. Focus on a Main Point.
B. Develop the Main Point.
C. Choose a Suitable Pattern of Organization.
D. Make Paragraphs Coherent.
E. If Necessary, Adjust Paragraph Length.
Academic Reading, Writing, and Speaking
4. Reading and Writing Critically
A. Read Actively.
B. Outline a Text to Identify Main Ideas.
C. Summarize to Deepen your Understanding.
D. Analyze to Demonstrate your Critical Reading.
E. Sample Student Writing: Analysis of an Article
5. Reading and Writing About Multimodal Texts
A. Read Actively.
B. Outline to Identify Main Ideas.
C. Summarize to Deepen your Understanding.
D. Analyze to Demonstrate your Critical Reading.
E. Sample Student Writing: Analysis of an Advertisement
6. Reading and Writing Arguments
A. Distinguish Between Reasonable and Fallacious Argumentative Tactics
B. Distinguish Between Legitimate and Unfair Emotional Appeals
C. Judge How Fairly a Writer Handles Opposing Views
D. When Writing Arguments, Consider Purpose and Context.
E. View your Audience as a Panel of Jurors.
F. In your Introduction, Establish Credibility and State your Position.
G. Back Up your Thesis with Persuasive Lines of Argument.
H. Support your Claims with Specific Evidence.
I. Anticipate Objections; Counter Opposing Arguments.
J. Build Common Ground.
K. Sample Student Writing: Argument
7. Speaking Confidently
A. Identify your Purpose, Audience, and Context.
B. Prepare a Presentation.
C. Focus on Delivery.
D. Remix an Essay for a Presentation.
Clarity
8. Prefer Active Verbs.
A. Active Versus Passive Verbs
B. Active Versus be Verbs
C. Subject that Names the Actor
9. Balance Parallel Ideas.
A. Parallel Ideas in a Series
B. Parallel Ideas Presented as Pairs
C. Repetition of Function Words
10. Add Needed Words.
A. In Compound Structures
B. that
C. In Comparisons
D. a, an, and the
11. Untangle Mixed Constructions.
A. Mixed Grammar
B. Illogical Connections
C. is when, is where, and reason … is because
12. Repair Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers.
A. Limiting Modifiers
B. Misplaced Phrases and Clauses
C. Awkwardly Placed Modifiers
D. Split Infinitives
E. Dangling Modifiers
13. Eliminate Distracting Shifts.
A. Point of View (Person, Number)
B. Verb Tense
C. Verb Mood, Voice
D. Indirect to Direct Questions or Quotations
14. Emphasize Key Ideas.
A. Coordination and Subordination
B. Choppy Sentences
C. Ineffective or Excessive Coordination
D. Ineffective Subordination
E. Excessive Subordination
F. Other Techniques
15. Provide Some Variety.
A. Sentence Openings
B. Sentence Structures
C. Inverted Order
16. Tighten Wordy Sentences.
A. Redundancies
B. Unnecessary Repetition
C. Empty or Inflated Phrases
D. Simplifying the Structure
E. Reducing Clauses to Phrases, Phrases to Single Words
17. Choose Appropriate Language
A. Jargon
B. Pretentious Language, Euphemisms, “Doublespeak”
C. Slang, Regional Expressions, Nonstandard English
D. Levels of Formality
E. Sexist Language
F. Offensive Language
18. Find the Exact Words.
A. Connotations
B. Specific, Concrete Nouns
C. Misused Words
D. Standard Idioms
E. Clichés
F. Figures of Speech
Grammar
19. Repair Sentence Fragments.
A. Subordinate Clauses
B. Phrases
C. Other Fragmented Word Groups
D. Acceptable Fragments
20. Revise Run-On Sentences.
A. Revision with Coordinating Conjunction
B. Revision with Semicolon, Colon, or Dash
C. Revision by Separating Sentences
D. Revision by Restructuring
21. Make Subjects and Verbs Agree.
A. Standard Subject-Verb Combinations
B. Words between Subject and Verb
C. Subjects Joined with and
D. Subjects Joined with or, nor, either … or, or neither… nor
E. Indefinite Pronouns
F. Collective Nouns
G. Subject Following Verb
H. Subject, Not Subject Complement
I. who, which, and that
J. Words with Plural Form, Singular Meaning
K. Titles of Works, Company Names, Words Mentioned as Words, Gerund Phrases
22. Make Pronouns and Antecedents Agree.
A. Singular with Singular, Plural with Plural (Indefinite Pronouns, Generic Nouns)
B. Collective Nouns
C. Antecedents Joined with and
D. Antecedents Joined with or, nor, either … or, or neither … nor
23. Make Pronoun References Clear.
A. Ambiguous or Remote Reference
B. Broad Reference of this, that, which, and it
C. Implied Antecedents
D. Indefinite Use of they, it, and you
E. who for Persons, which or that for Things
24. Distinguish Between Pronouns Such as I and Me
A. Subjective Case for Subjects and Subject Complements
B. Objective Case for Objects
C. Appositives
D. Pronoun Following than or as
E. we or us Before a Noun
F. Subjects and Objects of Infinitives
G. Pronoun Modifying a Gerund
25. Distinguish Between Who and Whom.
A. In Subordinate Clauses
B. In Questions
C. As Subjects or Objects of Infinitives
26. Choose Adjectives and Adverbs With Care.
A. Adjectives to Modify Nouns
B. Adverbs to Modify Verbs, Adjectives, and Other Adverbs
C. good and well, bad and badly
D. Comparatives and Superlatives
E. Double Negatives
27. Choose Appropriate Verb Forms, Tenses, and Moods in Standard English.
A. Irregular Verbs
B. lie and lay
C. -s (or -es) Endings
D. -ed Endings
E. Omitted Verbs
F. Verb Tense
G. Subjunctive Mood
Multilingual Writers and ESL Challenges
28. Verbs
A. Appropriate Form and Tense
B. Passive Voice
C. Base Form after a Modal
D. Negative Verb Forms
E. Verbs in Conditional Sentences
F. Verbs Followed by Gerunds or Infinitives
29. Articles
A. Articles and Other Noun Markers
B. When to Use the
C. When to Use a or an
D. When Not to Use a or an
E. No Articles with General Nouns
F. Articles with Proper Nouns
30. Sentence Structure
A. Linking Verb Between a Subject and its Complement
B. A Subject in Every Sentence
C. Repeated Nouns or Pronouns with the Same Grammatical Function
D. Repeated Subjects, Objects, and Adverbs in Adjective Clauses
E. Mixed Constructions with although or because
F. Placement of Adverbs
G. Present Participles and Past Participles as Adjectives
H. Order of Cumulative Adjectives
31. Prepositions and Idiomatic Expressions
A. Prepositions Showing Time and Place
B. Noun (Including -ing Form) after a Preposition
C. Common Adjective + Preposition Combinations
D. Common Verb + Preposition Combinations
Punctuation
32. The Comma
A. In dependent Clauses Joined with and, but, Etc.
B. Introductory Elements
C. Items in a Series
D. Coordinate Adjectives
E. Nonrestrictive and Restrictive Elements
F. Transitions, Parenthetical Expressions, Absolute Phrases, Contrasts
G. Direct Address, yes and no, Interrogative Tags, Interjections
H. he said Etc.
I. Dates, Addresses, Titles, Numbers
J. To Prevent Confusion
33. Unnecessary Commas
A. Between Two Words, Phrases, or Subordinate Clauses
B. Between a Verb and its Subject or Object
C. Before the First or After the Last Item in a Series
D. Between Cumulative Adjectives, an Adjective and a Noun, or an Adverb and an Adjective
E. Before and After Restrictive or Parenthetical Elements
F. Before Essential Concluding Adverbial Elements
G. After a Phrase Beginning an Inverted Sentence
H. Other Misuses
34. The Semicolon
A. Between Independent Clauses not Joined with a Coordinating Conjunction
B. Between Independent Clauses Linked with a Transitional Expression
C. In a Series Containing Internal Punctuation
D. Misuses
35. The Colon
A. Before a List, an Appositive, or a Quotation
B. Conventional Uses
C. Misuses
36. The Apostrophe
A. Possessive Nouns
B. Possessive Indefinite Pronouns
C. Contractions
D. Not for Plural Numbers, Letters, Abbreviations, Words As Words
E. Misuses
37. Quotation Marks
A. Direct Quotations
B. Quotation Within a Quotation
C. Titles of Short Works
D. Words as Words
E. With Other Punctuation Marks
F. Misuses
38. End Punctuation
A. The Period
B. The Question Mark
C. The Exclamation Point
39. Other Punctuation Marks
A. The Dash
B. Parentheses
C. Brackets
D. The Ellipsis Mark
E. The Slash
Mechanics
40. Abbreviations
A. Titles With Proper Names
B. Familiar Abbreviations
C. Conventional Abbreviations
D. Units of Measurement
E. Latin Abbreviations
F. Plural of Abbreviations
G. Misuses
41. Numbers
A. Spelling Out
B. Using Numerals
42. Italics
A. Titles of Works
B. Names of Ships, Spacecraft, and Aircraft
C. Foreign Words
D. Words as Words, Letters as Letters, Numbers as Numbers
43. Spelling
A. Spelling Rules
B. The Dictionary
C. Words that Sound Alike
D. Commonly Misspelled Words
44. The Hyphen
A. Compound Words
B. Hyphenated Adjectives
C. Fractions and Compound Numbers
D. With Certain Prefixes and Suffixes
E. To Avoid Ambiguity or to Separate Awkward Double or Triple Letters
F. Word Division
45. Capitalization
A. Proper vs. Common Nouns
B. Titles with Proper Names
C. Titles and Subtitles of Works
D. First Word of a Sentence
E. First Word of a Quoted Sentence
F. First Word after a Colon
Grammar Basics
46. Parts of Speech
A. Nouns
B. Pronouns
C. Verbs
D. Adjectives
E. Adverbs
F. Prepositions
G. Conjunctions
H. Interjections
47. Sentence Patterns
A. Subjects
B. Verbs, Objects, and Complements
C. Pattern Variations
48. Subordinate Word Groups
A. Prepositional Phrases
B. Verbal Phrases
C. Appositive Phrases
D. Absolute Phrases
E. Subordinate Clauses
49. Sentence Types
A. Sentence Structures
B. Sentence Purposes
Research
50. Thinking like a Researcher; Gathering Sources
A. Manage the Project.
B. Pose Questions Worth Exploring.
C. Map Out a Search Strategy.
D. Search Efficiently; Master a Few Shortcuts to Finding Good Sources.
E. Conduct Field Research, if Appropriate.
F. Write a Research Proposal.
51. Managing Information; Taking Notes Responsibly
A. Maintain a Working Bibliography.
B. Keep Track of Source Materials.
C. Take Notes Carefully to Avoid Unintentional Plagiarism.
52. Evaluating Sources
A. Think About How Sources Might Contribute to your Writing.
B. Select Sources Worth your Time and Attention.
C. Select Appropriate Versions of Online Sources.
D. Read with an Open Mind and a Critical Eye.
E. Assess Web Sources with Care.
F. Construct an Annotated Bibliography.
Writing Papers in MLA Style
53. Supporting a Thesis
A. Form a Working Thesis.
B. Organize your Ideas.
C. Use Sources to Inform and Support your Argument.
D. Draft an Introduction for your Thesis.
E. Draft the Paper in an Appropriate Voice.
54. Citing Sources; Avoiding Plagiarism
A. Understand How the MLA System Works.
B. Avoid Plagiarism When Quoting, Summarizing, and Paraphrasing Sources.
55. Integrating Sources
A. Summarize and Paraphrase Effectively.
B. Use Quotations Effectively.
C. Use Signal Phrases to Integrate Sources.
D. Synthesize Sources.
56. Documenting Sources in MLA Style
A. MLA In-Text Citations
B. MLA List of Works Cited
