Graphical summary

Create a visual study guides for the second module: Non-Human Primates (Lectures 7-12 + Labs 3-5).

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The main goal of the visual study guide is for you to demonstrate the most important topics covered in the course through your own point of view. We want to see how you reinterpret and connect the ideas discussed in the course in a bigger picture. Think of it as a tool for yourself, or a product that would let you explain to anyone who is not in the class what are the most important take-aways from this module.

Your Visual Study Guide can be done in several formats: a mindmap  (

https://www.mindmapping.com/ (Links to an external site.)

),  an infographic (

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https://piktochart.com/formats/infographics/ (Links to an external site.)

), a drawing/painting, or even an animation. The important thing is that you demonstrate how the main topics in the course connect to specific subtopics, which in turn are related to ideas or facts.

If you want to see some cool examples of how to build a nice and effective mind map, check this out:

https://www.mindmeister.com/blog/mind-map-examples/ (Links to an external site.)

The Visual Study Guide should include at least the following information:

  • 3-5 main topics discussed in the lectures or labs.
  • How the main topics relate to their subtopics, and what are the related ideas or facts in each subtopic (again, see the link above for good examples).
  • If possible, demonstrate how the main topics are connected as well.
  • Include 1-3 important things to know about each main topic.
  • Make connections about how these main topics help us understand human evolutionary history and diversity.
  • Include at least 1 exciting fact per main topic: highlight a super cool/awesome/exciting fact that called your attention during the lectures and labs.
  • Whenever relevant, include images and maps to support your related ideas or facts. (You can draw your own images or use one from the internet/lectures).

Finally, be creative!

Primate Social
Behavior 2

Anthropology 2200

Non-residential pattern
aspects primate behavior

  • Competition
  • Cooperation
  • • Culture

  • Parenting
  • behaviors
    • Tool use

  • Language
  • Social
    Strategies

  • Male Competition
  • • Male reproductive strategy 
    competition for mates

    • Produce lots of offspring
    • Prevent other

    males

    from doing

    the same thing
    • Intimidation
    • Fighting
    • Leads to sexual selection

    • Body size / canine dimorphism

    Mandrill:
    Coloration = health
    Tooth size

    Uakari:
    Color = health
    and dominance

    Male Competition

    • Sperm competition

    • Relationship between:

    • Testes size

    • Penis size

    • More competition = larger size

    Female
    Competition

    • Female reproductive strategy 
    competition for resources

    • Ensure the survival of
    offspring

    • Dominance relationships
    • Access to resources

    Female
    Baboon
    hierarchy

    Competition

    • Aggressive behaviors
    • Direct eye contact
    • Raising eyebrows
    • Baring canines
    • Charging

    Gelada
    Baboons

    Competition

    • Subordination
    • Ritualized behavior

    • Showing backside
    • Cowering
    • Presenting to groom
    • Greeting with friendly facial

    expressions and vocalizations

    • Intended to ease tension
    • Prevent conflict

    Unequal Pay –
    Primate Jealousy

    • Differences in food quality
    • Personal jealousy?

    Capuchin
    monkeys
    and equity

    Cooperation

    • Affiliative behaviors
    • Promote group

    cohesion
    • Assurance
    • Pleasure
    • Reciprocity

    Cooperation

    • Form of Altruism
    • Behavior that benefits others while being a

    disadvantage to the individual
    • Grooming/playing
    • Hunting/Food sharing
    • Caregiving
    • Attacking predators
    • Giving warning calls

    • Kin selection
    • Behavior that increases the fitness of those

    closely related to the individual
    • Usually the focus of altruistic behavior
    • Increases the donor’s inclusive fitness

    • Reproductive success of
    organism and close kin

    Cooperation

    • Grooming to remove parasites and
    dead skin

    • Maintains close contact between
    family members and non-related
    group members

    • Eases tension
    • Promotes group cohesion

    Chimpanzee
    grooming

    Cooperation

    • Playing
    • Maintains close contact between family

    members and non-related group members
    • Eases tension
    • Promotes group cohesion

    Bonobos Playing

    Cooperation

    • Caring for young that are not yours
    • Alloparenting

    • Individual other than parent cares for
    the infant

    • Usually done by females (in some
    species, males also contribute)

    Capuchin Monkey

    Squirrel Monkey

    Cooperation

    • Attacking predators and giving warning calls
    • Allows other members of the group to

    escape

    • Might lead to injury or death

    Vervet Monkey did not survive….

    Baboon did survive

    Cooperation

    • Group Hunting/Foraging
    • Find food more efficiently
    • Might find food/hunt prey that you

    could not get as an individual
    • Have to share
    • Might get injured during hunt

    Chimpanzee
    hunting

    Cooperation

    • Warfare
    • Observed in chimps
    • Group fights between chimps over

    territory
    • Often kill neighboring males
    • Territory = access to food resources

    Chimpanzee patrol
    composed of primarily

    males

    Chimpanzee
    raids

    Chimpanzee
    politics

    So where do these behaviors come
    from?

    Parenting

    • Prolonged period of development
    • Prolonged period of parental care
    • Allows parents to teach offspring how to succeed

    socially/in environment
    • Parents VERY important!

    Parenting
    • 1950s psychological experiments (Harry Harlow)

    • Demonstrated parenting = not just nourishment
    • Monkey’s taken from mothers shortly after birth
    • Raised alone in cages: wire “nourishing” mother, cloth

    mother, no mother
    • Preferred cloth mother = warmth, comfort, security
    • No mother = distressed, refused to eat, died

    Parenting

    • Specifics – what do
    primates learn from their
    parents?

    • Non-verbal and verbal
    communication

    • Social behavior:
    competition and
    cooperation

    • Tool use
    • Parenting behavior
    • Culture!

    How do we know its culture
    and not just inborn behavior?

    • Harlow’s Experiments
    • Japanese Macaques

    • Beach of Koshima
    • Wash sweet potatoes in salt water
    • 1 decade idea spread
    • From very few to most

    Japanese
    macaques

    The
    unique
    side of
    bonobos

  • Culture: Examples
  • • Tool use: Chimpanzees

    • Spears and their use for hunting bush babies

  • Termite fishing
  • • Chewed leaves as sponges
    • Rocks for breaking open nuts

    Chimps
    spearing

    Termite
    fishing

    Culture: Examples

    • Chimp grooming traditions
    • Differ depending on the group

    • Gombe National Park, Tanzania
    • Groom each other by holding an overhead branch with one hand

    and grooming a partner with the other
    • Mahale National Park, Tanzania

    • Clasp hands while grooming

    Gombe Mahale

  • Communication
  • • Voluntary (intentional)
    • e.g. postures,

    vocalizations, and
    facial expressions

    • Autonomic
    (unintentional)

    • e.g. estrus

    Voluntary Communication Example:
    Gorilla

    • Sharp grunting: a sign of disapproval.
    • Chuckling: a sign of playfulness.
    • Screaming: a sign of alarm or warning.
    • High-pitched barking: a sign of curiosity.
    • Roaring: a sign of aggression.
    • Belching: a sign of contentment

    Language

    • Significant human
    development

    • Communication in non-
    human primates:

    • Emotional
    • Only in the present
    • Predator alarm system
    • Establish territories

    Language

    • Non-human primates
    • Many have been taught ASL

    • Don’t have vocal range for
    human language/no syntax

    • Teach others ASL
    • Can make references to external

    objects
    • E.g. “go get ball outside”

    • Can identify images of things in
    addition to the things themselves

    Koko with All Ball

    Koko’s
    sign
    language

    • Primate Social Behavior 2
    • Non-residential pattern aspects primate behavior
    • Social Strategies
    • Male Competition
      Male Competition

    • Female Competition
    • Female Baboon hierarchy
    • Competition

    • Gelada Baboons
    • Competition

    • Unequal Pay – Primate Jealousy
    • Capuchin monkeys and equity
    • Cooperation
      Cooperation
      Cooperation

    • Chimpanzee grooming
    • Cooperation
      Cooperation
      Cooperation
      Cooperation

    • Chimpanzee hunting
    • Cooperation

    • Chimpanzee raids
    • Chimpanzee politics
    • So where do these behaviors come from? �Parenting
    • Parenting
      Parenting

    • How do we know its culture and not just inborn behavior?
    • Japanese macaques
    • The unique side of bonobos
    • Culture: Examples

    • Chimps spearing
    • Termite fishing
      Culture: Examples
      Communication

