due in 24 hours
attached
Unit 7 DB: Death By PowerPoint
Describe a PowerPoint presentation that you have given or experienced as an audience member that is guilty of some features of “Death by PowerPoint.” If you’ve never seen one, describe any type of group presentation you have experienced. Then, answer the following questions:
· What about the presentation suggests the features of “Death by PowerPoint”?
· What went wrong? What worked well and how could the presentation have been improved?
In your responses to others, offer more tips on how the presentation could have been improved.
Your answers need to include your interpretation of the material that you have watched and read along with your personal experiences. It is okay to use outside sources—if you do, list the author’s name and the article’s title at the bottom of your post. Please use complete paragraphs in your posts.
Unit 7 Readings and Resources
eBook:
The full textbook for this course is available at this link:
Lumen Learning: Computer Applications for Managers
For Unit 7, please read the following sections in the textbook:
·
Why It Matters: Microsoft PowerPoint, Part 1
Why It Matters: Microsoft PowerPoint, Part 1 – Alternative Formats
·
Why It Matters: Microsoft PowerPoint, Part 2
Why It Matters: Microsoft PowerPoint, Part 1 – Alternative Formats
·
Introduction to Creating Presentations
Why It Matters: Microsoft PowerPoint, Part 1 – Alternative Formats
·
New Presentations
Why It Matters: Microsoft PowerPoint, Part 1 – Alternative Formats
· Organizaing Slides
Why It Matters: Microsoft PowerPoint, Part 1 – Alternative Formats
·
Introduction to Objects in PowerPoint
Why It Matters: Microsoft PowerPoint, Part 1 – Alternative Formats
·
Images and Clip Art
Why It Matters: Microsoft PowerPoint, Part 1 – Alternative Formats
·
Headers and Footers
Why It Matters: Microsoft PowerPoint, Part 1 – Alternative Formats
·
Views
Why It Matters: Microsoft PowerPoint, Part 1 – Alternative Formats
·
Transition Effects
Why It Matters: Microsoft PowerPoint, Part 1 – Alternative Formats
Articles, Websites, and Videos:
Please also review the following online content associated with the textbook created by Lumen Learning:
·
Introduction to Lists
·
Creating Lists
·
Modifying Lists
Review this introduction to PowerPoint:
Video Transcript –
PowerPoint Introduction
PowerPoint Introduction – Alternative Formats
This article goes into some ways to “cheat” death by Powerpoint in your presentations. It provides some useful design basics to help keep your PowerPoint professional and engaging.
· Newman, J, (2015).
Three ways to cheat death by PowerPoint
. LinkedIn.
Here is a video about creating good presentation slides and avoiding “Death by PowerPoint” issues.
Unit 7 DB: Your
Financial Literacy
Unit 7 DB: Your Financial Literacy
After viewing the resources provided, discuss your level of financial literacy with regard to investing in your education and personal goals.
· What simple steps do you take to create a financial plan?
· Explain how poor financial literacy can affect your current or future career aspirations.
Unit 7 Readings and Resources
Baldwin, A., et al. (2020).
College success
College success – Alternative Formats
. OpenStax.
· Chapter 10: Understanding Financial Literacy
·
10.1: Personal Financial Planning
10.1: Personal Financial Planning – Alternative Formats
·
10.2: Savings, Expenses, and Budgeting
10.1: Personal Financial Planning – Alternative Formats
·
10.3: Banking and Emergency Funds
10.1: Personal Financial Planning – Alternative Formats
·
10.4: Credit Cards and Other Debt
10.1: Personal Financial Planning – Alternative Formats
·
10.5: Education Debt: Paying for College
10.1: Personal Financial Planning – Alternative Formats
·
10.6: Defending Against Attack
10.1: Personal Financial Planning – Alternative Formats
Please review these additional resources as you complete the activities in this unit:
· Financial Literacy
Financial Literacy – Alternative Formats
·
The Basics of Loan Repayment
The Basics of Loan Repayment – Alternative Formats
·
Quick Sheet – Student Loan Basics
Quick Sheet – Student Loan Basics – Alternative Formats
Please review these resources to help you explore and expand your financial literacy and saving skills.
·
Finance in the Classroom
[Website]
· Vidakovic, F. (2021).
7 Habits of successful savers
. Mama Loves Money.
Unit 7 Journal:
Financial Literacy
After reviewing this week’s resources, specifically this blog article,
7 Habits of Successful Savers
(Vidakovic, 2021), we now have a better understanding of how we develop an influence over the successes we achieve and how we overcome and view previous challenges. Please answer the following journal question supporting your work with evidence from the provided resources.
· Share your thoughts on how you can synergize your savings by making sure that your money is working FOR and not AGAINST you.
Review the
Weekly Journal Assignment complete instructions and grading rubric
Unit 7 Readings and Resources
Baldwin, A., et al. (2020).
College success
College success – Alternative Formats
. OpenStax.
· Chapter 10: Understanding Financial Literacy
·
10.1: Personal Financial Planning
10.1: Personal Financial Planning – Alternative Formats
·
10.2: Savings, Expenses, and Budgeting
10.1: Personal Financial Planning – Alternative Formats
·
10.3: Banking and Emergency Funds
10.1: Personal Financial Planning – Alternative Formats
·
10.4: Credit Cards and Other Debt
10.1: Personal Financial Planning – Alternative Formats
·
10.5: Education Debt: Paying for College
10.1: Personal Financial Planning – Alternative Formats
·
10.6: Defending Against Attack
10.1: Personal Financial Planning – Alternative Formats
Please review these additional resources as you complete the activities in this unit:
· Financial Literacy
Financial Literacy – Alternative Formats
·
The Basics of Loan Repayment
The Basics of Loan Repayment – Alternative Formats
·
Quick Sheet – Student Loan Basics
Quick Sheet – Student Loan Basics – Alternative Formats
Please review these resources to help you explore and expand your financial literacy and saving skills.
·
Finance in the Classroom
[Website]
· Vidakovic, F. (2021).
7 Habits of successful savers
. Mama Loves Money.
CTC101–College Success Seminar
Weekly Journal Assignments
Due Dates: 11:59 p.m. EST, Sunday of Units 1, 2, 6, 7, and Friday of Unit 8
Points: 100 each
The purpose of the journal assignments is to be an ongoing individual conversation between you and
your instructor. All conversations in the journal are strictly between you and your instructor and
cannot be seen by other students.
Each week that a journal is assigned, you will answer specific journal questions supporting your work
with evidence from the provided resources.
• Use critical thinking about course ideas and concepts and connect them to your
experiences.
• Reflect on your experiences with a personal application and connection to learning.
• Use professional language, grammar, and spelling.
Be sure to read the criteria below by which your work will be evaluated before you write
and again after you write.
Evaluation Rubric for Weekly Journal Assignments
CRITERIA Did Not Meet Expectations Needs Improvement Competent
Meets or Exceeds
Expectations
(0-23 points) (24-29 points) (30-35 points) (36-40 points)
Content
Reflection
Reflection
states only
what was read
or heard in
class without
any further
development.
Reflection
raises ideas from the
coursework with
limited sharing about
what it means to you
and what you think
about the ideas.
Reflection shares the
meaning you
place on coursework
experiences and how
they connect to
support your
success.
Reflection reveals
critical thinking about
course ideas and
concepts that
connect the meaning
of the ideas and ways
to make them work
for you in college and
life.
(0-17 points) (18-22 points) (23-26 points) (27-30 points)
Personal
Growth
Inadequate
evidence of
reflection.
Limited evidence of
reflection on own
work with a personal
application and
connection to
learning.
Evidence of
reflection on own
work with a personal
application and
connection to
learning.
Strong evidence of
reflection on own
work with a personal
application and
connection to
learning.
(0-17 points) (18-22 points) (23-26 points) (27-30 points)
Writing
Quality
Poor writing
style lacking in
standard
English, clarity,
and language
used and/or
frequent errors
in grammar,
punctuation,
usage, and
spelling. Needs
work.
Average and/or
casual writing
style that is
sometimes
unclear and/or with
some errors in
grammar,
punctuation,
usage, and spelling.
Above-average
writing style and
logically organized
using standard
English with
minor errors in
grammar,
punctuation, usage,
and spelling.
Well written
and clearly
organized
using standard
English,
characterized
by elements of a
strong writing
style, and free
from grammar,
punctuation,
usage, and
spelling errors.
Computer Applications for Managers
Lumen Learning
Computer Applications for Managers
Lumen Learning
Computer Applications for Managers by Lumen Learning is licensed under a Creative
Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.
This courseware includes resources copyrighted and openly licensed by multiple
individuals and organizations. The bottom of each page lists copyright and licensing
information specific to the material on that page. If you believe that this courseware
violates your copyright, please contact us.
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Contents
• Module 1: Intro to Computers
• Why It Matters: Intro to Computers
• Introduction to Operating Systems
• Identifying Your Operating System (OS)
• Introduction to Terminology and Shortcuts
• Common Terminology
• Keyboard Shortcuts
• Introduction to Finding Programs and Files
• Start Menu
• Creating Files and Folders
• Organizing Files and Folders
• Deleting Files and Folders
• Introduction to Snips and Screenshots
• Snips and Screenshots
• Putting It Together: Intro to Computers
• Module 2: Internet Research
• Why It Matters: Internet Research
• Introduction to Using and Searching the Internet
• Internet Browsers
• Basic Browser Tools
• Introduction to Basic Searches
• Web Searching
• Identifying Search Results
• Opening Search Results
• Introduction to Advanced Searches
• Adjusting Search Parameters
• Image Searches
• Putting It Together: Internet Research
• Module 3: Microsoft Word, part 1
• Why It Matters: Microsoft Word, part 1
• Introduction to Using Word
• Creating a New Blank Document and Finding Your Way Around
• Saving Files
• File Extensions
• Introduction to Basic Text Formatting
• Selecting and Moving Text
• Bold, Italics, Underline
• Fonts
• Alignment, Justification, and Indentation
• Line and Paragraph Spacing
• Introduction to Lists
• Lists
• Putting It Together: Microsoft Word, part 1
• Module 4: Microsoft Word, part 2
• Why It Matters: Microsoft Word, part 2
• Introduction to Advanced File Creation and Text Formatting
• Creating a New Document from a Template
• Text Effects
• Introduction to Workspace Tools
• Spell Check and Dictionaries
• Find and Replace
• Introduction to Page Layout
• Tab Stops
• Columns
• Headers and Footers
• Introduction to Text Boxes
• Text Boxes
• Putting It Together: Microsoft Word, part 2
• Module 5: Microsoft Word, part 3
• Why It Matters: Microsoft Word, part 3
• Introduction to Tables
• Creating Tables
• Converting Text to a Table
• Formatting Tables
• Introduction to Images
• Adding Images
• Text Wrap
• Introduction to Hyperlinks
• Hyperlinks
• Introduction to Watermarks
• Watermarks
• Putting It Together: Microsoft Word, part 3
• Module 6: Microsoft Excel, part 1
• Why It Matters: Microsoft Excel, part 1
• Introduction to Using Excel
• Creating a New Workbook
• Entering Data
• Introduction to Basic Formatting and Layout
• Table Styles
• Cell Styles
• Cell Format
• Comma Styles
• Rearranging Tables
• Changing Width of Columns and Rows
• Introduction to Automating Data Entry
• Flash Fill
• SUM Data
• Putting It Together: Microsoft Excel, part 1
• Module 7: Microsoft Excel, part 2
• Why It Matters: Microsoft Excel, part 2
• Introduction to Creating Complex Workbooks
• Creating a Workbook with Multiple Worksheets
• Introduction to Using Excel for Data Analysis
• Sorting Data
• Filtering Data
• Functions
• Introduction to Charts and Sparklines
• Clustered Column Charts
• Chart Styles
• Sparklines
• Introduction to More Formatting and Layout
• Conditional Formatting
• Viewing a Worksheet
• Putting It Together: Microsoft Excel, part 2
• Module 8: Microsoft PowerPoint, part 1
• Why It Matters: Microsoft PowerPoint, part 1
• Introduction to Using PowerPoint
• Editing a Presentation
• Organizing Slides
• Views
• Introduction to Objects in PowerPoint
• Text Boxes
• Headers and Footers
• Introduction to Design Elements
• Themes
• Transition Effects
• Putting It Together: Microsoft PowerPoint, part 1
• Module 9: Microsoft PowerPoint, part 2
• Why It Matters: Microsoft PowerPoint, part 2
• Introduction to Creating Presentations
• New Presentations
• Introduction to Images and Art
• Images and Clip Art
• SmartArt
• Introduction to Videos and Arranged Objects
• Videos
• Arranging Objects
• Putting It Together: Microsoft PowerPoint, part 2
• Module 10: Integration
• Why It Matters: Integration
• Introduction to Using Word with Excel and PowerPoint
• Customized Word Templates
• Excel Table in Word Document
• Excel Chart in Word Document
• PowerPoint in Word Document
• Icons in Word
• Introduction to Using PowerPoint with Excel
• Customized PowerPoint Templates
• Excel Table in PowerPoint
• Excel Chart in PowerPoint
• Introduction to Using Internet Tools with Microsoft Office
• Internet and Excel
• Internet and Word
• Internet and PowerPoint
• Introduction to Videos in PowerPoint
• Inserting Videos in PowerPoint
• Embedding Videos in PowerPoint
• Uploading Videos in PowerPoint
• Putting It Together: Integration
• Resources: Capstone Assignment
Module 1: Intro to Computers
Why It Matters: Intro to Computers
Why learn how to use computers?
Almost every job in management uses computers in some capacity. Your ability to
effectively use computers in day-to-day tasks can be the difference between getting work
done on time or being overwhelmed with your workload. Computers make many tasks
much more efficient. You may have to invest a little time up front to learn the skills, but
once you gain some computer literacy you will find many tasks much easier and faster to
accomplish.
Here are just a few of the tasks in business management that use computers and the
programs we will cover in this course:
• keeping track of inventory
• organizing and accessing databases of customer information
• managing budgets
• writing internal communication to other employees
• designing presentations to shareholders, coworkers, or bosses
• representing the company in communication to customers
• coordinating multiple people’s schedules
• searching the internet for useful information
In order to accomplish these tasks, you will first need to develop a foundation in basic
computer literacy.
Lumen Learning authored content
• Why It Matters: Intro to Computers. Authored by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY:
Attribution
Introduction to Operating Systems
What you’ll learn to do: determine what operating system you have.
Every computer has an operating system: put simply, this is the system that allows your
computer to operate. It is important to know which operating system your computer has
because the steps to accomplish various tasks varies between operating systems. Reading
directions on how to change the desktop background in Windows 10 may not help you if
you are running Windows XP, and those directions will be useless if you are using a
Mac. However, nearly all versions of Windows and macOS are capable of doing the same
things.
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Identifying Your Operating System (OS)
Learning Objectives
• Determine what operating system you have.
An operating system (OS) is system software that manages computer hardware and
software resources and provides common services for computer programs. Nearly every
computer program requires an operating system to function. The two most common
operating systems are Microsoft Windows and Apple’s macOS. This course’s main focus will
be Windows 10 and 7.
Although this class will be focusing on Windows 10 and 7, the things you will learn in this
module can be done by any version of Windows or macOS. If you are not running Windows
10 or 7, you can find directions online by searching for the task you are trying to do and the
name of your operating system. (For example, you might search for “create folder windows
vista.”)
Windows vs. Mac
Apple logo
To identify your operating system, start by narrowing down which brand of OS you have.
Often you can determine whether you are running Windows or macOS without even
turning on your computer:
• Is there an Apple logo somewhere on your computer?
• Does your computer have a Command key (⌘) on the keyboard?
• Was your computer purchased at an Apple store?
If the answer to any of those questions is yes, then you most likely have a computer that
runs macOS.
Another good way to see whether you are running Windows or Mac is simply to turn the
computer on. As the operating system boots up, it will display a logo. A Windows logo
means you are running Windows, while an Apple logo means you are running macOS.
If you have determined that you are running Windows, there are many methods to
determine your specific operating system, not all of which are listed here. It doesn’t
matter which method you use; what’s important is figuring out which operating system
you have. If one method doesn’t work, try another.
Method 1
Press the Windows key (at the bottom of the keyboard, looks like four squares) and R key
at the same time to open the Run dialog box. Type in “winver.”
Click OK. A window should open called About Windows that tells you which operating
system you are using.
This computer is using Windows 10.
Method 2
Open the Start menu by clicking the bottom left-hand corner of your screen. If you see a
search text box, select it and then type “about” or “about your pc.” If you do not see a search
text box, then just start typing “about” or “about your pc.” Select About your PC. If you do
not see About your PC, try a different method.
This computer is running Windows 10 Home Version 1607 with a 64-bit operating system.
Method 3
Open the Start menu by clicking the bottom left-hand corner of your screen. Right-click on
Computer, then select Properties.
This computer is running Windows 7 Professional with a 64-bit operating system.
Method 4
Open the Start menu by clicking the bottom left-hand corner of your screen.If you see a
search text box, select it and then type “System Information” in the search box. If you do not
see a search text box, then just start typing “system” or “system information.” Select System
Information under Programs. If you do not see System Information, try a different method.
This computer is running Windows 7 Professional with a 64-bit operating system.
Methods 2–4 also provide additional information on your computer that is useful for
troubleshooting and determining what programs you will be able to run. For example,
many software programs have a version for a x32-based processor and another for a x64-
based processor. For the purposes of this course, you only need to know which edition of
Windows you have.
Practice Questions
An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can
view it online here: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-compapp/?p=72
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• Apple logo. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at:
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Known Copyright
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• Identifying Your Operating System (OS). Authored by: Lumen Learning. License: CC
BY: Attribution
Introduction to Terminology and Shortcuts
What you’ll learn to do: navigate programs.
This section will help you interact with the programs on your computer. Knowing how to
control windows and programs is essential for multitasking and improving your workflow.
We will also cover some terminology so you can better understand instructions, both in
this course and elsewhere.
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BY: Attribution
Common Terminology
Learning Objectives
• Manage multiple windows.
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There are several terms that are commonly used in discussions about and instructions for
computer use. This guide will define these common terms to help you read instructions.
Desktop
Desktop refers to the main screen of the computer. It is the first screen you see after
logging in. The desktop’s appearance can vary widely because it is highly customizable, but
generally desktops will feature a large image, icons, and a taskbar (covered later on this
page).
The Windows 10 desktop.
The Windows 7 desktop.
Note that the word desktop is also used to refer to a desktop computer. A desktop
computer is not portable (it stays on the desk) while a laptop computer is portable.
Window
A window is a viewing area that graphically displays a program so that the user can
interact with it. A window is adjustable, so it can take up the entire screen or just part of
the screen. Note that this is a different term from the Windows operating system—Macs
also have windows.
A Windows 7 window.
A Mac window.
The look of windows varies by operating system and program. Not every program’s
window will function the same. For example, many programs open in full screen by default,
so you will not see any of the window’s toolbars or buttons. Most windows have the same
features, which we will cover here.
Diagram of a Windows 10 window.
1. Menu bar. This toolbar contains various commands that often lead to dialog menus
(covered later on this page). Windows computers have this bar at the top of windows;
Macs have this bar at the top of the screen instead. The options contained in this
toolbar vary greatly from program to program.
2. Title bar. This shows the title of the program (in this case, Notepad) and has the
minimize, maximize/resize, and close buttons. If the window is not maximized, you
can click and drag the title bar to move the window.
3. Minimize. Minimizing a program means making the program “collapse” into the
taskbar. A minimized window is no longer visible but still running.
4. Maximize/resize. Clicking this button will maximize the window so it takes up the
whole screen. If the window is already maximized, clicking this button will resize the
window to be smaller.
5. Close. This button closes the window.
6. Resize corner. Clicking and dragging this button will change the size of the window.
Working with Multiple Windows: Resizing
Resizing windows can help you see multiple windows at once, as shown below.
PRactice Question
An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can
view it online here: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-compapp/?p=419
Menu Bar and Dialog Menus
Clicking an option on the menu bar, such as File, opens a dialog menu that gives you more
options to interact with the program.
A window with a dialog menu.
Instructions in this course—and elsewhere—will often use shorthand to indicate how to
get to a particular command through dialog menus. This shorthand separates phrases that
should be clicked with a > symbol. For example, the instructions for the screenshot above
would be “File>Save.”
Taskbar
The taskbar runs at one edge of the screen, almost always the bottom. The taskbar is used
to access the Start menu and currently running programs. Like the desktop, it is very
customizable.
Windows 10 taskbar
1. Start menu button. The appearance of the Start button varies between versions, but it
is always the left-most button of the taskbar. The Start menu can also be opened by
pressing the Windows key ( ) on the keyboard.
2. Pinned programs. Programs can be pinned to the taskbar so that they are quicker to
get to: you can open a pinned program simply by clicking on it. You can customize
which programs are pinned to the taskbar by opening a program, then right-clicking
on the program’s taskbar icon and selecting “Pin to Taskbar.” You can also unpin
pinned programs by right-clicking the program’s icon and selecting “Unpin from
Taskbar.”
3. Open (minimized) program. The icons of open programs will appear to the right of
the pinned programs. In Windows 10, the blue line beneath the icon indicates the
program is minimized.
4. System tray. The system tray is on the right side of the taskbar. It displays the date
and time and has icons that show helpful information related to computer and
program functions. The icons in the system tray vary widely from computer to
computer depending on what programs are installed and what version of Windows
you have, so do not worry if your system tray does not match the screenshots in this
course or your classmates’ system trays. In the screenshot above, from left to right in
the system tray:
– Arrow. When clicked expands to show more system tray icons
– Battery. This is a feature of laptop computers. Hover over the battery icon to
see how much charge is left.
– Network. This icon shows the status of your internet connection. In the
screenshot above, the computer is connected to the internet with a cable;
wireless connection icons often look like a fan or a bar chart.
– Sound. Clicking on the sound icon in the system tray allows you to change the
volume or mute your computer.
– Date/time.
– Notification center. When your computer needs updates or has security
notifications, those messages can be accessed here.
– Show desktop. At the very far right side of the taskbar is a thin line. Clicking the
sliver of the taskbar between that line and the edge of your screen will
minimize all programs. Hovering the mouse over that sliver of screen will allow
you to “peek” at the desktop.
Note that Macs do not have a taskbar, but they do have a similar feature called the Dock.
Working with Multiple Windows: Taskbar
The taskbar can be very useful for multitasking. By clicking between the icons of two open
windows on the taskbar, you can work in two different documents or programs at once.
Move your mouse over an icon to have a preview of the other window, then click on it to
switch.
Hover to preview the program.
Click the icon on the taskbar to switch.
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Keyboard Shortcuts
Learning Objectives
• Use keyboard shortcuts to perform tasks.
A keyboard shortcut is a series of keys you can press to complete a computer command. As
a common convention, keys that are meant to be pressed at the same time are joined by a +
in written text. For example, Ctrl+S means you should press the Ctrl and S keys at the same
time.
There are many, many keyboard shortcuts. However, you will probably only need to use a
few. We will use many of these shortcuts throughout the course.
Most Commonly Used Shortcuts
Command Shortcut Explanation
Cut Ctrl+X Copies and removes an item or text; used with
Paste
Copy Ctrl+C Copies an item or text; used with Paste
Paste Ctrl+V Inserts the last cut or copied item or text
Select All Ctrl+A Selects all text or items
Undo Ctrl+Z Undoes the last action
Redo Ctrl+Y Redoes the last thing undone
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Troubleshoot/Force
Quit
Ctrl+Alt+Delete Opens Task Manager (see note)
Close window Alt+F4 Closes window; shuts down computer if all
windows are closed
New Ctrl+N Opens a new window, tab, or document
Open Ctrl+O Opens a file or document
Save Ctrl+S Saves a file
Find Ctrl+F Opens search tools; in most programs, opens a
search box to find specific words on a page
Practice Question
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view it online here: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-compapp/?p=81
Note: Cut vs. Copy
Cut Copy
Cutting and copying can be used on files, folders, and text. Both are followed by the Paste
command. So what’s the difference between cutting and copying?
The cut command removes the selected data from its original position, while the copy
command creates a duplicate; in both cases the selected data is kept in a temporary storage
tool called the clipboard. The data in the clipboard is later inserted in the position where
the paste command is issued. The data is available to any application supporting the
feature, thus allowing easy data transfer between applications.
Think of using scissors to cut out a line of text on a printed sheet of paper and pasting it
onto another sheet of paper. The line is no longer part of the original piece of paper when
you cut it out. Now think of using a copy machine to copy the sheet of paper. The line of text
is still on the original sheet of paper.
Note: Ctrl+Alt+Delete
Ctrl+Alt+Delete is a useful tool for terminating crashed programs or shutting down a
frozen computer. Ctrl+Alt+Delete interrupts whatever your computer is doing and allows
you to shut down your computer or access the Task Manager. The Task Manager shows
every program currently being used and allows you to close unresponsive programs or
background tasks.
The Windows 10 Ctrl+Alt+Delete screen.
(Click the image to enlarge.)
Windows 10 Task Manager. To close a
program, select the program then click End
task.
Overview of Keys
Below is a diagram of the keyboard with some keys labeled. Do not be worried if your
keyboard does not match the diagram or does not have exactly the same keys.
Control Key
The control key, or Ctrl key, is essential to many common shortcuts. It does not do
anything when pressed by itself, but when pressed at the same time as other keys, it can
modify the other key’s function.
Alt Key
The alt key, or alternate key, triggers an alternate use for keys. For example, many special
characters (characters not commonly found on the keyboard, such as ¿ or ¢) are available
when pressing Alt and the right series of numbers. Like the control key, the alt key is also
essential to many common shortcuts.
Windows Key
The Windows key (also known as Win key, start key, or home) causes the start menu to
open. The logo may vary slightly from the design in the diagram above. If the Windows key
is missing, Ctrl+Esc can serve the same function.
This logo was used from 2012 to the present.
This logo was used 2002–2012.
Menu Key
The menu key, or application key, is usually represented by a small icon depicting a
pointer hovering above a menu. It is typically found on the right side of the keyboard
between the right Windows logo key and the right control key (or between the right alt key
and the right control key). The menu key is frequently omitted in the interest of space,
particularly on portable and laptop keyboards. The key’s primary function is to launch a
context menu with the keyboard rather than with the usual right-mouse button. It can be
used when the right-mouse button is not present on a mouse.
Escape Key
The escape key, or Esc, is at the top-left corner of the keyboard. It can be used as a shortcut
in dialog boxes to close programs.
Print Screen Key
The print screen key, or Prt Sc key, is used for taking screenshots. Pressing Prt Sc will
take a snapshot of the entire screen, and pressing Prt Sc+Alt will take a snapshot of just the
currently selected window. The default save location of screenshots taken
is C:\Users\
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More Shortcuts (If You Really Want Them)
For a full list of Windows shortcuts, consult Microsoft’s list of shortcuts.
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Vectors
Introduction to Finding Programs and Files
Failing to organizing your files makes it harder to find them later.
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What you’ll learn to do: locate and manage files and folders.
As you use your computer to create and download files, it’s easy to become buried in a sea
of tiny icons with vague names. Just as it is important to organize papers so that you can
find them later, it is important to organize your computer files by creating folders and
putting files inside of them.
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Start Menu
Learning Objectives
• Navigate the Start menu to locate programs, files, and settings.
The Start menu provides access to every program installed on the computer. To open the
Start menu, click the the Start menu button at the bottom-left corner of the screen or press
the Windows key on the keyboard.
Windows 7 start menu
Windows 10 start menu
Frequently Used Programs
In Windows 7 and older operating systems, the most frequently used programs are listed in
the left section of the Start menu, with the folder All Programs near the bottom-left corner.
The All Programs folder leads to every program installed on the computer. Windows 10
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does not have the All Programs folder, but instead lists all programs on the left section of
the start menu, with the most used at the top.
Windows 7 frequently used programs
Windows 10 frequently used programs
Control Panel
The Start menu also provides access to Control Panel, a settings program that allows you to
change the computer’s settings. In Windows 7 and older, Control Panel is labeled Control
Panel on the right section of the Start menu, while in Windows 10 it is represented by a
gear icon on the left above the Start button.
Windows 7
Windows 10
The Start menu also provides a search text box or search button. Press the search button or
type a word in the search box to search the computer for a program or file. (In Windows 10,
the search box is not visible, but typing will trigger a search for what is being typed.)
Windows 7 search
Windows 10 search
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Open a Program
Like dialog menus, the Start menu also can use the > shorthand in instructions for
navigating. For example, in Windows 7, the snipping tool is at Start>All
Programs>Accessories.
Shutting Down
You can also use the Start menu to turn your computer off. In Windows 7 and older, the
power button is usually marked Shut Down near the right corner of the Start menu. In
Windows 7, clicking the arrow to the right of the Shut Down button gives you additional
options. In Windows 10, the power button is a power icon located on the left directly above
the Start menu button. Clicking it will also provide additional options.
Windows 7
Windows 10
A Look at Some Shut Down Options
Not every shut down option is available on every version of Windows, but here are some
common shut down options and what they mean.
• Switch user: Switch between user accounts.
• Log off: Logs you out of the computer. The computer is still on, but programs are
closed and you must enter your password to use the computer again.
• Lock: Locks the computer. You will not be logged out, and programs will still be
running, but you must enter your password to use the computer again.
• Restart: Logs you out of the computer, closes all programs, shuts down Windows,
turns the computer off, then turns the computer back on and restarts Windows. You
will have to enter your password to use the computer again.
• Shut down: Logs you out of the computer, closes all programs, shuts down Windows,
and turns the computer off.
• Sleep: This is sort of like pausing the computer. The screen will go dark, and you will
be unable to use the computer until you wake it up by shaking the mouse or pressing a
key on the keyboard. The computer will appear to be off. However, what is actually
happening is that the computer will go into a low-power state. It will still be on, and
programs will still be running, but the computer will use considerably less power. This
is useful because waking the computer from sleep is much quicker than waiting for the
computer to turn on and boot up Windows. By default, shutting your laptop lid will put
the computer to sleep, and reopening the lid will wake the computer up.
Note about Windows 8
Windows 8 has a Start screen rather than a Start menu because Windows 8 was designed
primarily for tablets. You can find instructions on navigating the Windows 8 start screen
here.
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Creating Files and Folders
Learning Objectives
• Create files and folders.
File Explorer
In Windows, the primary way of interacting with files and folders is through the File
Explorer application. (In older versions of Windows, this may be called Windows Explorer.
In Macs, the equivalent would be Finder.)
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There are a couple of ways to open File Explorer. The shortcut Win+E will open File
Explorer. It can also be opened by clicking the Start button and typing “File Explorer” or by
right-clicking any folder and selecting Open. By default, File Explorer is pinned to the task
bar (see below), and it can be opened from there.
Open the Start menu and type “File Explorer.”
Find File Explorer pinned to the taskbar.
Right-click a folder and select Open.
Some folders already exist in File Explorer, such as Documents, Desktop, and Downloads.
(Documents may be called “My Documents” in older versions of Windows). You can create
more folders or folders within folders to allow for better organization.
To create a folder, right-click, then select New>Folder.
Right-click in File Explorer, then select New>Folder.
In Windows 7, there is a New folder button near the top of the window. In Windows 10, you
can also click the Home tab, then the New Folder button.
Windows 7 New folder button
Windows 10 New folder button
Renaming Files
To rename a file or folder, right-click the file or folder, then select Rename.
You can also click the name of the file or folder once, wait one second, then click the name
of the file or folder again.
Note that in Windows, a file cannot contain any of the following characters: \ / : * ? ” <
> |. This is because those characters have special meaning in Windows. (For example \ is
included in file paths.) If Windows encounters a file or folder with those symbols, it could
potentially misread the file or folder name and cause problems. As a precaution, Windows
will not let you save files or folders with those characters, so don’t worry about saving a file
with those characters in the name by mistake.
Macs are less stringent about what characters can be included in a file or folder’s name;
only the colon (:) cannot be used. However, it is a good practice to avoid using the
Windows-prohibited characters in file names because the file name will be
automatically changed when moved to a Windows computer.
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Organizing Files and Folders
Learning Objectives
• Organize files and folders.
Finding a Specific Folder or File: File Paths
When looking for a specific folder or file, it is helpful to follow the file path. The file path
tells you what folders to click on to get to the file. Read it left to right to show what folders
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to click on to get to the file; read it right to left to show which folders are nested in each
folder.
For example:
C:\Users\Sierra Rowan\Documents\Projects\suppliers
This file path means that the file is in the suppliers folder, which is in the Projects folder,
which is in the Documents folder, which is in the Sierra Rowan username folder, which is in
the Users folder, which is on the C drive of the computer.
Note that the backslash is another shorthand format you might see in instructions to
indicate which folder is being discussed. (For example, “Go to the Documents\Office
Templates folder”)
Traveling the File Path
Rather than remembering the file path for a specific file, you can use the toolbar at the top
of File Explorer or the Properties window.
Toolbar Method
For example, the screenshot below shows a folder in Windows 7 called New folder. The file
path for this folder is C:\Users\user\Documents\New folder. In the screenshot below, the
user could click Documents to go up one folder to the Documents folder, and the small
double-arrow on the left to go up to higher folders such as user.
The screenshot shows a folder in Windows 7 called New folder. The file path for this folder
is C:\Users\user\Documents\New folder. The user could click Documents to go up one
folder to the Documents folder, and the small double-arrow on the left to go up to higher
folders such as user.
Clicking the blank space to the right of the folder name will reveal the entire file path,
which can be copied and pasted elsewhere.
Properties Method
Right-click the file or anywhere in the folder and select Properties. A window will pop up
displaying the file path of the file or folder. (Note that it does not include New folder itself.)
Practice Question
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Selecting and Moving Files
There are several ways to move files:
• Click and drag the file into a folder.