C. MLA Information Notes
57. MLA Manuscript Format; Sample Research Paper
A. MLA Manuscript Format
B. Sample MLA Research Paper
Writing Papers in APA Style
58. Supporting a Thesis
A. Form a Working Thesis.
B. Organize your Ideas.
C. Use Sources to Inform and Support your Argument.
59. Citing Sources; Avoiding Plagiarism
A. Understand How the APA System Works.
B. Avoid Plagiarism when Quoting, Summarizing, and Paraphrasing Sources.
60. Integrating Sources
A. Summarize and Paraphrase Effectively.
B. Use Quotations Effectively.
C. Use Signal Phrases to Integrate Sources.
D. Synthesize Sources.
61. Documenting Sources in APA Style
A. APA In-Text Citations
B. APA List of Works Cited
62. APA Manuscript Format; Sample Paper
A. APA Manuscript Format
B. Sample APA Research Paper
Appendixes
A. Document Design Gallery
Glossary of Usage
Answers to Lettered Exercises
Index
Inside Back Cover
Back Cover
<<
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/AutoRotatePages /All
/Binding /Left
/CalGrayProfile (Dot Gain 20%)
/CalRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1)
/CalCMYKProfile (U.S. Web Coated \050SWOP\051 v2)
/sRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1)
/CannotEmbedFontPolicy /Warning
/CompatibilityLevel 1.7
/CompressObjects /Tags
/CompressPages true
/ConvertImagesToIndexed true
/PassThroughJPEGImages true
/CreateJobTicket false
/DefaultRenderingIntent /Default
/DetectBlends true
/DetectCurves 0.0000
/ColorConversionStrategy /LeaveColorUnchanged
/DoThumbnails false
/EmbedAllFonts true
/EmbedOpenType false
/ParseICCProfilesInComments true
/EmbedJobOptions true
/DSCReportingLevel 0
/EmitDSCWarnings false
/EndPage -1
/ImageMemory 1048576
/LockDistillerParams true
/MaxSubsetPct 0
/Optimize false
/OPM 1
/ParseDSCComments true
/ParseDSCCommentsForDocInfo true
/PreserveCopyPage true
/PreserveDICMYKValues true
/PreserveEPSInfo true
/PreserveFlatness false
/PreserveHalftoneInfo false
/PreserveOPIComments false
/PreserveOverprintSettings true
/StartPage 1
/SubsetFonts true
/TransferFunctionInfo /Apply
/UCRandBGInfo /Preserve
/UsePrologue false
/ColorSettingsFile ()
/AlwaysEmbed [ true
]
/NeverEmbed [ true
]
/AntiAliasColorImages false
/CropColorImages false
/ColorImageMinResolution 300
/ColorImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleColorImages true
/ColorImageDownsampleType /Bicubic
/ColorImageResolution 600
/ColorImageDepth -1
/ColorImageMinDownsampleDepth 1
/ColorImageDownsampleThreshold 1.00000
/EncodeColorImages true
/ColorImageFilter /FlateEncode
/AutoFilterColorImages false
/ColorImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG
/ColorACSImageDict <<
/QFactor 0.15
/HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1]
>>
/ColorImageDict <<
/QFactor 0.15
/HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1]
>>
/JPEG2000ColorACSImageDict <<
/TileWidth 256
/TileHeight 256
/Quality 30
>>
/JPEG2000ColorImageDict <<
/TileWidth 256
/TileHeight 256
/Quality 30
>>
/AntiAliasGrayImages false
/CropGrayImages false
/GrayImageMinResolution 300
/GrayImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleGrayImages true
/GrayImageDownsampleType /Bicubic
/GrayImageResolution 600
/GrayImageDepth -1
/GrayImageMinDownsampleDepth 2
/GrayImageDownsampleThreshold 1.00000
/EncodeGrayImages true
/GrayImageFilter /FlateEncode
/AutoFilterGrayImages false
/GrayImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG
/GrayACSImageDict <<
/QFactor 0.15
/HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1]
>>
/GrayImageDict <<
/QFactor 0.15
/HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1]
>>
/JPEG2000GrayACSImageDict <<
/TileWidth 256
/TileHeight 256
/Quality 30
>>
/JPEG2000GrayImageDict <<
/TileWidth 256
/TileHeight 256
/Quality 30
>>
/AntiAliasMonoImages false
/CropMonoImages false
/MonoImageMinResolution 1200
/MonoImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleMonoImages false
/MonoImageDownsampleType /None
/MonoImageResolution 1200
/MonoImageDepth -1
/MonoImageDownsampleThreshold 1.50000
/EncodeMonoImages true
/MonoImageFilter /CCITTFaxEncode
/MonoImageDict <<
/K -1
>>
/AllowPSXObjects false
/CheckCompliance [
/None
]
/PDFX1aCheck false
/PDFX3Check false
/PDFXCompliantPDFOnly false
/PDFXNoTrimBoxError true
/PDFXTrimBoxToMediaBoxOffset [
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
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/PDFXSetBleedBoxToMediaBox true
/PDFXBleedBoxToTrimBoxOffset [
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
]
/PDFXOutputIntentProfile ()
/PDFXOutputConditionIdentifier ()
/PDFXOutputCondition ()
/PDFXRegistryName ()
/PDFXTrapped /False
/CreateJDFFile false
/Description <<
/ENU (RR Donnelley 2009 Standard for creating press quality PDF files.)
>>
/ExportLayers /ExportVisiblePrintableLayers
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(Common)
(1.0)
]
/OtherNamespaces [
<<
/AsReaderSpreads false
/CropImagesToFrames false
/ErrorControl /WarnAndContinue
/FlattenerIgnoreSpreadOverrides false
/IncludeGuidesGrids false
/IncludeNonPrinting false
/IncludeSlug false
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(InDesign)
(4.0)
]
/OmitPlacedBitmaps false
/OmitPlacedEPS false
/OmitPlacedPDF false
/SimulateOverprint /Legacy
>>
<<
/AddBleedMarks false
/AddColorBars false
/AddCropMarks true
/AddPageInfo true
/AddRegMarks true
/BleedOffset [
13.500000
13.500000
13.500000
13.500000
]
/ConvertColors /NoConversion
/DestinationProfileName (U.S. Web Coated \(SWOP\) v2)
/DestinationProfileSelector /WorkingCMYK
/Downsample16BitImages true
/FlattenerPreset <<
/PresetSelector /MediumResolution
>>
/FormElements false
/GenerateStructure false
/IncludeBookmarks false
/IncludeHyperlinks false
/IncludeInteractive false
/IncludeLayers false
/IncludeProfiles false
/MarksOffset 30
/MarksWeight 0.250000
/MultimediaHandling /UseObjectSettings
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(CreativeSuite)
(2.0)
]
/PDFXOutputIntentProfileSelector /NA
/PageMarksFile /RomanDefault
/PreserveEditing true
/UntaggedCMYKHandling /LeaveUntagged
/UntaggedRGBHandling /LeaveUntagged
/UseDocumentBleed false
>>
<<
/AllowImageBreaks true
/AllowTableBreaks true
/ExpandPage false
/HonorBaseURL true
/HonorRolloverEffect false
/IgnoreHTMLPageBreaks false
/IncludeHeaderFooter false
/MarginOffset [
0
0
0
0
]
/MetadataAuthor ()
/MetadataKeywords ()
/MetadataSubject ()
/MetadataTitle ()
/MetricPageSize [
0
0
]
/MetricUnit /inch
/MobileCompatible 0
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(GoLive)
(8.0)
]
/OpenZoomToHTMLFontSize false
/PageOrientation /Portrait
/RemoveBackground false
/ShrinkContent true
/TreatColorsAs /MainMonitorColors
/UseEmbeddedProfiles false
/UseHTMLTitleAsMetadata true
>>
]
>> setdistillerparams
<<
/HWResolution [2400 2400]
/PageSize [612.000 792.000]
>> setpagedevice
<<
/ASCII85EncodePages false
/AllowTransparency false
/AutoPositionEPSFiles true
/AutoRotatePages /All
/Binding /Left
/CalGrayProfile (Dot Gain 20%)
/CalRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1)
/CalCMYKProfile (U.S. Web Coated \050SWOP\051 v2)
/sRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1)
/CannotEmbedFontPolicy /Warning
/CompatibilityLevel 1.7
/CompressObjects /Tags
/CompressPages true
/ConvertImagesToIndexed true
/PassThroughJPEGImages true
/CreateJobTicket false
/DefaultRenderingIntent /Default
/DetectBlends true
/DetectCurves 0.0000
/ColorConversionStrategy /LeaveColorUnchanged
/DoThumbnails false
/EmbedAllFonts true
/EmbedOpenType false
/ParseICCProfilesInComments true
/EmbedJobOptions true
/DSCReportingLevel 0
/EmitDSCWarnings false
/EndPage -1
/ImageMemory 1048576
/LockDistillerParams true
/MaxSubsetPct 0
/Optimize false
/OPM 1
/ParseDSCComments true
/ParseDSCCommentsForDocInfo true
/PreserveCopyPage true
/PreserveDICMYKValues true
/PreserveEPSInfo true
/PreserveFlatness false
/PreserveHalftoneInfo false
/PreserveOPIComments false
/PreserveOverprintSettings true
/StartPage 1
/SubsetFonts true
/TransferFunctionInfo /Apply
/UCRandBGInfo /Preserve
/UsePrologue false
/ColorSettingsFile ()
/AlwaysEmbed [ true
]
/NeverEmbed [ true
]
/AntiAliasColorImages false
/CropColorImages false
/ColorImageMinResolution 300
/ColorImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleColorImages true
/ColorImageDownsampleType /Bicubic
/ColorImageResolution 600
/ColorImageDepth -1
/ColorImageMinDownsampleDepth 1
/ColorImageDownsampleThreshold 1.00000
/EncodeColorImages true
/ColorImageFilter /FlateEncode
/AutoFilterColorImages false
/ColorImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG
/ColorACSImageDict <<
/QFactor 0.15
/HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1]
>>
/ColorImageDict <<
/QFactor 0.15
/HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1]
>>
/JPEG2000ColorACSImageDict <<
/TileWidth 256
/TileHeight 256
/Quality 30
>>
/JPEG2000ColorImageDict <<
/TileWidth 256
/TileHeight 256
/Quality 30
>>
/AntiAliasGrayImages false
/CropGrayImages false
/GrayImageMinResolution 300
/GrayImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleGrayImages true
/GrayImageDownsampleType /Bicubic
/GrayImageResolution 600
/GrayImageDepth -1
/GrayImageMinDownsampleDepth 2
/GrayImageDownsampleThreshold 1.00000
/EncodeGrayImages true
/GrayImageFilter /FlateEncode
/AutoFilterGrayImages false
/GrayImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG
/GrayACSImageDict <<
/QFactor 0.15
/HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1]
>>
/GrayImageDict <<
/QFactor 0.15
/HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1]
>>
/JPEG2000GrayACSImageDict <<
/TileWidth 256
/TileHeight 256
/Quality 30
>>
/JPEG2000GrayImageDict <<
/TileWidth 256
/TileHeight 256
/Quality 30
>>
/AntiAliasMonoImages false
/CropMonoImages false
/MonoImageMinResolution 1200
/MonoImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleMonoImages false
/MonoImageDownsampleType /None
/MonoImageResolution 1200
/MonoImageDepth -1
/MonoImageDownsampleThreshold 1.50000
/EncodeMonoImages true
/MonoImageFilter /CCITTFaxEncode
/MonoImageDict <<
/K -1
>>
/AllowPSXObjects false
/CheckCompliance [
/None
]
/PDFX1aCheck false
/PDFX3Check false
/PDFXCompliantPDFOnly false
/PDFXNoTrimBoxError true
/PDFXTrimBoxToMediaBoxOffset [
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
]
/PDFXSetBleedBoxToMediaBox true
/PDFXBleedBoxToTrimBoxOffset [
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
]
/PDFXOutputIntentProfile ()
/PDFXOutputConditionIdentifier ()
/PDFXOutputCondition ()
/PDFXRegistryName ()
/PDFXTrapped /False
/CreateJDFFile false
/Description <<
/ENU (RR Donnelley 2009 Standard for creating press quality PDF files.)