    • Voluntary Communication Example: Gorilla
    • Language
      Language

    • Koko’s sign language

    Primate

  • Taxonomy
  • 1

    Anthropology 2200

  • Examine primate classification
  • Pygmy Marmosets

    • SIZE DIVERSITY IN PRIMATES

    Mouse lemur (Microcebus berthae)
    3.6 inches, 1.1 oz

    Adult Gorilla (Gorilla gorilla)
    440 lb

    loris gibbon

    aye aye
    gorilla

    chimpanzee

    tarsier

    capuchin orangutan

    spider monkey baboon

    ring tailed
    lemur

    Japanese
    macaque bonobo

    howler
    monkey

    mouse
    lemur

    http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/images/slender_loris2 &imgrefurl=http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/slender_loris.htm&h=263&w=200&sz=47&hl=en&start=13&tbnid=nLs_chB2g88zcM:&tbnh=112&tbnw=85&prev=/images?q=loris&svnum=10&hl=en&lr=

    http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.missouri.edu/%7Eanthmark/courses/mah/images/gibbon &imgrefurl=http://www.missouri.edu/%7Eanthmark/courses/mah/factfiles/gibbon.htm&h=379&w=250&sz=22&hl=en&start=3&tbnid=DRUDKCdMhJKu4M:&tbnh=123&tbnw=81&prev=/images?q=gibbon&svnum=10&hl=en&lr=

    http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.animalinfo.org/image/mada6%20j%2018 &imgrefurl=http://www.animalinfo.org/species/primate/daubmada.htm&h=279&w=400&sz=18&hl=en&start=12&tbnid=2WHeu9_xoPt70M:&tbnh=86&tbnw=124&prev=/images?q=aye+aye&svnum=10&hl=en&lr=

    http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://mishuna.image.pbase.com/u44/gpc/large/28671810.gorillafr &imgrefurl=http://www.pbase.com/gpc/image/28671810&h=765&w=800&sz=102&hl=en&start=7&tbnid=fFcOcElDLdYVsM:&tbnh=137&tbnw=143&prev=/images?q=gorilla&svnum=10&hl=en&lr=&sa=X

    http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.wellingtonzoo.com/images/kea/_animals_animals_primates_chimpanzee.htmlKeaBlock_right_image &imgrefurl=http://www.wellingtonzoo.com/animals/animals/primates/chimpanzee.html&h=207&w=157&sz=6&hl=en&start=15&tbnid=DXZ12d0wNzqRpM:&tbnh=105&tbnw=80&prev=/images?q=chimpanzee&svnum=10&hl=en&lr=

    http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.astrosurf.com/lombry/Bio/tarsier &imgrefurl=http://www.astrosurf.com/lombry/bioastro-origine-avenir-homme.htm&h=351&w=354&sz=34&hl=en&start=8&tbnid=-i9oX8hHJ8N-9M:&tbnh=120&tbnw=121&prev=/images?q=tarsier&svnum=10&hl=en&lr=

    http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.kidszoo.com/images/animals/Capuchin &imgrefurl=http://www.kidszoo.com/animals/capuchinmonkey.htm&h=292&w=262&sz=30&hl=en&start=11&tbnid=m6OS5Lvt6hpbsM:&tbnh=115&tbnw=103&prev=/images?q=capuchin&svnum=10&hl=en&lr=

    http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.divehappy.com/borneo/sepilok_orangutan &imgrefurl=http://www.divehappy.com/2005/09/borneo-sepilok-orangutan-sanctuary.php&h=333&w=250&sz=33&hl=en&start=28&tbnid=wVH8nTvenZuYiM:&tbnh=119&tbnw=89&prev=/images?q=orangutan&start=20&ndsp=20&svnum=10&hl=en&lr=&sa=N

    http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.frognet.org/albums/album46/spider_monkey &imgrefurl=http://www.frognet.org/gallery/album46/spider_monkey&h=1144&w=1520&sz=319&hl=en&start=22&tbnid=Wzozig2-Ut800M:&tbnh=113&tbnw=150&prev=/images?q=spider+monkey&start=20&ndsp=20&svnum=10&hl=en&lr=&sa=N

    http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.wildlife-pictures-online.com/image-files/baboon_lznp-3123m &imgrefurl=http://www.wildlife-pictures-online.com/baboon_lznp-3123.html&h=450&w=600&sz=61&hl=en&start=31&tbnid=aTtib6qKhc8nEM:&tbnh=101&tbnw=135&prev=/images?q=baboon&start=20&ndsp=20&svnum=10&hl=en&lr=&sa=N

    http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.sch.im/wlp/large%20images/ring-tailed%20lemur &imgrefurl=http://www.sch.im/wlp/pages/ring-tailed%20lemur%201.htm&h=331&w=520&sz=56&hl=en&start=19&tbnid=zABkKAzIdYXSZM:&tbnh=83&tbnw=131&prev=/images?q=lemur&svnum=10&hl=en&lr=

    http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://nootropics.com/gaba/macaque &imgrefurl=http://nootropics.com/gaba/index.html&h=350&w=269&sz=15&hl=en&start=30&tbnid=lBsiRxA12Gp9AM:&tbnh=120&tbnw=92&prev=/images?q=macaque&start=20&ndsp=20&svnum=10&hl=en&lr=&sa=N

    http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.wwf.be/img/visual/news/dossier_chimpanze/bonobo &imgrefurl=http://www.wwf.be/fr/index.cfm?group=news&menu=dossier_chimpanze.cfm&page=dossiers/chimpanze/bonobo.cfm&h=298&w=200&sz=15&hl=en&start=40&tbnid=3WKRTCTTYeEKHM:&tbnh=116&tbnw=78&prev=/images?q=bonobo&start=20&ndsp=20&svnum=10&hl=en&lr=&sa=N

    http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.wildernessclassroom.com/www/schoolhouse/rainforest_library/animal_images/howler_monkey &imgrefurl=http://www.wildernessclassroom.com/students/archives/2005/03/howler_monkeys.html&h=500&w=339&sz=29&hl=en&start=1&tbnid=dKiiqmjSK5OWQM:&tbnh=130&tbnw=88&prev=/images?q=howler+monkey&svnum=10&hl=en&lr=

    http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.cs.ualberta.ca/%7Ewesleym/Monkeys/mouse-lemur &imgrefurl=http://flody.blogspot.com/2005_12_01_flody_archive.html&h=520&w=397&sz=29&hl=en&start=95&tbnid=kthot37dbZXqJM:&tbnh=131&tbnw=100&prev=/images?q=lemur&start=80&ndsp=20&svnum=10&hl=en&lr=&sa=N

  • Primates
  • • What is a Primate?

    • Kingdom  Animalia
    • Phylum  Chordata
    • Class  Mammalia
    • Order  Primates
    • Suborders:

  • Strepsirhines
  • (Lemur, Loris,

    Galago

    )
    • Infraorder: Lemuriformes

    • Haplorhines (

  • Tarsiers
  • , Monkeys, Apes, and
    Humans)

    • Infraorders:
    • Tarsiiformes
    • Anthropoidea (Parvorders =

    Platyrrhini and Catarrhini)
    • Slender Loris

    Taxonomy

    Cladistic Taxonomy:

  • Haplorhini
  • /Strepsirrhini
    Nomenclature preferred by many

    • Places Tarsiers in with Haplorhines
    • Many believe this system is more evolutionarily accurate!

    Tarsiers

    Strepsirhines

    vs. Haplorhines

    • Strepsirhines: lemurs, lorises,
    galagos

    • Haplorhines: everything else
    (tarsiers, New World Monkeys,
    Old World Monkeys, Apes,
    humans)

    • They split around 55-80 million
    years ago

    Slender Loris Galago/Bush Baby Ring Tailed Lemur

    Strepsirhines

  • Ring-tailed lemur
  • Strepsirhines

    • Found in Africa and Asia
    (13% of Primates)

    • Retain many primitive
    characteristics

    • This does not mean that
    they are the ancestors
    of monkeys!!!

  • High rates of nocturnality
  • • Primitive Trait

    • Tapetum lucidum
    • Layer behind the

    retina
    • Reflects visible light

    back through the
    retina

    • Improves vision in
    low light conditions

    Sportive Lemur Retina

  • Post Orbital Bar: No Closure
  • Primitive Trait

    Partially stereoscopic
    vision (primitive)

    Lack color vision
    (primitive)

  • Reliance on Olfaction
  • • Communication for
    nocturnal animals

    • Ancestral trait
    • Scent glands

    • Marking
    • Messages

    • Large olfactory bulb
    • Part of brain for scent

    • Rhinarium  moist nose
    • readily picks up

    scents

    Mouse Lemur

    Ring Tail Lemur

  • Grooming claw
  • • Primitive Trait

    • Lemurs, Galagos, Lorises:
    2nd Toe (Aye-Aye = 2-5)

    • Purpose:
    • Grooming
    • Extracting insects

    Ruffled Lemur

    Galago

  • Tooth comb
  • • Derived Trait
    • Used for:

    • Grooming
    • Extracting resin

    from trees
    Ring Tailed Lemur

  • Lemuroidea : Lemurs
  • • Only found on the island of
    Madagascar

    • Only non-human primate found
    there

    • Lots of diversity
    • 20 mya split from Africa
    • Adaptive radiation
    • Represent 21% of primate

    genera worldwide

    Lemuroidea : Lemurs

    • Ring-tailed lemur
    • More terrestrial
    • Black and white ringed tail
    • Omnivorous
    • Diurnal
    • Forest and spiny scrub
    • Highly social
    • Female dominant

    • Common in Lemurs
    • Sent marking
    • Stink Fighting

    Lemuroidea : Lemurs

    • Mouse lemur
    • Smallest primate
    • < 1 lb. • Eat insects, small vertebrates,

    gum, fruit, flowers, nectar,
    leaves

    • Nocturnal

    Grey mouse
    lemur

  • Additional Traits
  • Tend to have more specialized diets and behaviors than
    anthropoids (derived)

    • Often fill very specific niches
    • Lemurs on Madagascar

    Vertical clinging and leaping
    Often solitary

  • Sifaka
  • Clinging

    Sifaka

    Lemuroidea :

  • Aye-aye
  • Aye-aye
    • Nocturnal
    • Mainly insectivorous
    • Thin middle finger to forage for

    grubs
     Taps to find grubs
     Gnaws bark
     Uses finger to pull out grubs

    • Solitary

    Aye-aye

  • Lorisoidea: Lorises
  • • Lorises
    • Tropical Africa and

    Southeast Asia
    • Nocturnal
    • Slow-moving,

    deliberate stalkers of
    small prey

    Lorisoidea: Lorises

    • Slow loris
    • Toxic bite

    • Lick gland on their arm
    • Secretion activates with

    saliva (adult/baby)
    • Communicate by sent

    marking
    • Eat small animals, fruit, gum,

    vegetation
    • Hunted for exotic pet trade

  • The Bite of a Slow Loris
  • How poisonous is the slow

    loris?
    • Allergen similar to Felid 1
     Cat allergen in dander
     Anaphylactic shock
     Red blood cells in urine

    Depends how allergic you are!