• Click a file, cut using Ctrl+X, then paste into the new folder using Ctrl+V
• Click a file, copy using Ctrl+C, then paste into the new folder using Ctrl+V (leaves the
original file where it is)
– Note that the copies are not connected; edits made to one copy will not be
reflected in the other copy.
• Right-click a file, select either Copy or Cut in the dialog menu, then right-click in the
folder and select Paste.
Moving Multiple Files
There are a few different ways to select multiple files (which we’ll discuss below). Once
you’ve selected multiple files, anything you do to a single file will be done to all selected
files. (For example, clicking and dragging will move all selected files, hitting Ctrl+C will
copy all selected files, etc.)
You can select multiple files at once using the following shortcuts: Hold down Ctrl while
clicking to select multiple files. Hold down Shift while clicking to select two files and all the
files between them. Press Ctrl+A to select all files. (Note that when using Ctrl+A, you can
use Ctrl+Click to deselect files. You’ll want to deselect the destination folder, since a folder
cannot be in itself.)
Ctrl+Click
Click+Shift+Click
Ctrl+A
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Deleting Files and Folders
Learning Objectives
• Delete and restore files and folders using the Recycle Bin.
To delete a file or folder (or multiple selected files), right-click on the file and select Delete.
You can also select the file and hit the Delete key on the keyboard. Deleting a folder deletes
all its contents as well.
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You may get a dialog prompt that asks if you want to move the file to the recycling bin. If
that happens, say yes. If you didn’t get a dialog prompt, the file was still sent to the Recycle
Bin. (The Mac equivalent is called Trash.) Deleted files are not gone forever; they are
sent to the Recycle Bin.
Recycling Bin
An empty and occupied Recycle Bin
Deleted files are not gone forever. When a file is deleted, it is sent to the Recycle Bin. The
Recycle Bin can be found on the Desktop. Its icon resembles a recycle bin or trash can, and
the icon changes depending on whether the Recycle Bin contains any files.
The recycle bin is a holding place for deleted files. To permanently delete a file, you can
delete it again from the Recycle Bin, or you can empty the Recycle Bin. It is recommended
you empty the Recycle Bin every once in a while to free up space.
If you delete something by accident, or if you change your mind about a deleted file, you
can un-delete it by restoring the file from the Recycle Bin.
To restore or permanently delete a file, right-click on the file and select either Restore or
Delete. Deleted files are permanently deleted; restored files are restored to their original
location before being deleted.
Right-clicking a file
You can restore or permanently delete individual files or multiple files at once using the
Manage option on the toolbar.
In the toolbar in the screenshot above, from left to right:
• Empty Recycle Bin: Permanently deletes everything in the Recycle Bin.
• Recycle Bin properties: Allows you to choose how much space to allot to the Recycle
Bin. When the Recycle Bin reaches capacity, it will automatically delete its oldest files.
The Recycle Bin properties also has an option to automatically delete files
permanently. (Unless you know what you are doing, it is recommended you leave
Recycle Bin properties alone.)
• Restore all items: Restores everything in the Recycle Bin to its former location.
• Restore the selected items: Restores only the file or files you have selected.
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Introduction to Snips and Screenshots
What you’ll learn to do: take a screenshot.
A screenshot is a saved image of what is displayed on a computer screen. It is useful for
showing others what is on your screen, and it is how you will submit some assignments in
this course.
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Snips and Screenshots
Learning Objectives
• Take a screenshot.
You can take a snip, or a screenshot that is of only part of the screen, with the Snipping
Tool, or you can take a screenshot of the entire screen with the Print Screen button.
Snipping Tool
In Windows 10, you can open the snipping tool by going to Start>Windows
Accessories>Snipping Tool, or by opening the Start menu and typing “Snipping Tool.” In
Windows 7, you can open the snipping tool by going to Start>All
Programs>Accessories>Snipping Tool. Older versions of Windows might have the snipping
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tool in a similar location; however they may not have the snipping tool at all, in which case
the Print Screen button should be used to take screenshots.
The Windows 10 snipping tool
The snipping tool will open a small window with New, Cancel, and Options buttons. You can
take rectangular, freeform, window, or full-screen snapshots. Windows 10’s snipping tool
also has a Delay button, which can be helpful for capturing menus or dialog boxes.
Take a Rectangular Screenshot with the Snipping Tool
Click New, then click and drag over the portion of the screen you want to screenshot. The
snipping tool window will disappear as soon as you start clicking and dragging to take your
screenshot. (If you hit New by mistake you can cancel the snip by clicking the cancel button
before you click and drag.)
Once you’ve captured the screenshot, the snipping tool window will reappear with some
new options available.
Save. Copy. Send to. Pen. Highlighter. Eraser.
1. Save. Saves the current screenshot. If you do not save the screenshot, it will be
automatically deleted when you take a new screenshot or close the snipping tool.
2. Copy. Copies the current screenshot so you can paste it into an image editing program,
like Paint, GIMP, or Photoshop.
3. Send to. Opens Microsoft Outlook so you can email the screenshot to someone.
Clicking the dropdown arrow to the right of the button allows you to choose whether
to send the screenshot in the email or as an attachment.
4. Pen. Allows you to draw on and mark the screenshot. Clicking the dropdown arrow to
the right of the button allows you to change the color of the pen.
5. Highlighter. Allows you to highlight anything on the screenshot.
6. Eraser. Erases the effects of the pen and highlighter tools. (Note that Ctrl+Z does not
work on the pen or highlighter tool; you must use the eraser to correct mistakes.)
Don’t forget to save your screenshot!
Other Screenshots with the Snipping Tool
By default, the snipping tool is set to take rectangular screenshots. You can change this by
clicking the dropdown arrow to the right of the New button and choosing between free-
form, rectangular, window, and full-screen snips.
Free-form snip: Draw an Window snip: Pick a Screen snip: Take a
irregularly shaped
screenshot.
window to take a
screenshot of it
screenshot of the entire
screen.
Timed Screenshots with the Snipping Tool
Some things, such as dialog menus, are hard to take a screenshot of. Timed screenshots are
especially useful for taking screenshots of these dialog menus or other click-triggered
items, since the delay gives you enough time to open those items.
To take a timed screenshot, click the arrow to the right of the Delay button, then select how
many seconds you want the snipping tool to wait before taking the screenshot. The default
setting is 0.
After setting the number of seconds to delay, click New to start the timer. For example, if
you selected a 5-second delay, once you click the New button you have five seconds to get
your screen ready for a screenshot. At the five-second mark, the screen will freeze in place
and the snipping tool will reappear. You can then take a screenshot using whichever
shape (free-form, rectangular, window, full-screen) you previously selected with the New
dropdown menu.
Getting the timing right can be tricky, but don’t worry—you can always try again by taking
a new screenshot. Only the screenshots you save using the Save button are kept.
Taking a delayed screenshot
Practice Question
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NOTE
If you are running Windows 8 or older and do not have the Delay button, you can still take a
screenshot of dialog menus or click-triggered items with the Print Screen button.
Print Screen
As previously mentioned in Keyboard Shortcuts, another way to take a screenshot is to use
the Print Screen button (Prt Scn). Pressing just the Print Screen button will take a picture of
everything visible on your computer screen; Pressing Prt Scn+Alt will take a picture of the
currently active window (the window you last interacted with). Screenshots taken with the
print screen button must be pasted (with Ctrl+V) into an image editing software such as
Paint, GIMP, or Photoshop.
Screenshots on a Mac
On Mac computers, pushing Command+Shift+3 will take a full-screen screenshot. Pushing
Command+Shift+4 then clicking and dragging will create a rectangular screenshot. Hitting
Command+Shift+4+Space and then clicking a window will create a window screenshot.
Mac users can also use the Grab tool, found in the Applications/Utilities folder. By default,
Mac screenshots are saved to the desktop.
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Putting It Together: Intro to Computers
Now that you know some of the basic terminology and have some basic organization
principles down, you are one step closer to computer literacy. In the rest of this course, you
learn about the internet and some essential software programs commonly used in
business.
Remember if you get stuck or can’t remember how to do something from this module, you
can always come back and review.
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Module 2: Internet Research
Why It Matters: Internet Research
Why learn how to run an internet search?
In today’s world, businesses depend heavily on computer technology and its connection to
the World Wide Web to access vast amounts of information, to conduct research, and to
communicate quickly with other business and customers. Understanding how to access and
use that information is vital to both small and large business.
Managers frequently create reports and presentations to communicate company and
competitive landscape information to a variety of audiences. The ability to understand web
browsers and to effectively search for needed data, images, articles, and other information
has become a critical skill to have in the global business world of today.
This module focuses on the basic skills needed to conduct meaningful and useful searches
with the internet for business. The lessons to learn in this module include:
• Identifying and understanding web browser basics.
• Conducting searches in the web.
• Searching for images.
• Understanding a variety of tools to modify and narrow searches.
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Introduction to Using and Searching the Internet
What you’ll learn to do: access and navigate the internet.
The ability to identify and operate a web browser is a crucial skill in today’s business
environment. In addition to browser identification, a basic understanding of general
browser navigation assist you in searches, presentations, and beyond. While different
browsers have different features, there are a lot of similarities among them.
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Internet Browsers
Learning Objectives
• Identify three main browsers used to access the internet.
A web browser (commonly referred to as a browser) is a software application for
retrieving, presenting, and traversing information resources on the World Wide Web (also
known as the internet or the Net). The most popular web browsers are Google Chrome,
Microsoft Edge (formerly Internet Explorer), Mozilla Firefox, and Apple’s Safari. If you have
a Windows computer, Microsoft Edge (or its older counterpart, Internet Explorer) are
already installed on your computer. If you are running an Apple computer, you already
have Safari installed on your computer. You may also have other browsers installed on
your computer. If the browser you want to use is not installed on your computer, download
links for Chrome and Firefox are in their respective sections below.
This course will focus first on the three primary browsers (Chrome, Firefox, and Edge) and
then walk through a set of tools and skills which can be used in any browser.
Identifying Browsers
There are three primary browsers that are used to access the internet that you need to be
able to identify and use. Each of these browsers is made by a separate company, and has a
different look, but there are many tools and shortcuts that can generally be used on any of
the browsers.
Microsoft Edge
You have most likely heard the name of one or more of these browsers, but let’s first
identify the Microsoft Edge browser.
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
This is the icon associated with the Edge
browser. This is a recent change to the
original Microsoft browser which was
called Internet Explorer.
The older Internet Explorer (IE) icon may be on
your desktop, but the Edge browser is the
preferred browser for Microsoft now. For your
reference, the older IE icon looked like this.
Unlike other browsers, which must be downloaded, Microsoft Edge (or Internet Explorer)
comes with Windows. That means if you have a Windows computer, Edge (or Explorer) is
already on your computer. The Edge icon on a Windows 10 computer system can be found
either on the bottom taskbar or along the side. Click on the icon with the mouse and it will
open the browser. The icon might be in slightly different places on your desktop, but look
for the icon and double click on it to open the browser. Regardless of which version of
Windows you have, you can also open the browser from the start menu. Select the start
button, and when you see the icon for Edge, select it and it will open.
After clicking with the mouse on the Edge icon, a window will open up and will look like
this window if new (#1), or may have a news page displayed (#2), or it will open to the
business default page that has already been established by the company’s Information
Technology (IT) department.
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Google Chrome
One of the most popular web browsers is Google Chrome (often simply referred to as
Chrome). This icon is associated with the Chrome browser. This browser will be used as an
example in this course in order to learn basic browser navigation skills and perform the
other assignments and tasks associated with this module.
If Chrome is on your computer, the Chrome browser icon can be found on the Windows 10
desktop in the bottom task bar or along the side. Regardless of which version of Windows
you have, you can also open the browser from the start menu. Select the start button and
type in Chrome. If the Chrome browser is on your computer, it will be displayed in the
menu, where you can now see the icon and select it to open.
If you wish to use this browser but do not have it on your computer, it can be downloaded
and added by going to this website https://www.google.com/chrome/ and selecting the
Download option from the top menu.
https://www.google.com/chrome
After clicking on the Chrome icon, a window will open up and look like this window, or it
will open to the business default page that has already been established by the company’s
IT department. You may already notice that some of the features have similarities between
the browser windows. Now to the final browser identification.
Mozilla Firefox
Mozilla Firefox (often simply referred to as Firefox) is a browser created by the company
Mozilla and is another browser frequently used to “surf” or search the World Wide Web.
This is the icon associated with the Firefox browser.
If Firefox is on your computer, the Firefox icon on your Windows 10 computer system can
be found either on the bottom taskbar or along the side. The icon might be in slightly
different places on your desktop, but look for the icon and click on it to open the browser.
Just like the other two browsers, it may also be opened in the Start menu box by typing
Firefox, then selecting the option to open it.
If you wish to use this browser but do not have it on your computer, you can open a
browser that you do have and use this address to download the Firefox browser
https://www.mozilla.org/en-US/firefox/ onto your computer.
After clicking on the Firefox icon, a window will open and look similar to this window, or
will be on a default page that has been set up by the company.
https://www.mozilla.org/en-US/firefox
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CC licensed content, Original
• Internet Browsers. Authored by: Sherri Pendleton. Provided by: Lumen Learning.
License: CC BY: Attribution
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• Definition of web browser. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at:
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Public domain content
• Mozilla Firefox logo. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at:
http://logos.wikia.com/wiki/Firefox. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright
• Microsoft Edge logo. Located at: http://logos.wikia.com/wiki/Microsoft_Edge.
License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright
• Google Chrome logo. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at:
http://logos.wikia.com/wiki/Google_Chrome. License: Public Domain: No Known
Copyright
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_browser
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
http://logos.wikia.com/wiki/Firefox
https://creativecommons.org/about/pdm
http://logos.wikia.com/wiki/Microsoft_Edge
https://creativecommons.org/about/pdm
http://logos.wikia.com/wiki/Google_Chrome
https://creativecommons.org/about/pdm
https://creativecommons.org/about/pdm
Basic Browser Tools
Learning Objectives
• Identify basic navigation tools used in a browser.
Now that you are familiar with what the three main browsers look like, where to locate
them, and how to open them, it’s time to learn a few of the basic tools to navigate and use a
browser window. Even though we are the Chrome browser as an example to show these
tools, they can be used in almost any browser.
1. Arrow Buttons. These two arrows navigate the browser back (the left arrow) to a
previously viewed webpage or forward (the right arrow) to more currently viewed
webpages. These buttons can be pushed more than once to cause the browser to go
back or forward further to web pages rendered in a browser session’s history.
2. Refresh Button. This button reloads a webpage. Refreshing will update the
information on a webpage if it has changed. If a webpage has not completely loaded,
refreshing will reload the page so that it completely renders on the screen.
3. New Tab Button. Opens a new page in the same window when selected. This option
allows for many websites to be open but contained within one main window frame.
This keeps the desktop from being cluttered with too many open windows.
A browser with many tabs open will look to this.
4. Address Bar. This text field on a browser that identifies the webpage currently being
viewed in a browser window. All address bars are located at the top of the browser
window. A user can type in a new address to navigate to a new webpage. Each website
on the internet is reached by a web address known as a URL (Uniform Resource
Locator) that references a specific location on the internet. Type a URL into the
address bar of a browser, then press the Enter (Return) key on the keyboard to make
the browser load the webpage associated with the URL. As browsers have gotten more
sophisticated, most do not require for http:// or even the www to be typed in order
for the webpage to be discovered.
5. Resizing and Closing Buttons. As covered in Common Terminology, these buttons
allow a user to change the size of a browser window.
a. Minimize Button. Represented by an underscore in the upper right corner of the
window. When minimized, the browser will remain on the taskbar but not be visibly
open on the desktop.
b. Maximize Button. Represented by a square in the upper right corner of the window.
When maximized, a browser window will enlarge a window, typically filling the entire
computer screen.
c. Close Browser Button. The button in the upper right corner which is an X will
terminate a browser session. This button allows a user to quickly close a browser
window when they are finished surfing the internet. Note: If there are multiple tab
windows open a browser it will usually ask if you want to close all of the tabs before
shutting down the browser.
6. Menu Button. In Chrome, the menu is indicated by three vertical dots in the upper
right corner of the browser window (Edge uses three horizontal dots; Firefox uses
three stacked horizontal lines). Once the menu button is selected a dropdown menu
will appear.
Dropdown Menu. Once the menu button (#1) is clicked, it will display a dropdown
menu (#2) with a variety of choices.
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Hyperlinks
A hyperlink (also called a link) is a section of text, an image, graphic or icon that is linked to
a specific webpage, image, file or object. This is commonly seen in a browser as text, often a
blue color.
Once the link is selected, the webpage automatically navigates to the linked webpage, icon,
image, graphic or file. This is one of the main tools used when conducting a search on the
web.
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Bonus Tool
If you are ever asked by a support technician for the version of your browser, a quick way
to discover your version is to go to this website http://www.whatsmybrowser.org/. It will
tell you the browser type and additional information (like the operating system you are
working with on your computer) so you know how your browser is configured.
Browsers and the World Wide Web
Now that you are more familiar with web browsers and their navigation, here is an
explanation of the bigger picture about how they work. Watch this video to understand
how browsers link you to the World Wide Web.
http://www.whatsmybrowser.org/
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CC licensed content, Original
• Browser Browser Tools. Authored by: Sherri Pendleton. Provided by: Lumen
Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
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• World Wide Web in Plain English. Authored by: Common Craft. Located at:
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Introduction to Basic Searches
What you’ll learn to do: perform basic web searches.
Being able to conduct an effective web search can help you enhance your business
presentations, class reports, or personal information gathering and problem-solving. The
basic tools for search can be used on any web browser.
CC licensed content, Original
• Introduction to Basic Searches. Authored by: Sherri Pendleton. Provided by: Lumen
Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
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Web Searching
Learning Objectives
• Perform a web search using two different search engines.
The most productive way to conduct a search on the internet is through a search engine. A
web search engine is a software system designed to search for information on the World
Wide Web. The search results are generally presented in a line of results often referred to
as search engine results pages (SEROs). The information may be a mix of web pages,
images, and other types of files. Some search engines also mine data available in
databases or open directories.
There are a number of various search engines available and some of them may seem
familiar to you. The top web search engines are Google, Bing, Yahoo, Ask.com, and
AOL.com. For the purpose of this course, we will be searching using the Google Chrome
web browser, and search first with the Google search engine and then Microsoft’s Bing
search engine.
Searching on Chrome
Your supervisor at Rowan Retail asked you to find out what the most popular kids toys are
this year. He wants to have those toys stocked in the store for the upcoming holiday season.
In order for you to find out that information, you turn on a computer and get ready to
conduct a search on the internet.
The first step is to open a Chrome browser by clicking on the desktop icon or the icon on
the computer desktop’s taskbar. Once the browser window is open, type www.google.com
into the address bar on the top of the browser window and press the Enter (or Return) key
on the keyboard.
The browser now displays the large Google search bar. As you begin to enter the phrase
most popular toys of 2017 into the search bar, notice how the search bar moves to the top of
the screen as the words are typed. This movement is normal; continue to type the phrase.
As the words are typed, the search engine will display a dropdown list of suggested search
options. At this point either continue typing the phrase or select the option of most popular
toys 2017. Selecting a suggestion option is done in two ways; either by using the mouse to
click on the desired option, or by using the down arrow key on the keyboard to select an
option, then pushing the Enter (or Return) key.
http://www.google.com/
The search is now entered and the webpage displays the results of your search. Notice how
the results are displayed. Box #1 is the first page of the search results. Box #2 is an
advertisement targeted to be relevant to the search. The search results in the list are titled
by hyperlinks in a larger font and in a blue color. These links direct you to a website with
information about the search. The advertisements on the right side are linked to something
to buy. When conducting a search for information, the primary focus is on the list of search
results, not the advertisements.
Read through the search results title and select the one most closely matching the
information you are searching for to give your boss. Click on the results which seem most
relevant to the search. Using these results, you can tell your boss what the top toys are for
the season.
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Microsoft Bing Search
Now search in a different search engine—Bing.
The general manager of the Rowen Retail asks you for ideas to improve the store’s
customer service experiences. She wants to be able to hear about customers’ experiences in
a timely manner and address any service issues that are discovered. She would also like to
generate ideas for creating delightful experiences for the store customers. You decide to try
searching for ideas on the Bing search engine, so you turn on a computer and get ready to
conduct search on the internet.
The first step is to open a Chrome browser by clicking on the desktop icon or the icon on
the computer desktop’s taskbar. With the browser window now open, type www.bing.com
in the browser’s address bar and press the Enter (or Return) key. Notice that with Bing, the
main web page is always a photograph or picture.
Now that the Bing search page is open, type in your key words, retail customer service
improvement, into the search bar. You see suggestions begin to appear, but none of them
are what you are searching for so keep typing.
http://www.bing.com/
Now that you have typed in your full search phrase, push the Enter (or Return) button or
click on the blue magnifying glass to the right of the search box. The search results will look
like this:
This search displays similarity to the Google search display, with one difference. To the
right on the page are suggestions for related searches which you can click on to search with
similar yet different keywords and phrases. Like the Google search, the first few search
results are ads for companies or software related to your search. These are indicated by the
“Ad” label placed before the web address. In order to discover more results, pull the scroll
bar down the page.
If you select the top result it links to an article from Inc. Magazine about improving the
customer service experience. Reading through this article will give you information and
ideas which you can research further and present to your boss. Scan through the other
results on this page. There are many additional articles, ideas, and search results to
discover as you continue to research more ideas.
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You have now seen two different search engines, two different searches, and a few different
ways to begin searching. Keep reading through the next sections to learn additional ways to
become more effective when searching on the web.
For more information about URLs and the information within web addresses, watch the
video below.
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CC licensed content, Original
• Web Searching. Authored by: Sherri Pendleton. Provided by: Lumen Learning.
License: CC BY: Attribution
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• Definition of search engine. . Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_search_engine. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-
ShareAlike
• Internet Domains: what Web addresses mean. Authored by: The Vermont Council on
Rural Development. Located at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cg6-EPcNAoI.
License: CC BY: Attribution
Public domain content
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_search_engine
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
• AOL logo. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: http://logos.wikia.com/wiki/AOL.
License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright
• Ask.com . Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: http://logos.wikia.com/wiki/Ask.com.
License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright
• Google logo. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at:
http://logos.wikia.com/wiki/Google. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright
• Microsoft Bing logo. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at:
http://logos.wikia.com/wiki/Bing. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright
• Yahoo search logo. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at:
http://logos.wikia.com/wiki/Yahoo!_Search. License: Public Domain: No Known
Copyright
Identifying Search Results
Learning Objectives
• Identify number of results from each search.
Number of Search Results
In the previous section, you learned how to conduct a web search in a search engine. How
do you know how many results from a search you received? Let’s go take a look.
First, open the Chrome browser; make sure you use the Google search box and type in a
search for accounting terminology. The results will look similar to this page:
http://logos.wikia.com/wiki/AOL
https://creativecommons.org/about/pdm
http://logos.wikia.com/wiki/Ask.com
https://creativecommons.org/about/pdm
http://logos.wikia.com/wiki/Google
https://creativecommons.org/about/pdm
http://logos.wikia.com/wiki/Bing
https://creativecommons.org/about/pdm
http://logos.wikia.com/wiki/Yahoo!_Search
https://creativecommons.org/about/pdm
https://creativecommons.org/about/pdm
Look just above the definition box to see a large number: 32,800,000. This is the total
number of accessible webpages and images about accounting terminology. It also took the
search engine only 0.37 seconds to find all of this information. Amazing!
Change the search key words just a bit to see how the number of results changes. Type in
accounting terms and see how many results are displayed.
The small change in keywords decreased the results to 247,000,000. Any keyword search
conducted will return a number of results which you can see displayed like these examples.
Often when there are so many search results it may become more difficult to conduct
effective research on a topic. There are ways to narrow down the results and conduct a
more focused search which we will go over a little later. Before we leave this subject
however, there is one more way in Google search to visually see the size of the search
results. Scroll down to the bottom of the search results page.
The larger the number of Os in the Google logo, the more results from the search you just
created.
Now you know how to discover the number of your search results. This number changes
for each search result. Have some fun and play around with searches to see the numbers
change.
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Bonus Search Navigation Tools
Here are a few bonus tools for navigating through search results.
1. Under the Google logo there are numbers. If the number 3 is selected, the third search
result page will be displayed. If the number 6, then the sixth search result page is
displayed, and so on.
2. Selecting the right arrow button takes the browser window to the very next search
result page (page 2) and continues to go page by page (3, 4, 5, etc.) as long as you click
the arrow button.
3. Clicking on the Next word navigates the browser window to the very next search result
page (page 2) and continues to go page by page (3, 4, 5, etc.) as long as you click the
arrow button.
4. Once past the first results page a left arrow and Previous option appear. Use either of
these to navigate to previous search result pages.
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• Identifying Search Results. Authored by: Sherri Pendleton. Provided by: Lumen
Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
Opening Search Results
Learning Objectives
• Open the first web search engine result.
Identifying Search Engine Categories
Each search result is categorized into a variety of subjects. Being able to navigate to the
different types of search results is an important skill to have when searching the internet. A
browser has a small menu above the search results indicating these categories.
Lets say that you are put in charge of creating a sales flyer for Rowan Retail store. It is
suggested you use graphic design to make the flyer stand out. This is the first time you have
heard of graphic design and you wish to learn a little more about it. Using the Google search
engine, you can conduct a search on graphic design.
First open a browser window by clicking on the desktop icon or the icon on the computer
desktop’s taskbar, then type in www.google.com in the address bar and press the Enter (or
Return) key on the keyboard.
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http://www.google.com/
In the Google search bar, type graphic design definition and press the Enter (or Return) key.
The webpage displays the results of your search. Above the displayed search results there
is a small menu bar with six choices.
Search results are defaulted to All which means that every type of category (i.e. images,
news, videos, shopping, etc.) is listed in the search results displayed on the page. This menu
is used when choosing to narrow a search by different categories. The More option when
selected drops down a small menu with additional category options. Now let’s explore how
these categories work.
Open First Web Search for All
With a browser window open and the Google search bar ready, type in retail development.
Notice how the menu defaults to the All option. The page displays maps of retail stores, a
book about retail development, and various other websites. Locate the first search result
with an article or website and open the result by clicking on the left mouse button.
This opens the link to a webpage about the 2017 Global Retail Development Index which
lists countries indicating their standing in the retail development business. If this fits the
search you are looking for, you can continue to read through this article. Nice job!
Practice Question
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Open First Web Search for News
Now we’ll to try a different category for search results by returning to the previous screen
with search results for retail development. Click on the back button at the top of the
browser. When the page returns to the results, click on News in the search category menu.
The page will now refresh and appear with the latest news articles about retail
development. Notice the blue bar under the word News. This is used to visually indicate
which category is currently being displayed.
Now identify the first news search result and click with the left mouse button to open that
news article.
The hyperlinked article webpage will now be displayed. In this case, the link opened an
article in the Bartlesville Examiner-Enterprise news about the strong industrial and retail
development this last year. You are now on your way to finding more news items that fit
the search.
Open First Web Search for Video
Once again we’ll return to the previous screen with search results for retail development by
clicking on the back button at the top of the browser. When the page returns to the results,
click on Video in the search category menu. The page will now refresh and appear with the
latest videos about retail development. Notice the blue bar is now under the word Video.
One more time, identify the first search result at the top of the list and click on the first link
to open this video on the webpage.
This link navigates the webpage to a Huntington, West Virginia news channel website
containing a video about plans for a retail development site. Some videos begin to play as
soon as the webpage is loaded, but others like this video, will have a circle with an arrow in
the center of the video. This play button must be clicked to start the video playing.
Often with videos there are commercials that play before the video content. Be sure to wait
through the commercial (or click on a skip button if that appears) and then watch the
content video.
Practice Question
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Review
There are different ways that search results are categorized. Decide which type may be
most relevant to the search you are conducting. If you are unsure which might be most
effective, select a few different types and click on additional results to explore and learn.
Take some time to experiment and become comfortable with finding results and exploring
the focused categories on a search engine.
CC licensed content, Original
• Opening Search Results. Authored by: Sherri Pendleton. Provided by: Lumen
Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
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Introduction to Advanced Searches
What you’ll learn to do: narrow a search to find more useful results.
Conducting searches in the Google search engine can lead to literally millions of results. In
order to make searches more effective, search results can be narrowed down through a few
simple changes.
CC licensed content, Original
• Introduction to Advanced Searches. Authored by: Sherri Pendleton. Provided by:
Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
Adjusting Search Parameters
Learning Objectives
• Add additional parameters to the web search.
• Identify changes in the search results.
Adding Boolean Operators
There are three terms used to modify a search using a Boolean operator. These terms are
AND, OR, and NOT. In order to use these terms they must be typed using all capital letters
to work. Here is a video introducing how these three operators work in searches.
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Now let’s walk through a search using each of these operators.
AND
First we’ll start with AND. After a browser is open and the Google search bar is available,
type in the search you want. For this example, the search will be marketing AND services.
Look at the page from the search and note the amount of search results. There are over 785
million search results! What happens if the OR operator is used next for the same search?
Does it increase or decrease the results amount? Let’s find out.
OR
Next is the OR operator. In the Google search bar, type in the next search using OR. For this
example, the search will be marketing OR services. This results page has even more results
with over 7 billion possibilities! That’s far too many to search effectively. Time to try
another Boolean operator to narrow those results further.
Key Takeaways
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NOT
Last is the NOT operator. With the browser window open, type the same search using the
operator NOT in the Google search bar. For this example, the search will be marketing NOT
services. The results page now has fewer results with 679 million. That is still a huge
number of results. The search results still may not be narrow enough so other methods can
be used to reduce the number to a more reasonable amount. Now let’s explore other ways
to narrow a search.
Adding Boolean Modifiers
What is a Boolean Modifier? It is a character that can be used in a search phrase to modify
search results to a desired effect. The three focused on in this course are: quotation marks
“”, an asterisk *, and parenthesis (). This video gives an overview of how to use each in a
search.
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Now let’s walk through a search using each of these modifiers.
Quotation Marks
The first modifier to try is quotation marks. After a browser is open and the Google search
bar is available, type in the search you want using quotation marks. This time the search
finds results for the specific phrase in the exact order retail store display shelves. In order to
see the difference quotation marks make, first run a search without using quotation marks.
How many search results are incurred from this first search?
The results for the first search are over 1.2 million! That number is far too many to tackle
for this search. A smaller number would be more effective. It’s time to narrow the search
results. This can be accomplished by enclosing the search between quotation marks. Type
“retail store display shelves” into the Google search box and notice the amount of search
results with that exact phrase. The search results are now 385,000. That is far fewer than
the original one million plus!
Asterisk
You may not know the exact wording you wish to use for a search. Maybe there is a song in
your head and you can’t remember the exact phrase to sing. Possibly your search needs to
include a few different word prospects. By using an asterisk in a search, more results will
be included in that search.
What if your employee at Rowan Retail needs to conduct a search for pet supplies, pet
supply stores, pet suppliers and more? The asterisk is the Boolean modifier to use. Try the
search pet suppl* in the Google search bar. The search results include all of the various
aspects of the search the employee needed.
Practice Question
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Parentheses
Parentheses (also sometime called Brackets) can be used to enclose certain search terms in
order to specify the order in which the search engine should interpret them. Like in a math
equation, the information within parenthesis is read first, then the information outside of
the parentheses is read next by the search engine. Often parentheses are used in
conjunction with other Boolean search terms. This may seem a little tricky, but we’ll walk
through an example.
There has been a recent outbreak in the local community of mice and rats. Customers have
purchased all the traps and poison from your store and are asking you about other
solutions and products you recommend. Your first stop is a Google search to research
possible options.
On your computer web browser, you type (rat OR mouse) AND trap into the search box.
Google now retrieves its results which contain the word mouse or rat together with the
word trap.
Now you have potential solution for customers to use while the store is waiting to be
resupplied. The customers are pleased with the extra step you’ve taken with customer
service.
Minus Sign Elimination
What if you need to eliminate search results that do not fit a search query? The minus sign
is used exactly for this reason. The video shows a few examples about how this works.
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Let’s look at another example. Let’s say you realize you need a more organized method for
scheduling employee shifts. There are thousands of ways to organize this task on Google,
but you don’t want to see them all. In a Google search bar, type in monthly employee
schedule template and press the Enter key.
The search results include everything, Word templates, Excel templates, PDF format, etc.
Now you realize that and Excel template is what you need and not the other options.
Modify your search terms to now read monthly employee schedule template -word -PDF and
press the Enter key. The search results will now eliminate any result containing Word or
PDF in them. Make sure there is no space between the minus sign and the word you want to
eliminate from the results.
There are plenty of Excel and spreadsheet templates from which you can choose to match
your need. Neat! If you decide the template works better as a Word document, simply
replace the -word with -Excel -spreadsheet and those options will now disappear from the
results. This tool is one of the best to narrow down results to a more manageable size for
your searches.
Practice Question
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Common Search Mistakes
Before leaving this section there are a few common mistakes to identify to make searches
more effective. Here is the short list:
1. A misspelled or mistyped search word. If you type website instead of websight or
you type internet instead of intermet, search results can be a bit off because of the
misspellings. Sometimes there will be no results at all. Be sure to check your spelling
when running a search. Google tries to help by making suggestions like this one:
2. Extra Space. Leaving a space between the minus sign and the word (e.g. –
hummingbird) so what you want eliminated is not removed from the search results.
3. Not Clearing Previous Search. If a search is copied and pasted into the search bar,
sometimes the previous search phrase remains and the search is muddled. Make sure
the old search words are cleared off.
4. Extra Words. If search terms are copied and pasted into the search bar, occasionally
extra words are copied along with the desired terms. Double \-check and eliminate
extra words before searching.
Practice Question
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Bonus Information
If you are wondering about the origin of the term Boolean, run an internet search for
“George Boole” to learn more about him.