>>
/ExportLayers /ExportVisiblePrintableLayers
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(Common)
(1.0)
]
/OtherNamespaces [
<<
/AsReaderSpreads false
/CropImagesToFrames false
/ErrorControl /WarnAndContinue
/FlattenerIgnoreSpreadOverrides false
/IncludeGuidesGrids false
/IncludeNonPrinting false
/IncludeSlug false
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(InDesign)
(4.0)
]
/OmitPlacedBitmaps false
/OmitPlacedEPS false
/OmitPlacedPDF false
/SimulateOverprint /Legacy
>>
<<
/AddBleedMarks false
/AddColorBars false
/AddCropMarks true
/AddPageInfo true
/AddRegMarks true
/BleedOffset [
13.500000
13.500000
13.500000
13.500000
]
/ConvertColors /NoConversion
/DestinationProfileName (U.S. Web Coated \(SWOP\) v2)
/DestinationProfileSelector /WorkingCMYK
/Downsample16BitImages true
/FlattenerPreset <<
/PresetSelector /MediumResolution
>>
/FormElements false
/GenerateStructure false
/IncludeBookmarks false
/IncludeHyperlinks false
/IncludeInteractive false
/IncludeLayers false
/IncludeProfiles false
/MarksOffset 30
/MarksWeight 0.250000
/MultimediaHandling /UseObjectSettings
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(CreativeSuite)
(2.0)
]
/PDFXOutputIntentProfileSelector /NA
/PageMarksFile /RomanDefault
/PreserveEditing true
/UntaggedCMYKHandling /LeaveUntagged
/UntaggedRGBHandling /LeaveUntagged
/UseDocumentBleed false
>>
<<
/AllowImageBreaks true
/AllowTableBreaks true
/ExpandPage false
/HonorBaseURL true
/HonorRolloverEffect false
/IgnoreHTMLPageBreaks false
/IncludeHeaderFooter false
/MarginOffset [
0
0
0
0
]
/MetadataAuthor ()
/MetadataKeywords ()
/MetadataSubject ()
/MetadataTitle ()
/MetricPageSize [
0
0
]
/MetricUnit /inch
/MobileCompatible 0
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(GoLive)
(8.0)
]
/OpenZoomToHTMLFontSize false
/PageOrientation /Portrait
/RemoveBackground false
/ShrinkContent true
/TreatColorsAs /MainMonitorColors
/UseEmbeddedProfiles false
/UseHTMLTitleAsMetadata true
>>
]
>> setdistillerparams
<<
/HWResolution [2400 2400]
/PageSize [612.000 792.000]
>> setpagedevice
<<
/ASCII85EncodePages false
/AllowTransparency false
/AutoPositionEPSFiles true
/AutoRotatePages /All
/Binding /Left
/CalGrayProfile (Dot Gain 20%)
/CalRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1)
/CalCMYKProfile (U.S. Web Coated \050SWOP\051 v2)
/sRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1)
/CannotEmbedFontPolicy /Warning
/CompatibilityLevel 1.7
/CompressObjects /Tags
/CompressPages true
/ConvertImagesToIndexed true
/PassThroughJPEGImages true
/CreateJobTicket false
/DefaultRenderingIntent /Default
/DetectBlends true
/DetectCurves 0.0000
/ColorConversionStrategy /LeaveColorUnchanged
/DoThumbnails false
/EmbedAllFonts true
/EmbedOpenType false
/ParseICCProfilesInComments true
/EmbedJobOptions true
/DSCReportingLevel 0
/EmitDSCWarnings false
/EndPage -1
/ImageMemory 1048576
/LockDistillerParams true
/MaxSubsetPct 0
/Optimize false
/OPM 1
/ParseDSCComments true
/ParseDSCCommentsForDocInfo true
/PreserveCopyPage true
/PreserveDICMYKValues true
/PreserveEPSInfo true
/PreserveFlatness false
/PreserveHalftoneInfo false
/PreserveOPIComments false
/PreserveOverprintSettings true
/StartPage 1
/SubsetFonts true
/TransferFunctionInfo /Apply
/UCRandBGInfo /Preserve
/UsePrologue false
/ColorSettingsFile ()
/AlwaysEmbed [ true
]
/NeverEmbed [ true
]
/AntiAliasColorImages false
/CropColorImages false
/ColorImageMinResolution 300
/ColorImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleColorImages true
/ColorImageDownsampleType /Bicubic
/ColorImageResolution 600
/ColorImageDepth -1
/ColorImageMinDownsampleDepth 1
/ColorImageDownsampleThreshold 1.00000
/EncodeColorImages true
/ColorImageFilter /FlateEncode
/AutoFilterColorImages false
/ColorImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG
/ColorACSImageDict <<
/QFactor 0.15
/HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1]
>>
/ColorImageDict <<
/QFactor 0.15
/HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1]
>>
/JPEG2000ColorACSImageDict <<
/TileWidth 256
/TileHeight 256
/Quality 30
>>
/JPEG2000ColorImageDict <<
/TileWidth 256
/TileHeight 256
/Quality 30
>>
/AntiAliasGrayImages false
/CropGrayImages false
/GrayImageMinResolution 300
/GrayImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleGrayImages true
/GrayImageDownsampleType /Bicubic
/GrayImageResolution 600
/GrayImageDepth -1
/GrayImageMinDownsampleDepth 2
/GrayImageDownsampleThreshold 1.00000
/EncodeGrayImages true
/GrayImageFilter /FlateEncode
/AutoFilterGrayImages false
/GrayImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG
/GrayACSImageDict <<
/QFactor 0.15
/HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1]
>>
/GrayImageDict <<
/QFactor 0.15
/HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1]
>>
/JPEG2000GrayACSImageDict <<
/TileWidth 256
/TileHeight 256
/Quality 30
>>
/JPEG2000GrayImageDict <<
/TileWidth 256
/TileHeight 256
/Quality 30
>>
/AntiAliasMonoImages false
/CropMonoImages false
/MonoImageMinResolution 1200
/MonoImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleMonoImages false
/MonoImageDownsampleType /None
/MonoImageResolution 1200
/MonoImageDepth -1
/MonoImageDownsampleThreshold 1.50000
/EncodeMonoImages true
/MonoImageFilter /CCITTFaxEncode
/MonoImageDict <<
/K -1
>>
/AllowPSXObjects false
/CheckCompliance [
/None
]
/PDFX1aCheck false
/PDFX3Check false
/PDFXCompliantPDFOnly false
/PDFXNoTrimBoxError true
/PDFXTrimBoxToMediaBoxOffset [
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
]
/PDFXSetBleedBoxToMediaBox true
/PDFXBleedBoxToTrimBoxOffset [
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
]
/PDFXOutputIntentProfile ()
/PDFXOutputConditionIdentifier ()
/PDFXOutputCondition ()
/PDFXRegistryName ()
/PDFXTrapped /False
/CreateJDFFile false
/Description <<
/ENU (RR Donnelley 2009 Standard for creating press quality PDF files.)
>>
/ExportLayers /ExportVisiblePrintableLayers
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(Common)
(1.0)
]
/OtherNamespaces [
<<
/AsReaderSpreads false
/CropImagesToFrames false
/ErrorControl /WarnAndContinue
/FlattenerIgnoreSpreadOverrides false
/IncludeGuidesGrids false
/IncludeNonPrinting false
/IncludeSlug false
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(InDesign)
(4.0)
]
/OmitPlacedBitmaps false
/OmitPlacedEPS false
/OmitPlacedPDF false
/SimulateOverprint /Legacy
>>
<<
/AddBleedMarks false
/AddColorBars false
/AddCropMarks true
/AddPageInfo true
/AddRegMarks true
/BleedOffset [
13.500000
13.500000
13.500000
13.500000
]
/ConvertColors /NoConversion
/DestinationProfileName (U.S. Web Coated \(SWOP\) v2)
/DestinationProfileSelector /WorkingCMYK
/Downsample16BitImages true
/FlattenerPreset <<
/PresetSelector /MediumResolution
>>
/FormElements false
/GenerateStructure false
/IncludeBookmarks false
/IncludeHyperlinks false
/IncludeInteractive false
/IncludeLayers false
/IncludeProfiles false
/MarksOffset 30
/MarksWeight 0.250000
/MultimediaHandling /UseObjectSettings
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(CreativeSuite)
(2.0)
]
/PDFXOutputIntentProfileSelector /NA
/PageMarksFile /RomanDefault
/PreserveEditing true
/UntaggedCMYKHandling /LeaveUntagged
/UntaggedRGBHandling /LeaveUntagged
/UseDocumentBleed false
>>
<<
/AllowImageBreaks true
/AllowTableBreaks true
/ExpandPage false
/HonorBaseURL true
/HonorRolloverEffect false
/IgnoreHTMLPageBreaks false
/IncludeHeaderFooter false
/MarginOffset [
0
0
0
0
]
/MetadataAuthor ()
/MetadataKeywords ()
/MetadataSubject ()
/MetadataTitle ()
/MetricPageSize [
0
0
]
/MetricUnit /inch
/MobileCompatible 0
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(GoLive)
(8.0)
]
/OpenZoomToHTMLFontSize false
/PageOrientation /Portrait
/RemoveBackground false
/ShrinkContent true
/TreatColorsAs /MainMonitorColors
/UseEmbeddedProfiles false
/UseHTMLTitleAsMetadata true
>>
]
>> setdistillerparams
<<
/HWResolution [2400 2400]
/PageSize [612.000 792.000]
>> setpagedevice
<<
/ASCII85EncodePages false
/AllowTransparency false
/AutoPositionEPSFiles true
/AutoRotatePages /All
/Binding /Left
/CalGrayProfile (Dot Gain 20%)
/CalRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1)
/CalCMYKProfile (U.S. Web Coated \050SWOP\051 v2)
/sRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1)
/CannotEmbedFontPolicy /Warning
/CompatibilityLevel 1.7
/CompressObjects /Tags
/CompressPages true
/ConvertImagesToIndexed true
/PassThroughJPEGImages true
/CreateJobTicket false
/DefaultRenderingIntent /Default
/DetectBlends true
/DetectCurves 0.0000
/ColorConversionStrategy /LeaveColorUnchanged
/DoThumbnails false
/EmbedAllFonts true
/EmbedOpenType false
/ParseICCProfilesInComments true
/EmbedJobOptions true
/DSCReportingLevel 0
/EmitDSCWarnings false
/EndPage -1
/ImageMemory 1048576
/LockDistillerParams true
/MaxSubsetPct 0
/Optimize false
/OPM 1
/ParseDSCComments true
/ParseDSCCommentsForDocInfo true
/PreserveCopyPage true
/PreserveDICMYKValues true
/PreserveEPSInfo true
/PreserveFlatness false
/PreserveHalftoneInfo false
/PreserveOPIComments false
/PreserveOverprintSettings true
/StartPage 1
/SubsetFonts true
/TransferFunctionInfo /Apply
/UCRandBGInfo /Preserve
/UsePrologue false
/ColorSettingsFile ()
/AlwaysEmbed [ true
]
/NeverEmbed [ true
]
/AntiAliasColorImages false
/CropColorImages false
/ColorImageMinResolution 300
/ColorImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleColorImages true
/ColorImageDownsampleType /Bicubic
/ColorImageResolution 600
/ColorImageDepth -1
/ColorImageMinDownsampleDepth 1
/ColorImageDownsampleThreshold 1.00000
/EncodeColorImages true
/ColorImageFilter /FlateEncode
/AutoFilterColorImages false
/ColorImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG
/ColorACSImageDict <<
/QFactor 0.15
/HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1]
>>
/ColorImageDict <<
/QFactor 0.15
/HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1]
>>
/JPEG2000ColorACSImageDict <<
/TileWidth 256
/TileHeight 256
/Quality 30
>>
/JPEG2000ColorImageDict <<
/TileWidth 256
/TileHeight 256
/Quality 30
>>
/AntiAliasGrayImages false
/CropGrayImages false
/GrayImageMinResolution 300
/GrayImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleGrayImages true
/GrayImageDownsampleType /Bicubic
/GrayImageResolution 600
/GrayImageDepth -1
/GrayImageMinDownsampleDepth 2
/GrayImageDownsampleThreshold 1.00000
/EncodeGrayImages true
/GrayImageFilter /FlateEncode
/AutoFilterGrayImages false
/GrayImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG
/GrayACSImageDict <<
/QFactor 0.15
/HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1]
>>
/GrayImageDict <<
/QFactor 0.15
/HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1]
>>
/JPEG2000GrayACSImageDict <<
/TileWidth 256
/TileHeight 256
/Quality 30
>>
/JPEG2000GrayImageDict <<
/TileWidth 256
/TileHeight 256
/Quality 30
>>
/AntiAliasMonoImages false
/CropMonoImages false
/MonoImageMinResolution 1200
/MonoImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleMonoImages false
/MonoImageDownsampleType /None
/MonoImageResolution 1200
/MonoImageDepth -1
/MonoImageDownsampleThreshold 1.50000
/EncodeMonoImages true
/MonoImageFilter /CCITTFaxEncode
/MonoImageDict <<
/K -1
>>
/AllowPSXObjects false
/CheckCompliance [
/None
]
/PDFX1aCheck false
/PDFX3Check false
/PDFXCompliantPDFOnly false
/PDFXNoTrimBoxError true
/PDFXTrimBoxToMediaBoxOffset [
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
]
/PDFXSetBleedBoxToMediaBox true
/PDFXBleedBoxToTrimBoxOffset [
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
]
/PDFXOutputIntentProfile ()
/PDFXOutputConditionIdentifier ()
/PDFXOutputCondition ()
/PDFXRegistryName ()
/PDFXTrapped /False
/CreateJDFFile false
/Description <<
/ENU (RR Donnelley 2009 Standard for creating press quality PDF files.)