  • Lorisoidea: Galagos
  • • “Bush-babies” – Subfamily of
    Lorises

    • Sub-Saharan Africa
    • Nocturnal
    • Vertical clingers and leapers
    • Insectivorous

    Lorisoidea: Galagos
    Can turn its head over 180

    degrees
    Index finger more widely

    spaced
    • Feeding
    • Gripping branches

    Nocturnal
    • Large Eyes
    • Large Ears

    Haplorhini

    Tarsiers, monkeys, apes, and humans

    • Larger body
    • Larger brain-to-body size ratio
    • More sexually dimorphic
    • Less specialized dentition (fewer premolars)
    • Greater reliance on vision than on smell
    • Post-orbital closure
    • Diurnal rather than nocturnal

    Differ from Strepsirhines in a variety of ways

    Tarsiers vs. all other
    Haplorhines

    • Tarsiers are taxonomically
    problematic

    • Prosimian/anthropoid

    • Strepsirhine/haplorhine
    • They possess a mixture of

    primitive and derived traits
    • Divergence time of ca. 50-

    70 Million years ago?

    Infraorder: Tarsiiformes
    (Tarsiers) • Tarsiers

    • Southeast Asia
    • Nocturnal

    • eye larger than brain
    • Vertical clingers and

    leapers
    • Grooming claw: 2nd and 3rd

    Toes
    • Highly carnivorous

    • Lizards, frogs, insects

  • Tarsiiformes: Tarsiers
  • Name refers to two
    elongated tarsals – extra
    leverage for leaping

    Tarsiers

    • Primate Taxonomy 1
    • Examine primate classification

    • Slide Number 3
    • Slide Number 4
    • Slide Number 5
    • Primates

    • Slide Number 7
    • Taxonomy

    • Strepsirhines vs. Haplorhines
    • Strepsirhines
      Ring-tailed lemur
      Strepsirhines
      High rates of nocturnality
      Post Orbital Bar: No Closure
      Reliance on Olfaction
      Grooming claw
      Tooth comb
      Lemuroidea : Lemurs
      Lemuroidea : Lemurs
      Lemuroidea : Lemurs

    • Grey mouse lemur
    • Additional Traits
      Sifaka

    • Lemuroidea : Aye-aye
    • Aye-aye
      Lorisoidea: Lorises
      Lorisoidea: Lorises
      The Bite of a Slow Loris
      Lorisoidea: Galagos
      Lorisoidea: Galagos
      Haplorhini

    • Tarsiers vs. all other Haplorhines
    • Infraorder: Tarsiiformes (Tarsiers)
    • Tarsiiformes: Tarsiers
      Tarsiers

    Primate
    Taxonomy 2

    Anthropology 2200

  • Infraorder: Anthropoidea
  • Infraorder:
    Anthropoidea
    Two
    Parvorders

    Platyrrhini
    “Broad-nosed

    Catarrhini
    “Hook-nosed”

    2:1:3:3/2 2:1:2:3

    Anthropoids:
    Platyrrhini
    • Central/South American

    Monkeys

    • Latin and South America

  • Platyrrhini: Ceboidea
  • • Central/South American monkeys
    • Arboreal quadrupeds

    • Suspensory locomotion
    • Many = Prehensile tail
    • Not in African/Asian Monkeys

    • Diverse diet
    • Leaves, fruit, insects

    Spider Monkey

    Platyrrhini:
    Ceboidea

    • Two Families
    • Atelidae

    • Howler, Owl, Spider, Titi,
    and Woolly monkeys,
    Uakaris, and Sakis

    • Cebidae
    • Marmosets, Tamarins,

    Capuchins, Squirrel
    Monkeys

    Platyrrhini: Ceboidea:
    Cebidae

    • Marmosets/Tamarins
    • Retain claws instead of

    nails
    • Smallest Platyrrhini
    • Twin (Chimerism)
    • Insectivores
    • Unusual dental

    formula
    • 2:1:3:2

    Golden Lion Tamarin Silvery Marmoset

  • Emperor tamarin
  • Platyrrhini: Ceboidea:
    Cebidae

    • Capuchin monkeys
    • Name from Order of Friars

    Minor Capuchin
    • Often in Movies!

    White Fronted Capuchin

    Platyrrhini:
    Ceboidea: Atelidae

    • Includes subfamilies:
    • Aotidae
    • Pitheciidae
    • Atelidae
    • Alouattinae

    Platyrrhini:
    Ceboidea: Atelidae

    • Owl/Night Monkey
    • Only truly nocturnal monkey

    • Vocal calls/Sent Marking
    • Susceptible to human forms of

    Malaria
    • Used for malaria research

    Platyrrhini: Ceboidea:
    Atelidae

    • Pitheciidae
    • Titis
    • Sakis
    • Uakaris

    White Faced SakiUakari

    Titi Monkeys (morning calls) Uakari Saki

  • Bald uakari monkey
  • Platyrrhini:
    Ceboidea: Atelidae

    • Spider monkeys
    • Wooly monkeys

    • Only monkeys with
    prehensile tails (aside from
    Howler)

    Spider MonkeyWooly Monkey

    Platyrrhini: Ceboidea:
    Atelidae

  • Howler monkey
  • • Prehensile tail
    • Make loud

    vocalizations

    Howler monkey

    Platyrrhini:
    Ceboidea:
    Cebidae

    • Howler monkey
    • Male hyoid enlarged

    • resonating chamber
    • Loudest land animals
    • Protect territory,

    resources, females

  • Anthropoids: Catarrhini
  • • Asian and African monkeys
    • Apes
    • Humans

    Catarrhini:
    Cercopithecoidae

    • African and Asian Monkeys

    • Colobinae
    • Cercopithecinae

    Catarrhini:
    Cercopithecoidae

    • African and Asian monkeys
    • Diverse range of habitats
    • Some are arboreal while

    others are terrestrial
    • No prehensile tail
    • High level of sexual

    dimorphism (canines,
    body)

    Catarrhini:
    Cercopithecoidae

    • Ischial Callosities
    • Sitting Pad
    • Thickened calluses on

    Backside
    • Only in Af/As monkeys
    • Help monkeys to sleep on thin

    branches away from predators

    Ischial
    Callosity

    Catarrhini:
    Cercopithecoidae

    • Visual Estrus
    • Hormonally influenced period of sexual receptivity in females
    • Skin around genitals becomes inflated/red
    • Advertises fertility and receptivity

    Catarrhini:
    Cercopithecoidae:
    Colobinae

    • Includes:
    • Langurs
    • Colobus Monkeys
    • Proboscis Monkeys

    • Mostly folivorous
    • Sacculated stomachs
    • Bilophodont teeth

    Langur
    Black and White
    Colobus Monkey

  • Catarrhini: Cercopithecoidae
  • :
    Colobinae

    Proboscis monkey

    Large nose may be due to sexual selection!

    Catarrhini: Cercopithecoidae:
    Cercopithecinae • Includes:

    Baboon

    s
    • Macaques
    • Vervet Monkeys

    • Frugivores (fruit-eaters)
    • Low, rounded molar

    cusps
    • Cheek pouches

    Vervet

    Baboon

  • Baboons
  • Anthropoids:
    Catarrhini: Hominoidea

    • Lesser apes
    • Great apes
    • Humans

    Catarrhines:
    Hominoidea

    Bonobo

    Gibbon

  • Orangutan
  • Gorilla
  • Chimpanzee

    Anthropoids:
    Hominoidea

    • Differ from monkeys in various ways:

    • Absence of an external tail
    • Larger brains
    • Extended period of infant development

    and dependency
    • Y-5 lower molar pattern
    • Canine-premolar honing complex

    Anthropoids:
    Catarrhini: Hominoidea

    • Two Families:
    • Hylobatidae

    • Gibbons, Siamangs
    • Hominidae

    • Orangutans, gorillas,
    chimpanzees, bonobos,
    humans

  • Anthropoids: Hominoidea
  • :
    Hylobatidae  Lesser apes

     Southeast Asia
     Tropical and

    subtropical forests
     Frugivores
     Highly territorial
     Siren songs

     Arboreal
     Brachiation

    Anthropoids:
    Hominoidea:

    Hylobatidae

    • Siamang
    • Sexual dichromatism

  • Anthropoids: Hominoidea: Hominidae
  • • Great apes and Humans
    • Orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees,

    and bonobos (pygmy chimpanzees) =
    Great Apes

    • More terrestrial
    • Various forms of locomotion
    • Dietary diversity
    • Great Apes are Knuckle walkers –

    aside from Orangutans

    Anthropoids:
    Hominoidea
    • Three Subfamilies:

    • Ponginae (Orangutans)
    • Gorillinae (Gorillas)
    • Homininae (Humans,

    Chimps,

  • Bonobos
  • )

    • Homininae has two Tribes:
    • Panini (Chimps, Bonobos)
    • Hominini (Humans)

    Anthropoids: Hominoidea:

    Hominidae: Ponginae

    • Orangutan
    • Borneo and Sumatra
    • Sexually dimorphic

    • Males weigh up to 200 lbs.
    • Twice the size and weight

    of adult females
    • Arboreal

    • Slow climbers
    • Frugivores
    • Solitary lives

    Orangutan
    Anthropoids:
    Hominoidea:
    Hominidae: Ponginae

    Orangutan

    Anthropoids:
    Hominoidea:
    Hominidae: Gorillinae

    • Gorilla

    • Equatorial Africa
    • Largest living primate

    • Males weigh up to
    400 lbs.