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• Adjusting Search Parameters. Authored by: Sherri Pendleton. Provided by: Lumen
Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
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• Using Boolean Operators. Authored by: PfauLibrary. Located at:
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• George Bolle. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at:
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• Optimizing Your Google Search. Authored by: University of Michigan Library. Located
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Image Searches
Learning Objectives
• Perform a web search for an image.
In the last section, you learned about the search menu, which organizes a search into
various categories. One search category that is often used is the Images option. This
section will teach a variety of ways to find images and how to use them.
Identify Image Search Engine Tools
To get started, let’s start with a simple, fun search of strawberry pie images. As before, first
open a browser window by clicking on the desktop icon or the icon on the computer
desktop’s taskbar. Type in www.google.com in the address bar and press the Enter (or
Return) key on the keyboard.
In the Google search bar, type strawberry pie and press the Enter (or Return) key. The
webpage displays the results of your search. Above the displayed search results look at the
menu with six choices. As with all searches, the search results are defaulted to the All
category.
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To find just the images for a strawberry pie, click on the Images category in the menu bar
and look at the results.
What a delicious-looking webpage! Besides the delectable images, there are a few tools to
understand and be able to use on an image search results page.
1. Image Category Buttons. This bar is an additional menu of categories that narrow
down or focus in on a particular type of image. You many only want to see an ice cream
strawberry pie or pie with ice cream scoops. For example, look over the options and
notice the one for ice cream. You can click that to focus on images that feature ice
cream. Hooray!
2. Additional Category Button Arrow. If a narrower category is desired and the first
options don’t fit what you are looking for, click on the right arrow. This arrow moves
the category menu bar to the right to display more options for narrowing down the
images. Once this moves, an additional arrow appears on the left side. Clicking on the
left arrow moves the button menu back to the previous buttons.
3. Scroll Bar. As in many other webpages, the scroll bar on the right is moved downward
by clicking on the gray bar and dragging it down. This action moves the main page
downward to display additional images.
4. Safe Search. The default setting for images is set to be a safe search for images. This
default filters out any explicit images that may be associated with a particular search.
It is important in a work setting to have this filter turned on. If you begin to search for
images and discover this setting has been turned off, select the SafeSearch button and
make sure the Filter explicit results option has a check mark on it. If it does not, click on
the option to turn the filtering on for searches.
Search by Image
Google search has an option to search by a picture or image instead of words. To search
using an image, click on the camera icon in the main search bar.
Two options will appear after the camera icon is selected: type or paste an image’s URL, or
upload an image file from the saved files on your computer.
To get a better sense of how to use these two options we’ll stick with strawberry pie
images. Our first search is with a hyperlinked image.
Search by Image Address
Open a tab for a webpage with an image of a strawberry pie. Remember the button to open
a new tab is the small gray button next to the currently open tab. Type in a webpage
address. In the screenshot below, the webpage address is browneyedbaker.com and once
the page loads, search for the strawberry pie picture.
Scroll down to the image on the webpage and use the mouse to right-click on the image and
open a menu. In the menu is an option to Copy image address. Navigate down the menu to
that option and then click the left mouse button to select this option. The image URL is now
copied.
Click back on the first tab with the main Google search box and make sure the Search by
image box is displayed. In the Paste image URL section, make sure the curser is in the text
field before you use Ctrl+V to paste in the address and select the blue Search by image
button to begin the search.
Another option to paste in the address is to use the mouse buttons again. After making sure
the cursor is in the address box, click on the right mouse button to make a menu appear.
Select the Paste as plain text option by clicking on the left mouse button. The image’s
hyperlinked address is now in the address box and to start the search, click on the blue
Search by image button.
The Google search engine does its best to identify the image and return results that match
the image to which it was linked. It keeps the image in the upper address bar and instead of
defaulting to the All option keeps the search in the Images category. Notice Google
considers this its “best guess” for the image. Sometimes Google might not identify the
image correctly, but that is okay. You can find a different image of the same thing and try
again.
Search by Uploaded Image File
Google search has an option to search for a picture file uploaded from a computer. Now
we’ll use a different type of strawberry pie image for Google to search with once uploaded.
Return back to the search bar.
To search using an uploaded image, click on the camera icon in the main search bar.
Two options will appear after the camera icon is selected. Select the Upload an image tab. A
button to Choose File will be displayed.
Click on Choose File to bring up a window for selecting an image file on the computer.
1. This is the window displaying the current files, folders, and network drives on the
computer.
2. The left scrolling menu lists folders and directories on a computer.
3. This displays the current location shown by the window. Clicking this field will show
you the file path for this location.
4. The search box can let you search for files, images, and text in the currently displayed
window.
5. This is the file folder containing the image to be uploaded. To select this folder double-
click on it or select it and click on the Open button in the window’s bottom right
corner.
The folder with the image file is now open. Scroll down until the image you find the image
you want. To select the image either double-click on the file or select it and click on the
Open button in the window’s bottom right corner. Another method to find an image on the
computer is by file name. Type the file name into the search bar area of the computer
window and click the small magnifying glass or hit the Enter (or Return) key to search for
and find the file.
Once the file is selected, Google will upload the image and automatically search for that
image file. The results page is displayed once the file is uploaded with the chocolate
strawberry pie image.
Like the URL search, a picture of the image file is in the main search box, the search results
are in the Images category, and Google has taken its best guess as to what the image
represents. Notice in this case it is searching not just for a pie, but also a chocolate
strawberry cake. Uploaded images are a little trickier to work with, but Google still usually
brings back relevant results. However, you may need to scroll through the choices a bit
more to find those that are a close match.
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Image Search
To run an image search for business, use the same methods as described in the above
sections. Let’s identify an image to use in a presentation for the office products team.
You and your team must present the newest office products you suggest be stocked in the
store. The presentation will be to the other managers so they can inform their teams of the
latest trends customers may ask about. Your team has identified ten new products to put in
the presentation. Finding images for a presentation is quick using a Google image search.
Start by searching for an image of one of the most popular products: the Adjustable Sit-
Stand Workstation.
Open a browser window, go to the Google search bar and enter the phrase adjustable sit-
stand workstation. Select the Images category and you will see a page of images for
different products fitting that description. The upper images will be sponsored or
advertised products that fit the search and will have an arrow on the far right to look at
more of the sponsored products. Look for an image for the presentation and locate the one
that looks exactly like the product that will be in the store.
Click on the image and a box will appear showing a variety of ways to navigate to the image
selected.
Below the title of the image are three buttons showing different actions you can take. Also
notice there are additional suggested smaller images related to the image which was
selected. These can be navigated to by clicking on any of the images under the Related
Images headline.
If the image needs to be seen in a different setting, the Visit Page button opens a new tab or
window with the website containing the image. If the View Image button is selected, a new
tab or window will open with only the image displayed.
If the Share button is selected, a small menu will appear giving a selection of social media
apps that can be used to share the image (e.g. Facebook, Twitter, Google+, and Email). This
is an easy way to share possible images for presentations if you need to collaborate on
using specific images with your team.
Image searches can be run for all of the products for the team’s presentation. This is one of
the quickest ways to find images for almost anything you need.
Practice Question
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Finding Noncommercial Images
Watch this video to learn how to find images licensed for reuse and/or commercial use.
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• Image Searches. Authored by: Sherri Pendleton. Provided by: Lumen Learning.
License: CC BY: Attribution
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• Creative Commons Image Searching in Google. Authored by: Jurupa IT. Located at:
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License Terms: Standard YouTube license
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Putting It Together: Internet Research
After learning about different ways to conduct research on the internet, you can now more
confidently try searching for business information and even information to satisfy personal
curiosity. The world is now open in a much larger way for you to discover ways to improve
business management reports, presentations, conduct competitive analysis, and experience
the variety of business information out on the web.
This module has covered quite a few methods for searching. As a quick refresher, watch
this video that reiterates most of the aspects from this module.
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• Putting It Together: Internet Research. Authored by: Sherri Pendleton. Provided by:
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Module 3: Microsoft Word, part 1
Why It Matters: Microsoft Word, part 1
Why learn how to use Microsoft
Word?
Communication in the workplace is very important. Whether you run a one-person
freelance business or work for a company with thousands of employees, reading and
writing documents on a computer is a vital skill.
Microsoft Word is the most popular word processing program and is considered the
standard word processor for most businesses. Word can help you create documents, save
them, print them, and share them with others.
Reports, brochures, flyers, and memos are all examples of documents you can create in
Microsoft Word.
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Introduction to Using Word
What you’ll learn to do: create and save files in Microsoft Word.
Learning to use Microsoft Word is one of the most helpful and versatile workplace skills
you can acquire, and creating and saving files is the first step. Many of the skills you will
learn for Microsoft Word can also be applied to Microsoft Excel and PowerPoint.
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• Introduction to Using Word. Authored by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY:
Attribution
Creating a New Blank Document and Finding Your Way Around
Learning Objectives
• Create a new Word document.
Opening a New Document
You can open Word from the Start menu (or the Applications folder on a Mac) by clicking
on the Word icon. The Word icon comes in a variety of forms depending on your OS and
version of Word, but it always features the color blue and the letter W.
Some examples of Word icons
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When you open Word, some versions of Word may take you straight to a new blank
document. Newer versions such as Word 2016 will take you to a menu called backstage
view to choose to open a new blank document or open a new document from a template. If
you already have a file open in Word, you can create a new document by clicking File>New.
You can also use the shortcut Ctrl+N (Command+N for Mac).
To open a blank document, double-click the blank document option.
Practice Question
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Overview of Word Controls
We will cover what many of these buttons and toolbars do in the pages to come. In the
meantime, here is a general overview of what you can see in the program. Many of these
features are also in other Office products like Excel and PowerPoint, so it’s a good idea to
get a handle of the terminology.
The Word window has three main sections: the ribbon, the document, and the status bar.
Ribbon
The ribbon is at the top of the Word window and includes the window title bar. The ribbon
below is for Word 2016. If you have a different version, your ribbon may not look exactly
the same. However, most features will look similar and be near a similar area. If you have a
different version of Word and you cannot find the feature you need, run a web search
for where is feature/button wordversion, replacing feature/button with the feature or
button you are trying to find and version with your version number. For example, if you are
using Word 2010 and can’t find the controls for adding a column, run a web search
for where is column word 2010.
1. Quick access toolbar. The quick access toolbar shows commonly used commands so
that you can execute those commands with one button instead of a couple. By default,
the quick access toolbar has (from left to right) Save, Undo, and Redo. You can
customize which commands are available in the quick access toolbar by clicking the
arrow to the right of the Redo button.
2. Tabs. The tabs on the ribbon are a way of organizing the many tools and options Word
has. Clicking each tab provides a whole new set of options. The tabs you will most
frequently use are the File tab and the Home tab.
3. Currently selected tab. The Home tab is selected by default when you open Word.
The currently selected tab is white, while the other tabs are blue.
4. Group names. Within each tab, commands are grouped according to type. Those type
names are near the bottom of the ribbon. For example, the Font group contains all the
font tools and options.
5. Dialog box. Clicking the small, boxed-in arrow at the bottom right-hand corner of each
group opens a dialog box with more options for each group.
6. Hide ribbon. If you find the array of buttons too distracting, you can hide the ribbon
by pushing the arrow at the bottom-right corner of the ribbon. You can reopen the
ribbon with the ribbon display options.
7. Ribbon display options. The ribbon display options allow you to hide or reveal all or
parts of the ribbon.
Status Bar
The status bar is at the bottom of the Word window. Again, your status bar may look
different or not even be visible, but here is an explanation of what many icons on the status
bar mean.
1. Page count. The page count shows the total number of pages in the document and
which page is currently visible in the window.
2. Word count. The word count displays the total number of words in the document.
3. Spelling/grammar check. A tiny checkmark on the book icon indicates that there are
no spelling or grammar errors. When there are spelling or grammar errors, the
checkmark becomes an X. Clicking the icon then will show options for correcting each
mistake.
4. View options. From left to right: Read Mode, Print Layout, and Web Layout. By
default, the document is in Print Layout. This changes how the document appears in
the Word window; it does not affect how the document appears when sent to others,
viewed on a different computer, or printed. (Click each image to enlarge.)
Read Mode
Print Layout
Web Layout
5. Zoom. By moving the bar to the left or right, you can zoom in and out of the document.
This allows you to see the entire page at once or to magnify a small part of the
document.
To customize the status bar, right-click on it to see a dialog menu that allows you to check
and uncheck tools you want displayed.
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• Wordmac. Authored by: Microsoft. Located at:
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services.’
• Microsoft Word logo (2007-2010). Authored by: Microsoft. Located at:
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Copyright. License Terms: According to Microsoft Trademark & Brand Guidelines, this
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services.’
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Saving Files
Learning Objectives
• Save a file in Word.
Saving a file is critical for editing, preserving, and sharing your work. If the program closes
or your computer shuts down unexpectedly while you are using Word, don’t worry. By
default, Word automatically saves your work every 10 minutes and will reload that save
upon reopening the program. However, it is still a good idea to save every once in a while.
Practice Question
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To save a file, you can click the Save icon in the top-left corner, click File>Save, or use the
shortcut Ctrl+S (Command+S for Macs).
Click the save icon (above) or File>New (below).
Whichever method you choose, you will see the backstage view with some option about
where to save your file. (Pre-2016 versions of Word will skip straight to the dialog box—If
this applies to you, skip ahead to the Save dialog box.) First, you must choose where you
want to save your file.
• OneDrive—This is Microsoft’s cloud computing storage system. If you have a
Microsoft account and sign in, you can use OneDrive for free to store your documents.
• This PC—This lets you save your file directly to your computer. By default, the save
folder is called Documents with the file path This PC/Documents.
• Add a Place—If you save a lot of documents to a particular folder, you can add that
folder as a Save As option here.
• Browse—To save a different folder not listed above, click Browse. This will take you
to a dialog box that lets you search your computer for the folder you want to store
your document in.
Once in the Save dialog box, you can choose the folder you want to save your file in. Select
that folder, then type a name for your file in the File name field.
Ensure that you are saving the document as the correct file type. There are a variety of
options to choose, but you will almost always choose Word Document (which is the
default).
Click Save in the bottom-left corner next to the Cancel button. Congratulations! Your file is
saved! As you continue to edit your file, you can click the save icon, select File>Save, or use
the shortcut Ctrl+S (Command+S for Macs) to save the file again.
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Save As
If you have already saved a file, you can save another copy of it in a different location or
with a different name or file extension. Click File>Save As and the Save dialog box will once
again appear.
Practice Question
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File Extensions
Learning Objectives
• Distinguish different file types in Word and when to use them.
Let’s start by taking a look at the following scenario:
Roy is working on a report that needs to be done before noon so his coworker Riza can
present the data to some prospective customers. Roy just barely manages to finish
formatting the final draft. Quickly he saves the file in Microsoft Word, emails the file to Riza,
and leaves to have a well-deserved lunch. When he gets back, Riza tells him she couldn’t
open his file, and as a result she didn’t have the data the customers wanted and lost the
sale.
Roy tries to figure out what went wrong and learns that Riza is running a different version
of Microsoft Word than he is, but he’s not sure how that caused the problem.
What can cause this kind of problem? Using the wrong file extension.
A file extension is a shortened form of the file type at the end of a file name. These
extensions determine your document’s file type, and the file type determines what
programs can open the file. While most programs can read most file types, not every
program can read every file type.
The default file type is x (Word Document). This file extension works in most Microsoft
Word programs. However, there may be times when you want to save a different file type.
For example, older versions of Microsoft Word and computers without Microsoft Word
installed cannot read x file types. If you create a x file and send it to someone who
has an old version of Word or no Word at all, that person probably won’t be able to read
your file. If you have an old version of Word (2003 or older), you can open x files if you
download Microsoft’s compatibility package.
Because of the variation in file type compatibility, it’s important to be mindful of what file
types are readable by the programs other people have.
Practice Question
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Below the field for the file name is the Save as type field, which has a dropdown menu with
file extensions.
Common File Extensions in Word Processing
• x (Word Document)—default Microsoft Word file, works with Microsoft Word
2007 and later. Improved scripts, macros, and other features from the older .
• (Word 97–2003 Document)—default Microsoft Word file from Microsoft Word
2003 and older.
• .txt (Plain Text)—also known as plain text format. This file type saves only the words
you type—no images, no formatting, just raw text.
• .rtf (Rich Text Format)—Like plain text, RTF saves only words, but it does save some
basic formatting (like bold and italics)
• (PDF)—PDF files are readable with Microsoft Edge (which comes with Windows
10), the free program Adobe Acrobat, and other image-viewing programs. Viewers
cannot edit PDF files, but they will be able to view them regardless of their operating
system or what programs they have.
Introduction to Basic Text Formatting
What you’ll learn to do: format text in Microsoft Word for clarity.
Knowing how to use Word’s formatting tools can help you do your work faster and make
your documents more attractive and easy to read.
Compare the documents below. Which one communicates more clearly?
https://get.adobe.com/reader/otherversions
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Selecting and Moving Text
Learning Objectives
• Reorganize text within a paragraph.
To select text, click and drag your cursor across the text.
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The text that is highlighted in gray is selected text. Selected text can be copied, cut, or
pasted. Many features and settings in Microsoft Office are applied only to text that is
selected.
Moving Text
Like files and folders, there are many ways to move text once it is selected:
• Cut using Ctrl+X, move your cursor to the new location of text, then paste to the new
location with Ctrl+V
• Copy using Ctrl+C, move your cursor to the new location of text, then paste to the new
location with Ctrl+V
• Right-click selected text, select either Copy or Cut, then right-click the new location of
text and select Paste
You can move text between pages, between paragraphs, or even between programs or
windows. For example, you can cut text you typed in a Word document and paste it into an
email, or you can copy text from the internet and paste it into a PowerPoint presentation.
In many programs, you can also drag text to a new location within the same program. For
example, in Microsoft Word, you can select text, then click and drag it to a new location
within the Word document.
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Bold, Italics, Underline
Learning Objectives
• Make text italic, bold, or underlined.
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When formatting a document, you may need to emphasize or distinguish words. You can do
this with bold, italics, underline, or all three.
To bold, italicize, or underline, select the text you want to change. Then, select the Bold,
Italics, or Underline button in the Home tab as shown below.
You can also select the text, then use a shortcut:
Bold Ctrl+B (Command+B for Macs)
Italics Ctrl+I (Command+I for Macs)
Underline Ctrl+U (Command+U for Macs)
Applying the formatting twice removes the formatting. For example, selecting bolded text
and then clicking the Bold button will remove the bold formatting.
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Fonts
Learning Objectives
• Change the size, font, and color of text.
Changing the font and adding color can make your document much more attractive—and
more likely to attract people to your message. The font options can all be found in the
Home tab on the left.
Older versions of Word may have font options in the top-left corner or in the Format menu.
If you have an older version of Word, search the internet for where to find the font options
in your specific version.
Font Size
The font size is a number that indicates how many points are in the height of the text, or
high tall the text is in points. A point is 1/72 of an inch, so a 12-point font would be 12/72
of an inch. Most people are comfortable reading 10-point fonts or higher, so a 10- or 12-
point font is a good choice for writing a paragraph of text. However, many situations call for
larger or smaller text.
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To change the font size in Word, go to the Home tab and click on the dropdown menu for
the number in the font ribbon. You can pick a number and then start typing in that size. For
a preview, select the text you want to change, then open the font size dropdown menu and
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hover your cursor over each number to see the text change. Finalize that size change by
clicking the size number.
You can also choose a custom size by typing a number and hitting enter.
You can also increase or decrease the font size by clicking the Increase Font Size and
Decrease Font Size buttons.
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Font
The font changes the styling of letters in your text. The menu for changing the font is in the
Home tab near the top-left corner. Like the font size menu, hovering your mouse over each
font option will change selected text so you can see a preview of what each font looks like.
If you already know what font you want, you can start typing the name to skip to it in the
menu.
Font Color
What’s life without a little color? Select the text you want to change, then click the font
color dropdown menu, which will give you a wide array of colors to choose from.
If you want a different color, you can choose More Colors… (below Standard Colors in the
dropdown menu) to bring up a dialog box with even more options.
Case
Case controls how much of your text is capitalized, or whether your text is uppercase or
lowercase. This is a useful feature if you want to change the case of your text without
having to type it again.
Case Definitions
• sentence case: text starts with a capital letter, like a sentence
• lowercase: text is all lowercase, with no capital letters
• uppercase: text is all uppercase, with all capital letters
• capitalize each word: each word is capitalized
• toggle case: reverses the case of whatever is selected (uppercase letters become
lowercase and vice versa)
Sentence case.
lowercase
UPPERCASE
Capitalize Each Word
Alignment, Justification, and Indentation
Learning Objectives
• Change alignment of text.
• Use tab button on keyboard to indent a paragraph.
Alignment
To align or justify text, move your cursor into the paragraph you want to change, then click
the left-align, right-align, centered, or justify buttons.
Alignment is how text flows in relation to the rest of the page (or column, table cell, text
box, etc.). There are four main alignments: left, right, center, and justified.
• Left-aligned text is text that is aligned with a left edge.
• Right-aligned text is text that is aligned with a right edge.
• Centered text is text that is centered between two edges.
Left-aligned Centered Right-aligned
Justification controls the spacing between words. A justified text increases the space
between words to fill the entire line so that it is aligned with both the left and right edges.
Unjustified text Justified text
You can also change the alignment and justification settings in the paragraph dialog box.
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Paragraph Dialog Box: Justification and Alignment
Open the paragraph dialog box by clicking the small arrow icon in the bottom-right corner
of the Paragraph group.
The dropdown menu to change the alignment is near the top of the dialog box.
Indentation
In many documents, indenting is a good way to distinguish the start of a new paragraph,
especially when there is no paragraph spacing.
To indent, hit the Tab key once on your keyboard at the start of a paragraph.
One tab at the beginning of the first line of a paragraph.
For more control over indentation settings, use the paragraph dialog box.
Paragraph Dialog Box: Indentation
Open the paragraph dialog box by clicking the small arrow icon in the bottom-right corner
of the Paragraph group.
The indentation section is toward the middle of the dialog box.
The Left and Right settings indent the entire paragraph to the left and right.
Indentation Comparison
Without indentation
With 1-inch indentation on left and right sides
The Special dropdown menu allows you to choose to indent the first line of the paragraph
or to create a hanging indent. Upon choosing First or Hanging, another field will appear to
let you choose how big the first line or hanging indent will be.
Hanging indent First line indent
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Line and Paragraph Spacing
Learning Objectives
• Change line spacing of text.
Line Spacing
Line spacing is the distance between lines of text. Loose line spacing can make text much
more readable, while tight line spacing can fit more text in a space.
To change the line spacing, select the lines you want to change. Then go to the Home tab
and find the line spacing button in the Paragraph section. The line spacing button triggers a
dropdown menu from which you can select a line spacing.
The numbers in the line spacing dropdown menu reflect how much the line spacing will
increase relative to the size of the line. For example, a line spacing of 1 means the line
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spacing will be as large as one line, a line spacing of 2 means the line spacing will be the
size of two lines, and so on.
1.0 spacing
2.0 line spacing
3.0 line spacing
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Paragraph Dialog Box: Line Spacing
Open the paragraph dialog box by clicking the small arrow icon in the bottom-right corner
of the Paragraph group.
You can use the Line spacing dropdown menu to choose Single, 1.5, or Double line spacing.
The At least option lets you set a minimum point value for the spacing, and Exactly lets you
set an exact point value. Finally, the Multiple option lets you set a line spacing greater than
Double (for example, 3 for triple spacing).
Paragraph Spacing
You may have noticed that by default, Word adds a space between each paragraph. You can
change the size of that space or eliminate it completely by changing the paragraph spacing.
There is an option to Add Space Before Paragraph or Remove Space After Paragraph in the
line spacing menu.
For more control over the paragraph spacing, go to the paragraph dialog box.
Paragraph Dialog Box: Paragraph Spacing
Open the paragraph dialog box by clicking the small arrow icon in the bottom-right corner
of the Paragraph group.
The Spacing section controls how much space comes before and after a paragraph. Here,
you can increase or decrease the amount of points that come before and after the
paragraph you have selected.
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Introduction to Lists
What you’ll learn to do: create and format numbered and
unnumbered lists.
Using lists can help you provide emphasis or visual clarity to your ideas.
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Lists
Learning Objectives
• Create and format numbered and bulleted lists.
There are two kinds of lists: bulleted and numbered lists. The buttons for both are found in
the Paragraph group, as seen in the screenshot below. (Bulleted to the left, numbered to the
right)
To start, select the text you want to change, then click either the bulleted or numbered list
button. Alternatively, you can click the bulleted or numbered list button and then start
typing.
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Bulleted list
Numbered list
If you click and hold either of the list buttons, more options will appear.
Bulleted Options
In the bulleted options, you can select a new bullet from the bullet library. At the bottom,
the Define New Bullet… option will let you pick any symbol or even a picture from your
computer to be the bullets.
Numbered Options
In the numbered options, you can choose what kind of numbering to give your numbered
list. For example, you can use letters or Roman numerals. At the bottom, the Define New
Number Format… opens a dialog box that will let you further customize how your
numbered lists appear.
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List Levels
The quickest way to increase the list level of a single line is to hit the Tab key once. To
increase and decrease multiple lines, select the text you want to change, then click the
increase or decrease list level button as shown in the screenshot below.
You can also use the Change List Level option at the bottom of the numbered options.
To customize how the list levels look, go to the list level options as shown in the screenshot
below.
You can choose one of the different multilevel list styles available in the menu, or you can
customize your own by choosing Define New List Style… or Define New Multilevel List…
You can also change the list level of a line here by selecting Change List Level, then selecting
a new level in the menu as pictured above.
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Putting It Together: Microsoft Word, part 1
Now that you have some of the basic Word principles down, you can move on to more
complicated formatting.
Remember if you get stuck or can’t remember how to do something from this module, you
can always come back and review.
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Module 4: Microsoft Word, part 2
Why It Matters: Microsoft Word, part 2
Why learn how to use Microsoft Word?
We have already learned to make documents clear and readable; however, there are other
ways to make your document stand out and creatively engage readers, such as changing
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the basic layout of a page. In this module, we will cover some layout techniques and a few
tools that will make documents easier to create and edit so you can really take control of
Word.
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Introduction to Advanced File Creation and Text Formatting
What you’ll learn to do: use templates and text effects.
We have now learned how to create a document and how to format text. We will now build
upon that knowledge to use templates and text effects. Both serve as a formatting shortcut
by applying existing styles and layout. This means that you can save a little time and effort
in return for a little less personalization.
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Creating a New Document from a Template
Learning Objectives
• Create document from template.
A template is a pre-created document that already has some formatting. Rather than
starting from scratch to format a document, you can use the formatting of a template to
save yourself a lot of time. You can use a template that comes with Word, download one
from the internet, or create your own. For now, we’ll focus on creating a document from a
template that comes with Word.
From the backstage view (File tab), you can scroll down and see what templates are
available.
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Near the top of the screen is a search box and some suggested searches. You can type a
word or click on one of the suggested searches to help find a suitable template for your
project. For example, clicking the suggested search “Business” will take you to templates
related to business, with further subcategories on the right. (See below.)
Select a template, then click Create. You may have to wait a moment for the template to
download.
Once the template is open, you can replace the placeholder text with your own text.
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Creating a Document from a Downloaded Template
First, download the template. You may download a template from this course or from
Microsoft’s template page. Note that the file extension for a template is .dotx, which
is different than the file extension for a normal Word document. In fact, if you save any
document with the file extension .dotx, that document will become a template.
Double-click on the downloaded template in File Explorer to open Word and create a new
document based on the template. Any changes you make to this new document will not
affect the original template; the new document is merely a copy.
To edit the template itself, open Word and go to File>Open>Browse, then select the
downloaded template. Opening the template file this way opens the actual template, so any
changes will be reflected in future documents you create from this template.
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Text Effects
Learning Objectives
• Change text using text effects.
In addition to formatting changes we previously discussed in Fonts, you can also apply
effects to text with the Text Effects option. This was known as WordArt in previous
versions of Word. You can add shadows, bevels, reflections, and much more.
The Text Effects button is in the Font group of the ribbon.
The top options in the Text Effects menu have some pre-created styles to choose from.
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The Text Effects menu also has the options Outline, Shadow, Reflection, and Glow.
Outline
Outline applies a border around the letters of the text.
Hover over each color to preview what the outline will look like. Click on the color to apply
it. If you want to change the outline to a color not in the menu, pick More Outline Colors…
for more options.
Text with a black outline
Use the weight option to change the thickness of the outline.
Text with a 3-pt outline
The Dashes option lets you make a dashed or dotted outline. There are many different
kinds of dashes and dots to choose from.
Text with a dashed 3-pt outline
Shadow
Shadow applies a shadow to the letters of the text. Hover over one of the A icons to preview
the effects. Click on the A to apply that shadow style.
There are a lot of different shadow options.
Text with outside shadow
Text with inside shadow
Text with perspective shadow
The Shadow Options…option at the bottom of the menu allows you to customize the
shadows even further by changing the color, transparency, blur, angle, and distance of the
shadows.
• Color: The default shadow is black, but you can change the color to anything you want.
• Transparency: The higher the the transparency, the lighter the shadow.
• Blur: An increased blur makes the borders of the shadow more fuzzy, while a
decreased blur makes the borders of the shadow more concrete.
• Angle: In real life, the direction of a shadow is determined by the angle of the light. The
Angle option in the Shadow Options lets you change the direction of that imaginary
light to alter the path of the shadow.
• Distance: The shadow can be very close, almost behind the letters, or it can be far
away.
Reflection
Reflection reflects the letters of the text as if held up to a mirror. Hover over each option to
preview, and click the option to apply it.
There are a couple variations of reflections to choose from. You can also select Reflection
Options… to customize the transparency, size, blur, and distance of the reflection.
Glow
Glow applies a fuzzy colored shape around the letters of the text that makes the letters
appear to be glowing. Hover over each option to preview, and click the option to apply it.
A glow can be any color. Go to More Glow Colors to choose a color not already visible in the
menu. You can also select Glow Options… to customize the size and transparency.
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Introduction to Workspace Tools
What you’ll learn to do: use spell check and find and replace tools.
The tools covered in this section are not necessary for creating a good document. However,
they will make creating and editing documents much easier and save you time in the long
run.
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Spell Check and Dictionaries
Learning Objectives
• Correct spelling and grammar errors.
As the screenshot above demonstrates, Spell Check and Grammar Check are potentially
useful tools, but very fallible ones.
You’ve probably seen the angry red wavy lines indicating a misspelled word as you type a
document. Sometimes, those red lines may have been helpful, saving you from making an
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embarrassing typo. Other times, those red lines are just annoying and distracting. In this
section, we will cover how Spellcheck works and how you can best use it to your advantage.
How Spell Checker Works
At top, the American English dictionary won’t recognize correctly spelled British English
words. At bottom, Word’s dictionary may highlight correct words not included in its
dictionary.
The spell checker tool compares every word you type against its dictionary, or database of
words. If a word isn’t in its dictionary, the word is marked misspelled with a red underline.
This means words that are correctly spelled may be marked as misspelled, especially brand
names, specialized industry or scientific terms, and words in another language. With a little
tweaking, you can teach Microsoft Word (and other Office programs) how to spell
uncommon words and names you use regularly. That way, genuine mistakes are not lost in
a sea of red underlines.
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Adding Words to the Dictionary
The simplest method to add words to the dictionary is to right-click the marked word and
select Add. If you do not wish to add the word but do not want to see the red line, you can
select Ignore or Ignore All. (Ignore ignores that word once; Ignore All ignores the word
through the entire document.)
Keep in mind that adding a word to the dictionary will not necessarily add all versions of
that word. For example, after adding iPad to the dictionary, the dictionary will still not
recognize iPads.
The good news is that adding a word to the Microsoft Word dictionary will also add it to the
dictionary for other Office products such as Excel and PowerPoint.
The dictionary is case-sensitive. Adding iPad will not add ipad (a good thing, since ipad is
incorrect). Keep this in mind if the word you want to add to the dictionary is capitalized
because it is at the beginning of a sentence.
Adding the capitalized form of the word will not add the lowercase form of the word. To get
around this, add the lowercase word to the dictionary first.
Keep in mind that adding a word adds it to whichever language dictionary you are using.
For example, adding “c’est la vie” to the dictionary tells Microsoft Word that “c’est la vie” is
an English word. That may be nice for the occasional borrowed term, but it will get
overwhelming if you find yourself using a lot of foreign words not typically used in English
vernacular. We will cover other language dictionaries later in this section.
Bonus: Switching Language Dictionaries
You can switch your dictionary to a different language. Go to Tools > Dictionary, Dictionary,
and choose a different language.
A passage of bilingual text using the
American English dictionary.
A passage of bilingual text using the Spanish
dictionary.
Grammar Check
Grammar check works much like spell check, searching through your document for
grammatical and style errors rather than spelling errors. Grammar check underlines words
or phrases in blue or green, depending on your version of Word.
Right-click on the underlined word or phrase to see suggested corrections. You can also
choose Ignore, Ignore Once, or Ignore All if the “error” is actually correct. Like spell check,
grammar check is prone to errors. In some versions of Word, you may see an Ignore Rule or
“Don’t check for this issue” option. Clicking Ignore Rule will make Grammar check ignore
that specific grammar rule in your document while still looking for other grammar errors.
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Optional Reading for More Info
http://www.slate.com/articles/life/the_good_word/2008/12/who_checks_the_spellcheck
ers.html
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Find and Replace
Learning Objectives
• Find and replace text.
Find and Replace helps you to find words or formats in a document and can let you replace
all instances of a word or format. This is particularly handy in long documents.
To use Find and Replace, use the shortcut Ctrl+H or navigate to Editing in the Home tab of
the ribbon, then choose Replace. To just quickly find something, use the shortcut Ctrl+F or
navigate to Home>Editing>Find.