>>
/ExportLayers /ExportVisiblePrintableLayers
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(Common)
(1.0)
]
/OtherNamespaces [
<<
/AsReaderSpreads false
/CropImagesToFrames false
/ErrorControl /WarnAndContinue
/FlattenerIgnoreSpreadOverrides false
/IncludeGuidesGrids false
/IncludeNonPrinting false
/IncludeSlug false
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(InDesign)
(4.0)
]
/OmitPlacedBitmaps false
/OmitPlacedEPS false
/OmitPlacedPDF false
/SimulateOverprint /Legacy
>>
<<
/AddBleedMarks false
/AddColorBars false
/AddCropMarks true
/AddPageInfo true
/AddRegMarks true
/BleedOffset [
13.500000
13.500000
13.500000
13.500000
]
/ConvertColors /NoConversion
/DestinationProfileName (U.S. Web Coated \(SWOP\) v2)
/DestinationProfileSelector /WorkingCMYK
/Downsample16BitImages true
/FlattenerPreset <<
/PresetSelector /MediumResolution
>>
/FormElements false
/GenerateStructure false
/IncludeBookmarks false
/IncludeHyperlinks false
/IncludeInteractive false
/IncludeLayers false
/IncludeProfiles false
/MarksOffset 30
/MarksWeight 0.250000
/MultimediaHandling /UseObjectSettings
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(CreativeSuite)
(2.0)
]
/PDFXOutputIntentProfileSelector /NA
/PageMarksFile /RomanDefault
/PreserveEditing true
/UntaggedCMYKHandling /LeaveUntagged
/UntaggedRGBHandling /LeaveUntagged
/UseDocumentBleed false
>>
<<
/AllowImageBreaks true
/AllowTableBreaks true
/ExpandPage false
/HonorBaseURL true
/HonorRolloverEffect false
/IgnoreHTMLPageBreaks false
/IncludeHeaderFooter false
/MarginOffset [
0
0
0
0
]
/MetadataAuthor ()
/MetadataKeywords ()
/MetadataSubject ()
/MetadataTitle ()
/MetricPageSize [
0
0
]
/MetricUnit /inch
/MobileCompatible 0
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(GoLive)
(8.0)
]
/OpenZoomToHTMLFontSize false
/PageOrientation /Portrait
/RemoveBackground false
/ShrinkContent true
/TreatColorsAs /MainMonitorColors
/UseEmbeddedProfiles false
/UseHTMLTitleAsMetadata true
>>
]
>> setdistillerparams
<<
/HWResolution [2400 2400]
/PageSize [612.000 792.000]
>> setpagedevice
<<
/ASCII85EncodePages false
/AllowTransparency false
/AutoPositionEPSFiles true
/AutoRotatePages /All
/Binding /Left
/CalGrayProfile (Dot Gain 20%)
/CalRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1)
/CalCMYKProfile (U.S. Web Coated \050SWOP\051 v2)
/sRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1)
/CannotEmbedFontPolicy /Warning
/CompatibilityLevel 1.7
/CompressObjects /Tags
/CompressPages true
/ConvertImagesToIndexed true
/PassThroughJPEGImages true
/CreateJobTicket false
/DefaultRenderingIntent /Default
/DetectBlends true
/DetectCurves 0.0000
/ColorConversionStrategy /LeaveColorUnchanged
/DoThumbnails false
/EmbedAllFonts true
/EmbedOpenType false
/ParseICCProfilesInComments true
/EmbedJobOptions true
/DSCReportingLevel 0
/EmitDSCWarnings false
/EndPage -1
/ImageMemory 1048576
/LockDistillerParams true
/MaxSubsetPct 0
/Optimize false
/OPM 1
/ParseDSCComments true
/ParseDSCCommentsForDocInfo true
/PreserveCopyPage true
/PreserveDICMYKValues true
/PreserveEPSInfo true
/PreserveFlatness false
/PreserveHalftoneInfo false
/PreserveOPIComments false
/PreserveOverprintSettings true
/StartPage 1
/SubsetFonts true
/TransferFunctionInfo /Apply
/UCRandBGInfo /Preserve
/UsePrologue false
/ColorSettingsFile ()
/AlwaysEmbed [ true
]
/NeverEmbed [ true
]
/AntiAliasColorImages false
/CropColorImages false
/ColorImageMinResolution 300
/ColorImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleColorImages true
/ColorImageDownsampleType /Bicubic
/ColorImageResolution 600
/ColorImageDepth -1
/ColorImageMinDownsampleDepth 1
/ColorImageDownsampleThreshold 1.00000
/EncodeColorImages true
/ColorImageFilter /FlateEncode
/AutoFilterColorImages false
/ColorImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG
/ColorACSImageDict <<
/QFactor 0.15
/HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1]
>>
/ColorImageDict <<
/QFactor 0.15
/HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1]
>>
/JPEG2000ColorACSImageDict <<
/TileWidth 256
/TileHeight 256
/Quality 30
>>
/JPEG2000ColorImageDict <<
/TileWidth 256
/TileHeight 256
/Quality 30
>>
/AntiAliasGrayImages false
/CropGrayImages false
/GrayImageMinResolution 300
/GrayImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleGrayImages true
/GrayImageDownsampleType /Bicubic
/GrayImageResolution 600
/GrayImageDepth -1
/GrayImageMinDownsampleDepth 2
/GrayImageDownsampleThreshold 1.00000
/EncodeGrayImages true
/GrayImageFilter /FlateEncode
/AutoFilterGrayImages false
/GrayImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG
/GrayACSImageDict <<
/QFactor 0.15
/HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1]
>>
/GrayImageDict <<
/QFactor 0.15
/HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1]
>>
/JPEG2000GrayACSImageDict <<
/TileWidth 256
/TileHeight 256
/Quality 30
>>
/JPEG2000GrayImageDict <<
/TileWidth 256
/TileHeight 256
/Quality 30
>>
/AntiAliasMonoImages false
/CropMonoImages false
/MonoImageMinResolution 1200
/MonoImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleMonoImages false
/MonoImageDownsampleType /None
/MonoImageResolution 1200
/MonoImageDepth -1
/MonoImageDownsampleThreshold 1.50000
/EncodeMonoImages true
/MonoImageFilter /CCITTFaxEncode
/MonoImageDict <<
/K -1
>>
/AllowPSXObjects false
/CheckCompliance [
/None
]
/PDFX1aCheck false
/PDFX3Check false
/PDFXCompliantPDFOnly false
/PDFXNoTrimBoxError true
/PDFXTrimBoxToMediaBoxOffset [
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
]
/PDFXSetBleedBoxToMediaBox true
/PDFXBleedBoxToTrimBoxOffset [
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
]
/PDFXOutputIntentProfile ()
/PDFXOutputConditionIdentifier ()
/PDFXOutputCondition ()
/PDFXRegistryName ()
/PDFXTrapped /False
/CreateJDFFile false
/Description <<
/ENU (RR Donnelley 2009 Standard for creating press quality PDF files.)