    • Sexually dimorphic
    • Knuckle-walkers
    • Folivorous
    • Highly cohesive groups

    Anthropoids: Hominoidea: Hominidae:
    Gorillinae

    • Gorilla

    Female Male

    Anthropoids: Hominoidea: Hominidae:
    Gorillinae
    • Gorilla

    differences in size and shape based on sex

    Anthropoids: Hominoidea:
    Hominidae: Gorillinae

    • Gorilla
    • Exclusively vegetarian diet

    • Large canines are to fend off other males
    • Shy and gentle
    • Only violent when threatened or in competition for

    females
    • 1 male multi-female

    Gorilla

    Anthropoids: Hominoidea:
    Hominidae: Homininae: Panini

    • Chimpanzee
    • Equatorial Africa
    • Various modes of locomotion
    • Less sexually dimorphic than

    orangutans and gorillas
    • Omnivores
    • Complex social behaviors

    • Highly territorial
    • Genetically closer to humans than

    to gorillas

    Anthropoids: Hominoidea:
    Hominidae: Homininae: Panini
    Chimpanzee

    Anthropoids: Hominoidea:
    Hominidae: Homininae: Panini

    • Bonobo
    • Congo (Central Africa)
    • Smaller than the “common”

    chimpanzee
    • Longer legs and differently shaped

    chest
    • More arboreal

    • Lowland rain forest habitat
    • Less excitable/aggressive
    • Unique sexuality

    Anthropoids: Hominoidea:
    Hominidae: Homininae: Panini
    Bonobo

    Bonobos

    Anthropoids: Hominoidea:
    Hominidae: Homininae: Hominini

     Habitual bipeds
     Omnivores

     Spoken language
     Large, complex brains

    • Primate Taxonomy 2
    • Infraorder: Anthropoidea

    • Infraorder: Anthropoidea�Two Parvorders
    • Anthropoids: Platyrrhini
    • Platyrrhini: Ceboidea
      Platyrrhini: Ceboidea

    • Platyrrhini: Ceboidea: Cebidae
    • Emperor tamarin
      Platyrrhini: Ceboidea: Cebidae

    • Platyrrhini: Ceboidea: Atelidae
    • Platyrrhini: Ceboidea: Atelidae
      Platyrrhini: Ceboidea: Atelidae
      Bald uakari monkey
      Platyrrhini: Ceboidea: Atelidae
      Platyrrhini: Ceboidea: Atelidae
      Howler monkey
      Platyrrhini: Ceboidea: Cebidae
      Anthropoids: Catarrhini
      Catarrhini: Cercopithecoidae
      Catarrhini: Cercopithecoidae
      Catarrhini: Cercopithecoidae
      Catarrhini: Cercopithecoidae

    • Catarrhini: Cercopithecoidae: Colobinae
    • Catarrhini: Cercopithecoidae: Colobinae

    • Catarrhini: Cercopithecoidae: Cercopithecinae
    • Baboons

    • Anthropoids: Catarrhini: Hominoidea
    • Catarrhines: Hominoidea
    • Anthropoids: Hominoidea
      Anthropoids: Catarrhini: Hominoidea

    • Anthropoids: Hominoidea: Hylobatidae
    • Anthropoids: Hominoidea: Hylobatidae
      Anthropoids: Hominoidea: Hominidae
      Anthropoids: Hominoidea

    • Anthropoids: Hominoidea: Hominidae: Ponginae
    • Anthropoids: Hominoidea: Hominidae: Ponginae
      Orangutan

    • Anthropoids: Hominoidea: Hominidae: Gorillinae
    • Anthropoids: Hominoidea: Hominidae: Gorillinae
      Anthropoids: Hominoidea: Hominidae: Gorillinae
      Anthropoids: Hominoidea: Hominidae: Gorillinae
      Gorilla

    • Anthropoids: Hominoidea: Hominidae: Homininae: Panini
    • Anthropoids: Hominoidea: Hominidae: Homininae: Panini
      Anthropoids: Hominoidea: Hominidae: Homininae: Panini
      Anthropoids: Hominoidea: Hominidae: Homininae: Panini
      Bonobos

    • Anthropoids: Hominoidea: Hominidae: Homininae: Hominini
  • Primate
  • Social Behavior
  • 1

    Anthropology 2200

  • Primate Behavior
  • Why do we care?
    • Primate behavioral ecology
    • Social behavior

    • Types of social groups

    Stress, Social Hierarchy,
    and

    Baboon

    s
    • Robert Sapolsky

    • Neurobiologist at Stanford
    • Studies Olive Baboons

    • East Africa
    • 30 + years

    • Takes blood samples
    • Tests levels of cortisol and epinephrine

    • Neurotransmitters that trigger brain activity
    • Found that higher stress levels were present in

    lower ranking individuals
    • Whitehall UK government study found the same in

    humans
    • Study went further when aggressive dominant

    male baboons died of TB
    • Changed culture in affected baboon troop

  • Social change in baboons
  • The Beginning: Louis
    Leakey
    • Discovered human ancestors

    • Olduvai Gorge, E. Africa
    • Can we use modern great apes to understand

    human behavior?

    • Sent three untrained women to study ape behavior:

  • Jane Goodall
  • • Diane Fossey

  • Birute Galdikas
  • Jane Goodall

    • Studied Chimpanzees at Gombe National Park
    (20 years)

    • Noted similarities between chimps and
    humans:

    • Emotions
    • Intelligence
    • Family and social behavior
    • Aggression
    • Tool use

    • Termite fishing
    • Dispelled “man the tool maker”
    • https://www.janegoodall.org/

    Home

  • Dian Fossey
  • • Studied

    Gorilla

    s in Rwanda (18 Years)
    • Demonstrated that Gorillas were not as

    fierce as people assumed
    • Helped save Mountain Gorillas from

    extinction
    • Social relations, feeding behavior,

    infanticide, vocalization
    • Murdered in 1985 – Unsolved

    Birute Galdikas

    Primate Behavioral
    Ecology
    • Understanding the ecological

    and evolutionary reasons for
    primate behavior

    Social
    Behavior

    Group living:
    Residential Patterns
    • One aspect of social behavior
    • Group living is a balance between

    competition for resources and the benefits
    associated with social behavior

    • In general, primates are highly social
    • Exceptions = some nocturnal

    prosimians and Orangutans

  • Group Living: Residential Patterns
  • Advantages Disadvantages
    ● Protection from predators ● Competition for resources
    ● Locating and protecting
    resources

    ● Opportunity for violence

    ● Access to mates ● Competition for mates
    ● Long-term bonds (e.g.
    child rearing, learning)

    ● Increased spread of disease

    Constant struggle between competition and cooperation

    Group living:
    Residential Patterns
    • Residential patterns related to reproductive

    success
    • Evolutionarily, the goal is to have offspring.
    • Females

    • Limited by access to resources
    • Males

    • Limited by access to females

    Its all about the babies!

  • So …
  • Types of
    Social
    Groups:
    Residence
    Patterns

  • One-male, multifemale
  • (polygynous)

  • One-female, multimale
  • (polyandrous)

  • Multimale, multifemale
  • All-male

  • One-male, one-female
  • (monogamous)

  • Solitary
  • One-male,
    multifemale

    • Polygyny
    • Most common type of social group
    • One male, multiple females, and

    their immature offspring

    • Sexual dimorphism
    • Ensures reproductive rights to

    females
    • Females select males
    • Leave if not suitable

    One-male,
    multifemale

    • Females stay in their natal (birth)
    group

    • Males leave the group as
    juveniles – before reproductive
    maturity

    • Females = close social network
    • Allomothering in some cases
    • Males marginalized

    One-male, multifemale

    • Infanticide common
    • The killing of nursing

    young
    • Foreign male drives

    out dominant male
    • Females try to protect

    young
    • Males larger, kill young
    • Females resume

    ovulation
    • New baby belongs to

    new male
    • Old male’s genetic

    contribution reduced

    Male
    Gorilla
    interaction
    with infants

    One-male, multifemale

    Langur

    Howler monkey

    Gelada baboon?