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Replace
Use the shortcut Ctrl+H or navigate to Home>Editing>Replace to reach the Find and
Replace dialog box.
Type what you want to find in the Find what field, and the replacement in the Replace with
field. (Note that you can move the Find and Replace dialog box by clicking the title bar and
dragging it elsewhere so you can see what was behind it.)
Find Next highlights the first occurrence of the Find word. Clicking Find Next again will
highlight the second occurrence, clicking Find Next again will highlight the next occurrence,
and so on.
Find Next. The first Rowango is highlighted.
Clicking Replace replaces only the highlighted occurrence of the Find word.
Replace. The first Rowango is replaced with RowanGo. The other Rowango words remain
the same.
Replace All replaces every instance of the Find word with the Replace word. A small dialog
box will appear to tell you how many replacements were made.
Replace All. Notice that every instance of Rowango has been replaced with RowanGo.
(highlighting added for this course and not part of the document)
The Pitfalls of Replace All
Be careful when you use Replace All. It will replace every occurrence of the Find phrase,
including occurrences you hadn’t intended to replace. For example, replacing every “kg”
with “kilogram” could result in the word backilogramround instead of background. Use
spaces in the Find field to avoid this: replacing ” kg ” with ” kilogram ” will
leave background the way it is. Some versions of Word also have a Whole Words checkbox
option; this will ignore when a search term appears in the middle of a word.
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Replace: More Options
Click the More>>> button in the bottom-left corner of the Find and Replace dialog box to
find more options. There are many options here, but we will focus on three.
1. Match case. Case is whether a letter is uppercase or lowercase. If the Match case box
is checked, then Find and Replace becomes case-sensitive. For example, checking the
Match case button and then searching for “Fishing Goods” will find “Fishing Goods” but
NOT “fishing goods” or “Fishing goods.” If the Match case box is unchecked, then
searching for “Fishing Goods” will find “Fishing Goods” and “fishing goods” and
“Fishing goods” and so on.
2. Format. Click the Format button to select from a variety of formatting options such as
Font, Paragraph, and so on. When a formatting style is selected for Find, the Find term
must have that formatting to be found. (Leave the Find field blank and choose a
formatting style to find all occurrences of that formatting.) Similarly, choosing a
formatting style for the Replace field will replace the Find term with whatever is in the
Replace field with the Replace formatting. For example, this search finds all instances
of the word mobile and applies bold and green formatting:
3. Special. Special refers to special characters, or characters that are not on the typical
keyboard. In Find and Replace, some of these characters can also be things like “any
digit” or “any letter.”
Find Function
You can also find words with the Find function. Simply finding where a word is used in a
document is faster with the Find function.
To open the Find function, use the shortcut Ctrl+F or navigate to Home>Editing>Find. This
will open a Navigation menu to the left.
Type in the Navigation text field that says “Search document” for the term you want to find.
The term will be highlighted throughout the document. You can scroll through the
document to see the highlighted occurrences, or you can scroll down through the
Navigation pane to see where each word occurs in the text.
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Introduction to Page Layout
What you’ll learn to do: change page layout.
There is more to a document than the text it contains. How that text is arranged can
contribute to how a document is read or perceived. In this section, you will learn a few page
layout tools that can help you fit more information on a page or arrange information so that
it is communicated clearly.
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Tab Stops
Learning Objectives
• Set tab stops.
You may recall from Alignment, Justification, and Indentation that hitting the Tab key
indents a paragraph. Each hit of the Tab key inserted a tab space. By default, a tab space
stretches to fit the next 1/2 inch interval on the page. Tab stops control the width of a tab
space so that it can be greater or less than 1/2 an inch.
By changing the width of tab spaces, you can align text with tab stops rather than the edge
of a column, page, or margin. This can be useful for aligning text different ways in the same
line.
Without tab stops
With tab stops
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There are several kinds of tab stops, but the ones we will focus on in this course are the left
tab, the center tab, and the right tab.
Left tab
Center tab
Right tab
Aligns text left along the tab
stop line
Aligns text centrally to the
tab stop line
Aligns text right along the
tab stop line
There are two main methods for setting tab stops: the ruler and the tab dialog box.
Tab Stops Using the Ruler
First, make the ruler visible (if it isn’t visible already). Go to View>Show and check the
Ruler box.
The rulers display the width of the page in inches. The shaded-in gray spaces on the ruler
represent the margins. This screenshot shows margins of one inch.
To add a tab stop, select the paragraph or paragraphs the tab stop will be added to. Select
the type of tab stop by clicking the tab selector icon in the top-left corner until it shows the
appropriate icon ( , , ). The tab selector button is located at the top of the vertical
ruler and to the left of the horizontal ruler.
Right now the Left Tab is selected. Clicking the icon will switch to a different Tab type.
(Note: there are more tab options, such as decimal tab, bar tab, first-line indent, and
hanging indent. Feel free to experiment with these later.)
Once the type of tab stop you want is selected, click anywhere along the horizontal ruler to
place the tab stop.
The tab stop is represented by the icon in the ruler. In the screenshot above, the right tab is
marked with a green circle. Notice that the lines below are right-aligned with the tab stop,
with the exception of the last line. The last line is not aligned because the line is too long for
the text to fit with the right-align.
To move the tab stop, click and drag the tab icon along the ruler.
The selected paragraphs moved with the tab stop. (And notice that the last line is aligned
now that there is enough space for the text.)
To remove a tab stop, click the icon and drag it off of the ruler.
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Tab Stops Using the Tab Dialog Box
You can also add and move tab stops using the tab dialog box. To reach it, go to the
Paragraph dialog box in the Home tab.
Then click the Tabs button at the bottom-left corner of the Paragraph dialog box.
You have now reached the Tab dialog box.
Choose which type of tab stop you want in the Alignment area (Left, Center, Right, Decimal,
or Bar). Type the distance of the tab stop in inches, then click Set or OK to apply that tab
stop to whichever lines are selected.
Use Clear to remove tab stops. You can also still click and drag the tab stop along the ruler
to change its location or drag the tab stop off the ruler to delete it.
Leader
The leader is a filler for the tab space. Instead of leaving the tab space blank, you can fill it
with periods or other characters. This is particularly useful for a table of contents, but it can
have other applications too. To choose a leader, select one of the options under the Leader
section of the Tab dialog box.
Optional: Bar and Decimal Tabs
Two of the other tab stop types are the bar and decimal tabs.
The bar tab icon is a straight vertical line (|). Bar tabs do not align text. Instead, a bar tab
adds a straight vertical line at the point of the bar tab. The line will be the length of the
selected lines.
The decimal tab icon is . Decimal tabs align text based on the placement of periods (or
rather, decimal points). This is useful when lining up numbers, especially dollar amounts.
Side-by-Side Comparison of Decimal Tab Alignment
Notice that when a decimal tab is applied, the decimal points will line up regardless of what
is on either side of the decimal point.
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Columns
Learning Objectives
• Create columns.
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Reference books, magazines, and newspapers commonly use a layout with two or more
columns.
Columns can help you fit more text on a page or provide better readability. Some
documents, such as a newsletter or newspaper, are customarily formatted with columns.
Columns are typically used for shorter pieces of text (like dictionary definitions or short
articles) rather than longer readings.
To add columns, either select the text you want to arrange into columns or place your
cursor where you want columns to start. Then, go to Layout>Columns and select the
number of columns. (For more than three columns, select More Columns…at the bottom of
the menu.)
You can also end a column with a column break. Place the cursor where you want to end a
column, then select Layout>Breaks>Column Break.
Adding a column break will end the column and send text to the next column. Note that a
column break is tied to the location within the text, not the location on the page. Putting a
column break before the Mobile Commerce headline will put a column break before the
Mobile Commerce headline, regardless of how much text comes before or after the Mobile
Commerce headline.
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Headers and Footers
Learning Objectives
• Insert text into header and footer.
Headers and footers are the top and bottom sections of the document respectively. They
are separate sections from the main document, and are often used to hold footnotes, page
numbers, titles, and other information.
The header and footer controls are in the Header & Footer group of the Insert tab.
(Insert>Header & Footer)
The Header and Footer options each contain a dropdown menu. Click one of the Built-in
options to insert it, or select Edit Header (or Edit Footer) to edit the header (or footer).
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The header/footer will be represented by a dotted line. While in header/footer mode
(when the dotted lines are visible), you cannot edit the main text. You can go back to
editing the main text by selecting the Close Header and Footer option on the right side of
the ribbon.
Header
Footer
The information in the header or footer is repeated in every header or footer in the
document.
First page
Second page
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Page Numbers
You can number the pages in your document automatically in the header/footer options
with the Page Number
option.
Choose a location on the page by going to the Top of Page, Bottom of Page, Page Margins, or
Current Position options and selecting an alignment. (Current Position refers to where the
cursor is located.)
The page number will be repeated on every page in the header or footer, but the number
will change to reflect the appropriate page number. You can also change the way the pages
are numbered by going to the Format Page Numbers option.
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Introduction to Text Boxes
What you’ll learn to do: create and modify text boxes.
Things in a Microsoft Word document that are not text are called “objects.” The first object
we will cover is a text box. Many of the controls and features of text boxes are also
applicable to images, another important object in Microsoft Word.
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Text Boxes
Learning Objectives
• Create and modify text boxes.
Text boxes are containers for text that can be customized and moved around. They are
useful for emphasizing or decorating text.
Some examples of text boxes.
To add a textbox, go to Insert>Text>Text Box. There are a few pre-created Built-in options
to choose from. Click one of the Built-ins to add it to the document. You can also draw your
own by choosing Draw Text Box, then clicking and dragging where you want the text box to
be.
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Text Box menu
Drawing a text box
Once created, you can type in the text box, change the size of the text box, move the text box
around, and even rotate the text box.
1. Anchor point. The anchor is the point at which the text box intertwines with the rest
of the document. Click the anchor icon to select the entire text box.
2. Rotation control. Click the circular arrow and then drag to rotate the text box.
3. Wrap text. This controls how content in the rest of the document interacts with
the text box. Text can go around the text box, in front of the text box, or skip over the
text box. Text wrap is covered in more detail in the Images section.
4. Resize points. The white dots on the border of the text box control the width and
height of the text box. Click and drag any of the white dots to move that side or corner.
To move the text box, hover your cursor near the edges of the box. When you see four
arrows behind the cursor, you can click and drag the box wherever you want it.
Formatting Text Boxes
When you create a text box, a new tab will appear on the ribbon called Format. There are a
lot of different tools in the Format tab, some of which may look familiar.
1. Shapes
The Shapes group (at the far left) allows you to change the shape of the text box. Click the
Change Shape button in the Shapes group and then Change Shape to see a dropdown menu
with many shape options. Click an option to apply it to the text box.
You can also create a custom shape using the Edit Points option (just below Change Shape).
The points of the text box will be outlined. Click and drag the black dots to alter the shape
of the text box.
2. Styles
Click the dropdown arrow to open a dropdown menu with a variety of styles for your text
box. Some styles may have a gray checkered pattern. The gray checkered pattern indicates
transparency. Hover over each effect to preview the results; click to apply the effect.
3. Text
The Text group of the Format tab gives you additional control of the text in the text box.
Text Direction
By default, text runs horizontal in the text box. But you can choose to rotate the text so that
it runs vertically by choosing Rotate all text 90° or Rotate all text 270°.
Text Alignment
Text alignment of text boxes works much like text alignment in the main document. Instead
of the margin or border of the page, the text aligns with the border of the text box.
Create Link
Create Link lets you create a link between two or more text boxes so that text can flow, or
continue, from one text box to the next.
Select a text box, then click Create Link. The cursor will change into a paint bucket. Click on
the second text box to link them. Once linked, anything typed in the first text box will flow
over to the second. (Note that the second text box must be empty before you link to it.)
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4. Arrange
The arrange option controls the order of text boxes and other elements on a page. Although
a Word document is a two-dimensional file, arranging elements requires a bit of three-
dimensional thinking.
The main document, where the main text is, is the bottom layer of the document. When you
create a text box, the text box is on top of the rest of the document. Adding another text box
puts the new text box on top of the first one.
With the Arrange option, the text box order can be rearranged.
• Bring forward brings the text box forward one spot.
• Send backward sends the text box backward one spot.
These options are also available when right-clicking on a text box:
• Bring to front brings the text box to the very front so that it is on top of everything
else.
• Send to Back sends the text box to the very back so that everything else is on top of it.
The yellow text box has been brought to the front, while the blue text box has been sent to
the back.
Shapes
Sometimes you may want just a shape with no text, or you may want to figure out what
shape you want a text box to be before you add text.
To insert a shape, go to Insert>Shape and select a shape from the menu.
Once you select a shape, click and drag to draw the shape. You can then apply a text wrap,
rotate the shape, or send the shape in front of or behind text.
Click and drag
Square text wrap
You can change the color or add other effects to the shape from the Format tab, which
appears when you click on the shape.
If you decide you do want to add text to the shape, double-click on the shape and start
typing to make the shape a text box.
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Putting It Together: Microsoft Word, part 2
Now that you have some of the basic layout
techniques down, you are ready to move on to adding more elements to your document.
Remember if you get stuck or can’t remember how to do something from this module, you
can always come back and review.
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Module 5: Microsoft Word, part 3
Why It Matters: Microsoft Word, part 3
Why learn how to use Microsoft Word?
We have previously covered the basics of creating a document, but there is more to
business communication than just text. Tables and images, for example can communicate
information more effectively and engage readers in a way that text can’t.
Using the tools covered in this module will add variety to your document and help convey
more information.
Note: We will cover tables more deeply in depth in the Excel modules, but there are many
instances where a simple table made in Word can make a point better than a paragraph
with the same information.
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Introduction to Tables
What you’ll learn to do: create tables to organize information in a
Word document.
Inserting tables into your Word document can help organize and display data.
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Creating Tables
Learning Objectives
• Create and edit a table.
Inserting tables into your Word document can help organize and display data.
To create a table, click Insert>Table. A small menu will open with a grid that represents
table cells. Mouse over and select how many rows and columns you would like in your
table.
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You can also choose the Insert Table… option below the grid instead. This will take you to a
dialog box where you can choose how many rows or columns you want, as well as the
column width. Using the Insert Table… option is also a good choice if you need more cells
than the grid provides.
If you ever want to change the dimensions of your table, you can right-click in the table and
choose to insert more columns and rows, as shown below.
You can select multiple cells or even entire rows or columns by clicking and dragging your
mouse across the cells. Right-click on selected cells for more options to insert or delete
cells.
To enter data into the table, simply select a cell and start typing.
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Converting Text to a Table
Learning Objectives
• Convert existing text into a table.
Let’s say you already have some data, but it’s not in a table yet. Is there an easy way to put
the data in a table without having to type everything again? Yes, there is! Let’s look at the
example below.
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Here, information is separated by tabs. Select the information, then go to the Table menu
and choose Convert Text to Table to turn this data into a table.
Notice that you can use other things to separate your text and still get a clean table, such as
paragraphs (the Enter key) or commas. You can also enter your own character in the Other
box.
When you’ve finished choosing settings, hit OK to convert the text to a table.
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Formatting Tables
Learning Objectives
• Apply table styles and formatting.
Once the table is created, you can make the table more interesting to look at and easier to
read by applying formatting such as colors, spacing, and borders. Click somewhere in your
table, and some new menu options will appear in the top menu, Design and Layout.
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There are many options in the Design menu. A table style will do a lot of formatting for you.
Click on the Table Styles dropdown menu (circled in the screenshot above) and hover over
each style to see a preview of it. Click on a style to apply it to the table.
You can add borders to individual cells, rows, or columns. Select the cells, then go to the
Borders area of the menu in the top-right corner to customize the border settings. In the
screenshot below:
1. This changes the type of border. There are solid, dotted, and dashed borders to choose
from.
2. This changes the width or thickness of the border. The smaller the point, the thinner
the line.
3. This controls which side or sides of the cell the border appears on. From here, you
could make only vertical borders appear, only outside borders appear, and so on.
It’s a good idea to create a table in Microsoft Word and fiddle with the table design settings
yourself. Remember, you can always hit Ctrl+Z (Command+Z on Mac) to undo a previous
action.
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Introduction to Images
What you’ll learn to do: place images in a Word document.
Images are a huge asset for certain documents. A brightly colored image can draw
customers in to look at a flyer, or a graph can explain a concept better than a paragraph.
Placing images into your document can really make it pop.
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Adding Images
Learning Objectives
• Insert images.
To add an image, put your cursor where you want the image to appear (at the beginning of
a paragraph is a good place). Then go to Insert>Pictures.
A window will pop up to let you choose a picture saved on your computer.
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The image will appear where you placed your cursor. You can click and drag the image to
anywhere within the text.
You may recognize a lot of these controls from the Text Boxes section, such as the resize
dots at each side and corner that you can use to increase or decrease the size of the image.
To maintain the proportions of the image, hold down the Shift key while clicking and
dragging a corner. You can also rotate the image by clicking and dragging the circular
arrow at the top of the image.
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Text Wrap
Learning Objectives
• Change image layout options.
Notice that wherever the image is placed, the line spacing dramatically increases to fit the
size of the picture. This is because images are treated as an inline text character. In other
words, Word treats the image like it would treat any word or letter of text. You can change
this by applying a text wrap. Text wrap causes all of the text to wrap around the image so
that the image does not interfere with line spacing.
Text wrap
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There are a couple of ways to get to the text wrap options and apply a text wrap.
Method 1: Quick Apply
Click the box to the right of the image with a rainbow-shaped icon.
Method 2: Format Tab
When you click on the image, the Format tab will appear in the ribbon. From the Format
tab, you can choose Warp Text.
Method 3: Position
Go to Format>Position for options that not only apply text wrap but also position the image
on the page.
Position in Top Center with Square Text Wrapping
Text Wrap Options
Regardless of which method you use, the text wrap options are the same. The text wrap you
will probably use the most is the square text wrap, but there are other text wraps too.
• Square—Text wraps around the image in a square shape
• Tight/Through—Text wraps around image, regardless of what shape the image is.
This text wrap works best with images that have no background.
• Top and Bottom—Text stops when it hits the top of the image and continues at the
bottom of the image; no text is to the left or right of the image
• Behind text—Image is behind text. Text will cover image.
• In front of text—Image is in front of text. Text behind the image is not visible.
Square text wrap
Tight text wrap
Top and bottom text wrap
Behind text
In front of text
After the text wrap is applied, you can click and drag the image to anywhere in the
document, and the text will wrap around it accordingly.
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Introduction to Hyperlinks
What you’ll learn to do: add a hyperlink.
Hyperlinks allow you to send your audience to the internet to see background information
or a reference source. Hyperlinks can also provide a shortcut for the audience if after
reading the document they need to visit a particular website or send an email to a specific
address.
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Hyperlinks only work when a document is viewed on a computer, not when a document is
printed.
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Hyperlinks
Learning Objectives
• Add a hyperlink.
A hyperlink is a piece of text that when clicked takes the user to a webpage. Hyperlinks can
also link to email addresses; when clicked, these hyperlinks will open an email program
(likely Microsoft Outlook) to send an email to that address. Hyperlinks are formatted with a
different color (blue, by default) and an underline.
Inserting a Hyperlink
To add a hyperlink to a Word document, select the text to be changed into a hyperlink.
There are three options to add a hyperlink:
1. Use the shortcut Ctrl+K.
2. Right-click the selected text and select Hyperlink…
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3. Insert>Links>Hyperlink.
Any of these options will open up the Hyperlink dialog box.
The Text to display textbox at the top contains the text that will be formatted as a
hyperlink. It can be changed from this window.
The Address textbox at the bottom is where the hyperlink will send users. Type a webpage
URL or email address in the Address textbox.
Note that in the screenshot above, the Address textbox contains a file path. You can type in
a file path to link to files stored on your computer or in a shared database. Be aware that a
hyperlink is only a path to a file, not the file itself—if a user does not have the file on his or
her computer, they will not be able to open whatever file you have linked.
When the hyperlink is inserted, the text will change to the hyperlink style. By default, this is
blue and underlined, but this is customizable in the Color Theme options.
(Design>Colors>Customize Colors…)
Visiting a Hyperlink
Hover over the hyperlink to see a preview of where the link will take you. Be careful when
following hyperlinks to unfamiliar websites.
Hold down the Ctrl key while clicking on the hyperlink to open the webpage or email. If the
link was to a webpage, Microsoft Edge (or Internet Explorer) will open and load the
hyperlinked page. If the link was to an email address, Microsoft Outlook will open and
create a new message with that email address in the To field.
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After the hyperlink has been clicked, the color will change to indicate you have already
been to that link. By default, the color changes to purple.
Tip
If you prefer a different browser such as Firefox or Chrome, set that program as your
default browser and Word will open hyperlinks in that browser instead.
Editing Hyperlinks
To edit a hyperlink, right-click the hyperlink and select Edit Hyperlink.
The hyperlink options on the dialog menu are as follows:
• Edit Hyperlink… Takes you to the same dialog box for inserting a hyperlink, allowing
you to change what the hyperlink links to.
• Open Hyperlink. Performs the same function as Ctrl+click. Opens the hyperlink in
Microsoft Edge or Internet Explorer (or default browser).
• Copy Hyperlink. Copies the hyperlink (not the text that changes color).
• Remove Hyperlink. Removes the hyperlink, restoring the text to plain text.
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Introduction to Watermarks
What you’ll learn to do: insert a watermark.
A watermark is an identifying image, shape, or piece of text that overlays the
document. Watermarks are usually very light so that they don’t interfere with reading the
text.
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Watermarks
Learning Objectives
• Insert a watermark.
You can add a watermark to to documents in Word by going to Design>Watermark. (In
older versions of Word, it is often found in the Page Layout tab rather than the Design tab.)
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Choosing a watermark from the menu will apply it to every page in the document.
To change the text of the watermark, click Custom Watermark… at the bottom of the
Watermark menu to open the Printed Watermark dialog box.
Here, you can customize the text and appearance of the watermark. Unchecking the
semitransparent box will make the watermark more visible (although the watermark will
still not obscure the text).
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Picture Watermark
To add an image as a watermark, go to Design>Watermark>Custom watermark… and select
the Picture watermark in the Printed Watermark dialog box.
Click Select Picture… and then Browse to choose an image on your computer. Uncheck the
Washout box if you want a darker, more visible watermark. Then click OK in the Printed
Watermark dialog box.
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Putting It Together: Microsoft Word, part 3
We have now explored the basics of Microsoft Word. After careful reading and a bit of
practice, you can now create a great variety of documents that will suit your business
needs.
Remember that Microsoft Word still has many more features and tools to offer. If you are
interested in learning more, Microsoft’s website is a good place to check, or you can run a
web search for how to use a particular feature.
And of course, if you get stuck or can’t remember how to do something from this module,
you can always come back and review.
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Module 6: Microsoft Excel, part 1
Why It Matters: Microsoft Excel, part 1
Why learn how to use Microsoft Excel?
Imagine that you have a lot of business data. Perhaps you have names and addresses for a
mailing list. Maybe you have inventory data or quarterly sales values. All this information
could be kept in a Word document, but Microsoft Office actually has an extremely useful
program for organizing, storing, and even manipulating data: Microsoft Excel.
In this module, you will learn the basics of using Excel, focused on rearranging information
into tables and changing style elements. Before we begin, here is some key information
about Excel to remember before we start using this program.
1. The entire Excel file is called a workbook. Each individual page of the workbook is
called a worksheet. When you are actually working in Excel, the page in which you
enter data is a worksheet. We will discuss worksheets in more detail later but just
remember, a worksheet is like a page in Word.
2. Also just like in Word, Excel has a ribbon area at the top of the window with different
tabs for different controls.
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Introduction to Using Excel
What you’ll learn to do: create a worksheet and add data.
Learning to use Microsoft Excel is one of the most helpful and versatile workplace skills you
can acquire, and creating a worksheet in a workbook is the first step. Many of the skills you
learned for Microsoft Word can also be applied to Microsoft Excel, such as basic text
formatting and file extensions. The file extension for a Microsoft Excel workbook is .xlsx,
although pre-2003 versions of Excel might use .xls.
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Creating a New Workbook
Learning Objectives
• Create a new Excel workbook.
You can open Excel from the Start menu (or the Applications folder on a Mac) by clicking on
the Excel icon. The Excel icon comes in a variety of forms depending on your OS and
version of Excel, but it always features the color green and the letter X.
When you open Excel, some versions of Excel may take you straight to a new blank
workbook. Newer versions such as Excel 2016 will take you to a menu called backstage
view to choose to open a new blank workbook or open a new workbook from a template. If
you already have a file open in Excel, you can create a new document by clicking File>New.
You can also use the shortcut Ctrl+N (Command+N for Mac).
Note that the backstage view on a Mac computer is a little different.
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To open a blank workbook, double-click the blank workbook option.
Before using a workbook, it is helpful to know a few key terms.
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1. Cell. This is the area where you will enter data.
2. Row. Rows are cells aligned horizontally.
3. Column. Columns are cells aligned vertically.
4. Worksheet. A worksheet is a single page within a workbook. Like the tabs in an
internet browser, the tabs in an Excel workbook show different pages, or worksheets.
A workbook may have many worksheets included in it. In this screenshot, the
workbook only has one worksheet and one tab, which is labeled Sheet1. The selected
tab shows the selected worksheet. Clicking the + button will add another worksheet.
When you save a workbook in Excel, all of the worksheets in that workbook are saved.
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Entering Data
Learning Objectives
• Add data to a table.
Excel workbooks are used to organize data very clearly. Numerical data can be used in a
variety of ways, some of which we will examine in later modules. The first step, however, is
simply to enter data into a table.
First, open a blank workbook. Next, click on the first cell for your data: this will almost
always be A1.
If you wish to organize your data in a column, you will hit ENTER to move to the next cell
down. In this case, A2.
If you wish to organize your data in a row, you will hit the Tab key to move to the next cell
over. In this case, the next cell over is B1.
Enter all of your data into each individual cell until you are ready to save your workbook.
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Introduction to Basic Formatting and Layout
What you’ll learn to do: change formatting, layout, and styles in Excel.
Like any Microsoft program, Excel will default to certain fonts, texts, and styles when you
create a new worksheet. It is also very easy within Excel to format individual cells with cell
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styles or multiple cells with a table style. Not only can formatting help make your tables
more attractive, but it can also help indicate information about the contents, such as
whether the data in a cell reaches a target goal. In this section, we will address how to
change several default styles within Excel.
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Table Styles
Learning Objectives
• Apply table styles.
One very common task in Excel is to format a table with a particular style. The controls for
table styles are found in the Styles group of the ribbon under the Home tab.
There are many default table styles within Excel, as shown in the screenshot below. Among
other uses, styles let you apply color schemes to tables that can make them more readable.
In order to apply a particular table style:
1. Select all the cells that belong in your table.
2. Click on the “Format as Table” button.
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3. Choose which table style to apply.
Select all the cells that belong in your table. Click on the “Format as Table” button. Choose
which table style to apply.
In the screenshot example, each column is a particular type of information (Last name, First
Name, Address). These are known as headers. When applying the table style, be sure to
check the box if your table has headers that you have already entered.
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Your final table would look something like the table below using the options shown in the
screenshots.
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Cell Styles
Learning Objectives
• Apply cell styles.
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You can also apply a style to a cell or series of cells. There are many default cell styles
within Excel.
In order to apply a particular cell style:
1. Select the cell(s) you wish to format.
2. Click on the appropriate style for your cell.
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In the screenshot below, two cells have a style applied.
1. “Good” cell indicates the data in that cell is good or correct.
2. “Check” cell indicates you may need to verify the information in that cell.
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Cell Format
Learning Objectives
• Change cell format.
As mentioned previously, Excel will default to certain styles when you create a new
worksheet. In particular, this includes the way that numbers are displayed and whether or
not commas are automatically included. In this section, we will take a look at changing
these defaults.
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When you type numbers into an Excel workbook, it will often default to a specific format.
For example, if you type “12/15/17,” Excel will convert this to read “12/15/2017,”
assuming you were entering month, day, and abbreviated year. Similarly, “3/4” will display
at “4-Mar,” the fourth day of March. However, it is possible that you may have been
entering fractions, so “3/4” was meant to indicate three-quarters instead.
If this is the case, you will need to format your cells to properly display the information you
are entering. When possible, consider formatting your cells before you enter the data.
Otherwise, Excel may convert some of the entries and you will need to re-enter that
information.
Method 1
1. Begin by highlighting the cells you plan to use.
2. Select the Format dropdown from the Cells group of the ribbon.
3. Select the Format cells option at the bottom of the dropdown menu.
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There are several available format options for cells in Excel. When you select one, Excel will
provide you with a description and examples of how the information will display in the
cells.
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Method 2
You can perform the same actions using the “Number” group in the ribbon. In this case, you
simply select the cell format you wish to apply using the dropdown menu.
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Comma Styles
Learning Objectives
• Change comma style.
At times, you may also wish to use a specific comma style with numbers entered into an
Excel worksheet. For example, you may wish “1234” to display as typed or with a comma
like “1,234.”
Comma styles are easy to change in Excel using a quick select option in the Number group
in the ribbon.
Method 1
When using the Format cell dropdown option from this area, select the “Use 1000
Separator (,)” option to include a comma. You can also choose if you would like any decimal
places to be displayed in this same window.
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Method 2
The easiest option to include a comma is simply to click on the Comma Style button in the
Number group.
When clicking the comma style button, the comma style default is to display numbers with
a comma in the thousands place and include two decimal places (Ex: “1200” becomes
“1,200.00). This will also change the visible cell styles in the Style” area of the ribbon so you
can easily select different options for comma and display format.
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Below are three different options for comma and display format.
1. Comma: Comma with two decimal points
2. Comma [0]: Comma with no decimal points
3. Currency: Comma with two decimal points and a dollar sign
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Rearranging Tables
Learning Objectives
• Add, delete, and move columns and rows.
At times, you may find it necessary to change the number of rows or columns within your
table, move columns or rows, or even alter the standard width of rows and columns. All
these tasks are easy to accomplish within Excel, often with only a few clicks of your mouse.
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Add Columns and Rows
Note for this section, the word column will be used throughout but the same steps can be
used to add a row.
Method 1
After you have entered several columns of data into a worksheet, you may realize you need
to add another column in the middle of what you have already typed. The easiest way to
add a column within an existing set of columns involves only two clicks of your mouse.
1. Identify the area where you want to insert a new column.
2. Right-click on the column to the immediate right of the area where you wish to add a
column.
3. From the menu select Insert.
4. A new column will appear to the left of the column that you right-clicked.
Method 2
The same result can be achieved using the Insert button in the Cells group of the ribbon.
The new column will be inserted to the left of the column you clicked on. In this screenshot,
a column has been inserted.
Note that when you insert a new row, it will appear above the row you click on.
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Delete Columns and Rows
Note for this section, the word column will be used throughout, but the same steps can be
used to delete a row.
Method 1
After you have entered several columns of data into a worksheet, you may realize you need
to remove one column. The easiest way to delete a column uses two clicks of your mouse.
1. Right-click on the column you wish to delete.
2. From the menu select Delete.
Method 2
The same result can be achieved using the Delete button in the Cells group of the ribbon.
The column currently selected will be the one deleted. In this screenshot the column has
been deleted.
Move Columns and Rows
Note for this section, the word column will be used throughout, but the same steps can be
used to move a row.
Method 1
After you have entered several columns of data into a worksheet, you may realize you need
to move a column to a different location within the set. Once again, Excel makes it quite
easy to move data around a worksheet.
1. Right-click on the column you wish to move.
2. From the pop-up window select Cut. The column you have selected should become
outlined in a dashed border.
3. Next, right-click on the column you wish to move your column to the LEFT of.
4. A new dialog window will appear. Select Insert Cut Cells. The column you selected to
move should then appear in this new location.
Method 2
The same result can be achieved using a combination of keyboard shortcuts and dialog
windows.
1. Right-click on the column you wish to move.
2. Press Ctrl+X. The column you have selected should become outlined in a dashed
border.
3. Next, right-click on the column you wish to move your column to the LEFT of.
4. A dialog window will appear. From it select Insert Cut Cells. The column you wish to
move should then appear in the new location.
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Changing Width of Columns and Rows
Learning Objectives
• Change width of columns and rows.
After you have entered several columns of data into a worksheet, you may realize you
cannot read all the information in every cell. In this case you may want to resize the
column. Microsoft Excel allows you resize column width to AutoFit the text, meaning each
column will be sized according to the longest string of text in the column. Alternatively, for
visual appeal, you may want all the columns in your table to have the same length; you can
easily change multiple columns at the same time to have the same width. As in previous
pages, the steps below explain how to resize a column, but the same steps can be used to
resize a row as well.
AutoFit Column Width to Text
First, we will discuss making a column width AutoFit to the length of text in that column.
Note that when you AutoFit column widths, Excel will make the column length match that
of the longest string of text in any cell in that column.
Method 1
1. Identify the column you wish to resize.
2. Hover your mouse on the right boundary of the topmost cell of that column so that you
see a cross or T shape. (If you are resizing a row, you will hover over the bottom
boundary)
3. Double-click on that right boundary.
4. The column will automatically resize to fit the longest string of text in that column.
Compare the three columns on the left with the three on the right to see the results.
Method 2
You may also use the Format button in the Cells group of the ribbon to achieve the same
results. From the dropdown menu, you will choose AutoFit Column Width or AutoFit Row
Height. Note that if you wish to resize multiple columns, simply select them all before
clicking on the Format button.
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Set all columns to the same width
At other times, from visual reasons you may wish all columns (or rows) to have the same
width (or height), regardless of the amount of text in them. Or you may want a single
column to have a specified width.
Method 1
In this case, you will use the pixel information provided by Excel to manually resize the
columns.