>>
/ExportLayers /ExportVisiblePrintableLayers
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(Common)
(1.0)
]
/OtherNamespaces [
<<
/AsReaderSpreads false
/CropImagesToFrames false
/ErrorControl /WarnAndContinue
/FlattenerIgnoreSpreadOverrides false
/IncludeGuidesGrids false
/IncludeNonPrinting false
/IncludeSlug false
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(InDesign)
(4.0)
]
/OmitPlacedBitmaps false
/OmitPlacedEPS false
/OmitPlacedPDF false
/SimulateOverprint /Legacy
>>
<<
/AddBleedMarks false
/AddColorBars false
/AddCropMarks true
/AddPageInfo true
/AddRegMarks true
/BleedOffset [
13.500000
13.500000
13.500000
13.500000
]
/ConvertColors /NoConversion
/DestinationProfileName (U.S. Web Coated \(SWOP\) v2)
/DestinationProfileSelector /WorkingCMYK
/Downsample16BitImages true
/FlattenerPreset <<
/PresetSelector /MediumResolution
>>
/FormElements false
/GenerateStructure false
/IncludeBookmarks false
/IncludeHyperlinks false
/IncludeInteractive false
/IncludeLayers false
/IncludeProfiles false
/MarksOffset 30
/MarksWeight 0.250000
/MultimediaHandling /UseObjectSettings
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(CreativeSuite)
(2.0)
]
/PDFXOutputIntentProfileSelector /NA
/PageMarksFile /RomanDefault
/PreserveEditing true
/UntaggedCMYKHandling /LeaveUntagged
/UntaggedRGBHandling /LeaveUntagged
/UseDocumentBleed false
>>
<<
/AllowImageBreaks true
/AllowTableBreaks true
/ExpandPage false
/HonorBaseURL true
/HonorRolloverEffect false
/IgnoreHTMLPageBreaks false
/IncludeHeaderFooter false
/MarginOffset [
0
0
0
0
]
/MetadataAuthor ()
/MetadataKeywords ()
/MetadataSubject ()
/MetadataTitle ()
/MetricPageSize [
0
0
]
/MetricUnit /inch
/MobileCompatible 0
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(GoLive)
(8.0)
]
/OpenZoomToHTMLFontSize false
/PageOrientation /Portrait
/RemoveBackground false
/ShrinkContent true
/TreatColorsAs /MainMonitorColors
/UseEmbeddedProfiles false
/UseHTMLTitleAsMetadata true
>>
]
>> setdistillerparams
<<
/HWResolution [2400 2400]
/PageSize [612.000 792.000]
>> setpagedevice
<<
/ASCII85EncodePages false
/AllowTransparency false
/AutoPositionEPSFiles true
/AutoRotatePages /All
/Binding /Left
/CalGrayProfile (Dot Gain 20%)
/CalRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1)
/CalCMYKProfile (U.S. Web Coated \050SWOP\051 v2)
/sRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1)
/CannotEmbedFontPolicy /Warning
/CompatibilityLevel 1.7
/CompressObjects /Tags
/CompressPages true
/ConvertImagesToIndexed true
/PassThroughJPEGImages true
/CreateJobTicket false
/DefaultRenderingIntent /Default
/DetectBlends true
/DetectCurves 0.0000
/ColorConversionStrategy /LeaveColorUnchanged
/DoThumbnails false
/EmbedAllFonts true
/EmbedOpenType false
/ParseICCProfilesInComments true
/EmbedJobOptions true
/DSCReportingLevel 0
/EmitDSCWarnings false
/EndPage -1
/ImageMemory 1048576
/LockDistillerParams true
/MaxSubsetPct 0
/Optimize false
/OPM 1
/ParseDSCComments true
/ParseDSCCommentsForDocInfo true
/PreserveCopyPage true
/PreserveDICMYKValues true
/PreserveEPSInfo true
/PreserveFlatness false
/PreserveHalftoneInfo false
/PreserveOPIComments false
/PreserveOverprintSettings true
/StartPage 1
/SubsetFonts true
/TransferFunctionInfo /Apply
/UCRandBGInfo /Preserve
/UsePrologue false
/ColorSettingsFile ()
/AlwaysEmbed [ true
]
/NeverEmbed [ true
]
/AntiAliasColorImages false
/CropColorImages false
/ColorImageMinResolution 300
/ColorImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleColorImages true
/ColorImageDownsampleType /Bicubic
/ColorImageResolution 600
/ColorImageDepth -1
/ColorImageMinDownsampleDepth 1
/ColorImageDownsampleThreshold 1.00000
/EncodeColorImages true
/ColorImageFilter /FlateEncode
/AutoFilterColorImages false
/ColorImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG
/ColorACSImageDict <<
/QFactor 0.15
/HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1]
>>
/ColorImageDict <<
/QFactor 0.15
/HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1]
>>
/JPEG2000ColorACSImageDict <<
/TileWidth 256
/TileHeight 256
/Quality 30
>>
/JPEG2000ColorImageDict <<
/TileWidth 256
/TileHeight 256
/Quality 30
>>
/AntiAliasGrayImages false
/CropGrayImages false
/GrayImageMinResolution 300
/GrayImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleGrayImages true
/GrayImageDownsampleType /Bicubic
/GrayImageResolution 600
/GrayImageDepth -1
/GrayImageMinDownsampleDepth 2
/GrayImageDownsampleThreshold 1.00000
/EncodeGrayImages true
/GrayImageFilter /FlateEncode
/AutoFilterGrayImages false
/GrayImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG
/GrayACSImageDict <<
/QFactor 0.15
/HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1]
>>
/GrayImageDict <<
/QFactor 0.15
/HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1]
>>
/JPEG2000GrayACSImageDict <<
/TileWidth 256
/TileHeight 256
/Quality 30
>>
/JPEG2000GrayImageDict <<
/TileWidth 256
/TileHeight 256
/Quality 30
>>
/AntiAliasMonoImages false
/CropMonoImages false
/MonoImageMinResolution 1200
/MonoImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleMonoImages false
/MonoImageDownsampleType /None
/MonoImageResolution 1200
/MonoImageDepth -1
/MonoImageDownsampleThreshold 1.50000
/EncodeMonoImages true
/MonoImageFilter /CCITTFaxEncode
/MonoImageDict <<
/K -1
>>
/AllowPSXObjects false
/CheckCompliance [
/None
]
/PDFX1aCheck false
/PDFX3Check false
/PDFXCompliantPDFOnly false
/PDFXNoTrimBoxError true
/PDFXTrimBoxToMediaBoxOffset [
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
]
/PDFXSetBleedBoxToMediaBox true
/PDFXBleedBoxToTrimBoxOffset [
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
]
/PDFXOutputIntentProfile ()
/PDFXOutputConditionIdentifier ()
/PDFXOutputCondition ()
/PDFXRegistryName ()
/PDFXTrapped /False
/CreateJDFFile false
/Description <<
/ENU (RR Donnelley 2009 Standard for creating press quality PDF files.)
>>
/ExportLayers /ExportVisiblePrintableLayers
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(Common)
(1.0)
]
/OtherNamespaces [
<<
/AsReaderSpreads false
/CropImagesToFrames false
/ErrorControl /WarnAndContinue
/FlattenerIgnoreSpreadOverrides false
/IncludeGuidesGrids false
/IncludeNonPrinting false
/IncludeSlug false
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(InDesign)
(4.0)
]
/OmitPlacedBitmaps false
/OmitPlacedEPS false
/OmitPlacedPDF false
/SimulateOverprint /Legacy
>>
<<
/AddBleedMarks false
/AddColorBars false
/AddCropMarks true
/AddPageInfo true
/AddRegMarks true
/BleedOffset [
13.500000
13.500000
13.500000
13.500000
]
/ConvertColors /NoConversion
/DestinationProfileName (U.S. Web Coated \(SWOP\) v2)
/DestinationProfileSelector /WorkingCMYK
/Downsample16BitImages true
/FlattenerPreset <<
/PresetSelector /MediumResolution
>>
/FormElements false
/GenerateStructure false
/IncludeBookmarks false
/IncludeHyperlinks false
/IncludeInteractive false
/IncludeLayers false
/IncludeProfiles false
/MarksOffset 30
/MarksWeight 0.250000
/MultimediaHandling /UseObjectSettings
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(CreativeSuite)
(2.0)
]
/PDFXOutputIntentProfileSelector /NA
/PageMarksFile /RomanDefault
/PreserveEditing true
/UntaggedCMYKHandling /LeaveUntagged
/UntaggedRGBHandling /LeaveUntagged
/UseDocumentBleed false
>>
<<
/AllowImageBreaks true
/AllowTableBreaks true
/ExpandPage false
/HonorBaseURL true
/HonorRolloverEffect false
/IgnoreHTMLPageBreaks false
/IncludeHeaderFooter false
/MarginOffset [
0
0
0
0
]
/MetadataAuthor ()
/MetadataKeywords ()
/MetadataSubject ()
/MetadataTitle ()
/MetricPageSize [
0
0
]
/MetricUnit /inch
/MobileCompatible 0
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(GoLive)
(8.0)
]
/OpenZoomToHTMLFontSize false
/PageOrientation /Portrait
/RemoveBackground false
/ShrinkContent true
/TreatColorsAs /MainMonitorColors
/UseEmbeddedProfiles false
/UseHTMLTitleAsMetadata true
>>
]
>> setdistillerparams
<<
/HWResolution [2400 2400]
/PageSize [612.000 792.000]
>> setpagedevice
<<
/ASCII85EncodePages false
/AllowTransparency false
/AutoPositionEPSFiles true
/AutoRotatePages /All
/Binding /Left
/CalGrayProfile (Dot Gain 20%)
/CalRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1)
/CalCMYKProfile (U.S. Web Coated \050SWOP\051 v2)
/sRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1)
/CannotEmbedFontPolicy /Warning
/CompatibilityLevel 1.7
/CompressObjects /Tags
/CompressPages true
/ConvertImagesToIndexed true
/PassThroughJPEGImages true
/CreateJobTicket false
/DefaultRenderingIntent /Default
/DetectBlends true
/DetectCurves 0.0000
/ColorConversionStrategy /LeaveColorUnchanged
/DoThumbnails false
/EmbedAllFonts true
/EmbedOpenType false
/ParseICCProfilesInComments true
/EmbedJobOptions true
/DSCReportingLevel 0
/EmitDSCWarnings false
/EndPage -1
/ImageMemory 1048576
/LockDistillerParams true
/MaxSubsetPct 0
/Optimize false
/OPM 1
/ParseDSCComments true
/ParseDSCCommentsForDocInfo true
/PreserveCopyPage true
/PreserveDICMYKValues true
/PreserveEPSInfo true
/PreserveFlatness false
/PreserveHalftoneInfo false
/PreserveOPIComments false
/PreserveOverprintSettings true
/StartPage 1
/SubsetFonts true
/TransferFunctionInfo /Apply
/UCRandBGInfo /Preserve
/UsePrologue false
/ColorSettingsFile ()
/AlwaysEmbed [ true
]
/NeverEmbed [ true
]
/AntiAliasColorImages false
/CropColorImages false
/ColorImageMinResolution 300
/ColorImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleColorImages true
/ColorImageDownsampleType /Bicubic
/ColorImageResolution 600
/ColorImageDepth -1
/ColorImageMinDownsampleDepth 1
/ColorImageDownsampleThreshold 1.00000
/EncodeColorImages true
/ColorImageFilter /FlateEncode
/AutoFilterColorImages false
/ColorImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG
/ColorACSImageDict <<
/QFactor 0.15
/HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1]
>>
/ColorImageDict <<
/QFactor 0.15
/HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1]
>>
/JPEG2000ColorACSImageDict <<
/TileWidth 256
/TileHeight 256
/Quality 30
>>
/JPEG2000ColorImageDict <<
/TileWidth 256
/TileHeight 256
/Quality 30
>>
/AntiAliasGrayImages false
/CropGrayImages false
/GrayImageMinResolution 300
/GrayImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleGrayImages true
/GrayImageDownsampleType /Bicubic
/GrayImageResolution 600
/GrayImageDepth -1
/GrayImageMinDownsampleDepth 2
/GrayImageDownsampleThreshold 1.00000
/EncodeGrayImages true
/GrayImageFilter /FlateEncode
/AutoFilterGrayImages false
/GrayImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG
/GrayACSImageDict <<
/QFactor 0.15
/HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1]
>>
/GrayImageDict <<
/QFactor 0.15
/HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1]
>>
/JPEG2000GrayACSImageDict <<
/TileWidth 256
/TileHeight 256
/Quality 30
>>
/JPEG2000GrayImageDict <<
/TileWidth 256
/TileHeight 256
/Quality 30
>>
/AntiAliasMonoImages false
/CropMonoImages false
/MonoImageMinResolution 1200
/MonoImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleMonoImages false
/MonoImageDownsampleType /None
/MonoImageResolution 1200
/MonoImageDepth -1
/MonoImageDownsampleThreshold 1.50000
/EncodeMonoImages true
/MonoImageFilter /CCITTFaxEncode
/MonoImageDict <<
/K -1
>>
/AllowPSXObjects false
/CheckCompliance [
/None
]
/PDFX1aCheck false
/PDFX3Check false
/PDFXCompliantPDFOnly false
/PDFXNoTrimBoxError true
/PDFXTrimBoxToMediaBoxOffset [
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
]
/PDFXSetBleedBoxToMediaBox true
/PDFXBleedBoxToTrimBoxOffset [
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
]
/PDFXOutputIntentProfile ()
/PDFXOutputConditionIdentifier ()
/PDFXOutputCondition ()
/PDFXRegistryName ()
/PDFXTrapped /False
/CreateJDFFile false
/Description <<
/ENU (RR Donnelley 2009 Standard for creating press quality PDF files.)