    Gorilla

    One-female,
    multimale

    • Polyandry
    • One female, multiple males, and

    their immature offspring

    • Most rare type of social group
    • Female reproduction

    consumes more time and
    energy

    • Need only a few males
    • Only NWM – Callitrichidae

    One-female,
    multimale

    • Communal breeding
    • Males help with parenting
    • These groups raise twins

    • Small primates
    • Die often due to predators
    • More offspring =

    reproductive strategy
    • Increase reproductive output

    Common Marmoset – Babies on Father Emperor tamarin

    One-female, multimale

    Multimale,
    multifemale

    • Large troops – OWM, NWM,

    Chimpanzees/Bonobos

    • Males, females, and their offspring
    • Promiscuous mating
    • Male competition relatively low
    • Sexual dimorphism = Low
    • Advantages:

    • Protection from predators
    • More effective food acquisition
    • Lots of genetic variability

    Chimpanzee
    family

    Multimale,
    multifemale

    • Dominance
    relationships (male
    and female)

    • Determined by:
    • Sex
    • Age
    • Aggression
    • Intelligence
    • Mother’s position
    • Time in group

    Macaque

    Multimale, multifemale

    • Impose a degree of order
    • Reduction of violence

    • Dominant individuals = greater reproductive success
    • Access to food
    • Access to females

    • Complicated and flexible rather than simple and linear
    • “Know your role”
    • Learned socially

    Multimale,
    multifemale

    • “Common” chimpanzee (fission-
    fusion)

  • All-male
  • • Temporary all-male groups formed

    before joining groups that include M/F
    • Commonly exist together with

    multimale, multifemale groups

    • “Bachelor” groups
    • Exist together with one-male,

    multifemale groups
    • Consist of males who are not

    able to obtain females
    • May attack one-male groups

    and attempt to evict the
    resident male from his females
    (infanticide)

    Baboon

    One-male,
    one-female
    • Monogamy
    • Male knows his offspring

    • Invests more time in supporting
    his own offspring

    • Protection/food acquisition
    • Less sexual dimorphism than other

    types of social systems
    • Lower degree of competition

    • Uncommon
    • Gibbons, Siamangs, Night

    monkey, some Marmosets,
    some Prosimians

    One-male, one-female

    • Males and females share
    defense of the territory

    • Social interactions limited
    (small groups)

    • Infants will engage in solitary
    play unless siblings are
    present

    • Parents play with the
    infants

    • Gibbons: aggregate at
    territorial borders

    • Infants from different
    families play

    • Best understood as female
    reproductive strategy

    Pygmy Marmoset:
    a monogamous Callitrichidae

    One-male, one-female
    GibbonSiamang

    Gibbons in the
    wild

    Solitary

    • Noyau
    • One male range encompasses several female ranges
    • Individuals forage separately and socialize for

    reproduction
    • Less successful males = more solitary

    • Orangutans, some prosimians
    • Marked sexual dimorphism

    • Large territory = increased male reproductive
    success

    Solitary

    Orangutan

    Many Nocturnal prosimians

    Aye-aye

    Mouse lemur

    • Males = 2x females
    • Large canines
    • Large cheek pads
    • Very loud calls

    Watch from 5:30 until 10:00

    Factors influencing the type of
    residence pattern

    • Food distribution
    • Type of food
    • Seasonality

    Fruit

    Leaves

    Insects

    http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.saburchill.com/album/peru/images/110905012 &imgrefurl=http://www.saburchill.com/album/peru/013.html&h=886&w=640&sz=152&hl=en&start=11&tbnid=dQi3cp2OfzsjzM:&tbnh=146&tbnw=105&prev=/images?q=ant+on+tree&svnum=10&hl=en&lr=

    Factors influencing the type
    of residence pattern
    • Food is abundant = large groups

    • Multimale-multifemale
    • One male-multifemale
    • Leaves
    • Fruits

    • Food in small clumps = small groups
    • Monogamous pairs
    • One female-two males

    • Food is very limited = individuals
    • Solitary
    • Insects

    Factors influencing the
    type of residence pattern

    • Predation
    • If predation = high
    • And body size = small
    • Large group may help fend off

    predators
    • Large bodied primates are not

    preyed on as often
    • Nocturnal species not preyed

    on as often
    • Solitary tend to be

    large/nocturnal

  • Humans
  • • What residential pattern
    do humans have?

      Primate Social Behavior 1
      Primate Behavior

    • Stress, Social Hierarchy, and Baboons
    • Social change in baboons

    • The Beginning: Louis Leakey
    • Jane Goodall
      Dian Fossey
      Birute Galdikas

    • Primate Behavioral Ecology
    • Social Behavior

    • Group living: Residential Patterns
    • Group Living: Residential Patterns
      Group living: Residential Patterns
      So …

    • Types of Social Groups:�Residence Patterns
    • One-male, multifemale
      One-male, multifemale
      One-male, multifemale

    • Male Gorilla interaction with infants
    • One-male, multifemale
      One-female, multimale
      One-female, multimale
      One-female, multimale
      Multimale, multifemale

    • Chimpanzee family
    • Multimale, multifemale
      Multimale, multifemale
      Multimale, multifemale
      All-male
      One-male, one-female
      One-male, one-female
      One-male, one-female

    • Gibbons in the wild
    • Solitary
      Solitary

    • Slide Number 36
    • Factors influencing the type of �residence pattern
    • Factors influencing the type of residence pattern
    • Factors influencing the type of residence pattern
      Humans

    Primate Taxonomy 1
    Anthropology 2200

    Examine primate classification

    Pygmy Marmosets

    2

    SIZE DIVERSITY IN PRIMATES
    Mouse lemur (Microcebus berthae)
    3.6 inches, 1.1 oz
    Adult Gorilla (Gorilla gorilla)
    440 lb

    Madame Berthe’s mouse lemur (Microcebus berthae) or Berthe’s mouse lemur is the smallest of the mouse lemurs and the smallest primate in the world; the average body length is 92 millimetres (3.6 in) and seasonal weight is around 30 g (1.1 oz).[3] , to adult male gorilla 200kg, and you are one too
    Live on 6 of 7 continents, non-human primates found on 5 of 7
    Huge range of lifestyles, huge range of habitats, foods, etc…
    4

    loris
    gibbon
    aye aye
    gorilla
    chimpanzee
    tarsier
    capuchin
    orangutan
    spider monkey
    baboon
    ring tailed
    lemur
    Japanese
    macaque
    bonobo
    howler
    monkey
    mouse
    lemur

    5

    Primates
    What is a Primate?
    Kingdom  Animalia
    Phylum  Chordata
    Class  Mammalia
    Order  Primates
    Suborders:
    Strepsirhines (Lemur, Loris, Galago)
    Infraorder: Lemuriformes
    Haplorhines (Tarsiers, Monkeys, Apes, and Humans)
    Infraorders:
    Tarsiiformes
    Anthropoidea (Parvorders = Platyrrhini and Catarrhini)
    Slender Loris

    6

    Taxonomy

    Cladistic Taxonomy:
    Haplorhini/Strepsirrhini
    Nomenclature preferred by many
    Places Tarsiers in with Haplorhines
    Many believe this system is more evolutionarily accurate!
    Tarsiers

    Strepsirhines vs. Haplorhines
    Strepsirhines: lemurs, lorises, galagos
    Haplorhines: everything else (tarsiers, New World Monkeys, Old World Monkeys, Apes, humans)
    They split around 55-80 million years ago

    1. Split occurs around 50-60mya, genetic data from molecular clock puts split at 58-71mya
    2. In general, strep possess more primitive traits, that is traits they share with the LCA of all primates, still well adapted, just do not have a whole suite of novel/derived features
    9

    Slender Loris
    Galago/Bush Baby
    Ring Tailed Lemur
    Strepsirhines

    10

    Ring-tailed lemur

    Strepsirhines

    Found in Africa and Asia (13% of Primates)
    Retain many primitive characteristics
    This does not mean that they are the ancestors of monkeys!!!

    12

    High rates of nocturnality

    Primitive Trait
    Tapetum lucidum
    Layer behind the retina
    Reflects visible light back through the retina
    Improves vision in low light conditions
    Sportive Lemur
    Retina

    13

    Post Orbital Bar: No Closure

    Primitive Trait
    Partially stereoscopic vision (primitive)
    Lack color vision (primitive)

    14

    Reliance on Olfaction

    Communication for nocturnal animals
    Ancestral trait
    Scent glands
    Marking
    Messages
    Large olfactory bulb
    Part of brain for scent
    Rhinarium  moist nose
    readily picks up scents
    Mouse Lemur
    Ring Tail Lemur

    15

    Grooming claw

    Primitive Trait
    Lemurs, Galagos, Lorises: 2nd Toe (Aye-Aye = 2-5)
    Purpose:
    Grooming
    Extracting insects

    Ruffled Lemur
    Galago

    16

    Tooth comb

    Derived Trait
    Used for:
    Grooming
    Extracting resin from trees

    Ring Tailed Lemur

    Lemuroidea : Lemurs

    Only found on the island of Madagascar
    Only non-human primate found there
    Lots of diversity
    20 mya split from Africa
    Adaptive radiation
    Represent 21% of primate genera worldwide

    18

    Lemuroidea : Lemurs
    Ring-tailed lemur
    More terrestrial
    Black and white ringed tail
    Omnivorous
    Diurnal
    Forest and spiny scrub
    Highly social
    Female dominant
    Common in Lemurs
    Sent marking
    Stink Fighting