1. Identify the column width you wish to resize.
2. Hover your mouse on the right boundary of that column so that you see a cross or T
shape. (If you are resizing a row, you will hover over the bottom boundary)
3. Hold down your mouse button and drag the right boundary until you reach the desired
pixel width. The pixels will be displayed in the parentheses.
4. Release the mouse button.
Method 2
You may also use the Format button in the Cells group of the ribbon to set a specific column
width. From the dropdown menu, you will choose Column Width or Row Height and
manually type in the size you wish each column (or row) to be. Again, if you wish to resize
multiple columns, simply select them all before clicking on the Format button.
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Introduction to Automating Data Entry
What you’ll learn to do: use Flash Fill and AutoSum.
The tools covered in this section will help you enter or generate data quickly.
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Flash Fill
Learning Objectives
• Use Flash Fill.
Like many modern software programs, Excel is designed to recognize certain patterns. For
example, perhaps you are creating a table that lists the last and first names of attendees at a
company training session. After all the names have been entered into two separate
columns, you realize you would like a single column to correctly display the full name. An
easy way to achieve this without having to manually retype the entire list is to use Flash
Fill.
1. Create a new column for the combined information you wish to display.
2. In the first cell, type the name as you wish it to display. In our screenshots, this would
be “John Smith.”
3. Begin typing the next piece of data in the next cell. Excel should automatically suggest
a Flash Fill option.
4. If the Flash Fill suggestion matches how you would like the information displayed,
simply hit the Enter key and the rest of your column should fill in automatically.
Flash Fill is especially helpful if your data is initially in different forms but you want the
final information to display in the same fashion. For example, in our attendee list, some of
the names were capitalized, in all caps, or had no capitalization. Sometimes you may need
to manually update more than one option but Excel will detect your pattern.
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Flash Fill should automatically be turned on in Excel but if it is not, you can turn it on using
the File>Options>Advanced menus. You can also turn Flash Fill on or off using the shortcut
Ctrl+E. Be aware that the Mac version of Excel does not have Flash Fill.
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SUM Data
Learning Objectives
• Use AutoSum button.
One of the main uses for Excel is to organize and manipulate numerical data. Often you may
wish to add up all the numbers in a column or row. Excel has formulas and commands to
automatically add your data, and the easiest way to use this feature is the AutoSum button.
1. Once your numbers are organized in either a row or column, click on the cell where
you would like the total sum to display. In the screenshot below this was A13.
2. Click on the AutoSum button from the Editing group of the ribbon.
3. Excel will highlight the cells that it is adding up and will apply the SUM formula.
4. Hit Enter to accept the highlighted cells and see the total value of your data.
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Note that it is possible to SUM several columns (or rows) at once. Select all the cells you
wish to display a SUM and click AutoSum. Excel will individually add up the columns.
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The AutoSum option can be found in two areas:
• It is contained in the Editing group of the ribbon, as shown in the first example above.
• It can also be found under the Formulas tab.
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Putting It Together: Microsoft Excel, part 1
Now that you understand the basics of Microsoft Excel, let us consider some ways to use
this program to manage business information.
1. You could organize the coupon flyer mailing list into a table with names and addresses
formatted the same.
2. You could collect annual sales data and AutoSum the monthly sales figures.
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3. You could display inventory data including item, quantity, and store location.
This module focused on the basics of using Excel as an organizing tool for easy display, with
limited use of the formulas or more advanced features in Excel. In our next module, we will
expand our use of Excel to more advanced features.
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Module 7: Microsoft Excel, part 2
Why It Matters: Microsoft Excel, part 2
Why learn how to use Microsoft Excel?
In the last module, we focused on some basic functionality in Excel. But this program is
capable of a lot more, including automatically organizing data (known as Sort), hiding data
(Filter), and even more advanced functions that will automatically format cells visually if
they meet certain conditions.
Before we move into the mechanics of each of these tools, let us consider for a moment the
types of questions you may have when looking at data in an Excel worksheet.
1. You want to see which month had your highest sales volume.
2. You have a total clothing inventory but you want to know how many pants you have in
stock.
3. You want to know how many months from last year you were under budget.
4. You want to see a graphic that represents your data instead of the actual numbers.
All of these questions can be answered with the valuable tools available in Excel and most
importantly, without manually looking through all of your data!
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Introduction to Creating Complex Workbooks
What you’ll learn to do: create a new workbook with more than one
worksheet.
When you open a new Excel file, there is automatically a single worksheet. However, there
are a number of reasons why you may want more than one worksheet in a single
workbook. For example, consider the following ways multiple worksheets in a workbook
can help with keeping data organized:
1. A workbook with monthly sales figure with each year on a different worksheet
2. A workbook with mailing lists for weekly flyers on one worksheet and coupon
mailings on another
3. A workbook with inventory data with each month on a different worksheet
In any of these cases, or others, it is very easy to add more worksheets to an Excel
workbook.
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Creating a Workbook with Multiple Worksheets
Learning Objectives
• Create a new workbook with more than one worksheet.
Method 1
The easiest method to add additional worksheets to a workbook is by using the Insert
Worksheet shortcut represented by the + button at the bottom of the workbook window.
You can use this shortcut button multiple times to insert additional worksheets into your
workbook.
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Method 2
You can also use the menu option Insert>Insert Sheet from the Cells group of the ribbon.
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Introduction to Using Excel for Data Analysis
What you’ll learn to do: analyze data with Excel.
In this section, you will learn how to sort and filter data, as well as find other connections
within data.
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Sorting Data
Learning Objectives
• Sort data in a table.
After data has been entered into an Excel worksheet, and even after it has been organized
into a table, it can still be manipulated and reorganized. One of the easiest options is to sort
the data in a particular order. For example, you can sort the data alphabetically.
Method 1
1. Select the column or row you wish to sort.
2. From the Sort & Filter button in the Editing group in the ribbon, click the Sort button.
3. From the menu, choose how you would like to sort the data. For example, A to Z or Z to
A. Note that A to Z is equivalent to Smallest to Largest and Z to A is equivalent to
Largest to Smallest.
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Method 2
1. Select the column or row you wish to sort.
2. From the Data tab in the ribbon, click the appropriate Sort button. For example A to Z
or Z to A.
A quick note about Custom Sort: the Custom Sort option allows you to define how your data
will be sorted within a column. For example, perhaps you want to sort information by
clothing size, rather than alphabetically. In this case, you must create a custom list for your
sort order.
1. Click on the data you wish to sort.
2. Click the Sort command followed by the Custom Sort option in the dropdown menu.
3. The Sort window will appear, allowing you to specify which column you will sort and
how. You can use the default options (days of the week or months) or you can enter a
new list. To create a new list, select Custom List from the Order column and then NEW
LIST.
4. If you are making a custom list, type in order the way you would like the data sorted.
In our example, we are sorting by size from small to large.
5. Click Add and your custom ordering list will appear in the original Order dropdown
menu.
6. Select your custom list and then click OK.
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Filtering Data
Learning Objectives
• Filter data in a table.
After entering data in Excel, it is also possible to filter, or hide some parts of the data, based
on user-indicated categories. When using the Filter option, no data is lost; it is just hidden
from view.
Method 1
1. Select the column or row you wish to sort.
2. From the Sort & Filter button in the Editing group in the ribbon, click the Filter button.
3. When the Filter menu appears, you can choose which categories of data to hide and
deselect the appropriate buttons. For example, you can deselect the button next to
large and you will no longer see the large cells in your table.
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Method 2
You can similarly access the Filter menu through the Data tab; the same menu will appear.
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Functions
Learning Objectives
• Use the COUNTIF function.
• Use the IF function.
Excel can perform a variety of really nice data analysis features for you. We’ve already
touched upon how you can filter data. But you can also look for other connections, or
screen large numbers of cells to determine how often something occurs.
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COUNTIF
COUNTIF is a way for you to ask Excel to count how many times a certain piece of
information appears in your worksheet. For example, perhaps you want to know how often
“shirt” appear in an inventory list. All you need to do is ask Excel to count the number of
cells that contain the word “shirt.”
1. Determine which cells you want Excel to look at. In our example, we will look at A2
though A13.
2. Click on the cell you wish your count to be displayed in.
3. Type the formula for a count
=COUNTIF(A2:A13, “shirt”)
Here you are telling Excel which cells to examine—A2 through A13—and what to look for:
“shirt.” Note that your text must match exactly what is typed in the cells, and if you are
looking for a specific word it needs to be enclosed in quotation marks (so “shirt” instead of
shirt).
4. Hit enter and your results will appear.
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IF
Another commonly used function in Excel is the “IF” function. In this case, you are asking
Excel to look for something and then tell you if that something occurred. For example,
perhaps you want to compare whether your monthly expenses were under your monthly
budget. That is the scenario we will look at in our example.
In this case, let us just ask for a simple “yes” or “no” answer. Looking at the screenshot
below, you can see how the worksheet has all the data at hand. We are looking for whether
the information in the C column is less than the information in the B column. We would like
the D column to display the answer (yes or no).
1. Click on D2 and enter the “IF” function for what you want Excel to compare and do.
=IF(C2
Once you have a new presentation open, you save it the same way you would a Word or an
Excel file. Refer to the Word lesson if you need a refresher.
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Introduction to Images and Art
What you’ll learn to do: add images, clip art, and SmartArt.
PowerPoint is a helpful tool for organizing textual information in short, direct sentences or
bullet points. It is also useful for displaying tables, as you saw in the previous module.
Tables are not the only graphics that you can embed in a presentation however. You can
also add images, clip art, and dynamic art to slides that help convey your message.
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Images and Clip Art
Learning Objectives
• Add images and clip art.
To add an image, insert a new slide. For our purposes, it is helpful to start with a Title and
Content slide, but remember you can always change the format of your slide later.
Method 1
1. Click inside the content box so that it becomes the active portion of the slide.
2. If you hover your mouse over any of the icons shown in the green box below, you will
see a description of what type of object you can insert.
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3. Select Pictures, the bottom left icon.
4. By default, your computer’s Pictures folder will pop up. If your images are stored
elsewhere, navigate to the appropriate location to find your image.
5. Click on the picture or image you wish to insert.
6. Click Insert
Your image will be automatically sized by PowerPoint. You can then type in a title, add a
text box, or even resize your image if you wish.
Method 2
Another way to add an image to a slide is to use the Pictures option in the Insert tab.
Pictures embedded this way are automatically sized as well.
Clicking the Pictures button uses images stored on your computer. Clicking the Online
Pictures button allows you to use an embedded search engine to use images directly from
the internet. Note that the term pictures is used to represent really any graphic: it can be a
photograph, an icon, or a graphic file. Older versions of Microsoft Office included something
called clip art. Clip art was basically a graphic icon, such as the image shown below. This
type of image can still be used and searched for using the Online Pictures option.
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SmartArt
Learning Objectives
• Create and insert SmartArt.
SmartArt is a dynamic type of image that you will often see in PowerPoint slides. SmartArt
can be used to group lists of information together, through bullet lists for example, or to
show a process, through cycles. Fortunately, you do not need to be a graphic designer to
create and insert simple and effective SmartArt into a PowerPoint presentation.
Before you actually insert SmartArt, you should determine what you are attempting to
convey and the best way to convey it. One helpful item here is the descriptions provided for
each basic SmartArt graphic shape. You can access these descriptions by selecting the
Insert a SmartArt Graphic option on a new slide. When you do, you will see this window:
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The graphic styles displayed immediately under All are the commonly used ones, but you
can navigate to specific styles using the menu on the left. For this walkthrough, we will
create a basic cycle SmartArt graphic. This type of graphic is useful when describing a
process, such as what happens when a customer returns a defective item. This example will
be used to describe how to create a SmartArt graphic.
Once you click OK, the graphic is automatically sized into your slide, just like inserting any
image. Remember: at the end of the day, a SmartArt graphic is just an image. Therefore, you
add them to slides using the same steps shown on the previous page. You have to insert a
SmartArt graphic before you can actually create the graphic.
The graphic inserts into the slide with default options, but those are very easy to change, as
we will soon see
Using the text box on the left, type in what should be displayed in each portion of the
graphic. To move between portions of the graphic, in this case the circles, click on the next
bullet in the text box or on the next shape in the graphic. Below, all text has been updated
and a title has been added to the slide.
You can edit the text at any time by clicking on the “Type your text here” box or the circle
you wish to edit. If you have left the slide or presentation and come back to edit it later, you
will need to click on some part of the SmartArt graphic to bring the “Type your text here”
box back onto the screen.
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If you want to change the color scheme, layout, number of shapes in the graphic, or any
other option, you can do so using the Design tab and the options available in that ribbon.
Note this Design tab is only available after you have clicked on the SmartArt graphic. This is
not the standard Design tab that is always available in PowerPoint.
Once you have created your SmartArt graphic, you can use the Convert to Shapes option to
make your SmartArt graphic a static image. Once you do this, you can still edit the text
inside the shapes, but you cannot change other options such as color, layout, or number of
shapes.
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Introduction to Videos and Arranged Objects
What you’ll learn to do: add videos and arrange objects.
As mentioned already, PowerPoint is a versatile presentation tool. It can display text,
tables, and graphics, and even can be used to play audio and video clips inside a
presentation. The process for adding a video is not much different from adding an image or
SmartArt graphic.
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Videos
Learning Objectives
• Add videos.
To add a video, insert a new slide. For our purposes, it is helpful to start with a Title and
Content slide, but remember you can always change the format of your slide later.
Method 1
1. Click inside the content box so that it becomes the active portion of the slide.
2. If you hover your mouse over any of the icons shown in the green box below, you will
see a description of what type of object you can insert.
3. Select Insert Video, the bottom-right icon.
4. You will see the window below appear. You can use any of the available options to find
videos on your computer, to search for them online, or to embed the code from an
online video you have already found.
5. Once the video is inserted, the Format and Playback tabs appear. From these tabs, you
can change options on your video, such as its size or whether it loops after playing.
You can also trim a video in the Playback tab if you only wish to use a small portion of
it.
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Method 2
Another way to add a video to a slide is to use the Insert tab, Media option. This method
will actually allow you to add audio clips easily, including recording a new audio clip.
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Arranging Objects
Learning Objectives
• Arrange objects.
At this point, we have learned how to add a variety of items to PowerPoint slides, including
different types of images and videos. There are times when you may have multiple objects
on a slide together and wish to position them in a certain way. Alternatively, you may wish
to position a single item in a very specific fashion. This is called arranging objects on slides.
Like many other tasks in PowerPoint, there are automated ways to do this.
1. The “Arrange” menu is found in the “Drawing” group of the Home tab.
2. You must select a specific object to arrange. For this example, the image of the flower
on the left has been selected.
3. The dropdown Arrange menu provides you a variety of options. Align will specifically
position the selected object somewhere on the slide.
When you have multiple overlapping objects, you can choose which one is in the
background or forefront using the Order Objects selections. You should Bring to Front the
image you wish to be in the forefront, but keep in mind it will then hide anything it
overlaps. Consider the images below.
If you have multiple objects together on a slide, you can make them into a Group using the
“Group Objects” menu. Grouping different objects together turns them into a single object.
In this way, they can be moved, aligned, or resized as a unit instead of individually. Note
that you can only group the same type of objects together. You can group multiple images
together, but you cannot group an image and a video.
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Putting It Together: Microsoft PowerPoint, part 2
Now that you know some of the more visual-based tricks in PowerPoint, let’s take a look at
our opening list of possible presentation goals and match those with the skills you just
learned.
1. You want to show a clip from an advertising campaign. You can achieve this by
inserting the video and even trim it to a shorter segment.
2. You want to provide a visual introduction of newly hired employees. You can easily
insert headshots of the new employees, and can even use the grouping and arranging
options to make sure everyone gets equal billing in photo size and position.
3. You want to illustrate a particular work process with several steps. You can create a
SmartArt graphic showing the work flow.
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Module 10: Integration
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Why It Matters: Integration
Business needs drive collaboration, information sharing and business analysis. What that
really means is that more ideas, data, and information needs to be used in combination to
bring about better interpretation and understanding of those ideas, data, and information
by people. The Microsoft suite of apps allows people to work together to move a business
forward, communicate effectively, and become increasingly more successful.
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As this video mentions, the purpose of using these applications is to make business work
easier between people. The purpose of this course is to give you the skills necessary to be
more comfortable with the various tools and applications in order to do your job with ease.
At work, your to-do-list might include tasks such as ordering new products, completing
purchase orders, creating sales charts, and producing proposals and presentations. This
module will draw on the lessons you have learned in those previous modules and show you
how to integrate various features from one application into another in order to finish these
types of tasks.
Here is what you will be learning how to accomplish with this module:
• Create a Word document with integrated Excel utilizing skills from the previous
modules
• Create a PowerPoint supporting presentation utilizing skills from the previous
modules
• Include internet integration
• Integrate a video into a PowerPoint slide
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Introduction to Using Word with Excel and PowerPoint
Up to this point in the course, each of the computer applications has been treated as
separate, standalone apps. In the world of business however, each application can be
integrated, in various ways, into the others to enhance the reporting, presenting, and
communication tasks of business on a daily basis. Integrating Word, Excel, and PowerPoint
makes business communication more effective by organizing separated information into
one place for easy access and analysis.
These skills from this course to this point will now be used to see how these computer
applications can be integrated to accomplish business tasks. To accomplish this, let’s look
at an example scenario.
The Rowan Retail store is about to have their annual review of their sales figures and
Rosamine Ruiz has been asked to write up a one-page report explaining the sales trends for
the past three years for the store’s General Manager (GM). Rosamine has collected all of the
information she needs and is now ready to begin her report in Word. Follow her progress
through the pages in this section.
There are many ways in which integration can take place in a Word document. At times
new content must be created. Other times content from other sources and documents need
to be incorporated and integrated into the Word document. As Rosamine will discover,
each document can be a mix of both new and existing content. As you work more over time
with Word, you will discover additional ways to integrate many elements into one
document.
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Customized Word Templates
Learning Objectives
• Create a Word document with customized template.
As Rosamine creates the sales report, the first step she takes is to open the Word
application and create a new document using company templates—Rowan Retail Sales
Report. She searches for the exact template and selects it by clicking on the image in the
Word window.
This is what the template for the sales report looks like. It is in newsletter form with two
columns because that is the way the GM prefers the report to be formatted.
Rosamine wants to customize this report, so she starts to tweak it before she starts
composing.
Customize Template
The first thing Rosamine decides is to change the look and feel of the template. She changes
the theme by clicking on the Design Tab then the Themes button on the far upper left.
Rosamine picked the Retrospect theme, which changes the text and colors from the golden
yellow color to a red/orange theme.
Next, Rosamine removes the DRAFT watermark from the report.
Still in the Design tab, she moves to the upper right buttons and selects the Watermark
button.
1. Design Tab. Variety of possible changes for a document.
2. Watermark Button. This button inserts or removes a variety of watermarks.
3. Remove Watermark Button. Rosamine selects this and the DRAFT watermark is
removed from her report.
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Excel Table in Word Document
Learning Objectives
• Create a Word document with integrated Excel table.
There are a couple of ways to integrate an Excel table into a Word document.
Option 1 for Table Integration
Rosamine starts to type in her report. Along the way she decides to change the theme
colors again to more of a brown color and repeats the theme change process like she did
previously. She continues writing her text and now needs to add an Excel table to her
report highlighting the three different store Q2 sales numbers.
She has the second quarter sales information from another report, but doesn’t have the
Excel file itself to copy into her Word document. Because she has no existing Excel file, she
creates her own table through the following steps:
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1. Cursor Placement. Rosamine makes sure her cursor is placed in the area of her Word
document where she wants to create the table.
2. Insert Tab. She clicks on the Insert tab to display the insert button possibilities and
selects the Table button.
3. Excel Spreadsheet Option. This button creates a little Excel spreadsheet table within
Rosamine’s Word document.
The Excel table is now in her Word document and ready for data to be entered. Notice how
the color of the upper toolbar is displaying the Excel green and that the Home tab is
selected. This is an indicator to Rosamine to know she is now working with an Excel table.
She can now begin to type in the data for the table.
Note: If at any time Rosamine clicks outside the table it will revert back to the Word
document and she can double-click back on the table to open it up for data entry again.
Cell Style. AutoSum. Center. Color in Cells. Borders. Bold.
Rosamine has entered the sales figures from the three different stores, and wants to make
additional changes to the table. This is how she changes the table.
1. Cell Style. Rosamine selects and formats the column of numbers to be currency cells
and to display the dollars generated from sales for the second quarter of the year.
2. AutoSum. With the bottom cell selected, Rosamine clicks the AutoSum button, which
totals the three sales figures for all stores for the GM to easily see what total sales were
generated from the second quarter.
3. Center. Next, Rosamine centers the Quarter numbers by selecting the three quarter
cells and clicking on the centering button.
4. Color in Cells. The table needs a contrasting color to make the titles and totals stand
out. Rosamine selects the top and bottom rows, clicks on the paint bucket button, and
chooses a green color for the table.
5. Borders. To make the table look more defined in the document, Rosamine selects the
entire table, then the Border button, then selects the “thick box border” to be placed
around the outside of the table.
6. Bold. The last table change Rosamine uses is to select the titles and totals rows and
bold each of them to contrast with the other data.
Now the table is complete, but it still shows too many unused cells. Rosamine resizes the
table by holding down the left mouse button and dragging the sides of the table to the
correct size for the report.
Her work complete, she clicks off to the right. Her Word document is ready for more text
and additional data.
Option 2 for Table Integration
What if Rosamine has access to the store sales information Excel file directly? With this
scenario, she can place it directly into her Word document with no need to make her own
table. Here is how Rosamine can insert an existing Excel file:
1. Word Document Open. Rosamine has the Sales Report Word document open on her
computer.
2. Excel Application Open. Rosamine opens the Excel app.
3. Excel Document Open. Next, Rosamine opens the Rowan Retail_Q2_Sales_Totals file.
4. Sales Table. This is the sales table to be copied into the Word document. The next step
is to copy and paste the table.
1. Select Table. With the file open, Rosamine selects the entire table (all rows and
columns).
2. Copy Table. Rosamine right-clicks with her mouse and selects the Copy function. She
can also accomplish this by using the Ctrl+C keys to copy the table.
Next is getting back to the Word document. There are three ways to accomplish this:
1. One way is to simply click on the Word window and it will move forward in front of
the Excel window.
2. A second way is to toggle back and forth with the keyboard by holding down the Alt
key and tapping on the Tab key (Alt+Tab). This opens a small window displaying all
the apps currently running on the computer. She can continue to hold down the Alt
key and click the Tab key to scroll through the options.
3. The third option is to place the two documents side-by-side on the computer screen.
This typically requires resizing of the document windows.
Now that the Word document is selected, Rosamine now places the cursor where the table
should be and right-clicks with her mouse. The menu appears again. She selects the Paste
Option small clipboard icon, and the table is copied into the Word document.
This is how the document looks with the Excel table pasted into the document.
Here is an illustration of copy and pasting using the keyboard shortcut keys (Ctrl+C, Ctrl+V)
where Rosamine would first select the Excel table, copy the table, then paste it into the
Word document.
Once the copied Excel table is in the Word document, it can be modified by double-clicking
in the desired cell and then it can be changed however desired. It does not open a small
Excel spreadsheet as the table created within Word in Option 1 did.
The table is now set and Rosamine is ready for more text and an additional data chart.
CC licensed content, Original
• Excel Table in Word Document. Authored by: Sherri Pendleton. Provided by: Lumen
Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Excel Chart in Word Document
Learning Objectives
• Create a Word document with integrated Excel chart.
There are a couple of ways to integrate an Excel chart into a Word document.
Option 1 for Chart Integration
The next piece of information needed in the report is the annual sales chart. To enter this
data, Rosamine makes sure her cursor is at the place in the report she wants the chart to
go. She clicks back to the Insert tab and selects the Chart button.
The next step is to select the type of chart to use for her report. In this instance, Rosamine
chooses a line chart.
1. Chart Button/Line Chart. Rosamine selects the chart button and then selects a Line
chart to use in her report.
2. Chart Options. There are seven different variations for displaying a Line chart.
Rosamine selects the first option.
3. OK Button. With the desired chart selected, Rosamine clicks the OK button and the
chart is placed in her report.
Next, Rosamine selects the style of line chart to use and begins to enter information to
create the chart itself.
The chart will contain the total sales numbers from the last three years for each of the three
retail stores. She puts the years in Column A (purple color), the name of the stores across
row 1 (pink color), and the sales figures in the rest of the cells (blue color). Here is what
her chart now looks like in the report.
Rosamine clicks on the chart title box and changes the name of the chart to Annual Total
Sales. Rosamine notices that the numbers are difficult to see, so she resizes the chart to
make it easier to read.
Rosamine resizes the chart by clicking on the mid-points in the chart and dragging them to
a larger size that still fits within the document column width.
The General Manager will now see the rise and fall of sales over the last three years in
Rosamine’s report.
To finish the report, Rosamine types in the rest of the text. Next she needs to link a
PowerPoint presentation file for a reference mentioned in the report.
Option 2 for Chart Integration
What if Rosamine already had access to the Annual Total Sales chart file? She could copy
and paste the chart into her document. First she opens the Excel file with the chart in it.
Since she has learned to copy and paste from the previous table, she puts the Word and
Excel windows side-by-side on her screen, then takes the following steps:
1. Select chart. Rosamine selects the chart in the Excel file by clicking once on the chart.
2. Right-click mouse. Rosamine clicks the right mouse button. She sees a menu appear
and selects the Copy choice. She can also use the Ctrl+C keys to copy the chart.
3. Paste chart in Word document. With the desired chart copied, Rosamine moves over
to her Word document and places the curser in the correct spot and right-clicks again
to bring up the menu. In the menu she selects the Paste option and the chart is placed
in the document. She can also use the Ctrl+V keys to paste the chart.
4. Resize chart. Rosamine now grabs one of the chart border area spots and moves it to
the desired size in the document.
5. Change chart. If Rosamine needed to change something about the chart like the type
of chart, the data in the chart, the labels, and so on, she can right-click on the chart
itself, and a menu will appear that allows her to change aspects of that chart. Any
changes made will not affect the original Excel file chart.
If Rosamine wanted to use the copy and paste keyboard shortcut it would be exactly like
the copy and paste from the table example and look like this:
To finish the report, Rosamine types in the rest of the text. Next, she needs to link a
PowerPoint presentation file for a reference mentioned in the report.
CC licensed content, Original
• Excel Chart in Word Document. Authored by: Sherri Pendleton. Provided by: Lumen
Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
PowerPoint in Word Document
Learning Objectives
• Create a Word document with inserted PowerPoint hyperlink.
You can link to a PowerPoint document with a hyperlink in a Word document. The example
with Rosamine’s document continues on this page.
Once again Rosamine returns to the Insert tab and selects the link button. Towards the
bottom of the dropdown menu, she selects Insert Link and then finds the correct
PowerPoint file location and adds that to the window.
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Now when the GM hovers over the hyperlinked file, the location and file name will be
displayed and can be clicked on to open that third-quarter sales promotions presentation
for more information.
CC licensed content, Original
• PowerPoint in Word Document. Authored by: Sherri Pendleton. Provided by: Lumen
Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
Icons in Word
Learning Objectives
• Create a Word document with inserted icon.
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There is one more thing Rosamine wishes to incorporate into her document—a final icon.
Rosamine’s GM has a good sense of humor, so Rosamine chooses a different icon to end
with in each of her reports. This time she wants a little piggy bank icon. To do this, she puts
her cursor where she wants the icon to go, clicks on the Insert tab, and selects the Icon
button. After scrolling down, she finds the piggy bank icon, selects it, and clicks the Insert
button.
The little piggy is now in the document but needs a bit of adjusting. Like she can with the
table and chart, Rosamine can drag the little image circle boarder to make the icon smaller.
She also selects the button to have the icon move behind the text.
Practice Question
An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can
view it online here: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-compapp/?p=2110
Now the little piggy bank is in place, and Rosamine has finished her report. She makes sure
to save her file where she can easily find it again and emails it to her General Manager. Well
done, Rosamine!
CC licensed content, Original
• Icons in Word. Authored by: Sherri Pendleton. Provided by: Lumen Learning.
License: CC BY: Attribution
Introduction to Using PowerPoint with Excel
PowerPoint is the primary computer application used for business presentations. Knowing
how to integrate a variety of charts, images, clip art, and so on is important to fill out a
presentation and have it efficiently communicate to your desired audience. Elsewhere in
this module, a Word document was modified and integrated with other computer
applications. This section focuses on integration within PowerPoint.
PowerPoint integration skills will assist you to powerfully communicate whatever business
information you are trying to get across. To accomplish this, let’s look at an example
scenario in which PowerPoint integration is helpful.
Rowan Retail is planning to increase store sales in all three of its branches in the third
quarter of this year. In order to coordinate the sales campaign, Cameron is creating the
sales campaign presentation for the company’s next regional meeting. He has all the
information he needs and is ready to create his sales presentation.
As Cameron will discover, each presentation can be a mix of both new and existing content.
There are many ways to incorporate a variety of things into PowerPoint. Frequently
creating and editing a presentation is a back-and-forth process. Presentations must not
only be filled with appropriate information, but also must be visually dynamic for an
audience.
Over time, your experience with PowerPoint with increase and you will discover other
ways to integrate things into your presentations. They can be live, recorded, timed, and
easily emailed to interested parties, so good PowerPoint skills is essential to business.
CC licensed content, Original
• Introduction to Using PowerPoint with Excel. Authored by: Sherri Pendleton.
Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
Customized PowerPoint Templates
Learning Objectives
• Modify PowerPoint custom template presentation.
As a first step, Cameron first opens the PowerPoint application and creates a new
presentation using the company sales campaign presentation template—RR Sales
Campaign. He finds the exact template he wants and selects it by clicking on it.
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https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
This is the template for the sales report and the first change Cameron needs to make is to
change the title and subtitle.
Cameron clicks on the title and subtitle areas and changes them. He titles the slide Q3 (for
third quarter) Sales Campaign. He misspelled one of the words, so he right-clicks and
selects the correct spelling for promotions.
Now that the first slide’s content is done, Cameron wants to change the presentation theme
and customize this report more.
Customize Presentation Template
The first change Cameron makes is to change the theme of the template. He changes the
theme by clicking on the Design Tab and selects the Theme changing the slides to a green
color instead of purple.
New Slide
Next, Cameron adds in a new slide between the first and second slide. First, he places the
cursor between the two slides. Next, he clicks on the Home tab and the New Slide button.
This drops down a visual menu of the types of slides to choose from. He selects the 3
Picture Column slide.
With the new slide open, Cameron now begins to edit the title. He will then click on the
image and text boxes to add content.
Cameron inserts pictures of the three stores.
1. Select Picture Icon. Cameron clicks in a picture box and a file window appears.
2. Select Picture File. He navigates to the folder with the pictures for the presentation
and selects one by clicking once.
3. Open/Insert Picture. He then selects the Open button to insert the picture into the
presentation slide (he can also double-click on the picture and it is imported into the
slide).
Now with two of the store pictures in place, Cameron needs to grab a photo of the third
store from a Word document. These are the steps he takes to accomplish that action:
1. Open Word. Cameron opens the Word document next to the PowerPoint presentation
window.
2. Find Picture. He scrolls through the document and finds the picture he needs and
right-clicks on it.
3. Copy Picture. He selects the Copy option in the pop-up menu and now navigates back
to the PowerPoint presentation slide (he can also use the toggle keys Alt+Tab to get
back to the PowerPoint window). Cameron could also use the Ctrl+C keys to copy the
picture as well.
1. Select PowerPoint. Cameron is back in the slide presentation and moves his cursor to
the last picture box.
2. Select Picture Location. Cameron navigates to the final picture area, then right-clicks
on it. A menu appears.
3. Paste Picture. He selects the Paste option and the picture is inserted into the
presentation slide. Cameron could also use the Ctrl+V keys to paste the picture. The
image will automatically be sized to fit the image box size.
Now Cameron clicks in the text boxes and types in the appropriate titles and goals for each
store.
Cameron is now finished with this slide. He can now move on to the next slide, which he
will use to show an Excel table.
CC licensed content, Original
• Customized PowerPoint Templates. Authored by: Sherri Pendleton. Provided by:
Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Excel Table in PowerPoint
Learning Objectives
• Create PowerPoint slide with integrated Excel table.
Cameron has an Excel file with a pertinent table for the sales presentation. He selects slide
3, types in a slide title, and then follows these steps to insert the Excel table into
PowerPoint.
Option 1 for Table Integration
In the text box, Cameron hovers over the icons in the middle and clicks on the Insert Table
icon.
He doesn’t have an Excel table in a file to copy into his PowerPoint presentation, so he
creates one through the following steps:
1. Insert Table Box. This box appears where Cameron decides the size of his table.
2. Number of Columns. Clicks the down arrow until the number is 4 columns.
3. Number of Rows. Clicks the up arrow until the number is 6 rows.
4. OK Button. This button creates a little Excel table within Cameron’s PowerPoint
presentation slide.
The Excel table is now in his PowerPoint presentation and ready for data to be entered.
Cameron now enters his information into the table.
Note: If at any time Cameron wants to change the color of the table he can click on the
Table styles in the bar above.
Cameron types in the sales figures from the three different stores, and wants to make
additional changes. He has already bolded the title rows (using the Bold button in the
Home Tab), but the type is difficult to read from a distance.
1. He selects the table title.
2. He right-clicks to bring up the font size and selects size 40.
3. He selects the remaining rows and uses the upper font bar to change the font size to
20pt.
4. He decides to change the title by clicking within the title box, then typing in a new title.
Cameron steps back and looks at the table. He notices the table is not centered on the slide,
so he clicks on the table and moves his cursor to the edge of the table until he sees the four
arrow symbol. He drags the whole table to the center of the slide.
He now makes a note under the table by clicking on the Insert tab and the Text Box button.
He puts his cursor under the table and begins to type his note into the slide. This step is
now complete.