>>
/ExportLayers /ExportVisiblePrintableLayers
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(Common)
(1.0)
]
/OtherNamespaces [
<<
/AsReaderSpreads false
/CropImagesToFrames false
/ErrorControl /WarnAndContinue
/FlattenerIgnoreSpreadOverrides false
/IncludeGuidesGrids false
/IncludeNonPrinting false
/IncludeSlug false
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(InDesign)
(4.0)
]
/OmitPlacedBitmaps false
/OmitPlacedEPS false
/OmitPlacedPDF false
/SimulateOverprint /Legacy
>>
<<
/AddBleedMarks false
/AddColorBars false
/AddCropMarks true
/AddPageInfo true
/AddRegMarks true
/BleedOffset [
13.500000
13.500000
13.500000
13.500000
]
/ConvertColors /NoConversion
/DestinationProfileName (U.S. Web Coated \(SWOP\) v2)
/DestinationProfileSelector /WorkingCMYK
/Downsample16BitImages true
/FlattenerPreset <<
/PresetSelector /MediumResolution
>>
/FormElements false
/GenerateStructure false
/IncludeBookmarks false
/IncludeHyperlinks false
/IncludeInteractive false
/IncludeLayers false
/IncludeProfiles false
/MarksOffset 30
/MarksWeight 0.250000
/MultimediaHandling /UseObjectSettings
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(CreativeSuite)
(2.0)
]
/PDFXOutputIntentProfileSelector /NA
/PageMarksFile /RomanDefault
/PreserveEditing true
/UntaggedCMYKHandling /LeaveUntagged
/UntaggedRGBHandling /LeaveUntagged
/UseDocumentBleed false
>>
<<
/AllowImageBreaks true
/AllowTableBreaks true
/ExpandPage false
/HonorBaseURL true
/HonorRolloverEffect false
/IgnoreHTMLPageBreaks false
/IncludeHeaderFooter false
/MarginOffset [
0
0
0
0
]
/MetadataAuthor ()
/MetadataKeywords ()
/MetadataSubject ()
/MetadataTitle ()
/MetricPageSize [
0
0
]
/MetricUnit /inch
/MobileCompatible 0
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(GoLive)
(8.0)
]
/OpenZoomToHTMLFontSize false
/PageOrientation /Portrait
/RemoveBackground false
/ShrinkContent true
/TreatColorsAs /MainMonitorColors
/UseEmbeddedProfiles false
/UseHTMLTitleAsMetadata true
>>
]
>> setdistillerparams
<<
/HWResolution [2400 2400]
/PageSize [612.000 792.000]
>> setpagedevice
<<
/ASCII85EncodePages false
/AllowTransparency false
/AutoPositionEPSFiles true
/AutoRotatePages /All
/Binding /Left
/CalGrayProfile (Dot Gain 20%)
/CalRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1)
/CalCMYKProfile (U.S. Web Coated \050SWOP\051 v2)
/sRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1)
/CannotEmbedFontPolicy /Warning
/CompatibilityLevel 1.7
/CompressObjects /Tags
/CompressPages true
/ConvertImagesToIndexed true
/PassThroughJPEGImages true
/CreateJobTicket false
/DefaultRenderingIntent /Default
/DetectBlends true
/DetectCurves 0.0000
/ColorConversionStrategy /LeaveColorUnchanged
/DoThumbnails false
/EmbedAllFonts true
/EmbedOpenType false
/ParseICCProfilesInComments true
/EmbedJobOptions true
/DSCReportingLevel 0
/EmitDSCWarnings false
/EndPage -1
/ImageMemory 1048576
/LockDistillerParams true
/MaxSubsetPct 0
/Optimize false
/OPM 1
/ParseDSCComments true
/ParseDSCCommentsForDocInfo true
/PreserveCopyPage true
/PreserveDICMYKValues true
/PreserveEPSInfo true
/PreserveFlatness false
/PreserveHalftoneInfo false
/PreserveOPIComments false
/PreserveOverprintSettings true
/StartPage 1
/SubsetFonts true
/TransferFunctionInfo /Apply
/UCRandBGInfo /Preserve
/UsePrologue false
/ColorSettingsFile ()
/AlwaysEmbed [ true
]
/NeverEmbed [ true
]
/AntiAliasColorImages false
/CropColorImages false
/ColorImageMinResolution 300
/ColorImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleColorImages true
/ColorImageDownsampleType /Bicubic
/ColorImageResolution 600
/ColorImageDepth -1
/ColorImageMinDownsampleDepth 1
/ColorImageDownsampleThreshold 1.00000
/EncodeColorImages true
/ColorImageFilter /FlateEncode
/AutoFilterColorImages false
/ColorImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG
/ColorACSImageDict <<
/QFactor 0.15
/HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1]
>>
/ColorImageDict <<
/QFactor 0.15
/HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1]
>>
/JPEG2000ColorACSImageDict <<
/TileWidth 256
/TileHeight 256
/Quality 30
>>
/JPEG2000ColorImageDict <<
/TileWidth 256
/TileHeight 256
/Quality 30
>>
/AntiAliasGrayImages false
/CropGrayImages false
/GrayImageMinResolution 300
/GrayImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleGrayImages true
/GrayImageDownsampleType /Bicubic
/GrayImageResolution 600
/GrayImageDepth -1
/GrayImageMinDownsampleDepth 2
/GrayImageDownsampleThreshold 1.00000
/EncodeGrayImages true
/GrayImageFilter /FlateEncode
/AutoFilterGrayImages false
/GrayImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG
/GrayACSImageDict <<
/QFactor 0.15
/HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1]
>>
/GrayImageDict <<
/QFactor 0.15
/HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1]
>>
/JPEG2000GrayACSImageDict <<
/TileWidth 256
/TileHeight 256
/Quality 30
>>
/JPEG2000GrayImageDict <<
/TileWidth 256
/TileHeight 256
/Quality 30
>>
/AntiAliasMonoImages false
/CropMonoImages false
/MonoImageMinResolution 1200
/MonoImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleMonoImages false
/MonoImageDownsampleType /None
/MonoImageResolution 1200
/MonoImageDepth -1
/MonoImageDownsampleThreshold 1.50000
/EncodeMonoImages true
/MonoImageFilter /CCITTFaxEncode
/MonoImageDict <<
/K -1
>>
/AllowPSXObjects false
/CheckCompliance [
/None
]
/PDFX1aCheck false
/PDFX3Check false
/PDFXCompliantPDFOnly false
/PDFXNoTrimBoxError true
/PDFXTrimBoxToMediaBoxOffset [
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
]
/PDFXSetBleedBoxToMediaBox true
/PDFXBleedBoxToTrimBoxOffset [
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
]
/PDFXOutputIntentProfile ()
/PDFXOutputConditionIdentifier ()
/PDFXOutputCondition ()
/PDFXRegistryName ()
/PDFXTrapped /False
/CreateJDFFile false
/Description <<
/ENU (RR Donnelley 2009 Standard for creating press quality PDF files.)
>>
/ExportLayers /ExportVisiblePrintableLayers
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(Common)
(1.0)
]
/OtherNamespaces [
<<
/AsReaderSpreads false
/CropImagesToFrames false
/ErrorControl /WarnAndContinue
/FlattenerIgnoreSpreadOverrides false
/IncludeGuidesGrids false
/IncludeNonPrinting false
/IncludeSlug false
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(InDesign)
(4.0)
]
/OmitPlacedBitmaps false
/OmitPlacedEPS false
/OmitPlacedPDF false
/SimulateOverprint /Legacy
>>
<<
/AddBleedMarks false
/AddColorBars false
/AddCropMarks true
/AddPageInfo true
/AddRegMarks true
/BleedOffset [
13.500000
13.500000
13.500000
13.500000
]
/ConvertColors /NoConversion
/DestinationProfileName (U.S. Web Coated \(SWOP\) v2)
/DestinationProfileSelector /WorkingCMYK
/Downsample16BitImages true
/FlattenerPreset <<
/PresetSelector /MediumResolution
>>
/FormElements false
/GenerateStructure false
/IncludeBookmarks false
/IncludeHyperlinks false
/IncludeInteractive false
/IncludeLayers false
/IncludeProfiles false
/MarksOffset 30
/MarksWeight 0.250000
/MultimediaHandling /UseObjectSettings
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(CreativeSuite)
(2.0)
]
/PDFXOutputIntentProfileSelector /NA
/PageMarksFile /RomanDefault
/PreserveEditing true
/UntaggedCMYKHandling /LeaveUntagged
/UntaggedRGBHandling /LeaveUntagged
/UseDocumentBleed false
>>
<<
/AllowImageBreaks true
/AllowTableBreaks true
/ExpandPage false
/HonorBaseURL true
/HonorRolloverEffect false
/IgnoreHTMLPageBreaks false
/IncludeHeaderFooter false
/MarginOffset [
0
0
0
0
]
/MetadataAuthor ()
/MetadataKeywords ()
/MetadataSubject ()
/MetadataTitle ()
/MetricPageSize [
0
0
]
/MetricUnit /inch
/MobileCompatible 0
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(GoLive)
(8.0)
]
/OpenZoomToHTMLFontSize false
/PageOrientation /Portrait
/RemoveBackground false
/ShrinkContent true
/TreatColorsAs /MainMonitorColors
/UseEmbeddedProfiles false
/UseHTMLTitleAsMetadata true
>>
]
>> setdistillerparams
<<
/HWResolution [2400 2400]
/PageSize [612.000 792.000]
>> setpagedevice
<<
/ASCII85EncodePages false
/AllowTransparency false
/AutoPositionEPSFiles true
/AutoRotatePages /All
/Binding /Left
/CalGrayProfile (Dot Gain 20%)
/CalRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1)
/CalCMYKProfile (U.S. Web Coated \050SWOP\051 v2)
/sRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1)
/CannotEmbedFontPolicy /Warning
/CompatibilityLevel 1.7
/CompressObjects /Tags
/CompressPages true
/ConvertImagesToIndexed true
/PassThroughJPEGImages true
/CreateJobTicket false
/DefaultRenderingIntent /Default
/DetectBlends true
/DetectCurves 0.0000
/ColorConversionStrategy /LeaveColorUnchanged
/DoThumbnails false
/EmbedAllFonts true
/EmbedOpenType false
/ParseICCProfilesInComments true
/EmbedJobOptions true
/DSCReportingLevel 0
/EmitDSCWarnings false
/EndPage -1
/ImageMemory 1048576
/LockDistillerParams true
/MaxSubsetPct 0
/Optimize false
/OPM 1
/ParseDSCComments true
/ParseDSCCommentsForDocInfo true
/PreserveCopyPage true
/PreserveDICMYKValues true
/PreserveEPSInfo true
/PreserveFlatness false
/PreserveHalftoneInfo false
/PreserveOPIComments false
/PreserveOverprintSettings true
/StartPage 1
/SubsetFonts true
/TransferFunctionInfo /Apply
/UCRandBGInfo /Preserve
/UsePrologue false
/ColorSettingsFile ()
/AlwaysEmbed [ true
]
/NeverEmbed [ true
]
/AntiAliasColorImages false
/CropColorImages false
/ColorImageMinResolution 300
/ColorImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleColorImages true
/ColorImageDownsampleType /Bicubic
/ColorImageResolution 600
/ColorImageDepth -1
/ColorImageMinDownsampleDepth 1
/ColorImageDownsampleThreshold 1.00000
/EncodeColorImages true
/ColorImageFilter /FlateEncode
/AutoFilterColorImages false
/ColorImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG
/ColorACSImageDict <<
/QFactor 0.15
/HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1]
>>
/ColorImageDict <<
/QFactor 0.15
/HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1]
>>
/JPEG2000ColorACSImageDict <<
/TileWidth 256
/TileHeight 256
/Quality 30
>>
/JPEG2000ColorImageDict <<
/TileWidth 256
/TileHeight 256
/Quality 30
>>
/AntiAliasGrayImages false
/CropGrayImages false
/GrayImageMinResolution 300
/GrayImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleGrayImages true
/GrayImageDownsampleType /Bicubic
/GrayImageResolution 600
/GrayImageDepth -1
/GrayImageMinDownsampleDepth 2
/GrayImageDownsampleThreshold 1.00000
/EncodeGrayImages true
/GrayImageFilter /FlateEncode
/AutoFilterGrayImages false
/GrayImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG
/GrayACSImageDict <<
/QFactor 0.15
/HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1]
>>
/GrayImageDict <<
/QFactor 0.15
/HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1]
>>
/JPEG2000GrayACSImageDict <<
/TileWidth 256
/TileHeight 256
/Quality 30
>>
/JPEG2000GrayImageDict <<
/TileWidth 256
/TileHeight 256
/Quality 30
>>
/AntiAliasMonoImages false
/CropMonoImages false
/MonoImageMinResolution 1200
/MonoImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleMonoImages false
/MonoImageDownsampleType /None
/MonoImageResolution 1200
/MonoImageDepth -1
/MonoImageDownsampleThreshold 1.50000
/EncodeMonoImages true
/MonoImageFilter /CCITTFaxEncode
/MonoImageDict <<
/K -1
>>
/AllowPSXObjects false
/CheckCompliance [
/None
]
/PDFX1aCheck false
/PDFX3Check false
/PDFXCompliantPDFOnly false
/PDFXNoTrimBoxError true
/PDFXTrimBoxToMediaBoxOffset [
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
]
/PDFXSetBleedBoxToMediaBox true
/PDFXBleedBoxToTrimBoxOffset [
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
]
/PDFXOutputIntentProfile ()
/PDFXOutputConditionIdentifier ()
/PDFXOutputCondition ()
/PDFXRegistryName ()
/PDFXTrapped /False
/CreateJDFFile false
/Description <<
/ENU (RR Donnelley 2009 Standard for creating press quality PDF files.)