    19

    Lemuroidea : Lemurs

    Mouse lemur
    Smallest primate
    < 1 lb. Eat insects, small vertebrates, gum, fruit, flowers, nectar, leaves Nocturnal 20 Grey mouse lemur Additional Traits Tend to have more specialized diets and behaviors than anthropoids (derived) Often fill very specific niches Lemurs on Madagascar Vertical clinging and leaping Often solitary Sifaka Clinging 22 Sifaka Lemuroidea : Aye-aye Aye-aye Nocturnal Mainly insectivorous Thin middle finger to forage for grubs Taps to find grubs Gnaws bark Uses finger to pull out grubs Solitary 24 Aye-aye Lorisoidea: Lorises Lorises Tropical Africa and Southeast Asia Nocturnal Slow-moving, deliberate stalkers of small prey 26 Lorisoidea: Lorises Slow loris Toxic bite Lick gland on their arm Secretion activates with saliva (adult/baby) Communicate by sent marking Eat small animals, fruit, gum, vegetation Hunted for exotic pet trade 27 The Bite of a Slow Loris How poisonous is the slow loris? Allergen similar to Felid 1 Cat allergen in dander Anaphylactic shock Red blood cells in urine Depends how allergic you are! 28 Lorisoidea: Galagos “Bush-babies” – Subfamily of Lorises Sub-Saharan Africa Nocturnal Vertical clingers and leapers Insectivorous 29 Lorisoidea: Galagos Can turn its head over 180 degrees Index finger more widely spaced Feeding Gripping branches Nocturnal Large Eyes Large Ears -Larger eyes and ears reflect nocturnal adaptations 30 Haplorhini 31 Tarsiers, monkeys, apes, and humans Differ from Strepsirhines in a variety of ways Larger body Larger brain-to-body size ratio More sexually dimorphic Less specialized dentition (fewer premolars) Greater reliance on vision than on smell Post-orbital closure Diurnal rather than nocturnal Tarsiers vs. all other Haplorhines Tarsiers are taxonomically problematic Prosimian/anthropoid Strepsirhine/haplorhine They possess a mixture of primitive and derived traits Divergence time of ca. 50-70 Million years ago? 1. Split occurs around 50-60mya, genetic data from molecular clock puts split at 58-71mya 2. In general, strep possess more primitive traits, that is traits they share with the LCA of all primates, still well adapted, just do not have a whole suite of novel/derived features 32 Infraorder: Tarsiiformes (Tarsiers) Tarsiers Southeast Asia Nocturnal eye larger than brain Vertical clingers and leapers Grooming claw: 2nd and 3rd Toes Highly carnivorous Lizards, frogs, insects 33 Tarsiiformes: Tarsiers Name refers to two elongated tarsals – extra leverage for leaping 34 Tarsiers

  • Species Concepts
  • ,
    Modes of
    Speciation, and
    phylogenetics

    Anthropology 2200

  • Primate classification
  • What is a Species?
  • Definition of a Species
  • • Biological species

    concept

    • Ecological species
    concept

    • Morphological species
    concept

    Biological Species
    Concept

    • “Groups of actually or potentially
    interbr

    ee

    ding natural populations, which
    are reproductively isolated from other such
    groups” – Ernst Mayr (1942)

    • Complications
    • So what do we mean by “reproductively

    isolated”?

    Lion

    Tiger

    Liger or Tigon

    Reproductive
    Isolating

    Mechanisms

    Any factor that prevents a male and female of two different “species” from
    hybridizing

    Reproductive isolation causes “species” to be recognized as distinct biological
    species

    • Example: Lions and tigers do not naturally mate with one another at present, but their territories
    overlapped in the past

    • Are they separate species today? In the past?

    So, what exactly
    do we mean by
    Reproductive

    Isolating
    Mechanisms?

    Pre-Mating
    RIMs

    Post-Mating
    RIMs

    1. Habitat Isolation 1. Sperm-egg
    incompatibility

    2. Temporal Isolation 2. Zygote inviability

    3. Behavioral Isolation 3. Embryonic inviability

    4. Mechanical
    Incompatibility

    4. Offspring inviability

    5. Offspring sterility

    Reproductive Isolating
    Mechanisms

    • Natural selection favors pre-mating
    reproductive isolating mechanisms

    • Hybrid mating in most cases would be
    a wasted reproductive effort (due to
    inviability or sterility) and natural
    selection promotes mechanisms to
    prevent such matings.

    • Not mating uses less energy than
    mating, wasting reproductive
    resources (eggs/sperm), and producing
    Non-viable offspring

  • Ecological Species Concept
  • • Defines species based on the
    uniqueness of their ecological niche
    • Formation of discrete species

    because of adaptation to
    exploit the resources in nature

    • Based on the competitive
    exclusion principle

    • Two species competing for
    the same resources can not
    both survive

  • Morphological Species Concept
  • “Classic” way of defining species

    Linnaeus

    Descriptive rather than theoretical concept

    Defines species based on shared phenotypic characteristics

    If one group of organisms consistently differs from other
    organisms, it will be defined as a separate species

    Ring Species – defined as separate
    based on Morphology .

    Species Concepts

    • Biological, environmental, and
    morphological species concepts will
    generally recognize many of the same
    “species”, although not always.

    How do we study extinct species?
    Paleospecies

    • Species defined using fossil evidence
    • What concept of species do you think applies

    best to fossils?

    Morphological?
    Biological?

    How do we study extinct species?
    Paleospecies

    • Use morphological species concept to infer biological species
    concept

    gene exchange species similarity
    CAUSE CAUSE

    gene exchange species similarity
    INFERENCE INFERENCE

    Paleospecies:
    Problems

    • Allometry  Study of the
    change in proportion of
    various parts of an organism
    as a consequence of growth

  • Paleospecies: Problems
  • • Allometry: Humans

    Paleospecies: Problems

    • Allometry: Orangutans

    Growth comparison

    H
    um

    an

    Ch
    im

    pa
    nz

    ee

    Paleospecies: Problems • Sexual dimorphism
    • Pronounced

    morphological
    differences between
    Males and Females

    • Must differentiate
    between Sex.
    Dimorphism and
    morphological
    differences between
    species in the fossil
    record

    Gorilla – Male Gorilla – Female

    Paleospecies: Problems

    • Sexual dimorphism:
    Mandrills

    Paleospecies:
    Problems

    • Variation
    • Intraspecific (within species)
    • Interspecific (between species)
    • Pathological conditions
    • At what point do we define a new

    species?
    • Lumpers vs. splitters

    How Are
    Species

    Formed?

    • Two general modes of evolutionary change
    • Anagenesis

    • Evolution of a trait or a species into another over a
    period of time

    – Cladogenesis
    • Evolution through the branching of a species or a

    lineage (ancestor species may/may not = new array)

  • Evolution does not need to be gradual
  • What is Speciation?
  • • Speciation = radiations that occur
    through cladogenesis

    • Results in one species diverging into
    multiple species

    • Ancestor species may or may not
    persist over the long term

    What is
    Speciation?

    • 4 geographic modes of
    speciation
    • Allopatric
    • Peripatric
    • Parapatric
    • Sympatric

    Allopatric
    Speciation

    • Speciation occurring via geographic isolation
    • Common in nature
    • Geographic barriers = mountains, rivers, etc.
    • Divergence = drift, dif. Mutations, dif. Selective pressures

  • Allopatric Speciation
  • • Geographical features divide groups over time
    • Ex. Grand Canyon Squirrels
    • Albert Squirrel

    • South rim
    • White bellies
    • Dark tails

    • Kaibab squirrel
    • north rim
    • black bellies
    • White Tails

    • Warming after last Ice age =
    isolated high elevation Ponderosa
    Pine forests

    • Allopatric speciation occurred

    Has been different species,
    now subspecies!

  • Peripatric Speciation
  • Subform of Allopatric
    Speciation

    Subpopulations can
    migrate to a new location
    outside the range of the

    original population

    e.g., a few individuals
    colonize an island away

    from the mainland
    populations

    Population at the edge of
    the main range of a
    species = peripheral

    isolate

    Related to Founder’s
    effect

  • Parapatric Speciation
  • • Speciation occurring when two populations are

    geographically contiguous
    • “Stepped cline” pattern of geographic variation

    • Caused by abrupt environmental changes
    • Species A adapted to one side of boundary,

    species B adapted to the other side
    • Hybrid Zone in the middle
    • Conditions for parapatric speciation are particularly

    great if the hybrid zone is a tension zone (exists
    when the hybrids between the forms on either side
    of the boundary are selectively disadvantageous)

    Sympatric
    Speciation

    • Speciation occurring in the
    same geographic location
    • Polymorphism in the

    population does not
    depend on space (in
    contrast to the stepped
    cline of parapatric
    speciation)

  • Sympatric Speciation
  • • Ex. Speciation of Cichlids of Lakes
    Nabugabo, Victoria, Tanganyika, in East
    Africa

    • Rapidly evolved (1 million years)
    • Over 500 very different species
    • Thought to be due to sexual selection

    Speciation
    Comparison

  • Speciation Events
  • • Adaptive radiation
    – The diversification of an ancestral

    group of organisms into new forms
    that are adapted to specific
    ecological niches

    – Ex:
    • The radiation of mammals

    following the extinction of the
    dinosaurs

    • Darwin’s finches

    Phylogenetics
    and Cladistics

  • Phylogeny
  • • Phylogeny
    – The study of the

    branching relationships
    of populations as they
    give rise to multiple
    descendant populations
    over evolutionary time

    – Aimed at reconstructing
    evolutionary histories

    What is
    Phylogenetics?

    – Practice of creating “phylogenetic trees”
    – Shows the pattern of evolutionary relationships

    among species
    – Can be created using living or fossil species

    • This is a HYPOTHESIS!

    How do we develop
    phylogenies?

    • Rests on our observations of traits
    displayed by organisms

    • Traits:
    • Any observable characteristics of

    an organism
    • Anatomical features
    • Developmental or

    embryological processes
    • Behavioral patterns
    • Genetic sequences

    How do we read a
    phylogenetic tree?