Cameron reads through the slide to make sure it is clear and decides to change the table
title. He clicks in the table title and retypes the words to say “Q3 Campaign.” Now the slide
is complete, and he is ready for another slide.
Option 2 for Table Integration
What if Cameron has an existing sales campaign Excel table he can use? With this scenario,
he copies it directly into his PowerPoint presentation so there’s no need to make his own
table. Here is how Cameron inserts an existing Excel file table:
1. Open Excel application. Cameron has the RR Sales Campaign Excel file open on his
computer.
2. Select the table. Cameron selects the entire table and clicks with the right mouse
button.
3. Copy the Excel table. Next, Cameron opens the selects the Copy function. Cameron
can also use the Ctrl+C keys to copy the table.
1. Select PowerPoint. Cameron clicks on the PowerPoint window to bring it forward (he
could also toggle Alt+Tab if the window is behind the Excel window).
2. Select table area. Cameron clicks with the right mouse button in the Table box.
3. Paste Excel table. Cameron selects the Paste function in the menu and the table is
placed in the slide (He can also use the Ctrl+V keys to paste in the table).
He can now resize, move, center, bold, add the text note, and change the font of the table
like in the Option 1 example to optimally display the table on the slide. The table slide is
now set, and Cameron is ready for an additional slide with a chart indicating the campaign
funding divisions between stores.
CC licensed content, Original
• Excel Table in PowerPoint. Authored by: Sherri Pendleton. Provided by: Lumen
Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
Excel Chart in PowerPoint
Learning Objectives
• Create PowerPoint slide with integrated Excel chart.
Option 1 for Chart Integration
The next slide in the presentation is the budget distribution chart. Cameron will create a
chart from scratch in a new slide. He opens the New Slide options and selects Content with
Caption, then types in the title in the box. He moves the cursor over the large box and clicks
on the Insert Chart icon and decides on the type of chart.
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For this slide, he selects a 3-D Pie chart. A small Excel spreadsheet pops up above the pie
chart for Cameron to enter the data for the chart.
Cameron begins to type in the data by double-clicking on a cell and replacing the text or
numbers in it. He changes the numbers cells to percentages. There is an extra row he
doesn’t need, so he selects it, right-clicks, and selects the Delete Row from the menu.
Cameron now clicks the X in the small window and closes it.
Cameron decides to show the budget present age on the chart and needs to modify a few
other aspects about the chart to make it easier to see.
He takes the following steps:
1. Chart Elements Button. This + button allows Cameron to change aspects of the chart.
2. Elements List. Cameron clicks the Data Labels box to change the labels.
3. Arrow Button. Cameron clicks the small right arrow, and a new menu appears.
4. Data Label List. Cameron moves the chart numbers to the center of their respective
areas.
Next, Cameron changes the area numbers to percentages and increases the font size of the
chart text and the Store label sizes.
The chart is now too close to the store labels. Cameron clicks on the chart and hovers over
the border until the four-arrow cursor appears. He drags the chart up, closer to the title.
This centers the chart and makes it easier to read the labels.
Option 2 for Chart Integration
What if Cameron had an existing sales budget chart? He could copy and paste the chart into
his presentation. First he opens the Excel file with the chart in it. Since he has learned to
copy and paste from the previous table, he puts the PowerPoint and Excel windows side by
side then takes the following steps:
1. Select Excel. Cameron makes sure Excel is the current window and opens the chart
file.
2. Select Chart. Cameron selects the chart in the Excel file by right-clicking on the chart.
3. Select Copy. Cameron sees a menu appear and selects the Copy choice. He can also
use Ctrl+C to copy the chart.
Practice Question
An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can
view it online here: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-compapp/?p=2138
4. PowerPoint Presentation Paste Chart. With the desired chart copied, Cameron
moves over to his PowerPoint presentation and places the curser in the correct spot
and right-clicks again to bring up the menu. In the menu he selects the Paste option
and the chart is placed in the presentation. He can also use the Ctrl+V keys to paste
the chart.
5. Resize Chart. Cameron now grabs one of the chart border area spots and moves it to
the desired size in the presentation.
6. Change Chart. If Cameron needs to change something about the chart, such as the
type of chart, the data in the chart, the labels, and so on, he can right-click on the chart
itself. A menu will appear that allows him to change aspects of that chart. Any changes
made will not affect the original Excel file chart.
Practice Question
An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can
view it online here: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-compapp/?p=2138
CC licensed content, Original
• Excel Chart in PowerPoint. Authored by: Sherri Pendleton. Provided by: Lumen
Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
Introduction to Using Internet Tools with Microsoft Office
The internet is an integral part of business, whether you are searching for information,
images, competitor’s websites, or comparative product prices or communicating through
video chats, online meetings, or email.
This section will walk through an example scenario and show how you can incorporate
information from the internet into your documents, spreadsheets, and presentations for
work.
Each of Rowan Retail’s three stores is preparing a report for the success of the third-
quarter sales campaign. Every store is using a different application to report their results
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and have integrated various internet activities into each report. Now we’ll walk through
how the stores accomplished this integration.
CC licensed content, Original
• Introduction to Using Internet Tools with Microsoft Office. Authored by: Sherri
Pendleton. Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
Internet and Excel
Learning Objectives
• Use internet tools to enhance Excel workbooks.
Rowan Retail Store #2 is using Excel to plan their campaign for the Q3 sales campaign. The
campaign for this store is to create a loyalty program and start with selling more dairy
groceries. Like Word and PowerPoint, the same skills apply to copy, paste images and
address from the internet. There is one other feature that is unique to Excel which we’ll go
over.
Maurice has opened his Q3 sales campaign Excel file and wants to insert pictures of each
store in the table he has made. He searches the web for the photos by first clicking the
Insert tab and Online Pictures button. After finding the second store’s photo, he clicks the
Insert button and then resizes the photo in the worksheet.
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He finds and inserts the third store’s photo and now his table is complete. He wants to keep
a reference for a webpage next to the table. With a browser open to the website, Maurice
copies the web address and goes back to his Excel workbook. He selects a cell and pastes
the address directly into the workbook.
Practice Question
An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can
view it online here: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-compapp/?p=2144
Bonus Advanced Integration
Maurice wants to conduct research on current dairy prices to help him decide on the sales
percentage. Excel has a function to allow tables from websites to be imported into a
worksheet. Maurice already knows the website he wants to follow
(http://www.dairy.com/market-prices).
He takes the following steps to set up the table in a new workbook tab.
1. First, he clicks on the Data tab, then selects the Get Data > From Other Sources >
From Web.
http://www.dairy.com/market-prices
2. He then types in his webpage address into the dialog box and clicks OK.
3. This sends Excel out looking for the website and its data. It then displays a dialog box
with the information it can read. Maurice selects Table 1 and clicks the Load button.
4. The data table from the website is now pulled into his spreadsheet. Hooray!
5. Maurice wants to make sure he has the most up-to-date information. He clicks the
Data tab > Properties button > Query Properties button.
6. A new dialog box opens and he checks the box to Refresh every 60 minutes. He can
change this to whatever time frame he desires to make sure he always has updated
data.
7. The data table now refreshes and Maurice can conduct his research on the market
price of dairy commodities.
Practice Question
An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can
view it online here: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-compapp/?p=2144
CC licensed content, Original
• Internet and Excel. Authored by: Sherri Pendleton. Provided by: Lumen Learning.
License: CC BY: Attribution
Internet and Word
Learning Objectives
• Use internet tools to enhance Word documents.
Rowan Retail Store #1 is using Word to present their plan for the Q3 sales campaign. The
campaign for this store will be through social media and the focus on selling more sporting
goods in the store. Shanda Bates is creating the Word document.
First, Shanda opens Word on her computer and decides she will use a report template. She
searches for business reports. Word’s search bar uses the internet to find thousands of
report templates for Shanda to use. This is one way the internet is integrated into a Word
document.
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After Shanda selects and downloads the report template, she types in the titles and other
information on the first page.
Next, Shanda begins to compose the plan and wants pictures and icons to add where
appropriate, so she opens a web browser and searches for images. To find usable images
she selects the Tools>Images for reuse option, which sorts the images to fit this parameter.
Shanda finds a little shop icon, copies (Ctrl+C) and pastes (Ctrl+V) it into the report. She
then drags it and resizes it to fit.
Practice Question
An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can
view it online here: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-compapp/?p=1971
She continues to search for images, but this time she uses the Online Pictures button
within Word to find a usable Facebook icon.
She searches and finds an appropriate icon and clicks to insert it in her document.
After resizing the icon, Shanda wraps the text by the icon so that it fits on the page with the
text.
Shanda thinks that including a link to the social media strategy video she watched to create
this plan is a good idea. She searches and finds the video in YouTube, then copies the link
and pastes it into the plan. Alternatively, she could click the share button and share the
video on various social media platforms.
She continues to fill in the text of the plan and finish this report off. Let’s have a quick recap
of the integration actions she took.
1. Store icon. Shanda searched the internet for an appropriate icon, copied it, pasted it,
resized it, chose a layout, and dragged the icon to the place in the document she liked.
2. Hyperlinked YouTube page. Shanda included a link to the video by finding the video
on YouTube, then copying and pasting the link into the report. The link can now be
clicked to take the reader to watch the video.
3. Graphic chart. Shanda searched with Word’s Online Picture button and found a
chart to display her social media campaign plan’s purpose. Like before, she copied the
chart, pasted it, resized it, chose a layout, and centered the chart.
4. Facebook icon. Shanda searched with Word’s Online Picture button to find the
Facebook icon to put next to the Facebook section in her report. She copied it, pasted
it, resized it, and picked the appropriate layout option, then dragged the icon to the
appropriate place in the document.
These same processes of search, find, copy, paste, resize, and so on are going to be the same
in Excel and PowerPoint.
Practice Question
An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can
view it online here: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-compapp/?p=1971
CC licensed content, Original
• Internet and Word. Authored by: Sherri Pendleton. Provided by: Lumen Learning.
License: CC BY: Attribution
Internet and PowerPoint
Learning Objectives
• Use internet tools to enhance PowerPoint presentations.
Rowan Retail Store #3 is using PowerPoint to present their campaign plan for the Q3 sales
campaign. The campaign for this store is to use point-of-purchase displays to sell more gift
cards for the company. Luke is creating the Q3 Plan PowerPoint presentation. He has
settled on a presentation template and added the title slide.
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He has now added a number of slides and is ready to enter text and more.
Luke selects two images and inserts them in the slide. He decides on the image on the right
and selects a slide design with that image. He also changes the name of the slide.
Now he searches for and adds more images that show ideas for displaying the gift cards.
Luke opens a browser and searches for gift card display ideas. He finds a link to a webpage
and is brought to a Pinterest page. He likes the ideas and snaps a screenshot by pressing
the PrtScn button on his keyboard. This copies the screen and he can now paste (Ctrl+V)
the screenshot into a slide.
He now wants to add in the hyperlink to the webpage under the screen shot. He clicks on
the Text Box button in the Home tab and creates a text box under the picture. Next, Luke
toggles back to the browser window (Alt+Tab), selects the website address, and copies it
with Ctrl+C.
Practice Question
An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can
view it online here: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-compapp/?p=2145
He pastes the hyperlinked address in the text box. He will now continue to add in text,
tables, and charts associated with his point-of-purchase plan.
Practice Question
An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can
view it online here: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-compapp/?p=2145
CC licensed content, Original
• Internet and PowerPoint. Authored by: Sherri Pendleton. Provided by: Lumen
Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
Introduction to Videos in PowerPoint
PowerPoint is a versatile presentation tool which often uses videos to add more in-depth
information to a presentation. Video can be instructional and communicate more than
simply words, tables or pictures alone. This section shows examples of how to integrate
video into a PowerPoint presentation’s slides.
In the PowerPoint module, you learned the basics of inserting video into a presentation. We
will now go over PowerPoint videos in more depth here using a business scenario with
Karen.
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Many, if not most of the videos used in PowerPoint are linked in from external sources and
websites like YouTube or other web pages. We will follow along as she embeds, links, and
uploads videos into slides for her presentation. After learning this material, your
presentations can be more dynamic and interactive and hold the attention of your
presentation audience.
CC licensed content, Original
• Introduction to Videos in PowerPoint. Authored by: Sherri Pendleton. License: CC BY:
Attribution
Inserting Videos in PowerPoint
Learning Objectives
• Insert a video into a PowerPoint slide.
Karen is creating a work presentation to introduce her team to a few different concepts.
She begins by adding in her video slides first. Later she will fill in the rest of the
presentation around them. The first video is about using creative commons licensed
material. She has already opened a new presentation in PowerPoint and has a video she
wishes to insert into her slide.
Placing the cursor on the small box with the six different choices, she selects the Insert
Video icon.
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
The insert video window will appear and since Karen knows the video she wants is on
YouTube so she searches in the YouTube box. She searches for Creative Commons and
presses the Enter key. Her search results appear and she scrolls through to find the video
she wants.
Karen selects the video and clicks the Insert button (she can also double-click on the video
to insert). Once the video is inserted, she has a variety of options. Let’s take a look at what
she can choose.
Practice Question
An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can
view it online here: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-compapp/?p=2149
1. Video Tools. This is a special tab that automatically appears when inserting a video.
2. Video Styles. Karen can select a variety of different styles to display the video in this
slide.
3. Resizing Tool. Karen wants to make the video appear larger on the slide. She can click
the Height and Width arrows to increase the size.
4. Resizing by Dragging. Alternatively Karen can resize the video by clicking on a corner
or side and dragging the cursor to the desired size.
Practice Question
An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can
view it online here: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-compapp/?p=2149
Karen decides she doesn’t like the hard edges on the video. She moves up to the video style
ribbon and selects the Visual Effects button.
She selects the Soft Edge > 2.5 Point option. To play the video, she double-clicks on it and
waits until she sees the YouTube red icon.
Now when Karen clicks the red button, the video plays.
CC licensed content, Original
• Inserting Videos in PowerPoint. Authored by: Sherri Pendleton. Provided by: Lumen
Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
Embedding Videos in PowerPoint
Learning Objectives
• Embed a video into a PowerPoint slide.
Karen has another video she wishes to embed in a new slide about collaboration. She opens
a browser window to the YouTube website and finds her desired video. She then clicks the
Share > Embed buttons and sees a text box with an address in it. She copies the text by
making sure all is selected and then uses Ctrl+C to copy it (or right-click > copy).
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Next, Karen toggles (Alt+Tab) back to her PowerPoint presentation window and opens a
new blank slide. She clicks on the Insert tab, then the Video button on the ribbon, and
selects the Online Video option. This brings up the same Insert Video window as before.
Karen places her cursor in the From a Video Embed Code box, pastes the link from her
YouTube video with Ctrl+V, and presses the small arrow (or presses the Enter key).
Now the video is in her new slide and needs to be resized. Karen drags the video so it is
almost as large as the slide. It is a little off-center, so Karen clicks on the Align button in the
Format ribbon area and selects the Align Center option.
Next, she decides she would like to have this video play automatically when she moves to
this slide in the presentation. She clicks the Playback tab and navigates to the Video
Options area on the ribbon. She then selects the Start button and the Automatically
option.
CC licensed content, Original
• Embedding Videos in PowerPoint. Authored by: Sherri Pendleton. Provided by:
Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
Uploading Videos in PowerPoint
Learning Objectives
• Upload a video into a PowerPoint slide.
Lastly, Karen has a video on her computer to add for the end of the presentation. She
creates a new slide, titles it The End, and clicks on the Insert Video icon. Now the insert
video window appears, and she selects the From a file option.
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
She finds her file in her computer’s folders, selects it and clicks the Insert button (or
double-clicks on the file).
The video is added to her slide.
Practice question
An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can
view it online here: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-compapp/?p=2151
Practice Question
An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can
view it online here: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-compapp/?p=2151
Note: Many people upload videos from their computers for presentations just in case the
internet connection is slow when running their presentation. With a video on your
computer, you can count on it working when the time is right.
Karen wants to modify the ending of the video. After dragging and resizing it, she clicks on
the Playback tab and makes a few changes.
1. Video Tools. This is the highlighted menu for editing video.
2. Playback Tab. This regulates playback for videos in the slide.
3. Start Button. Karen selects the option to play the video automatically.
4. Loop until Stopped. Karen wants this video to keep playing until she stops it.
5. Trim Video Button. This opens a trim video box for Karen to change her video.
6. Start Time Toggle. Karen moves the toggle to start the video a few seconds in from
the original beginning of the video. She wants the seagulls to be further out of the way
when the video starts.
7. End Time Toggle. Karen wants the dusky sunset video to end at this point before
looping and playing again.
8. OK Button. To set these changes Karen clicks the button.
Practice Question
An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can
view it online here: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-compapp/?p=2151
Practice Question
An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can
view it online here: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-compapp/?p=2151
To make sure the video is set exactly how Karen wants she clicks the Preview Play Button
or the Arrow Button underneath the video.
Karen is all set with her video slides. We will now leave Karen to finish her presentation.
CC licensed content, Original
• Uploading Videos in PowerPoint. Authored by: Sherri Pendleton. Provided by:
Lumen Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
Putting It Together: Integration
With a few skills and tools learned from this module, you can now create and insert
multiple types of charts, tables, hyperlinks, videos, pictures, and icons into whatever
Microsoft computer application you use. At the beginning of this module, the video talked
about the real goal of learning all of this information, working with what you and other
people create to accomplish your tasks and goals.
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
The variety of scenarios used throughout this module illustrated how you can use these
integration skills at work. You can now utilize these skills for school or personal projects as
well. Communication with coworkers, management, and others, will now be more easily
accomplished through application integration skills. Here are a few instances that can call
on those skills.
1. You want to break up the long presentation to your work team—add in a video.
2. Your boss asks for the latest financial information tables in your report—integrate an
Excel table into your Word document.
3. You want to record a few types of resources in your Excel spreadsheet for future
reference—add in hyperlinks to websites.
4. You want to highlight ideas you have found researching one the internet—add links to
various websites, videos, pictures, etc. in any of your Microsoft applications.
You have progressed through this course and now possess the knowledge and skills to be
more effective in your job using Microsoft applications. Congratulations!
CC licensed content, Original
• Putting It Together: Integration. Authored by: Sherri Pendleton. Provided by: Lumen
Learning. License: CC BY: Attribution
Resources: Capstone Assignment
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Contents
Module 1: Intro to Computers
Why It Matters: Intro to Computers
Why learn how to use computers?
Introduction to Operating Systems
What you’ll learn to do: determine what operating system you have.
Identifying Your Operating System (OS)
Learning Objectives
Windows vs. Mac
Method 1
Method 2
Method 3
Method 4
Practice Questions
Introduction to Terminology and Shortcuts
What you’ll learn to do: navigate programs.
Common Terminology
Learning Objectives
Desktop
Window
Working with Multiple Windows: Resizing
PRactice Question
Menu Bar and Dialog Menus
Taskbar
Working with Multiple Windows: Taskbar
Keyboard Shortcuts
Learning Objectives
Most Commonly Used Shortcuts
Practice Question
Note: Cut vs. Copy
Note: Ctrl+Alt+Delete
Overview of Keys
Control Key
Alt Key
Windows Key
Menu Key
Escape Key
Print Screen Key
Practice Question
More Shortcuts (If You Really Want Them)
Introduction to Finding Programs and Files
What you’ll learn to do: locate and manage files and folders.
Start Menu
Learning Objectives
Frequently Used Programs
Control Panel
Practice Question
Open a Program
Shutting Down
A Look at Some Shut Down Options
Note about Windows 8
Creating Files and Folders
Learning Objectives
File Explorer
Renaming Files
Practice Question
Organizing Files and Folders
Learning Objectives
Finding a Specific Folder or File: File Paths
Traveling the File Path
Toolbar Method
Properties Method
Practice Question
Selecting and Moving Files
Moving Multiple Files
Deleting Files and Folders
Learning Objectives
Recycling Bin
Practice Question
Introduction to Snips and Screenshots
What you’ll learn to do: take a screenshot.
Snips and Screenshots
Learning Objectives
Snipping Tool
Take a Rectangular Screenshot with the Snipping Tool
Other Screenshots with the Snipping Tool
Timed Screenshots with the Snipping Tool
Practice Question
NOTE
Print Screen
Screenshots on a Mac
Putting It Together: Intro to Computers
Module 2: Internet Research
Why It Matters: Internet Research
Why learn how to run an internet search?
Introduction to Using and Searching the Internet
What you’ll learn to do: access and navigate the internet.
Internet Browsers
Learning Objectives
Identifying Browsers
Microsoft Edge
Practice Question
Google Chrome
Mozilla Firefox
Practice Question
Basic Browser Tools
Learning Objectives
Practice Question
Practice Question
Hyperlinks
Practice Question
Bonus Tool
Browsers and the World Wide Web
Introduction to Basic Searches
What you’ll learn to do: perform basic web searches.
Web Searching
Learning Objectives
Searching on Chrome
Practice Question
Microsoft Bing Search
Practice Question
Practice Question
Identifying Search Results
Learning Objectives
Number of Search Results
Practice Question
Practice Question
Bonus Search Navigation Tools
Opening Search Results
Learning Objectives
Identifying Search Engine Categories
Open First Web Search for All
Practice Question
Open First Web Search for News
Open First Web Search for Video
Practice Question
Review
Introduction to Advanced Searches
What you’ll learn to do: narrow a search to find more useful results.
Adjusting Search Parameters
Learning Objectives
Adding Boolean Operators
AND
OR
Key Takeaways
NOT
Adding Boolean Modifiers
Quotation Marks
Asterisk
Practice Question
Parentheses
Minus Sign Elimination
Practice Question
Common Search Mistakes
Practice Question
Bonus Information
Image Searches
Learning Objectives
Identify Image Search Engine Tools
Search by Image
Search by Image Address
Search by Uploaded Image File
Practice Question
Image Search
Practice Question
Finding Noncommercial Images
Putting It Together: Internet Research
Module 3: Microsoft Word, part 1
Why It Matters: Microsoft Word, part 1
Why learn how to use Microsoft Word?
Why learn how to use Microsoft Word?
Introduction to Using Word
What you’ll learn to do: create and save files in Microsoft Word.
Creating a New Blank Document and Finding Your Way Around
Learning Objectives
Opening a New Document
Practice Question
Practice Question
Overview of Word Controls
Ribbon
Status Bar
Saving Files
Learning Objectives
Practice Question
Practice Question
Save As
Practice Question
File Extensions
Learning Objectives
Practice Question
Common File Extensions in Word Processing
Introduction to Basic Text Formatting
What you’ll learn to do: format text in Microsoft Word for clarity.
Selecting and Moving Text
Learning Objectives
Moving Text
Practice Question
Review
Bold, Italics, Underline
Learning Objectives
Practice Question
Practice Question
Fonts
Learning Objectives
Font Size
Practice Question
Practice Question
Font
Font Color
Case
Case Definitions
Alignment, Justification, and Indentation
Learning Objectives
Alignment
Practice Question
Paragraph Dialog Box: Justification and Alignment
Indentation
Paragraph Dialog Box: Indentation
Practice Question
Line and Paragraph Spacing
Learning Objectives
Line Spacing
Practice Question
Paragraph Dialog Box: Line Spacing
Paragraph Spacing
Paragraph Dialog Box: Paragraph Spacing
Practice Question
Introduction to Lists
What you’ll learn to do: create and format numbered and unnumbered lists.
Lists
Learning Objectives
Bulleted Options
Numbered Options
Practice Question
List Levels
Review
Putting It Together: Microsoft Word, part 1
Module 4: Microsoft Word, part 2
Why It Matters: Microsoft Word, part 2
Why learn how to use Microsoft Word?
Introduction to Advanced File Creation and Text Formatting
What you’ll learn to do: use templates and text effects.
Creating a New Document from a Template
Learning Objectives
Practice Question
Creating a Document from a Downloaded Template
Text Effects
Learning Objectives
Outline
Shadow
Reflection
Glow
Practice Question
Introduction to Workspace Tools
What you’ll learn to do: use spell check and find and replace tools.
Spell Check and Dictionaries
Learning Objectives
How Spell Checker Works
Practice Question
Adding Words to the Dictionary
Bonus: Switching Language Dictionaries
Grammar Check
Practice Question
Optional Reading for More Info
Find and Replace
Learning Objectives
Replace
The Pitfalls of Replace All
Replace: More Options
Find Function
Practice Question
Introduction to Page Layout
What you’ll learn to do: change page layout.
Tab Stops
Learning Objectives
Tab Stops Using the Ruler
Practice Question
Tab Stops Using the Tab Dialog Box
Leader
Optional: Bar and Decimal Tabs
Columns
Learning Objectives
Practice Question
Headers and Footers
Learning Objectives
Practice Question
Page Numbers
Introduction to Text Boxes
What you’ll learn to do: create and modify text boxes.
Text Boxes
Learning Objectives
Formatting Text Boxes
1. Shapes
2. Styles
3. Text
Text Direction
Text Alignment
Create Link
Practice Question
4. Arrange
Shapes
Putting It Together: Microsoft Word, part 2
Module 5: Microsoft Word, part 3
Why It Matters: Microsoft Word, part 3
Why learn how to use Microsoft Word?
Introduction to Tables
What you’ll learn to do: create tables to organize information in a Word document.
Creating Tables
Learning Objectives
Practice Question
Converting Text to a Table
Learning Objectives
Practice Question
Formatting Tables
Learning Objectives
Practice Question
Introduction to Images
What you’ll learn to do: place images in a Word document.
Adding Images
Learning Objectives
Practice Question
Text Wrap
Learning Objectives
Method 1: Quick Apply
Method 2: Format Tab
Method 3: Position
Text Wrap Options
Practice Question
Introduction to Hyperlinks
What you’ll learn to do: add a hyperlink.
Hyperlinks
Learning Objectives
Inserting a Hyperlink
Visiting a Hyperlink
Practice Question
Tip
Editing Hyperlinks
Introduction to Watermarks
What you’ll learn to do: insert a watermark.
Watermarks
Learning Objectives
Practice Question
Picture Watermark
Putting It Together: Microsoft Word, part 3
Module 6: Microsoft Excel, part 1
Why It Matters: Microsoft Excel, part 1
Why learn how to use Microsoft Excel?
Introduction to Using Excel
What you’ll learn to do: create a worksheet and add data.
Creating a New Workbook
Learning Objectives
Practice question
Practice Question
Entering Data
Learning Objectives
Practice Question
Introduction to Basic Formatting and Layout
What you’ll learn to do: change formatting, layout, and styles in Excel.
Table Styles
Learning Objectives
Practice Question
Practice Question
Cell Styles
Learning Objectives
Practice Question
Practice Question
Cell Format
Learning Objectives
Method 1
Practice question
Practice question
Method 2
Comma Styles
Learning Objectives
Method 1
Method 2
Practice question
Practice question
Rearranging Tables
Learning Objectives
Add Columns and Rows
Method 1
Method 2
Practice Question
Delete Columns and Rows
Method 1
Method 2
Move Columns and Rows
Method 1
Method 2
Practice Question
Changing Width of Columns and Rows
Learning Objectives
AutoFit Column Width to Text
Method 1
Method 2
Practice Question
Set all columns to the same width
Method 1
Method 2
Practice Question
Introduction to Automating Data Entry
What you’ll learn to do: use Flash Fill and AutoSum.
Flash Fill
Learning Objectives
Practice Question
Practice Questions
SUM Data
Learning Objectives
Practice Questions
Practice Question
Putting It Together: Microsoft Excel, part 1
Module 7: Microsoft Excel, part 2
Why It Matters: Microsoft Excel, part 2
Why learn how to use Microsoft Excel?
Introduction to Creating Complex Workbooks
What you’ll learn to do: create a new workbook with more than one worksheet.
Creating a Workbook with Multiple Worksheets
Learning Objectives
Method 1
Method 2
Practice Questions
Practice Questions
Introduction to Using Excel for Data Analysis
What you’ll learn to do: analyze data with Excel.
Sorting Data
Learning Objectives
Method 1
Method 2
Practice Question
Practice Questions
Practice Question
Filtering Data
Learning Objectives
Method 1
Method 2
Practice Question
Functions
Learning Objectives
COUNTIF
Practice Question
IF
Practice Question
Introduction to Charts and Sparklines
What you’ll learn to do: create and modify charts.
Clustered Column Charts
Learning Objectives
Practice Question
Practice Question
Chart Styles
Learning Objectives
Practice Question
Practice Question
Sparklines
Learning Objectives
Practice Question
Practice Question
Introduction to More Formatting and Layout
What you’ll learn to do: apply conditional formatting and change page layout.
Conditional Formatting
Learning Objectives
Practice Question
Practice Question
Viewing a Worksheet
Learning Objectives
Page Layout Orientation
Margins
Practice Question
Practice Question
Putting It Together: Microsoft Excel, part 2
Module 8: Microsoft PowerPoint, part 1
Why It Matters: Microsoft PowerPoint, part 1
Why learn how to use Microsoft PowerPoint?
Introduction to Using PowerPoint
What you’ll learn to do: edit and organize a presentation.
Editing a Presentation
Learning Objectives
Practice Question
Practice Question
Organizing Slides
Learning Objectives
Add a Slide
Practice Question
Delete a Slide
Practice Question
Move a Slide
Views
Practice Question
Practice Question
Introduction to Objects in PowerPoint
What you’ll learn to do: add text boxes, headers, and footers to a presentation.
Text Boxes
Learning Objectives
Practice Question
Practice Question
Headers and Footers
Learning Objectives
Practice Question
Practice Question
Introduction to Design Elements
What you’ll learn to do: change the theme and transitions of a presentation.
Themes
Learning Objectives
Practice Question
Practice Question
Transition Effects
Learning Objectives
Practice Question
Practice Question
Putting It Together: Microsoft PowerPoint, part 1
Module 9: Microsoft PowerPoint, part 2
Why It Matters: Microsoft PowerPoint, part 2
Why learn how to add media in Microsoft PowerPoint?
Introduction to Creating Presentations
What you’ll learn to do: create and save a new presentation.
New Presentations
Learning Objectives
Practice Question
Practice Question
Introduction to Images and Art
What you’ll learn to do: add images, clip art, and SmartArt.
Images and Clip Art
Learning Objectives
Method 1
Method 2
Practice Question
Practice Question
SmartArt
Learning Objectives
Practice Question
Practice question
Introduction to Videos and Arranged Objects
What you’ll learn to do: add videos and arrange objects.
Videos
Learning Objectives
Method 1
Practice Question
Method 2
Practice question
Arranging Objects
Learning Objectives
Practice Question
Practice Question
Putting It Together: Microsoft PowerPoint, part 2
Module 10: Integration
Why It Matters: Integration
Introduction to Using Word with Excel and PowerPoint
Customized Word Templates
Learning Objectives
Customize Template
Excel Table in Word Document
Learning Objectives
Option 1 for Table Integration
Option 2 for Table Integration
Excel Chart in Word Document
Learning Objectives
Option 1 for Chart Integration
Option 2 for Chart Integration
PowerPoint in Word Document
Learning Objectives
Icons in Word
Learning Objectives
Practice Question
Introduction to Using PowerPoint with Excel
Customized PowerPoint Templates
Learning Objectives
Customize Presentation Template
New Slide
Excel Table in PowerPoint
Learning Objectives
Option 1 for Table Integration
Option 2 for Table Integration
Excel Chart in PowerPoint
Learning Objectives
Option 1 for Chart Integration
Option 2 for Chart Integration
Practice Question
Practice Question
Introduction to Using Internet Tools with Microsoft Office
Internet and Excel
Learning Objectives
Practice Question
Bonus Advanced Integration
Practice Question
Internet and Word
Learning Objectives
Practice Question
Practice Question
Internet and PowerPoint
Learning Objectives
Practice Question
Practice Question
Introduction to Videos in PowerPoint
Inserting Videos in PowerPoint
Learning Objectives
Practice Question
Practice Question
Embedding Videos in PowerPoint
Learning Objectives
Uploading Videos in PowerPoint
Learning Objectives
Practice question
Practice Question
Practice Question
Practice Question
Putting It Together: Integration
Resources: Capstone Assignment
College Success
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface 1
1 Exploring College 7
1.1 Why College? 9
1.2 The First Year of College Will Be an Experience 15
1.3 College Culture and Expectations 18
1.4 How Can This Book And This Course Help? 30
2 Knowing Yourself as a Learner 33
2.1 The Power to Learn 34
2.2 The Motivated Learner 38
2.3 It’s All in the Mindset 49
2.4 Learning Styles 56
2.5 Personality Types and Learning 60
2.6 Applying What You Know about Learning 65
2.7 The Hidden Curriculum 69
3 Managing Your Time and Priorities 73
3.1 The Benefits of Time Management 74
3.2 Time Management in College 76
3.3 Procrastination: The Enemy Within 81
3.4 How to Manage Time 85
3.5 Prioritization: Self-Management of What You Do and When You Do It 91
3.6 Goal Setting and Motivation 101
3.7 Enhanced Strategies for Time and Task Management 105
4 Planning Your Academic Pathways 115
4.1 Defining Values and Setting Goals 117
4.2 Planning Your Degree Path 123
4.3 Making a Plan 137
4.4 Managing Change and the Unexpected 143
5 Reading and Notetaking 151
5.1 The Nature and Types of Reading 153
5.2 Effective Reading Strategies 156
5.3 Taking Notes 169
6 Studying, Memory, and Test Taking 191
6.1 Memory 192
6.2 Studying 201
6.3 Test Taking 210
7 Thinking 221
7.1 What Thinking Means 223
7.2 Creative Thinking 224
7.3 Analytical Thinking 233
7.4 Critical Thinking 236
7.5 Problem-Solving 240
7.6 Metacognition 242
7.7 Information Literacy 246
8 Communicating 255
8.1 An Overview of Communication 256
8.2 Purpose of Communication 260
8.3 Communication and Technology 261
8.4 The Context of Communication 271
8.5 Barriers to Effective Communication 277
9 Understanding Civility and Cultural Competence 283
9.1 What Is Diversity, and Why Is Everybody Talking About It? 284
9.2 Categories of Diversity 299
9.3 Navigating the Diversity Landscape 305
9.4 Inclusivity and Civility: What Role Can I Play? 315
10 Understanding Financial literacy 319
10.1 Personal Financial Planning 321
10.2 Savings, Expenses, and Budgeting 327
10.3 Banking and Emergency Funds 333
10.4 Credit Cards and Other Debt 341
10.5 Education Debt: Paying for College 345
10.6 Defending against Attack: Securing Your Identity and Accounts 355
11 Engaging in a Healthy Lifestyle 365
11.1 Taking Care of Your Physical Health 367
11.2 Sleep 374
11.3 Taking Care of Your Emotional Health 379
11.4 Taking Care of Your Mental Health 383
This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col30990/1.7
11.5 Maintaining Healthy Relationships 388
11.6 Your Safety 393
12 Planning for Your Future 403
12.1 Why Worry about a Career While I’m in College? 404
12.2 Your Map to Success: The Career Planning Cycle 410
12.3 Where Can You Go from Here? 432
A Conducting and Presenting Research 435
B Recommended Readings 445
C Activities and Artifacts From the Book 447
Index 455
This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col30990/1.7
Welcome to College Success, an OpenStax resource. This textbook was written to increase student access to
high-quality learning materials, maintaining highest standards of academic rigor at little to no cost.