>>
/ExportLayers /ExportVisiblePrintableLayers
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(Common)
(1.0)
]
/OtherNamespaces [
<<
/AsReaderSpreads false
/CropImagesToFrames false
/ErrorControl /WarnAndContinue
/FlattenerIgnoreSpreadOverrides false
/IncludeGuidesGrids false
/IncludeNonPrinting false
/IncludeSlug false
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(InDesign)
(4.0)
]
/OmitPlacedBitmaps false
/OmitPlacedEPS false
/OmitPlacedPDF false
/SimulateOverprint /Legacy
>>
<<
/AddBleedMarks false
/AddColorBars false
/AddCropMarks true
/AddPageInfo true
/AddRegMarks true
/BleedOffset [
13.500000
13.500000
13.500000
13.500000
]
/ConvertColors /NoConversion
/DestinationProfileName (U.S. Web Coated \(SWOP\) v2)
/DestinationProfileSelector /WorkingCMYK
/Downsample16BitImages true
/FlattenerPreset <<
/PresetSelector /MediumResolution
>>
/FormElements false
/GenerateStructure false
/IncludeBookmarks false
/IncludeHyperlinks false
/IncludeInteractive false
/IncludeLayers false
/IncludeProfiles false
/MarksOffset 30
/MarksWeight 0.250000
/MultimediaHandling /UseObjectSettings
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(CreativeSuite)
(2.0)
]
/PDFXOutputIntentProfileSelector /NA
/PageMarksFile /RomanDefault
/PreserveEditing true
/UntaggedCMYKHandling /LeaveUntagged
/UntaggedRGBHandling /LeaveUntagged
/UseDocumentBleed false
>>
<<
/AllowImageBreaks true
/AllowTableBreaks true
/ExpandPage false
/HonorBaseURL true
/HonorRolloverEffect false
/IgnoreHTMLPageBreaks false
/IncludeHeaderFooter false
/MarginOffset [
0
0
0
0
]
/MetadataAuthor ()
/MetadataKeywords ()
/MetadataSubject ()
/MetadataTitle ()
/MetricPageSize [
0
0
]
/MetricUnit /inch
/MobileCompatible 0
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(GoLive)
(8.0)
]
/OpenZoomToHTMLFontSize false
/PageOrientation /Portrait
/RemoveBackground false
/ShrinkContent true
/TreatColorsAs /MainMonitorColors
/UseEmbeddedProfiles false
/UseHTMLTitleAsMetadata true
>>
]
>> setdistillerparams
<<
/HWResolution [2400 2400]
/PageSize [612.000 792.000]
>> setpagedevice
<<
/ASCII85EncodePages false
/AllowTransparency false
/AutoPositionEPSFiles true
/AutoRotatePages /All
/Binding /Left
/CalGrayProfile (Dot Gain 20%)
/CalRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1)
/CalCMYKProfile (U.S. Web Coated \050SWOP\051 v2)
/sRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1)
/CannotEmbedFontPolicy /Warning
/CompatibilityLevel 1.7
/CompressObjects /Tags
/CompressPages true
/ConvertImagesToIndexed true
/PassThroughJPEGImages true
/CreateJobTicket false
/DefaultRenderingIntent /Default
/DetectBlends true
/DetectCurves 0.0000
/ColorConversionStrategy /LeaveColorUnchanged
/DoThumbnails false
/EmbedAllFonts true
/EmbedOpenType false
/ParseICCProfilesInComments true
/EmbedJobOptions true
/DSCReportingLevel 0
/EmitDSCWarnings false
/EndPage -1
/ImageMemory 1048576
/LockDistillerParams true
/MaxSubsetPct 0
/Optimize false
/OPM 1
/ParseDSCComments true
/ParseDSCCommentsForDocInfo true
/PreserveCopyPage true
/PreserveDICMYKValues true
/PreserveEPSInfo true
/PreserveFlatness false
/PreserveHalftoneInfo false
/PreserveOPIComments false
/PreserveOverprintSettings true
/StartPage 1
/SubsetFonts true
/TransferFunctionInfo /Apply
/UCRandBGInfo /Preserve
/UsePrologue false
/ColorSettingsFile ()
/AlwaysEmbed [ true
]
/NeverEmbed [ true
]
/AntiAliasColorImages false
/CropColorImages false
/ColorImageMinResolution 300
/ColorImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleColorImages true
/ColorImageDownsampleType /Bicubic
/ColorImageResolution 600
/ColorImageDepth -1
/ColorImageMinDownsampleDepth 1
/ColorImageDownsampleThreshold 1.00000
/EncodeColorImages true
/ColorImageFilter /FlateEncode
/AutoFilterColorImages false
/ColorImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG
/ColorACSImageDict <<
/QFactor 0.15
/HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1]
>>
/ColorImageDict <<
/QFactor 0.15
/HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1]
>>
/JPEG2000ColorACSImageDict <<
/TileWidth 256
/TileHeight 256
/Quality 30
>>
/JPEG2000ColorImageDict <<
/TileWidth 256
/TileHeight 256
/Quality 30
>>
/AntiAliasGrayImages false
/CropGrayImages false
/GrayImageMinResolution 300
/GrayImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleGrayImages true
/GrayImageDownsampleType /Bicubic
/GrayImageResolution 600
/GrayImageDepth -1
/GrayImageMinDownsampleDepth 2
/GrayImageDownsampleThreshold 1.00000
/EncodeGrayImages true
/GrayImageFilter /FlateEncode
/AutoFilterGrayImages false
/GrayImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG
/GrayACSImageDict <<
/QFactor 0.15
/HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1]
>>
/GrayImageDict <<
/QFactor 0.15
/HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1]
>>
/JPEG2000GrayACSImageDict <<
/TileWidth 256
/TileHeight 256
/Quality 30
>>
/JPEG2000GrayImageDict <<
/TileWidth 256
/TileHeight 256
/Quality 30
>>
/AntiAliasMonoImages false
/CropMonoImages false
/MonoImageMinResolution 1200
/MonoImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleMonoImages false
/MonoImageDownsampleType /None
/MonoImageResolution 1200
/MonoImageDepth -1
/MonoImageDownsampleThreshold 1.50000
/EncodeMonoImages true
/MonoImageFilter /CCITTFaxEncode
/MonoImageDict <<
/K -1
>>
/AllowPSXObjects false
/CheckCompliance [
/None
]
/PDFX1aCheck false
/PDFX3Check false
/PDFXCompliantPDFOnly false
/PDFXNoTrimBoxError true
/PDFXTrimBoxToMediaBoxOffset [
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
]
/PDFXSetBleedBoxToMediaBox true
/PDFXBleedBoxToTrimBoxOffset [
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
]
/PDFXOutputIntentProfile ()
/PDFXOutputConditionIdentifier ()
/PDFXOutputCondition ()
/PDFXRegistryName ()
/PDFXTrapped /False
/CreateJDFFile false
/Description <<
/ENU (RR Donnelley 2009 Standard for creating press quality PDF files.)
>>
/ExportLayers /ExportVisiblePrintableLayers
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(Common)
(1.0)
]
/OtherNamespaces [
<<
/AsReaderSpreads false
/CropImagesToFrames false
/ErrorControl /WarnAndContinue
/FlattenerIgnoreSpreadOverrides false
/IncludeGuidesGrids false
/IncludeNonPrinting false
/IncludeSlug false
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(InDesign)
(4.0)
]
/OmitPlacedBitmaps false
/OmitPlacedEPS false
/OmitPlacedPDF false
/SimulateOverprint /Legacy
>>
<<
/AddBleedMarks false
/AddColorBars false
/AddCropMarks true
/AddPageInfo true
/AddRegMarks true
/BleedOffset [
13.500000
13.500000
13.500000
13.500000
]
/ConvertColors /NoConversion
/DestinationProfileName (U.S. Web Coated \(SWOP\) v2)
/DestinationProfileSelector /WorkingCMYK
/Downsample16BitImages true
/FlattenerPreset <<
/PresetSelector /MediumResolution
>>
/FormElements false
/GenerateStructure false
/IncludeBookmarks false
/IncludeHyperlinks false
/IncludeInteractive false
/IncludeLayers false
/IncludeProfiles false
/MarksOffset 30
/MarksWeight 0.250000
/MultimediaHandling /UseObjectSettings
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(CreativeSuite)
(2.0)
]
/PDFXOutputIntentProfileSelector /NA
/PageMarksFile /RomanDefault
/PreserveEditing true
/UntaggedCMYKHandling /LeaveUntagged
/UntaggedRGBHandling /LeaveUntagged
/UseDocumentBleed false
>>
<<
/AllowImageBreaks true
/AllowTableBreaks true
/ExpandPage false
/HonorBaseURL true
/HonorRolloverEffect false
/IgnoreHTMLPageBreaks false
/IncludeHeaderFooter false
/MarginOffset [
0
0
0
0
]
/MetadataAuthor ()
/MetadataKeywords ()
/MetadataSubject ()
/MetadataTitle ()
/MetricPageSize [
0
0
]
/MetricUnit /inch
/MobileCompatible 0
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(GoLive)
(8.0)
]
/OpenZoomToHTMLFontSize false
/PageOrientation /Portrait
/RemoveBackground false
/ShrinkContent true
/TreatColorsAs /MainMonitorColors
/UseEmbeddedProfiles false
/UseHTMLTitleAsMetadata true
>>
]
>> setdistillerparams
<<
/HWResolution [2400 2400]
/PageSize [612.000 792.000]
>> setpagedevice
<<
/ASCII85EncodePages false
/AllowTransparency false
/AutoPositionEPSFiles true
/AutoRotatePages /All
/Binding /Left
/CalGrayProfile (Dot Gain 20%)
/CalRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1)
/CalCMYKProfile (U.S. Web Coated \050SWOP\051 v2)
/sRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1)
/CannotEmbedFontPolicy /Warning
/CompatibilityLevel 1.7
/CompressObjects /Tags
/CompressPages true
/ConvertImagesToIndexed true
/PassThroughJPEGImages true
/CreateJobTicket false
/DefaultRenderingIntent /Default
/DetectBlends true
/DetectCurves 0.0000
/ColorConversionStrategy /LeaveColorUnchanged
/DoThumbnails false
/EmbedAllFonts true
/EmbedOpenType false
/ParseICCProfilesInComments true
/EmbedJobOptions true
/DSCReportingLevel 0
/EmitDSCWarnings false
/EndPage -1
/ImageMemory 1048576
/LockDistillerParams true
/MaxSubsetPct 0
/Optimize false
/OPM 1
/ParseDSCComments true
/ParseDSCCommentsForDocInfo true
/PreserveCopyPage true
/PreserveDICMYKValues true
/PreserveEPSInfo true
/PreserveFlatness false
/PreserveHalftoneInfo false
/PreserveOPIComments false
/PreserveOverprintSettings true
/StartPage 1
/SubsetFonts true
/TransferFunctionInfo /Apply
/UCRandBGInfo /Preserve
/UsePrologue false
/ColorSettingsFile ()
/AlwaysEmbed [ true
]
/NeverEmbed [ true
]
/AntiAliasColorImages false
/CropColorImages false
/ColorImageMinResolution 300
/ColorImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleColorImages true
/ColorImageDownsampleType /Bicubic
/ColorImageResolution 600
/ColorImageDepth -1
/ColorImageMinDownsampleDepth 1
/ColorImageDownsampleThreshold 1.00000
/EncodeColorImages true
/ColorImageFilter /FlateEncode
/AutoFilterColorImages false
/ColorImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG
/ColorACSImageDict <<
/QFactor 0.15
/HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1]
>>
/ColorImageDict <<
/QFactor 0.15
/HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1]
>>
/JPEG2000ColorACSImageDict <<
/TileWidth 256
/TileHeight 256
/Quality 30
>>
/JPEG2000ColorImageDict <<
/TileWidth 256
/TileHeight 256
/Quality 30
>>
/AntiAliasGrayImages false
/CropGrayImages false
/GrayImageMinResolution 300
/GrayImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleGrayImages true
/GrayImageDownsampleType /Bicubic
/GrayImageResolution 600
/GrayImageDepth -1
/GrayImageMinDownsampleDepth 2
/GrayImageDownsampleThreshold 1.00000
/EncodeGrayImages true
/GrayImageFilter /FlateEncode
/AutoFilterGrayImages false
/GrayImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG
/GrayACSImageDict <<
/QFactor 0.15
/HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1]
>>
/GrayImageDict <<
/QFactor 0.15
/HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1]
>>
/JPEG2000GrayACSImageDict <<
/TileWidth 256
/TileHeight 256
/Quality 30
>>
/JPEG2000GrayImageDict <<
/TileWidth 256
/TileHeight 256
/Quality 30
>>
/AntiAliasMonoImages false
/CropMonoImages false
/MonoImageMinResolution 1200
/MonoImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleMonoImages false
/MonoImageDownsampleType /None
/MonoImageResolution 1200
/MonoImageDepth -1
/MonoImageDownsampleThreshold 1.50000
/EncodeMonoImages true
/MonoImageFilter /CCITTFaxEncode
/MonoImageDict <<
/K -1
>>
/AllowPSXObjects false
/CheckCompliance [
/None
]
/PDFX1aCheck false
/PDFX3Check false
/PDFXCompliantPDFOnly false
/PDFXNoTrimBoxError true
/PDFXTrimBoxToMediaBoxOffset [
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
]
/PDFXSetBleedBoxToMediaBox true
/PDFXBleedBoxToTrimBoxOffset [
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
]
/PDFXOutputIntentProfile ()
/PDFXOutputConditionIdentifier ()
/PDFXOutputCondition ()
/PDFXRegistryName ()
/PDFXTrapped /False
/CreateJDFFile false
/Description <<
/ENU (RR Donnelley 2009 Standard for creating press quality PDF files.)