    • Traits are used to determine the relationship
    between species

    • Taxon
    Group of related organisms that share one

    common ancestor

    • Node
    Point where tree splits

    • Outgroup
    Taxon that is related to the groups of interest
    but that branched off earlier in evolutionary
    history

    • Root
    Base of tree
    Common lineage from which all species in the
    tree are derived

    What is
    Cladistics?

    • A phylogenetic method that uses
    shared derived traits to create
    ancestor-descendant trees
    – Shared derived traits

    (synapomorphies)
    • Trait that is shared by two

    or more taxa and their
    most recent common
    ancestor

    • Species of organisms are grouped
    into clades

    • Clade: group that consists of
    an ancestor organism and all
    its descendants

    How Do We
    Determine Clades?

    • To determine clades we need to
    determine which traits are shared
    derived traits (synapomorphies)

    • Shared derived trait (synapomorphy)
    – Homologous trait that is shared

    by two or more taxa and their
    most recent common ancestor
    but not ancestors that
    existed prior to this

    • Homoplasy (analogous trait)
    – Same trait
    – Trait not present in a

    common ancestor

    How Do We
    Determine

    Synapomorphies?
    • Try to determine whether a trait is homologous

    or analogous
    – Homologous Trait

    • In two or more species
    • Inherited from a common ancestor

    – Analogous Trait
    • In two or more species
    • Evolution independently fashioned

    similar traits in each species
    • Not from a common ancestor

    • Homologous traits are then used to determine
    clades

    Homology

    Analogy

    Divergent
    vs.

    Convergent
    Evolution

  • Divergent vs. Convergent Evolution
  • Issues for
    reconstructing

    phylogenetics of
    past species

    What features are variation within a
    species? What features distinct to
    species?

    How do you know a trait is
    homologous?

    Are sample sizes large enough?

    • Species Concepts,�Modes of Speciation, and phylogenetics
    • Primate classification

    • Slide Number 3
    • What is a Species?
      Definition of a Species

    • Biological Species Concept
    • Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms
    • So, what exactly do we mean by Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms?
    • Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms
      Ecological Species Concept
      Morphological Species Concept
      Species Concepts

    • How do we study extinct species? �Paleospecies
    • How do we study extinct species? �Paleospecies
      Paleospecies: Problems
      Paleospecies: Problems
      Paleospecies: Problems

    • Slide Number 18
    • Paleospecies: Problems
      Paleospecies: Problems
      Paleospecies: Problems

    • How Are Species Formed?
    • Evolution does not need to be gradual
      What is Speciation?
      What is Speciation?
      Allopatric Speciation
      Allopatric Speciation
      Peripatric Speciation
      Parapatric Speciation
      Sympatric Speciation
      Sympatric Speciation

    • Speciation Comparison
    • Speciation Events

    • Phylogenetics and Cladistics
    • Phylogeny

    • What is Phylogenetics?
    • How do we develop phylogenies?
    • How do we read a phylogenetic tree?
    • What is Cladistics?
    • How Do We Determine Clades?
    • How Do We Determine Synapomorphies?
    • Divergent vs. Convergent Evolution
      Divergent vs. Convergent Evolution

    • Issues for reconstructing phylogenetics of past species

    Primate Taxonomy 2
    Anthropology 2200

    Infraorder: Anthropoidea

    2

    Infraorder: Anthropoidea
    Two Parvorders

    Platyrrhini
    “Broad-nosed
    Catarrhini
    “Hook-nosed”
    2:1:3:3/2
    2:1:2:3

    3

    Anthropoids: Platyrrhini
    Central/South American Monkeys
    Latin and South America

    4

    Platyrrhini: Ceboidea
    Central/South American monkeys
    Arboreal quadrupeds
    Suspensory locomotion
    Many = Prehensile tail
    Not in African/Asian Monkeys
    Diverse diet
    Leaves, fruit, insects
    Spider Monkey

    5

    Platyrrhini: Ceboidea
    Two Families
    Atelidae
    Howler, Owl, Spider, Titi, and Woolly monkeys, Uakaris, and Sakis
    Cebidae
    Marmosets, Tamarins, Capuchins, Squirrel Monkeys

    6

    Platyrrhini: Ceboidea: Cebidae

    Marmosets/Tamarins
    Retain claws instead of nails
    Smallest Platyrrhini
    Twin (Chimerism)
    Insectivores
    Unusual dental formula
    2:1:3:2

    Golden Lion Tamarin
    Silvery Marmoset

    Emperor tamarin

    Platyrrhini: Ceboidea: Cebidae

    Capuchin monkeys
    Name from Order of Friars Minor Capuchin
    Often in Movies!

    White Fronted Capuchin

    9

    Platyrrhini: Ceboidea: Atelidae

    Includes subfamilies:
    Aotidae
    Pitheciidae
    Atelidae
    Alouattinae

    10

    Platyrrhini: Ceboidea: Atelidae

    Owl/Night Monkey
    Only truly nocturnal monkey
    Vocal calls/Sent Marking
    Susceptible to human forms of Malaria
    Used for malaria research

    Platyrrhini: Ceboidea: Atelidae

    Pitheciidae
    Titis
    Sakis
    Uakaris
    White Faced Saki
    Uakari
    Titi Monkeys (morning calls)
    Uakari
    Saki

    12

    Bald uakari monkey

    Platyrrhini: Ceboidea: Atelidae

    Spider monkeys
    Wooly monkeys
    Only monkeys with prehensile tails (aside from Howler)

    Spider Monkey
    Wooly Monkey

    14

    Platyrrhini: Ceboidea: Atelidae

    Howler monkey
    Prehensile tail
    Make loud vocalizations

    Howler monkey

    Platyrrhini: Ceboidea: Cebidae

    Howler monkey
    Male hyoid enlarged
    resonating chamber
    Loudest land animals
    Protect territory, resources, females

    17

    Anthropoids: Catarrhini

    Asian and African monkeys
    Apes
    Humans

    Different than book (chart of p. 168-169)
    18

    Catarrhini: Cercopithecoidae
    African and Asian Monkeys
    Colobinae
    Cercopithecinae

    19

    Catarrhini: Cercopithecoidae
    African and Asian monkeys
    Diverse range of habitats
    Some are arboreal while others are terrestrial
    No prehensile tail
    High level of sexual dimorphism (canines, body)

    20

    Catarrhini: Cercopithecoidae
    Ischial Callosities
    Sitting Pad
    Thickened calluses on Backside
    Only in Af/As monkeys
    Help monkeys to sleep on thin branches away from predators

    Ischial Callosity

    21

    Catarrhini: Cercopithecoidae
    Visual Estrus
    Hormonally influenced period of sexual receptivity in females
    Skin around genitals becomes inflated/red
    Advertises fertility and receptivity

    22

    Catarrhini: Cercopithecoidae: Colobinae

    Includes:
    Langurs
    Colobus Monkeys
    Proboscis Monkeys
    Mostly folivorous
    Sacculated stomachs
    Bilophodont teeth

    Langur
    Black and White Colobus Monkey

    Catarrhini: Cercopithecoidae: Colobinae
    Proboscis monkey
    Large nose may be due to sexual selection!

    Catarrhini: Cercopithecoidae: Cercopithecinae

    Includes:
    Baboons
    Macaques
    Vervet Monkeys
    Frugivores (fruit-eaters)
    Low, rounded molar cusps
    Cheek pouches

    Vervet
    Baboon

    25

    Baboons

    Anthropoids: Catarrhini: Hominoidea

    Lesser apes
    Great apes
    Humans

    27

    Catarrhines: Hominoidea

    Bonobo
    Gibbon
    Orangutan
    Gorilla
    Chimpanzee

    Anthropoids: Hominoidea

    Differ from monkeys in various ways:
    Absence of an external tail
    Larger brains
    Extended period of infant development and dependency
    Y-5 lower molar pattern
    Canine-premolar honing complex

    29

    Anthropoids: Catarrhini: Hominoidea

    Two Families:
    Hylobatidae
    Gibbons, Siamangs
    Hominidae
    Orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees, bonobos, humans

    30

    Anthropoids: Hominoidea: Hylobatidae

    Lesser apes
    Southeast Asia
    Tropical and subtropical forests
    Frugivores
    Highly territorial
    Siren songs
    Arboreal
    Brachiation

    31

    Anthropoids: Hominoidea: Hylobatidae
    Siamang
    Sexual dichromatism

    32

    Anthropoids: Hominoidea: Hominidae
    Great apes and Humans
    Orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees, and bonobos (pygmy chimpanzees) = Great Apes
    More terrestrial
    Various forms of locomotion
    Dietary diversity
    Great Apes are Knuckle walkers – aside from Orangutans

    33

    Anthropoids: Hominoidea
    Three Subfamilies:
    Ponginae (Orangutans)
    Gorillinae (Gorillas)
    Homininae (Humans, Chimps, Bonobos)
    Homininae has two Tribes:
    Panini (Chimps, Bonobos)
    Hominini (Humans)

    Anthropoids: Hominoidea: Hominidae: Ponginae

    Orangutan
    Borneo and Sumatra
    Sexually dimorphic
    Males weigh up to 200 lbs.
    Twice the size and weight of adult females
    Arboreal
    Slow climbers
    Frugivores
    Solitary lives