About OpenStax
OpenStax is a nonprofit based at Rice University, and it’s our mission to improve student access to education.
Our first openly licensed college textbook was published in 2012, and our library has since scaled to over 35
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Preface
Preface 1
Format
You can access this textbook for free in web view or PDF through openstax.org, and for a low cost in print.
About College Success
College Success is designed to meet the course needs of a one-semester course, workshop, or seminar for first
year experience or college transition students. FYE programs vary greatly according to institution, so the
textbook has been developed to cover the most common concepts, and the open license and flexible formats
provide many opportunities for coordinators, instructional designers, and faculty to tailor the material for their
needs.
This book is an invitation—an invitation to students to step boldly into their college experience. College Success
addresses the evolving challenges and opportunities of today’s diverse students. The intensive development
work leveraged expertise from hundreds of FYE coordinators and faculty across the country. It highlights
resources available to students as they embark on new roads of independence and responsibility. Students
engage in careful self-analysis and research-based strategies to identify their strengths, challenges, and
aptitudes. While they explore study skills and learning methods, they are continually asked to apply the
concepts in reading, writing, and thinking exercises, which build both a solid base for classroom discussion
and a portfolio they can augment throughout their college career. Recognizing the ubiquity of technology and
social media, the authors address relevant information and advice where appropriate throughout the text. The
material is rooted in motivation, growth-mindset, and resilience; student readers will feel seen and involved as
they continually encounter one of the textbook’s core themes: “real-life” doesn’t stop when college starts.
Student engagement and self-analysis are reflected in each section through applications and activities.
Student reflection and opinions can be captured directly in the text, online, or in worksheets provided through
the ancillary package.
The diversity and intersectionality of students was considered in every example, context, and application,
and the text’s active surveys and detailed profiles make student voices a key element of the reading.
Interconnected topics are acknowledged and built upon, demonstrating that no element of college learning
and growth occurs in isolation. The result is a cumulative, more complete understanding, which better
prepares students to meet the multi-dimensional challenges of higher education.
Openly licensed and free in all digital formats, the text provides unparalleled flexibility in its use,
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Kindle, and other formats. It is also available in print for a very low price.
Robust instructor ancillaries will support faculty and course designers with teaching notes, additional
exercises, worksheet versions of the in-text activities, lecture slides, and assessment items.
Features
• Student Profiles: The voices of real students inform every chapter. These students grapple with the same
concepts, from improving study skills to embracing diversity, and through their experiences and
successes we share important stories.
• Get Connected: Apps, websites and tech opportunities that our experts recommend to help students
better face the challenges of college and life beyond the classroom.
• Analysis and Applications: Peppered through every chapter are opportunities for students to reflect on
concepts, try out processes, and apply what they’re learning.
• Career Connection: How can the material in each chapter help the student once they leave the
2 Preface
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classroom? Features at the end of every chapter help students apply what they’ve learned to work life.
• Where Do You Go From Here?: Each chapter gives students the opportunity to dig in deeper and hone
their research skills by choosing one topic for a closer look.
Student Surveys and Results
Chapters begin and end with a survey, posing questions that will get readers engaged in considering their own
level of connection and understanding of the chapter’s concept, from time management to personal finance
to career planning. The close of each chapter revisits the survey, helping students gauge how their
understanding has evolved.
Student survey results are gathered anonymously and will be regularly provided to adopters as part of the
instructor resources. (See below for more information on instructor resources.) In the future, the surveys will
be assignable and the results viewable on an individual-course basis. For the survey results featured in the
textbook, hundreds of students from a diverse array of colleges and universities provided their feedback to
inform future students taking the course.
Estimated Module Completion Time
Each section of College Success includes an estimate of the average time needed to read through the material,
work on the activities and applications, and—where necessary—explore external websites or watch videos.
Each student will engage the material differently, and faculty will likely prioritize or assign certain components
over others. As a result, the actual time students spend will vary greatly. OpenStax will periodically update
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adjusted by instructors (or deleted completely) based on addition or removal of material or activities.
Additional Resources
Student and Instructor Resources
We’ve compiled additional resources for both students and instructors, including Getting Started Guides,
lecture slides, and a Test Bank.
The most robust of these is the Instructor Resource Manual, developed by author Amy Baldwin based on
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• Detailed teaching suggestions
• Bloom’s Taxonomy matrix, indicating the alignment of each chapter activity and application to the level of
Bloom’s it fulfills.
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Instructor resources require a verified instructor account, which you can apply for when you log in or create
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Community Hubs
OpenStax partners with the Institute for the Study of Knowledge Management in Education (ISKME) to offer
Preface 3
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To reach the Community Hubs, visit www.oercommons.org/hubs/OpenStax.
Technology Partners
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About the Authors
Senior Contributing Author
Amy Baldwin, University of Central Arkansas
Amy Baldwin has dedicated her entire career to supporting students in their successful transition to college.
She wrote the first, groundbreaking student success textbook for community colleges and for first-generation
students. After 18 years as an award winning community college professor, she now serves as Director of the
Department of Student Transitions at the University of Central Arkansas. This unique blend of experience
provides perspective on two critical student and faculty populations, which she has brought to this book and
her extensive work with Complete College America, Achieving the Dream, and the Developmental Education
Initiative.
Amy and her husband Kyle live in Arkansas and have two children, Emily and Will.
Contributing Authors
Lisa August, Canisius College
James Bennett, Herzing University
Larry Buland, Metropolitan Community College
Sabrina Mathues, Brookdale Community College
Susan Monroe, Northern Virginia Community College
MJ O’Leary, Wellness Multiplied
Ann Pearson, San Jacinto College
Joshua Troesh, El Camino College
Margit Misangyi Watts, University of Hawai’i at Manoa
Reviewers
Nagash Clarke, Washtenaw Community College
Laura Crisp, Pellissippi State Community College
Abbie Finnegan, Des Moines Area Community College
Kim Fragopoulos, University of Massachusetts-Boston
Maria Galyon, Jefferson Community & Technical College
Kimberly A. Griffith, Bristol Community College
Anna Howell, Portland Community College
4 Preface
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Sarah Howard, The Ohio State University
Stacy L. Hurley, Baltimore County Community College
Dawn Lee, Charleston Southern University
Gail Malone, South Plains College
Kim Martin, Chemeketa Community College
Sherri Powell, Shawnee State University
Bobby E. Roberts, Jr., Savannah State University
Laila M. Shishineh, University of Maryland, Baltimore County
Shavecca M. Snead, Albany State University
Jason Smethers, University of Tennessee, Knoxville
Angela C. Thering, SUNY Buffalo State
Antione D. Tomlin, Anne Arundel Community College
Jessica Traylor, Gordon State College
Makeda K. Turner, University of Michigan
Dave Urso, Blue Ridge Community College
Margit Misangyi Watts, University of Hawaii at Manoa
Ann Wolf, New Mexico Highlands University
Preface 5
Preface
This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col30990/1.7
Chapter Outline
1.1 Why College?
1.2 The First Year of College Will Be an Experience
1.3 College Culture and Expectations
1.4 How Can This Book And This Course Help?
Introduction
Student Survey
How do you feel about your ability to meet the expectations of college? These questions will help you
determine how the chapter concepts relate to you right now. As we are introduced to new concepts and
practices, it can be informative to reflect on how your understanding changes over time. We’ll revisit these
questions at the end of the chapter to see whether your feelings have changed. Take this quick survey to
figure it out, ranking questions on a scale of 1 – 4, 1 meaning “least like me” and 4 meaning “most like me.”
Don’t be concerned with the results. If your score is low, you will most likely gain even more from this book.
1. I am fully aware of the expectations of college and how to meet them.
2. I know why I am in college and have clear goals that I want to achieve.
3. Most of the time, I take responsibility for my learning new and challenging concepts.
4. I feel comfortable working with faculty, advisors, and classmates to accomplish my goals.
You can also take the Chapter 1 survey (https://openstax.org/l/collegesurvey01) anonymously online.
Figure 1.1
1
Exploring College
https://openstax.org/l/collegesurvey01
About this Chapter
In this chapter, you will learn about what you can do to get ready for college. By the time you complete this
chapter, you should be able to do the following:
• Recognize the purpose and value of college.
• Describe the transitional experience of the first year of college.
• Discuss how to handle college culture and expectations.
• Identify resources in this text and on your campus for supporting your college success.
“As students transitioning to college, responsibility is an inherent component of self-advocacy. As
someone accepted on full funding to a 4-year university, but whose life’s circumstances disallowed
attending college until years later, I used to dream of a stress-free college life. The reality is, college can
be a meaningful place, but it can also be challenging and unpredictable. The key is to be your own best
advocate, because no one else is obliged to advocate on your behalf.
“When I began my community college studies, I knew what I wanted to do. Cybersecurity was my
passion, but I had no understanding of how credits transfer over to a 4-year university. This came to
haunt me later, after I navigated the complex processes of transferring between two different colleges.
Not everyone involved volunteers information. It is up to you, the student, to be the squeaky wheel so
you can get the grease. Visit office hours, make appointments, and schedule meetings with stakeholders
so that you are not just buried under the sheaf of papers on someone’s desk.”
—Mohammed Khalid, University of Maryland
S T U D E N T P R O F I L E
8 Chapter 1 Exploring College
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Reginald Madison
Reginald has, after much thought and with a
high level of family support, decided to enroll in
college. It has been a dream in the making, as
he was unable to attend immediately after high
school graduation. Instead, he worked several
years in his family’s business, got married, had
a son, and then decided that he didn’t want to
spend the rest of his life regretting that he
didn’t get a chance to follow his dreams of
becoming a teacher. Because it has been
almost a decade since he sat in a classroom, he
is worried about how he will fit in as an adult
learner returning to college. Will his classmates
think he is too old? Will his professors think he
is not ready for the challenges of college work?
Will his family get tired of his long nights at the
library and his new priorities? There is so much
Reginald is unsure of, yet he knows it’s a step in
the right direction.
It has been only three months since Madison
graduated from high school. She graduated in the top
10 percent of her class, and she earned college credit
while in high school. She feels academically prepared,
and she has a good sense of what degree she wants to
earn. Since Madison was 5 years old, she’s wanted to
be an engineer because she loved building things in
the backyard with her father’s tools. He always
encouraged her to follow her dreams, and her whole
family has been supportive of her hobbies and
interests. However, Madison is concerned that her
choice of major will keep her from dance, creative
writing, and other passions. Furthermore, Madison is
heading to a distant college with no other people she
knows. Will she be able to find new friends quickly? Will
her engineering classes crush her or motivate her to
complete college? Will she be able to explore other
interests? Madison has a lot on her mind, but she aims
to face these challenges head-on.
While Reginald and Madison have had different experiences before and certainly have different motivations
for enrolling in college, they have quite a bit in common. They are both committed to this new chapter in their
lives, and they are both connected to their families in ways that can influence their commitment to this pursuit.
What they don’t know just yet—because they haven’t started their classes—is that they will have even more in
common as they move through each term, focus on a major, and plan for life after graduation. And they have
a lot in common with you as well because you are in a similar position—starting the next chapter of the rest of
your life.
In this chapter, you will first learn more about identifying the reason you are in college. This is an important
first step because knowing your why will keep you motivated. Next, the chapter will cover the transitions that
you may experience as a new college student. Then, the chapter will focus on how you can acclimate to the
culture and meeting the expectations—all of which will make the transition to a full-fledged college student
easier. Finally, the chapter will provide you with strategies for overcoming the challenges that you may face by
providing information about how to find and access resources.
1.1 Why College?
Estimated completion time: 22 minutes.
Questions to consider:
• Why are you in college?
• What are the rewards and value of a college degree?
• Why this course?
Chapter 1 Exploring College 9
This chapter started with the profiles of two students, Reginald and Madison, but now we turn to who you are
and why you are in college. Starting this chapter with you, the student, seems to make perfect sense. Like
Reginald and Madison, you are probably full of emotions as you begin this journey toward a degree and the
fulfillment of a dream. Are you excited about meeting new people and finally getting to take classes that
interest you? Are you nervous about how you are going to handle your courses and all the other activities that
come along with being a college student? Are you thrilled to be making important decisions about your
future? Are you worried about making the right choice when deciding on a major or a career? All these
thoughts, even if contradictory at times, are normal. And you may be experiencing several of them at the same
time.
Figure 1.2 Decision-making about college and our future can be challenging, but with self-analysis and
support, you can feel more confident and make the best choices.
Why Are You in College?
We know that college is not mandatory—like kindergarten through 12th grade is—and it is not free. You have
made a choice to commit several years of hard work to earn a degree or credential. In some cases, you may
have had to work really hard to get here by getting good grades and test scores in high school and earning
money to pay for tuition and fees and other expenses. Now you have more at stake and a clearer path to
achieving your goals, but you still need to be able to answer the question.
To help answer this question, consider the following questioning technique called “The Five Whys” that was
originally created by Sakichi Toyoda, a Japanese inventor, whose strategy was used by the Toyota Motor
Company to find the underlying cause of a problem. While your decision to go to college is not a problem, the
exercise is helpful to uncover your underlying purpose for enrolling in college.
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The process starts with a “Why” question that you want to know the answer to. Then, the next four “Why”
questions use a portion of the previous answer to help you dig further into the answer to the original
question. Here is an example of “The Five Whys,” with the first question as “Why are you in college?” The
answers and their connection to the next “Why” question have been underlined so you can see how the
process works.
While the example is one from a student who knows what she wants to major in, this process does not require
that you have a specific degree or career in mind. In fact, if you are undecided, then you can explore the “why”
of your indecision. Is it because you have lots of choices, or is it because you are not sure what you really want
out of college?
The Five Whys in Action
Why are you in college? I am in college to earn a degree in speech
pathology.
Why do you want to earn a degree in speech
pathology?
I want to be able to help people who have trouble
speaking.
Why do you want to help people who have trouble
speaking?
I believe that people who have trouble speaking
deserve a life they want.
Why do you feel it is important that people who
have trouble speaking deserve a life they want?
I feel they often have needs that are overlooked and
do not get treated equally.
Why do you want to use your voice to help these
people live a life they deserve?
I feel it is my purpose to help others achieve their
full potential despite having physical challenges.
Do you see how this student went beyond a standard answer about the degree that she wants to earn to
connecting her degree to an overall purpose that she has to help others in a specific way? Had she not been
instructed to delve a little deeper with each answer, it is likely that she would not have so quickly articulated
that deeper purpose. And that understanding of “why” you are in college—beyond the degree you want or the
job you envision after graduation—is key to staying motivated through what will most likely be some
challenging times
How else does knowing your “why,” or your deeper reason for being in college, help you? According to Angela
Duckworth (2016), a researcher on grit—what it takes for us to dig in deep when faced with adversity and
continue to work toward our goal—knowing your purpose can be the booster to grit that can help you
succeed.[1] Other research has found that people who have a strong sense of purpose are less likely to
experience stress and anxiety (Burrown, 2013)[2] and more likely to be satisfied in their jobs (Weir, 2013).[3]
Therefore, being able to answer the question “Why are you in college?” not only satisfies the person asking,
but it also has direct benefits to your overall well-being.
1 Duckworth, A. (2016). Grit: The Power and Passion of Perseverance. NY: Simon & Schuster.
2 Burrow, A.L. & Hill, P.L. (2013). Derailed by diversity? Purpose buffers the relationship between ethnic composition on trains and passenger
negative mood. Personality and Psychology Bulletin, 39 (12), 1610-1619. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167213499377.
3 Weir, K. (2013). More than job satisfaction: Psychologists are discovering what makes work meaningful–and how to create value in any job.
American Psychological Association, 44 (11), 39.
Chapter 1 Exploring College 11
What Are the Rewards and Value of a College Degree?
Once you have explored your “why” for enrolling in college, it may be worth reviewing what we know about
the value of a college degree. There is no doubt you know people who have succeeded in a career without
going to college. Famous examples of college dropouts include Bill Gates (the cofounder and CEO of
Microsoft) and Ellen DeGeneres (comedian, actor, and television producer, among her many other roles).
These are two well-known, smart, talented people who have had tremendous success on a global scale. They
are also not the typical profile of a student who doesn’t finish a degree. For many students, especially those
who are first-generation college students, a college degree helps them follow a career pathway and create a
life that would not have been possible without the credential. Even in this time of rapid change in all kinds of
fields, including technology and education, a college degree is still worth it for many people.
Consider the following chart that shows an average of lifetime earnings per level of education. As you can see,
the more education you receive, the greater the increase in your average lifetime earnings. Even though a
degree costs a considerable amount of money on the front end, if you think about it as an investment in your
future, you can see that college graduates receive a substantial return on their investment. To put it into more
concrete terms, let’s say you spend $100,000 for a four-year degree (Don’t faint! That is the average sticker cost
of a four-year degree at a public university if you include tuition, fees, room, and board). The return on investment
(ROI) over a lifetime, according to the information in the figure below, is 1,500%! You don’t have to be a
financial wizard to recognize that 1,500% return is fantastic.
A C T I V I T Y
Try “The Five Whys” yourself in the table below to help you get a better sense of your purpose and to
give you a worthy answer for anyone who asks you “Why are you in college?”
The Five Whys: Your Turn
Why are you in college? I am in college to . . .
Why do you . . . I . . .
Why do you . . . I . . .
Why do you . . . I . . .
Why do you . . . I . . .
12 Chapter 1 Exploring College
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Figure 1.3 Every education level brings with it potential for greater lifetime earnings. These are simply
averages and may not apply to all career types and individuals. For clarity, the “professional degree,” attaining
the highest earnings, refers to degrees such as those given to doctors or lawyers. Monetary values are in 2008
dollars. (Credit: based on data provided by Georgetown Center on Education and the Workforce)
Making more money over time is not the only benefit you can earn from completing a college degree. College
graduates are also more likely to experience the following:
• Greater job satisfaction. That’s right! College graduates are more likely to get a job that they like or to
find that their job is more enjoyable than not.
• Better job stability. Employees with college degrees are more likely to find and keep a job, which is
comforting news in times of economic uncertainty.
• Improved health and wellness. College graduates are less likely to smoke and more likely to exercise
and maintain a healthy weight.
• Better outcomes for the next generation. One of the best benefits of a college degree is that it can
have positive influences for the graduate’s immediate family and the next generations.
One last thing: There is some debate as to whether a college degree is needed to land a job, and there are
certainly jobs that you can get without a college degree. However, there are many reasons that a college
degree can give you an edge in the job market. Here are just a few reasons that graduating with a degree is
still valuable:
• More and more entry-level jobs will require a college degree. According to Georgetown University’s
Center on Education and the Workforce, in 2020, 35% of jobs will require a college degree.[4]
• A credential from a college or university still provides assurance that a student has mastered the material.
Would you trust a doctor who never went to medical school to do open-heart surgery on a close relative?
No, we didn’t think so.
• College provides an opportunity to develop much-needed soft skills. The National Association of Colleges
4 Carnevale, A.P., Smith, N., & Strohl, J. (2013). Recover: Job growth and education requirements through 2020. Georgetown University’s
Center on Education and the Workforce. Retrieved from https://cew.georgetown.edu/cew-reports/recovery-job-growth-and-education-
requirements-through-2020/.
Chapter 1 Exploring College 13
and Employers has identified eight career-readiness competencies that college students should develop:
critical thinking/problem solving, oral/written communication, teamwork/collaboration, digital
technology, leadership, professionalism/work ethic, career management, and global/intercultural
fluency.[5] There are few occasions that will provide you the opportunity to develop all of these skills in a
low-stakes environment (i.e., without the fear of being fired!). You will learn all of this and more in your
classes. Seems like a great opportunity, doesn’t it? If you find yourself asking the question “What does
this course have to do with my major?” or “Why do I have to take that?” challenge yourself to learn more
about the course and look for connections between the content and your larger educational, career, and
life goals.
Why This Course?
Now that you have considered why you are in college and why a college degree may be valuable to you, it’s
time to focus on why you are reading this book. Most likely, you are enrolled in a course that is helping you
learn about college and how to make the most of it. You may be asking yourself “Why am I taking this
course?” or even “Why do I have to read this book?” Answers to the first question may vary, depending on
your college’s requirements for first-year students. Nevertheless, you are probably taking this course because
your college believes that it will help you succeed in college and beyond. Likewise, the reason your professor has
assigned this book is because it has been designed to give you the best information about how to make your
transition to college a little smoother. If you are not convinced just yet of the value of this course and its
content, consider the following questions that you will be encouraged to answer as you learn about how to
succeed in college:
• What will college expect of me in terms of skills, habits, and behaviors, and how can I develop them to
ensure that I am successful?
• What do I need to know about how to navigate the process of completing a college degree?
• How can I ensure that I develop worthy long-term goals, and how best can I meet those goals?
These questions are designed to assist you in the transition from high school, or the workforce, to the new
world of college. And this won’t be the last monumental transition that you will experience. For example, you
will experience a new job more than once in your life, and you may experience the excitement and challenge
of moving to a new house or a new city. You can be assured that transitions will require that you identify what
you need to get through them and that you will experience some discomfort along the way. It wouldn’t be
such a great accomplishment without a little uncertainty, doubt, and self-questioning. To help you, the next
section speaks specifically to transitions for the purpose of making your next steps a little smoother.
A N A L Y S I S Q U E S T I O N
In what ways will earning a college degree be valuable to you now and in the future? Be sure to describe
the financial, career, and personal benefits to earning a college degree.
5 National Association of Colleges and Employers. (2019). Career readiness defined. Retrieved from https://www.naceweb.org/career-
readiness/competencies/career-readiness-defined/.
14 Chapter 1 Exploring College
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1.2 The First Year of College Will Be an Experience
Estimated completion time: 14 minutes.
Questions to consider:
• How will you adjust to college?
• What are the common college experiences you will have?
Adjustments to College Are Inevitable
College not only will expand your mind, but it may also make you a little uncomfortable, challenge your
identity, and at times, make you doubt your abilities. It is hard to truly learn anything without getting messy.
This is what education does: it transforms us. For that to happen, however, means that we will need to be
open to the transformation and allow the changes to occur. Flexibility, transition, and change are all words that
describe what you will experience. Laurie Hazard and Stephanie Carter (2018)[6] use the word adjustment.
Hazard and Carter (2018) believe there are six adjustment areas that first-year college students experience:
academic, cultural, emotional, financial, intellectual, and social. Of course, you won’t go through these
adjustments all at once or even in just the first year. Some will take time, while others may not even feel like
much of a transition. Let’s look at them in brief as a way of preparing for the road ahead:
• Academic adjustment. No surprises here. You will most likely—depending on your own academic
background—be faced with the increased demands of learning in college. This could mean that you need
to spend more time learning to learn and using those strategies to master the material.
• Cultural adjustment. You also will most likely experience a cultural adjustment just by being in college
because most campuses have their own language (syllabus, registrar, and office hours, for example) and
customs. You may also experience a cultural adjustment because of the diversity that you will encounter.
Most likely, the people on your college campus will be different than the people at your high school—or at
your workplace.
• Emotional adjustment. Remember the range of emotions presented at the beginning of the chapter?
Those will likely be present in some form throughout your first weeks in college and at stressful times
during the semester. Knowing that you may have good days and bad—and that you can bounce back
from the more stressful days—will help you find healthy ways of adjusting emotionally.
• Financial adjustment. Most students understand the investment they are making in their future by going
to college. Even if you have all your expenses covered, there is still an adjustment to a new way of
thinking about what college costs and how to pay for it. You may find that you think twice about spending
money on entertainment or that you have improved your skills in finding discounted textbooks.
• Intellectual adjustment. Experiencing an intellectual “a-ha!” moment is one of the most rewarding parts of
college, right up there with moving across the graduation stage with a degree in hand. Prepare to be
surprised when you stumble across a fascinating subject or find that a class discussion changes your life.
At the very least, through your academic work, you will learn to think differently about the world around
you and your place in it.
• Social adjustment. A new place often equals new people. But in college, those new relationships can have
even more meaning. Getting to know professors not only can help you learn more in your classes, but it
can also help you figure out what career pathway you want to take and how to get desired internships
and jobs. Learning to reduce conflicts during group work or when living with others helps build essential
6 Hazard, L., & Carter, S. (2018). A framework for helping families understand the college transition. E-Source for College Transitions, 16(1),
13-15.
Chapter 1 Exploring College 15
workplace and life skills.
The table Six Areas of Adjustment for First-Year College Students provides a succinct definition for each of the
areas as well as examples of how you can demonstrate that you have adjusted. Think about what you have
done so far to navigate these transitions in addition to other things you can do to make your college
experience a successful one.
Figure 1.4 Six Areas of Adjustment for First-Year College Students Based on work by Laurie Hazard, Ed.D.,
and Stephanie Carter, M.A.
“Experiencing an intellectual ‘a-ha!’ moment is one of the most rewarding parts of college,
right up there with moving across the graduation stage with a degree in hand.”
A N A L Y S I S Q U E S T I O N
Which of the six areas of adjustment do you think will be the least challenging for you, and which do you
think will be most challenging? What can you do now to prepare for the more challenging transitions?
16 Chapter 1 Exploring College
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W H A T S T U D E N T S S A Y
1. How confident are you that your high school and/or work experience have prepared you
academically for college?
a. Extremely confident
b. Confident
c. Somewhat confident
d. Not very confident
2. When you experience a college-related challenge and are not really sure how to solve it, what best
describes the action you’re likely to take?
a. I will likely persist and persevere until I figure it out.
b. I will likely try to solve the problem, but if it is really difficult, I will simply move on to something
else.
c. I will likely ask my parents or friends for advice.
d. I will likely seek help from resources on campus.
3. Rank the following in terms of how much stress you feel in these situations (1 being the least
amount of stress and 6 being the most amount of stress):
a. The amount of work required in all of my courses
b. The fact that I know hardly anyone
c. My ability to handle all of my obligations
d. Making good grades so I can continue to stay in college
e. My concern that I may not belong in college
f. All of the above are equally stressful
You can also take the anonymous What Students Say (https://openstax.org/l/collegesurvey1-5) surveys
to add your voice to this textbook. Your responses will be included in updates.
Students offered their views on these questions, and the results are displayed in the graphs below.
How confident are you that your high school and/or work experience have prepared you academically
for college?
Figure 1.5
Chapter 1 Exploring College 17
https://openstax.org/l/collegesurvey1-5
1.3 College Culture and Expectations
Estimated completion time: 32 minutes.
Table 1.1
Questions to consider:
When you experience a college-related challenge and are not really sure how to solve it, what best
describes the action you’re likely to take?
Figure 1.6
Rank the following in terms of how much stress you feel in these situations (1 being the least amount of
stress and 6 being the most amount of stress). (Graph displays the percentage of students who ranked
the choice highest, indicating the most amount of stress.)
Figure 1.7
18 Chapter 1 Exploring College
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• What language and customs do you need to know to succeed in college?
• What is your responsibility for learning in college?
• What resources will you use to meet these expectations?
• What are the common challenges in the first year?
College Has Its Own Language and Customs
Going to college—even if you are not far from home—is a cultural experience. It comes with its own language
and customs, some of which can be confusing or confounding at first. Just like traveling to a foreign country, it
is best if you prepare by learning what words mean and what you are expected to say and do in certain
situations.
Let’s first start with the language you may encounter. In most cases, there will be words that you have heard
before, but they may have different meanings in a college setting. Take, for instance, “office hours.” If you are
not in college, you would think that it means the hours of a day that an office is open. If it is your dentist’s
office, it may mean Monday through Friday from 8 a.m. to 5 p.m. In college, “office hours” can refer to the
specific hours a professor is in her office to meet with students, and those hours may be only a few each day:
for example, Mondays and Wednesdays from 1 p.m. until 3 p.m.
“Syllabus” is another word that you may not have encountered, but it is one you will soon know very well. A
syllabus is often called the “contract of the course” because it contains information about what to
expect—from the professor and the student. It is meant to be a roadmap for succeeding in the class.
Understanding that office hours are for you to ask your professor questions and the syllabus is the guide for
what you will be doing in the class can make a big difference in your transition to college. The table on
Common College Terms, has a brief list of other words that you will want to know when you hear them on
campus.
Common College Terms, What They Mean, and Why You Need to Know
Term What It Means Why You Need to Know
Attendance
policy
A policy that describes the
attendance and absence
expectations for a class
Professors will have different attendance expectations. Read
your syllabus to determine which ones penalize you if you
miss too many classes.
Final exam A comprehensive
assessment that is given at
the end of a term
If your class has a final exam, you will want to prepare for it
well in advance by reading assigned material, taking good
notes, reviewing previous tests and assignments, and
studying.
Learning The process of acquiring
knowledge
In college, most learning happens outside the classroom.
Your professor will only cover the main ideas or the most
challenging material in class. The rest of the learning will
happen on your own.
Table 1.2
Chapter 1 Exploring College 19
Common College Terms, What They Mean, and Why You Need to Know
Term What It Means Why You Need to Know
Office
hours
Specific hours professor is
in the office to meet with
students
Visiting your professor during office hours is a good way to
get questions answered and to build rapport.
Plagiarism Using someone’s words,
images, or ideas as your
own, without proper
attribution
Plagiarism carries much more serious consequences in
college, so it is best to speak to your professor about how to
avoid it and review your student handbook’s policy.
Study The process of using
learning strategies to
understand and recall
information
Studying in college may look different than studying in high
school in that it may take more effort and more time to learn
more complex material.
Syllabus The contract of a course
that provides information
about course expectations
and policies
The syllabus will provide valuable information that your
professor will assume you have read and understood. Refer
to it first when you have a question about the course.
Table 1.2
In addition to its own language, higher education has its own way of doing things. For example, you may be
familiar with what a teacher did when you were in high school, but do you know what a professor does? It
certainly seems like they fulfill a very similar role as teachers in high school, but in college professors’ roles are
often much more diverse. In addition to teaching, they may also conduct research, mentor graduate students,
write and review research articles, serve on and lead campus committees, serve in regional and national
organizations in their disciplines, apply for and administer grants, advise students in their major, and serve as
sponsors for student organizations. You can be assured that their days are far from routine. See the Table on
Differences between High School Teachers and College Professors for just a few differences between high
school teachers and college professors.
A C T I V I T Y
The language that colleges and universities use can feel familiar but mean something different, as you
learned in the section above, and it can also seem alien, especially when institutions use acronyms or
abbreviations for buildings, offices, and locations on campus. Terms such as “quad” or “union” can
denote a location or space for students. Then there may be terms such as “TLC” (The Learning Center, in
this example) that designate a specific building or office. Describe a few of the new terms you have
encountered so far and what they mean. If you are not sure, ask your professor or a fellow student to
define it for you.
20 Chapter 1 Exploring College
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Differences between High School and College Faculty
High School Faculty College Faculty
Often have degrees or certifications in
teaching in addition to degrees in subject
matter
Most likely have not even taken a course in teaching as part
of their graduate program
Responsibilities include maximizing
student learning and progress in a wide
array of areas
Responsibilities include providing students with content and
an assessment of their mastery of the content
Are available before or after school or
during class if a student has a question
Are available during office hours or by appointment if a
student needs additional instruction or advice
Communicate regularly and welcome
questions from parents and families
about a student’s progress
Cannot communicate with parents and families of students
without permission because of the Federal Educational
Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA)
The relationships you build with your professors will be some of the most important ones you create during
your college career. You will rely on them to help you find internships, write letters of recommendation,
nominate you for honors or awards, and serve as references for jobs. You can develop those relationships by
participating in class, visiting during office hours, asking for assistance with coursework, requesting
recommendations for courses and majors, and getting to know the professor’s own academic interests. One
way to think about the change in how your professors will relate to you is to think about the nature of
relationships you have had growing up. In Figure 1.X: You and Your Relationships Before College you will see a
representation of what your relationships probably looked like. Your family may have been the greatest
influencer on you and your development.
“The relationships you build with your professors will be some of the most important ones
during your college career.”
Figure 1.8 You and Your Relationships Before College.
In college, your networks are going to expand in ways that will help you develop other aspects of yourself. As
Chapter 1 Exploring College 21
described above, the relationships you will have with your professors will be some of the most important. But
they won’t be the only relationships you will be cultivating while in college. Consider the Figure on You and
Your Relationships during College and think about how you will go about expanding your network while you
are completing your degree.