>>
/ExportLayers /ExportVisiblePrintableLayers
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(Common)
(1.0)
]
/OtherNamespaces [
<<
/AsReaderSpreads false
/CropImagesToFrames false
/ErrorControl /WarnAndContinue
/FlattenerIgnoreSpreadOverrides false
/IncludeGuidesGrids false
/IncludeNonPrinting false
/IncludeSlug false
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(InDesign)
(4.0)
]
/OmitPlacedBitmaps false
/OmitPlacedEPS false
/OmitPlacedPDF false
/SimulateOverprint /Legacy
>>
<<
/AddBleedMarks false
/AddColorBars false
/AddCropMarks true
/AddPageInfo true
/AddRegMarks true
/BleedOffset [
13.500000
13.500000
13.500000
13.500000
]
/ConvertColors /NoConversion
/DestinationProfileName (U.S. Web Coated \(SWOP\) v2)
/DestinationProfileSelector /WorkingCMYK
/Downsample16BitImages true
/FlattenerPreset <<
/PresetSelector /MediumResolution
>>
/FormElements false
/GenerateStructure false
/IncludeBookmarks false
/IncludeHyperlinks false
/IncludeInteractive false
/IncludeLayers false
/IncludeProfiles false
/MarksOffset 30
/MarksWeight 0.250000
/MultimediaHandling /UseObjectSettings
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(CreativeSuite)
(2.0)
]
/PDFXOutputIntentProfileSelector /NA
/PageMarksFile /RomanDefault
/PreserveEditing true
/UntaggedCMYKHandling /LeaveUntagged
/UntaggedRGBHandling /LeaveUntagged
/UseDocumentBleed false
>>
<<
/AllowImageBreaks true
/AllowTableBreaks true
/ExpandPage false
/HonorBaseURL true
/HonorRolloverEffect false
/IgnoreHTMLPageBreaks false
/IncludeHeaderFooter false
/MarginOffset [
0
0
0
0
]
/MetadataAuthor ()
/MetadataKeywords ()
/MetadataSubject ()
/MetadataTitle ()
/MetricPageSize [
0
0
]
/MetricUnit /inch
/MobileCompatible 0
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(GoLive)
(8.0)
]
/OpenZoomToHTMLFontSize false
/PageOrientation /Portrait
/RemoveBackground false
/ShrinkContent true
/TreatColorsAs /MainMonitorColors
/UseEmbeddedProfiles false
/UseHTMLTitleAsMetadata true
>>
]
>> setdistillerparams
<<
/HWResolution [2400 2400]
/PageSize [612.000 792.000]
>> setpagedevice
<<
/ASCII85EncodePages false
/AllowTransparency false
/AutoPositionEPSFiles true
/AutoRotatePages /All
/Binding /Left
/CalGrayProfile (Dot Gain 20%)
/CalRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1)
/CalCMYKProfile (U.S. Web Coated \050SWOP\051 v2)
/sRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1)
/CannotEmbedFontPolicy /Warning
/CompatibilityLevel 1.7
/CompressObjects /Tags
/CompressPages true
/ConvertImagesToIndexed true
/PassThroughJPEGImages true
/CreateJobTicket false
/DefaultRenderingIntent /Default
/DetectBlends true
/DetectCurves 0.0000
/ColorConversionStrategy /LeaveColorUnchanged
/DoThumbnails false
/EmbedAllFonts true
/EmbedOpenType false
/ParseICCProfilesInComments true
/EmbedJobOptions true
/DSCReportingLevel 0
/EmitDSCWarnings false
/EndPage -1
/ImageMemory 1048576
/LockDistillerParams true
/MaxSubsetPct 0
/Optimize false
/OPM 1
/ParseDSCComments true
/ParseDSCCommentsForDocInfo true
/PreserveCopyPage true
/PreserveDICMYKValues true
/PreserveEPSInfo true
/PreserveFlatness false
/PreserveHalftoneInfo false
/PreserveOPIComments false
/PreserveOverprintSettings true
/StartPage 1
/SubsetFonts true
/TransferFunctionInfo /Apply
/UCRandBGInfo /Preserve
/UsePrologue false
/ColorSettingsFile ()
/AlwaysEmbed [ true
]
/NeverEmbed [ true
]
/AntiAliasColorImages false
/CropColorImages false
/ColorImageMinResolution 300
/ColorImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleColorImages true
/ColorImageDownsampleType /Bicubic
/ColorImageResolution 600
/ColorImageDepth -1
/ColorImageMinDownsampleDepth 1
/ColorImageDownsampleThreshold 1.00000
/EncodeColorImages true
/ColorImageFilter /FlateEncode
/AutoFilterColorImages false
/ColorImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG
/ColorACSImageDict <<
/QFactor 0.15
/HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1]
>>
/ColorImageDict <<
/QFactor 0.15
/HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1]
>>
/JPEG2000ColorACSImageDict <<
/TileWidth 256
/TileHeight 256
/Quality 30
>>
/JPEG2000ColorImageDict <<
/TileWidth 256
/TileHeight 256
/Quality 30
>>
/AntiAliasGrayImages false
/CropGrayImages false
/GrayImageMinResolution 300
/GrayImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleGrayImages true
/GrayImageDownsampleType /Bicubic
/GrayImageResolution 600
/GrayImageDepth -1
/GrayImageMinDownsampleDepth 2
/GrayImageDownsampleThreshold 1.00000
/EncodeGrayImages true
/GrayImageFilter /FlateEncode
/AutoFilterGrayImages false
/GrayImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG
/GrayACSImageDict <<
/QFactor 0.15
/HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1]
>>
/GrayImageDict <<
/QFactor 0.15
/HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1]
>>
/JPEG2000GrayACSImageDict <<
/TileWidth 256
/TileHeight 256
/Quality 30
>>
/JPEG2000GrayImageDict <<
/TileWidth 256
/TileHeight 256
/Quality 30
>>
/AntiAliasMonoImages false
/CropMonoImages false
/MonoImageMinResolution 1200
/MonoImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK
/DownsampleMonoImages false
/MonoImageDownsampleType /None
/MonoImageResolution 1200
/MonoImageDepth -1
/MonoImageDownsampleThreshold 1.50000
/EncodeMonoImages true
/MonoImageFilter /CCITTFaxEncode
/MonoImageDict <<
/K -1
>>
/AllowPSXObjects false
/CheckCompliance [
/None
]
/PDFX1aCheck false
/PDFX3Check false
/PDFXCompliantPDFOnly false
/PDFXNoTrimBoxError true
/PDFXTrimBoxToMediaBoxOffset [
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
]
/PDFXSetBleedBoxToMediaBox true
/PDFXBleedBoxToTrimBoxOffset [
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
]
/PDFXOutputIntentProfile ()
/PDFXOutputConditionIdentifier ()
/PDFXOutputCondition ()
/PDFXRegistryName ()
/PDFXTrapped /False
/CreateJDFFile false
/Description <<
/ENU (RR Donnelley 2009 Standard for creating press quality PDF files.)
>>
/ExportLayers /ExportVisiblePrintableLayers
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(Common)
(1.0)
]
/OtherNamespaces [
<<
/AsReaderSpreads false
/CropImagesToFrames false
/ErrorControl /WarnAndContinue
/FlattenerIgnoreSpreadOverrides false
/IncludeGuidesGrids false
/IncludeNonPrinting false
/IncludeSlug false
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(InDesign)
(4.0)
]
/OmitPlacedBitmaps false
/OmitPlacedEPS false
/OmitPlacedPDF false
/SimulateOverprint /Legacy
>>
<<
/AddBleedMarks false
/AddColorBars false
/AddCropMarks true
/AddPageInfo true
/AddRegMarks true
/BleedOffset [
13.500000
13.500000
13.500000
13.500000
]
/ConvertColors /NoConversion
/DestinationProfileName (U.S. Web Coated \(SWOP\) v2)
/DestinationProfileSelector /WorkingCMYK
/Downsample16BitImages true
/FlattenerPreset <<
/PresetSelector /MediumResolution
>>
/FormElements false
/GenerateStructure false
/IncludeBookmarks false
/IncludeHyperlinks false
/IncludeInteractive false
/IncludeLayers false
/IncludeProfiles false
/MarksOffset 30
/MarksWeight 0.250000
/MultimediaHandling /UseObjectSettings
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(CreativeSuite)
(2.0)
]
/PDFXOutputIntentProfileSelector /NA
/PageMarksFile /RomanDefault
/PreserveEditing true
/UntaggedCMYKHandling /LeaveUntagged
/UntaggedRGBHandling /LeaveUntagged
/UseDocumentBleed false
>>
<<
/AllowImageBreaks true
/AllowTableBreaks true
/ExpandPage false
/HonorBaseURL true
/HonorRolloverEffect false
/IgnoreHTMLPageBreaks false
/IncludeHeaderFooter false
/MarginOffset [
0
0
0
0
]
/MetadataAuthor ()
/MetadataKeywords ()
/MetadataSubject ()
/MetadataTitle ()
/MetricPageSize [
0
0
]
/MetricUnit /inch
/MobileCompatible 0
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(GoLive)
(8.0)
]
/OpenZoomToHTMLFontSize false
/PageOrientation /Portrait
/RemoveBackground false
/ShrinkContent true
/TreatColorsAs /MainMonitorColors
/UseEmbeddedProfiles false
/UseHTMLTitleAsMetadata true
>>
]
>> setdistillerparams
<<
/HWResolution [2400 2400]
/PageSize [612.000 792.000]
>> setpagedevice
2015-09-25T00:31:19+0000
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