    35

    Orangutan
    Anthropoids: Hominoidea: Hominidae: Ponginae

    36

    Orangutan

    Anthropoids: Hominoidea: Hominidae: Gorillinae
    Gorilla
    Equatorial Africa
    Largest living primate
    Males weigh up to 400 lbs.
    Sexually dimorphic
    Knuckle-walkers
    Folivorous
    Highly cohesive groups

    38

    Anthropoids: Hominoidea: Hominidae: Gorillinae
    Gorilla

    Female
    Male

    Sexual dimorphism
    39

    Anthropoids: Hominoidea: Hominidae: Gorillinae
    Gorilla

    differences in size and shape based on sex

    Sexual dimorphism
    40

    Anthropoids: Hominoidea: Hominidae: Gorillinae
    Gorilla
    Exclusively vegetarian diet
    Large canines are to fend off other males
    Shy and gentle
    Only violent when threatened or in competition for females
    1 male multi-female

    41

    Gorilla

    Anthropoids: Hominoidea: Hominidae: Homininae: Panini

    Chimpanzee
    Equatorial Africa
    Various modes of locomotion
    Less sexually dimorphic than orangutans and gorillas
    Omnivores
    Complex social behaviors
    Highly territorial
    Genetically closer to humans than to gorillas

    43

    Anthropoids: Hominoidea: Hominidae: Homininae: Panini
    Chimpanzee

    44

    Anthropoids: Hominoidea: Hominidae: Homininae: Panini

    Bonobo
    Congo (Central Africa)
    Smaller than the “common” chimpanzee
    Longer legs and differently shaped chest
    More arboreal
    Lowland rain forest habitat
    Less excitable/aggressive
    Unique sexuality

    45

    Anthropoids: Hominoidea: Hominidae: Homininae: Panini
    Bonobo

    46

    Bonobos

    Anthropoids: Hominoidea: Hominidae: Homininae: Hominini
    Habitual bipeds
    Omnivores
    Spoken language
    Large, complex brains

    48

  • What is a Primate?
  • Anthropology 2200

  • What is primatology?
  • • The study of the behavior, ecology,
    anatomy, and evolution of non-human
    primates

    Primatology and
    Anthropology?

    • Why study primates in an anthropology class?
    • Cross-species perspective
    • Evolutionary implications
    • Evolutionary modeling
    • Insight into human behavior, morphology,

    culture

  • For example….
  • • Morphology and behavior of extant primates can help us
    understand:

    • Relationship between morphology and behavior
    • Use this to infer behavior in the fossil record
    • Better understand human evolution

    • Bipedalism

    – Orangutan Brachiation

    • Can also help us understand additional aspects of
    human behavior

    • Elevator avoidance
    • Alcoholism
    • Stress

  • Taxonomy
  • • Kingdom Animalia
    • Phylum Chordata
    • Class Mammalia
    • Order Primates

  • What unites the primates?
  • Tropical distribution
  • • Almost all non-human
    primates live in the tropics of
    South or Central America,
    Asia, or Africa

  • Order: Primates
  • • Four prominent evolutionary tendencies
    • Arboreal adaptation

    • Behaviors
    • Anatomical Characteristics

  • Dietary Plasticity
  • • Eat a wide variety of foods

    • Larger brains
    • More complex behaviors

    • Parental investment
    • Fewer offspring
    • More time invested

    Arboreal
    Adaptations

    • A generalized body structure
    • Bones of shoulders, limbs,

    hands, feet are separate
    • Clavicle

    • Keeps upper limbs at
    sides of body

    • Flexibility/highly mobile joints
    • Equal length of front and hind

    limbs
    • Long tail

    • prehensile in some
    primates

    Arboreal
    Adaptations
    • Generalized skeletal structure  Hand

    • Opposable thumb
    • Thumb  4 fingers
    • Grasping

    • Precision grip
    • Fine manipulation

    • Power grip
    • Fist-like grip around object

  • Arboreal Adaptations
  • Arboreal Adaptations

    Arboreal
    Adaptations

    • Generalized skeletal
    structure  Foot

    • Many = opposable
    big toe (hallux)

    • Grasping
    • Humans

    • Terrestrial
    • Bipedal

    Arboreal
    Adaptations

    • Generalized skeletal
    structure  Vertebral
    column

    • 4 types of vertebrae
    • Bending
    • Twisting
    • Humans

    • Coccyx = Tail
    • S-

    Shape

    vs. C-

    Shape

    Arboreal Adaptations
    • Enhanced sense of touch

    • Dermal ridges
    (finger/toe prints)

    • Primitive =
    Strepsirhines

    • Derived = higher
    primates = better
    grasp

    • Nails
    • Protection
    • Gripping

  • Grasping hands and feet
  • Prehensile tails
  • Arboreal Adaptations

    • Enhanced sense of vision
    • Stereoscopic vision

    • Both eyes see at
    the same time

    • Depth perception
    = locomotion

    • Color vision =
    insects/prey/fruit

    Arboreal
    Adaptations

    • Post-orbital bar
    • Product of eyes

    moving
    forward!

    Arboreal Adaptations

    • Forms of locomotion
    • Quadrupedalism

    • Arboreal
    • Typical arboreal quadrupeds
    • Suspensory locomotors

    • Terrestrial
    • Typical terrestrial quadrupeds
    • Knuckle walkers

    • Bipedalism

    Trend towards diurnality

    Benefits of
    diurnality

    Diurnal and
    arboreal

    • Reduced sense of smell
    • Due to enhanced vision
    • Smaller and less projecting snouts
    • Most higher primates have lost:

    • Rhinarium (external wet nose)
    • Long snout

    • Primitive primates have rhinarium
    • Loris/Lemur

    • Baboons have large snouts
    • Massive canine roots

    Dietary Plasticity

    • Primates eat a wide range
    of foods

    • Omnivorous
    • Fruit, nuts,

    seeds, leaves,
    insects, meat

    • Some specializations
    • Frugivore

    • Mainly fruit
    • Folivore

    • Mainly leaves
    • Insectivore

    • Mainly insects

    Dietary Plasticity • Generalized Heterodont
    dentition = wide range of
    foods

    • Primitive dental
    characteristics

    • Four functionally
    distinctive tooth types

    • Incisors
    • Canines
    • Premolars
    • Molars

    • 3.1.4.3
    • Ancestral dental formula

  • Primate Characteristics
  • Heterodont dentition

    Incisors:Canines:Premolars:molars

    Dental formula

    (# of upper) Incisors:Canines:Premolars:Molars

    (# of lower) Incisors:Canines:Premolars:Molars

    Primate Characteristics
    Heterodont dentition
    Incisors:Canines:Premolars:molars
    Dental formula
    (# of upper) Incisors:Canines:Premolars:Molars
    (# of lower) Incisors:Canines:Premolars:Molars

    Primate Characteristics
    Heterodont dentition
    Incisors:Canines:Premolars:molars
    Dental formula
    (# of upper) Incisors:Canines:Premolars:Molars
    (# of lower) Incisors:Canines:Premolars:Molars

    Primate Characteristics
    Heterodont dentition
    Incisors:Canines:Premolars:molars
    Dental formula
    (# of upper) Incisors:Canines:Premolars:Molars
    (# of lower) Incisors:Canines:Premolars:Molars

    Primate Characteristics
    Heterodont dentition
    Incisors:Canines:Premolars:molars
    Dental formula
    (# of upper) Incisors:Canines:Premolars:Molars
    (# of lower) Incisors:Canines:Premolars:Molars

    Dietary
    Plasticity

    • General reduction in the number of teeth

    • Dental formula = evolutionary relationships

    • Mammals  3.1.4.3 (ancestral)

    • New World Monkeys  2.1.3.3

    • Old World

    Monkeys  2.1.2.3

    • Great Apes  2.1.2.3

    Exceptions to Dietary
    Plasticity

    • Specialized adaptations
    • Canine-premolar honing complex
    • Tooth comb

    • Lemurs
    • Bilophodont vs. Y-5

    • Old World

  • Larger and more complex brains
  • Brain Size and
    Complexity in Primates

    Big Brain and behavior
    flexibility

  • Parental Investment
  • • Greater investment in young
    • Longer gestation period
    • Reduced number of offspring
    • Time, energy, and intensive

    care

    • Extended length of each stage of
    the life cycle

    • Social groups
    • Learned behaviors

    Extended
    care of
    infants

    These are all
    traits that
    unite primates

    But primates
    are also
    incredibly
    diverse

      What is a Primate?
      What is primatology?

    • Primatology and Anthropology?
    • For example….
      Taxonomy
      What unites the primates?
      Tropical distribution
      Order: Primates
      Arboreal Adaptations
      Arboreal Adaptations
      Arboreal Adaptations
      Arboreal Adaptations
      Arboreal Adaptations
      Arboreal Adaptations
      Arboreal Adaptations
      Grasping hands and feet
      Prehensile tails
      Arboreal Adaptations
      Arboreal Adaptations
      Arboreal Adaptations

    • Slide Number 21
    • Benefits of diurnality
    • Diurnal and arboreal
    • Dietary Plasticity
      Dietary Plasticity
      Primate Characteristics
      Primate Characteristics
      Primate Characteristics
      Primate Characteristics
      Primate Characteristics
      Dietary Plasticity

    • Exceptions to Dietary Plasticity
    • Larger and more complex brains

    • Brain Size and Complexity in Primates
    • Big Brain and behavior flexibility
    • Parental Investment

    • Slide Number 37
    • These are all traits that unite primates��But primates are also incredibly diverse

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