Figure 1.9 You and Your Relationships During College
Your relationships with authority figures, family, and friends may change while you are in college, and at the
very least, your relationships will expand to peer networks—not friends, but near-age peers or situational
peers (e.g., a first-year college student who is going back to school after being out for 20 years)—and to
faculty and staff who may work alongside you, mentor you, or supervise your studies. These relationships are
important because they will allow you to expand your network, especially as it relates to your career. As stated
earlier, developing relationships with faculty can provide you with more than just the benefits of a mentor.
Faculty often review applications for on-campus jobs or university scholarships and awards; they also have
connections with graduate programs, companies, and organizations. They may recommend you to colleagues
or former classmates for internships and even jobs.
Other differences between high school and college are included in the table about Differences between High
School and College. Because it is not an exhaustive list of the differences, be mindful of other differences you
may notice. Also, if your most recent experience has been the world of work or the military, you may find that
there are more noticeable differences between those experiences and college.
Differences between High School and College
High School College Why You Need to Know the
Difference
Grades Grades are made up of
frequent tests and
homework, and you may be
able to bring up a low initial
grade by completing smaller
assignments and bonuses.
Grades are often made
up of fewer assignments,
and initial low grades
may keep you from
earning high course
grades at the end of the
semester.
You will need to be prepared to
earn high grades on all
assignments because you may
not have the opportunity to
make up for lost ground.
22 Chapter 1 Exploring College
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Differences between High School and College
High School College Why You Need to Know the
Difference
Learning Learning is often done in
class with the teacher
guiding the process, offering
multiple ways to learn
material and frequent
quizzes to ensure that
learning is occurring.
Learning happens mostly
outside of class and on
your own. Faculty are
responsible for assigning
material and covering the
most essential ideas; you
are responsible for
tracking and monitoring
your learning progress.
You will need to practice
effective learning strategies on
your own to ensure that you are
mastering material at the
appropriate pace.
Getting
Help
Your teachers, parents, and a
counselor are responsible for
identifying your need for
help and for creating a plan
for you to get help with
coursework if you need it.
Extra assistance is usually
reserved for students who
have an official diagnosis or
need.
You will most likely need
help to complete all your
courses successfully even
if you did not need extra
help in high school. You
will be responsible for
identifying that you need
it, accessing the
resources, and using
them.
Because the responsibility is on
you, not parents or teachers, to
get the help you need, you will
want to be aware of when you
may be struggling to learn
material. You then will need to
know where the support can be
accessed on campus or where
you can access support online.
Tests
and
Exams
Tests cover small amounts of
material and study days or
study guides are common to
help you focus on what you
need to study. If you paid
attention in class, you should
be able to answer all the
questions.
Tests are fewer and cover
more material than in
high school. If you read
all the assigned material,
took good notes in class,
and spent time practicing
effective study
techniques, you should
be able to answer all the
questions.
This change in how much
material and the depth of which
you need to know the material is
a shock for some students. This
may mean you need to change
your strategies dramatically to
get the same results.
Table 1.3
Some of What You Will Learn Is “Hidden”
Many of the college expectations that have been outlined so far may not be considered common knowledge,
which is one reason that so many colleges and universities have classes that help students learn what they
need to know to succeed. The term, which was coined by sociologists,[7] describes unspoken, unwritten, or
unacknowledged (hence, hidden) rules that students are expected to follow that can affect their learning. To
7 P.P. Bilbao, P. I. Lucido, T. C. Iringan and R. B. Javier. (2008). Curriculum Development.
Chapter 1 Exploring College 23
illustrate the concept, consider the situation in the following activity.
The expectations before, during, and after class, as well as what you should do if you miss class, are often
unspoken because many professors assume you already know and do these things or because they feel you
should figure them out on your own. Nonetheless, some students struggle at first because they don’t know
about these habits, behaviors, and strategies. But once they learn them, they are able to meet them with ease.
Learning Is Your Responsibility
As you may now realize by reviewing the differences between high school and college, learning in college is
your responsibility. Before you read about the how and why of being responsible for your own learning,
complete the Activity below.
A C T I V I T Y
Situation: Your history syllabus indicates that, on Tuesday, your professor is lecturing on the chapter that
covers the stock market crash of 1929.
This information sounds pretty straightforward. Your professor lectures on a topic and you will be there
to hear it. However, there are some unwritten rules, or hidden curriculum, that are not likely to be
communicated. Can you guess what they may be? Take a moment to write at least one potential
unwritten rule.
1. What is an unwritten rule about what you should be doing before attending class?
_______________________________________________________________
2. What is an unwritten rule about what you should be doing in class?
_______________________________________________________________
3. What is an unwritten rule about what you should be doing after class?
_______________________________________________________________
4. What is an unwritten rule if you are not able to attend that class?
_______________________________________________________________
Some of your answers could have included the following:
Before class: Read the assigned chapter, take notes, record any questions you have about the reading.
During class: Take detailed notes, ask critical thinking or clarifying questions, avoid distractions, bring your
book and your reading notes.
After class: Reorganize your notes in relation to your other notes, start the studying process by testing yourself
on the material, make an appointment with your professor if you are not clear on a concept.
Absent: Communicate with the professor, get notes from a classmate, make sure you did not miss anything
important in your notes.
24 Chapter 1 Exploring College
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Taking responsibility for your learning will take some time if you are not used to being in the driver’s seat.
A C T I V I T Y
For each statement, circle the number that best represents you, with 1 indicating that the statement is
least like you, and 5 indicating that the statement is most like you.
Most of the time, I can motivate myself to complete tasks even if they are boring or challenging.
1 2 3 4 5
I regularly work hard when I need to complete a task no matter how small or big the task may be.
1 2 3 4 5
I use different strategies to manage my time effectively and minimize procrastination to complete
tasks.
1 2 3 4 5
I regularly track my progress completing work and the quality of work I do produce.
1 2 3 4 5
I believe how much I learn and how well I learn is my responsibility.
1 2 3 4 5
Table 1.4
Were you able to mark mostly 4s and 5s? If you were even able to mark at least one 4 or 5, then you are
well on your way to taking responsibility for your own learning. Let’s break down each statement in the
components of the ownership of learning:
• Motivation. Being able to stay motivated while studying and balancing all you have to do in your
classes will be important for meeting the rest of the components.
• Deliberate, focused effort. Taking ownership of learning will hinge on the effort that you put into
the work. Because most learning in college will take place outside of the classroom, you will need
determination to get the work done. And there will be times that the work will be challenging and
maybe even boring, but finding a way to get through it when it is not exciting will pay in the long
run.
• Time and task management. You will learn more about strategies for managing your time and the
tasks of college in a later chapter, but without the ability to control your calendar, it will be difficult
to block out the time to study.
• Progress tracking. A commitment to learning must include monitoring your learning, knowing not
only what you have completed (this is where a good time management strategy can help you track your
tasks), but also the quality of the work you have done.
Chapter 1 Exploring College 25
However, if you have any difficulty making this adjustment, you can and should reach out for help along the
way.
What to Expect During the First Year
While you may not experience every transition within your first year, there are rhythms to each semester of
the first year and each year you are in college. Knowing what to expect each month or week can better
prepare you to take advantage of the times that you have more confidence and weather through the times
that seem challenging. Review the table on First-Year College Student Milestones. There will be milestones
each semester you are in college, but these will serve as an introduction to what you should expect in terms of
the rhythms of the semester.
First-Year College Student Milestones for the First Semester
August September October November December
Expanding social
circles
Completing first test and
projects
Feeling more
confident
about
abilities
Balancing
college with
other
obligations
Focusing on
finishing strong
Experiencing
homesickness or
imposter
syndrome
Earning “lower-than-
usual” grades or not
meeting personal
expectations
Dealing with
relationship
issues
Staying
healthy and
reducing
stress
Handling additional
stress of the end of
the semester
Adjusting to the
pace of college
Learning to access
resources for support
Planning for
next
semester and
beyond
Thinking
about majors
and degrees
Thinking about the
break and how to
manage changes
Table 1.5 While each student’s first semester will differ, you will likely experience some of the following typical
college milestones.
The first few weeks will be pretty exhilarating. You will meet new people, including classmates, college staff,
and professors. You may also be living in a different environment, which may mean that a roommate is
another new person to get to know. Overall, you will most likely feel both excited and nervous. You can be
assured that even if the beginning of the semester goes smoothly, your classes will get more challenging each
week. You will be making friends, learning who in your classes seem to know what is going on, and figuring
your way around campus. You may even walk into the wrong building, go to the wrong class, or have trouble
finding what you need during this time. But those first-week jitters will end soon. Students who are living away
from home for the first time can feel homesick in the first few weeks, and others can feel what is called
“imposter syndrome,” which is a fear some students have that they don’t belong in college because they don’t
have the necessary skills for success. Those first few weeks sound pretty stressful, but the stress is temporary.
After the newness of college wears off, reality will set in. You may find that the courses and assignments do
not seem much different than they did in high school (more on that later), but you may be in for a shock when
26 Chapter 1 Exploring College
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you get your graded tests and papers. Many new college students find that their first grades are lower than
they expected. For some students, this may mean they have earned a B when they are used to earning As, but
for many students, it means they may experience their first failing or almost-failing grades in college because
they have not used active, effective study strategies; instead, they studied how they did in high school, which is
often insufficient. This can be a shock if you are not prepared, but it doesn’t have to devastate you if you are
willing to use it as a wake-up call to do something different.
By the middle of the semester, you’ll likely feel much more confident and a little more relaxed. Your grades are
improving because you started going to tutoring and using better study strategies. You are looking ahead,
even beyond the first semester, to start planning your courses for the next term. If you are working while in
college, you may also find that you have a rhythm down for balancing it all; additionally, your time
management skills have likely improved.
By the last few weeks of the semester, you will be focused on the increasing importance of your assignments
and upcoming finals and trying to figure out how to juggle that with the family obligations of the impending
holidays. You may feel a little more pressure to prepare for finals, as this time is often viewed as the most
stressful period of the semester. All of this additional workload and need to plan for the next semester can
seem overwhelming, but if you plan ahead and use what you learn from this chapter and the rest of the
course, you will be able to get through it more easily.
Don’t Do It Alone
Think about our earlier descriptions of two students, Reginald and Madison. What if they found that the first
few weeks were a little harder than they had anticipated? Should they have given up and dropped out? Or
should they have talked to someone about their struggles? Here is a secret about college success that not
many people know: successful students seek help. They use resources. And they do that as often as necessary
to get what they need. Your professors and advisors will expect the same from you, and your college will have
all kinds of offices, staff, and programs that are designed to help. This bears calling out again: you need to use
those resources. These are called “help-seeking behaviors,” and along with self-advocacy, which is speaking up
for your needs, they are essential to your success. As you get more comfortable adjusting to life in college, you
will find that asking for help is easier. In fact, you may become really good at it by the time you graduate, just
in time for you to ask for help finding a job! Review the table on Issues, Campus Resources, and Potential
Outcomes for a few examples of times you may need to ask for help. See if you can identify where on campus
you can find the same or a similar resource.
Issues, Campus Resources, and Potential Outcomes
Type Issue Campus
Resource
Potential Outcome
Academic You are struggling to master the
homework in your math class.
The campus
tutoring
center
A peer or professional tutor can
walk you through the steps until
you can do them on your own.
Table 1.6
Chapter 1 Exploring College 27
Issues, Campus Resources, and Potential Outcomes
Type Issue Campus
Resource
Potential Outcome
Health You have felt extremely tired over the
past two days and now you have a
cough.
The campus
health center
A licensed professional can
examine you and provide care.
Social You haven’t found a group to belong to.
Your classmates seem to be going in
different directions and your roommate
has different interests.
Student
organizations
and interest
groups
Becoming a member of a group
on campus can help you make
new friends.
Financial Your scholarship and student loan no
longer cover your college expenses. You
are not sure how to afford next
semester.
Financial aid
office
A financial aid counselor can
provide you with information
about your options for meeting
your college expenses.
Table 1.6
A P P L I C A T I O N
Using a blank sheet of paper, write your name in the center of the page and circle it. Then, draw six lines
from the center (see example in the figure below) and label each for the six areas of adjustment that
were discussed earlier. Identify a campus resource or strategy for making a smooth adjustment for each
area.
Figure 1.10 For each of the six adjustment areas mentioned above—Academic, Cultural, Emotional,
Financial, Intellectual, and Social—identify a campus resource or strategy that will aid you in making a
smooth adjustment.
28 Chapter 1 Exploring College
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Common Challenges in the First Year
It seems fitting to follow up the expectations for the first year with a list of common challenges that college
students encounter along the way to a degree. If you experience any—or even all—of these, the important
point here is that you are not alone and that you can overcome them by using your resources. Many college
students have felt like this before, and they have survived—even thrived—despite them because they were
able to identify a strategy or resource that they could use to help themselves. At some point in your academic
career, you may do one or more of the following:
1. Feel like an imposter. There is actually a name for this condition: imposter syndrome. Students who feel
like an imposter are worried that they don’t belong, that someone will “expose them for being a fake.”
This feeling is pretty common for anyone who finds themselves in a new environment and is not sure if
they have what it takes to succeed. Trust the professionals who work with first-year college students: you
do have what it takes, and you will succeed. Just give yourself time to get adjusted to everything.
2. Worry about making a mistake. This concern often goes with imposter syndrome. Students who worry
about making a mistake don’t like to answer questions in class, volunteer for a challenging assignment,
and even ask for help from others. Instead of avoiding situations where you may fail, embrace the
process of learning, which includes—is even dependent on—making mistakes. The more you practice
courage in these situations and focus on what you are going to learn from failing, the more confident you
become about your abilities.
3. Try to manage everything yourself. Even superheroes need help from sidekicks and mere mortals.
Trying to handle everything on your own every time an issue arises is a recipe for getting stressed out.
There will be times when you are overwhelmed by all you have to do. This is when you will need to ask for
and allow others to help you.
4. Ignore your mental and physical health needs. If you feel you are on an emotional rollercoaster and
you cannot find time to take care of yourself, then you have most likely ignored some part of your mental
and physical well-being. What you need to do to stay healthy should be non-negotiable. In other words,
your sleep, eating habits, exercise, and stress-reducing activities should be your highest priorities.
5. Forget to enjoy the experience. Whether you are 18 years old and living on campus or 48 years old
starting back to college after taking a break to work and raise a family, be sure to take the time to remind
yourself of the joy that learning can bring.
G E T C O N N E C T E D
Which apps help you meet the expectations of college? Will you be able to meet the expectations of
being responsible for your schedule and assignments?
• My Study Life (https://www.mystudylife.com) understands how college works and provides you with
a calendar, to-do list, and reminders that will help you keep track of the work you have to do.
How can you set goals and work toward them while in college?
• The Strides (https://www.stridesapp.com) app provides you with the opportunity to create SMART
(Specific, Measureable, Attainable, Relevant, and Time bound) goals and track daily habits. These
daily habits will add up over time toward your goals.
What can you do to develop your learning skills?
Chapter 1 Exploring College 29
https://www.stridesapp.com
1.4 How Can This Book And This Course Help?
Estimated completion time: 6 minutes.
Questions to consider:
• How will you be able to develop your purpose?
• In what ways will you be able to create strategies for your success?
• What other resources can you use to help you succeed?
As Reginald and Madison go through their college experiences and create a balance between their academic
and personal lives, their stories, no doubt, will diverge. But you can be assured that each of them will
demonstrate grit, the ability to stay focused on a goal over the long-term, along the way. As Duckworth (2016)
has said, it takes passion and perseverance to be gritty. It also takes resilience, or the ability to bounce back
from adversity. The challenges you face will certainly stretch you, but if you have these three things—purpose,
strategies, and resources—you will be more likely to bounce back, even become stronger in the process. This
book has been designed with these things in mind.
Develop Your “Why”
This chapter began with the suggestion to explore why you are in college or, more simply, what your purpose
is. This course—and this book—will help you continue to refine your answer and create a map for your journey
to fulfill your purpose. The features in this book that help you develop your purpose include the following:
• Student Survey Questions: Each chapter opens with several questions that provide you with a snapshot
on how you feel about the chapter content. How does this feature help you develop purpose? It allows
you to develop better self-awareness, which will in turn help you build an awareness of your purpose.
• Analysis Questions: These questions are included throughout each chapter. Consider them “pauses” to
help you reflect on what you have read and how to incorporate the information into your own journey.
• Lumosity (https://www.lumosity.com/en/) is a brain-training app that can help you build the
thinking and learning skills you will need to meet learning challenges in college. If you want to test
your memory and attention—and build your skills—take the fit test and then play different games to
improve your fitness.
How can you develop networks with people in college?
• LinkedIn (https://www.linkedin.com) is a professional networking app that allows you to create a
profile and network with others. Creating a LinkedIn account as a first-year college student will help
you create a professional profile that you can use to find others with similar interests.
• Internships.com (https://www.internships.com) provides information, connections, and support to
help your career planning and activities. Even if you are not planning an internship right away, you
may find some useful and surprising ideas and strategies to motivate your approach.
30 Chapter 1 Exploring College
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https://www.lumosity.com/en/
https://www.linkedin.com
https://www.internships.com
Refine Your Strategies for Success
Purpose by itself may illuminate the pathway forward, but it will take strategies to help you complete your
journey. Think of the strategies you will learn in this course as tools you will need along the way to completing
your degree. The following features provide you with an opportunity to practice and refine strategies for
success:
• Application Questions: Any time you are asked to apply what you are learning in the chapters, you are
improving your skills. Look for them throughout and take some time to stop, think, and use the skill.
• Activities: As you read, you will also have the opportunity to interact with the content. They give you the
chance to refine the strategies that will help you succeed in college.
• Career Connection: This feature allows you to consider how the skills you are developing for college
connect to your future career. Making these connections will help you appreciate the deeper importance
of them.
Use Your Resources
In addition to developing strategies for succeeding in your academic and future professional career, you will
find that this course will point out the resources you may need to obtain more tools or refuel your desire to
continue along the pathway. No one succeeds at anything by oneself. The features related to resources will
certainly help you find ways to fill up your toolkit of information.
• Get Connected: Despite its ability to distract us from the work we need to do, technology can help you
accomplish your day-to-day tasks with relative ease. This feature offers suggestions for apps and websites
that can help you build skills or just keep track of due dates!
• Where Do You Go from Here?: The skills and habits you are building now will serve you well in your future
endeavors. This feature is designed to help you dig deeper into the chapter content and refine your
research skills. It also asks that you find ways to connect what you are learning now to your life and
career.
All of these features, in addition to the content, will help you see yourself for who you are and provide
opportunities to develop in ways that will make reaching your goal a little easier. Will it be challenging at
times? Yes, it will. Will it take time to reflect on those challenges and find better ways to learn and reach your
goals? Most definitely. But the effort you put into completing your college degree will result in the confidence
you will gain from knowing that anything you set your mind to do—and you work hard for—can be
accomplished.
Summary
This chapter provides an introduction to the transition to college by first asking “Why?” Understanding why
you are in college and what a college degree can do for you is the foundation of making a smooth transition.
These transitional experiences are part of being in college, and this chapter provides you with information
about what to expect and how to handle the changes you will go through. Next, the chapter discusses college
culture and how to understand the customs and language of higher education. The chapter ends with
resources throughout the text that can help you practice skills and dive deeper into the topics.
Chapter 1 Exploring College 31
Rethinking
Revisit the questions you answered at the beginning of the chapter, and consider one option you learned in
this chapter that might change your answer to them.
1. I am fully aware of the expectations of college and how to meet them.
2. I know why I am in college and have clear goals that I want to achieve.
3. Most of the time, I take responsibility for my learning new and challenging concepts.
4. I feel comfortable working with faculty, advisors, and classmates to accomplish my goals.
Where do you go from here?
Making the transition into college smoother for you can have long-term benefits. What have you learned
about in this chapter that you want to know more about that could help you? Choose topics from the list below
or create your own, and then create an annotated bibliography of three to five reliable sources that provide
information about your topic.
• What is the long-term value of a college degree?
• What is the “hidden curriculum,” and how can knowing about it help you succeed in college?
• What learning strategies are the most effective?
• What kinds of resources and services do colleges now offer that help students’ personal development?
32 Chapter 1 Exploring College
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Chapter Outline
2.1 The Power to Learn
2.2 The Motivated Learner
2.3 It’s All in the Mindset
2.4 Learning Styles
2.5 Personality Types and Learning
2.6 Applying What You Know about Learning
2.7 The Hidden Curriculum
Introduction
Student Survey
How do you feel about your learning abilities? Take this quick survey to figure it out, ranking questions on a
scale of 1–4, 1 meaning “least like me” and 4 meaning “most like me.” These questions will help you
determine how the chapter concepts relate to you right now. As you are introduced to new concepts and
practices, it can be informative to reflect on how your understanding changes over time. We’ll revisit these
questions at the end of the chapter to see whether your feelings have changed.
1. Learning for me is easy. I don’t even have to think about it.
2. I have a preferred learning style.
3. If I can’t learn something right away, I have difficulty staying with it.
4. I think my teachers are the most significant aspect of my learning.
You can also take the Chapter 2 survey (https://openstax.org/l/collegesurvey02) anonymously online.
Figure 2.1 The School of Athens by Raphael, a fresco in the Vatican, is thought to depict many of the greatest
figures in Greek philosophy, including Plato and Aristotle as well as Nicomachus and Averroes. (Credit:
Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
2
Knowing Yourself as a Learner
https://openstax.org/l/collegesurvey02
About This Chapter
In this chapter you will learn about the art of learning itself, as well as how to employ strategies that enable
you to learn more efficiently.
After reading this chapter, you should be able to do the following:
• Discover the different types of learning and your learning practices.
• Make informed and effective learning choices in regards to personal engagement and motivation.
• Identify and apply the learning benefits of a growth mindset.
• Evaluate and make informed decisions about learning styles and learning skills.
• Recognize how personality type models influence learning and utilize that knowledge to improve your
own learning.
• Identify the impact of outside circumstances on personal learning experiences and develop strategies to
compensate for them.
• Recognize the presence of the “hidden curriculum” and how to navigate it.
2.1 The Power to Learn
Estimated completion time: 18 minutes.
Questions to consider:
• What actually happens to me when I learn something?
• Am I aware of different types of learning?
• Do I approach studying or practicing differently depending on the desired outcome?
Welcome to one of the most empowering chapters in this book! While each chapter focuses on showing you
“When I came to college, I was a great STEM student. I knew the best ways to study for understanding
the complexity of cellular mechanisms, but I had no idea how to study for classes where I would need to
draw upon political theory or even how to memorize vocabulary words for language classes. Since I am
now a humanities student studying Russian, I learned the hard way that you cannot study for every class
the same way.
“For my first Russian vocabulary quiz, I studied almost 14 hours because I could not remember the
words no matter how hard I tried. I was studying the Russian textbook the same way that I would study
for a Chemistry or Biology class: to simply read the chapter or vocabulary list over and over again. I knew
that I could not afford to be this time-inefficient for the entire semester, so I asked my professor for
some tips on how to study for her class. Now, I start studying three days before each quiz by making
flash cards the first day, studying the words from Russian to English the second day, and then studying
the words from English to Russian by writing them down the third day. This new method is not one that
works well for every class, but that’s the beauty of it! I am a better learner because I have found ways to
use a more diverse range of studying tactics.”
— Gabby Kennedy, Baylor University
S T U D E N T P R O F I L E
34 Chapter 2 Knowing Yourself as a Learner
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clear paths to success as a student, this one deals specifically with what is at the core of being a student: the
act of learning.
We humans have been obsessed with how we learn and understand things since ancient times. Because of
this, some of our earliest recorded philosophies have tried to explain how we take in information about the
world around us, how we acquire new knowledge, and even how we can be certain what we learn is correct.
This obsession has produced a large number of theories, ideas, and research into how we learn. There is a
great deal of information out there on the subject—some of it is very good, and some of it, while well
intentioned, has been a bit misguided.
Because of this obsession with learning, over the centuries, people have continually come up with new ideas
about how we acquire knowledge. The result has been that commonly held “facts” about education have been
known to change frequently. Often, what was once thought to be the newest, greatest discovery about
learning was debunked later on. One well-known example of this is that of corporal punishment. For most of
the time formal education has existed in our society, educators truly believed that beating students when they
made a mistake actually helped them learn faster. Thankfully, birching (striking someone with a rod made
from a birch tree) has fallen out of favor in education circles, and our institutions of learning have adopted
different approaches. In this chapter, not only will you learn about current learning theories that are backed by
neuroscience (something we did not have back in the days of birching), but you will also learn other learning
theories that did not turn out to be as effective or as thoroughly researched as once thought. That does not
mean those ideas about learning are useless. Instead, in these cases you find ways to separate the valuable
parts from the myths to make good learning choices.
“Research has shown that one of the most influential aids in learning is an understanding
about learning itself.”
What Is the Nature of Learning?
To begin with, it is important to recognize that learning is work. Sometimes it is easy and sometimes it is
difficult, but there is always work involved. For many years people made the error of assuming that learning
was a passive activity that involved little more than just absorbing information. Learning was thought to be a
lot like copying and pasting words in a document; the student’s mind was blank and ready for an instructor to
teach them facts that they could quickly take in. As it turns out, learning is much more than that. In fact, at its
most rudimentary level, it is an actual process that physically changes our brains. Even something as simple as
learning the meaning of a new word requires the physical alteration of neurons and the creation of new paths
to receptors. These new electrochemical pathways are formed and strengthened as we utilize, practice, or
remember what we have learned. If the new skill or knowledge is used in conjunction with other things we
have already learned, completely different sections of the brain, our nerves, or our muscles may be tied in as a
part of the process. A good example of this would be studying a painting or drawing that depicts a scene from
a story or play you are already familiar with. Adding additional connections, memories, and mental
associations to things you already know something about expands your knowledge and understanding in a
way that cannot be reversed. In essence, it can be said that every time we learn something new we are no
longer the same.
In addition to the physical transformation that takes place during learning, there are also a number of other
factors that can influence how easy or how difficult learning something can be. While most people would
assume that the ease or difficulty would really depend on what is being learned, there are actually several
other factors that play a greater role.
Chapter 2 Knowing Yourself as a Learner 35
In fact, research has shown that one of the most influential factors in learning is a clear understanding about
learning itself. This is not to say that you need to become neuroscientists in order to do well in school, but
instead, knowing a thing or two about learning and how we learn in general can have strong, positive results
for your own learning. This is called metacognition (i.e., thinking about thinking).
Some of the benefits to how we learn can be broken down into different areas such as
• attitude and motivation toward learning,
• types of learning,
• methods of learning, and
• your own preferences for learning.
In this chapter you will explore these different areas to better understand how they may influence your own
learning, as well as how to make conscious decisions about your own learning process to maximize positive
outcomes.
All Learning Is Not the Same
The first, fundamental point to understand about learning is that there are several types of learning. Different
kinds of knowledge are learned in different ways. Each of these different types of learning can require
different processes that may take place in completely different parts of our brain.
For example, simple memorization is a form of learning that does not always require deeper understanding.
Children often learn this way when they memorize poems or verses they recite. An interesting example of this
can be found in the music industry, where there have been several hit songs sung in English by vocalists who
do not speak English. In these cases, the singers did not truly understand what they were singing, but instead
they were taught to memorize the sounds of the words in the proper order.
Figure 2.2 Learning has many levels and forms. For example, collaborative learning and showing your work
require different skills and produce different results than reading or notetaking on your own. (Credit:
StartUpStockPhotos / Pexels)
Memorizing sounds is a very different type of learning than, say, acquiring a deep understanding of Einstein’s
general theory of relativity.
Notice in the comparative examples of music and physics that the different levels of learning are being defined
36 Chapter 2 Knowing Yourself as a Learner
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by what they allow you to know or do. When classifying learning in this way, people usually agree on six
different levels of learning. In this next section we will take a detailed look at each of these.
In the table below, the cells in the left column each contain one of the main levels of learning, categorized by
what the learning allows you to do. To the right of each category are the “skill acquired” and a set of real-
world examples of what those skills might be as applied to a specific topic. This set of categories is called
Bloom’s Taxonomy, and it is often used as a guide for educators when they are determining what students
should learn within a course.
Category of
Learning
Skill
acquired
Example 1: Musical ability Example 2: Historical information
on Charles the Bald
Create Produce
new or
original
work
Compose a piece of music Write a paper on Charles that draws
a new conclusion about his reign
Evaluate Justify or
support an
idea or
decision
Make critical decisions about the
notes that make up a
melody—what works, what
doesn’t, and why
Make arguments that support the
idea that Charles was a good ruler
Analyze Draw
connections
Play the specific notes that are
found in the key of A
Compare and contrast the historical
differences between the reign of
Charles and his grandfather,
Charlemagne
Apply Use
information
in new
ways
Use knowledge to play several
notes that sound good together
Use the information to write a
historical account on the reign of
Charles
Understand/
Comprehend
Explain
ideas or
concepts
Understand the relationship
between the musical notes and
how to play each on a musical
instrument
Explain the historical events that
enabled Charles to become Emperor
Remember Recall facts
and basic
concepts
Memorize notes on a musical
scale
Recall that Charles the Bald was Holy
Roman Emperor from 875–877 CE
Table 2.1
A review of the above table shows that actions in the left column (or what you will be able to do with the new
knowledge) has a direct influence over what needs to be learned and can even dictate the type of learning
approach that is best. For example, remembering requires a type of learning that allows the person basic
memorization. In the case of Charles the Bald and his reign, it is simply a matter of committing the dates to
memory. When it comes to understanding and comprehension, being able to explain how Charles came to
Chapter 2 Knowing Yourself as a Learner 37
power requires not only the ability to recall several events, but also for the learner to be able to understand
the cause and effect of those events and how they worked together to make Charles emperor. Another
example would be the ability to analyze. In this particular instance the information learned would not only be
about Charles, but also about other rulers, such as Charlemagne. The information would have to be of such a
depth that the learner could compare the events and facts about each ruler.
When you engage in any learning activity, take the time to understand what you will do with the knowledge
once you have attained it. This can help a great deal when it comes to making decisions on how to go about it.
Using flashcards to help memorize angles does not really help you solve problems using geometry formulas.
Instead, practicing problem-solving with the actual formulas is a much better approach. The key is to make
certain the learning activity fits your needs.
2.2 The Motivated Learner
Estimated completion time: 29 minutes.
Questions to consider:
• How do different types of motivation affect my learning?
• What is resilience and grit?
• How can I apply the Uses and Gratification Theory to make decisions about my learning?
• How do I prevent negative bias from hindering learning?
In this section, you will continue to increase your ability as an informed learner. Here you will explore how
much of an influence motivation has on learning, as well as how to use motivation to purposefully take an
active role in any learning activity. Rather than passively attempting to absorb new information, you will learn
how to make conscious decisions about the methods of learning you will use (based on what you intend to do
with the information), how you will select and use learning materials that are appropriate for your needs, and
how persistent you will be in the learning activity.
There are three main motivation concepts that have been found to directly relate to learning. Each of these
has been proven to mean the difference between success and failure. You will find that each of these is a
strong tool that will enable you to engage with learning material in a way that not only suits your needs, but
also gives you ownership over your own learning processes.
Resilience and Grit
While much of this chapter will cover very specific aspects about the act of learning, in this section, we will
present different information that may at first seem unrelated. Some people would consider it more of a
personal outlook than a learning practice, and yet it has a significant influence on the ability to learn.
What we are talking about here is called grit or resilience. Grit can be defined as personal perseverance toward
a task or goal. In learning, it can be thought of as a trait that drives a person to keep trying until they succeed.
It is not tied to talent or ability, but is simply a tendency to not give up until something is finished or
accomplished.
38 Chapter 2 Knowing Yourself as a Learner
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Figure 2.3 U.S. Army veteran and captain of the U.S. Invictus team, Will Reynolds, races to the finish line.
(Credit: DoD News / Flickr / Attribution 2.0 Generic (CC-BY 2.0))
The study showed that grit and perseverance were better predictors of academic success and
achievement than talent or IQ.
This personality trait was defined as “grit” by the psychologist Angela Duckworth.[1] In a 2007 study Duckworth
and colleagues found that individuals with high grit were able to maintain motivation in learning tasks despite
failures. The study examined a cross section of learning environments, such as GPA scores in Ivy League
universities, dropout rates at West Point, rankings in the National Spelling Bee, and general educational
attainment for adults. What the results showed was that grit and perseverance were better predictors of
academic success and achievement than talent or IQ.
Applying Grit
The concept of grit is an easy one to dismiss as something taken for granted. In our culture, we have a number
of sayings and aphorisms that capture the essence of grit: “If at first you do not succeed, try, try again,” or the
famous quote by Thomas Edison: “Genius is one percent inspiration, ninety-nine percent perspiration.”
The problem is we all understand the concept, but actually applying it takes work. If the task we are trying to
complete is a difficult one, it can take a lot of work.
The first step in applying grit is to adopt an attitude that looks directly to the end goal as the only acceptable
outcome. With this attitude comes an acceptance that you may not succeed on the first attempt—or the
nineteenth attempt. Failed attempts are viewed as merely part of the process and seen as a very useful way to
gain knowledge that moves you toward success. An example of this would be studying for an exam. In your
first attempt at studying you simply reread the chapters of your textbook covered in the exam. You find that
while this reinforces some of the knowledge you have gained, it does not ensure you have all the information
you will need to do well on the test. You know that if you simply read the chapters yet again, there is no
guarantee you are going to be any more successful. You determine that you need to find a different approach.
1 Duckworth, A.L.; Peterson, C.; Matthews, M.D.; Kelly, D.R. (June 2007). “Grit: Perseverance and passion for long-term goals”. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology. 92 (6): 1087–1101. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.92.6.1087. PMID 17547490.
Chapter 2 Knowing Yourself as a Learner 39
In other words, your first attempt was not a complete failure, but it did not achieve the end goal, so you try
again with a different method.
On your second try, you copy down all of the main points onto a piece of paper using the section headlines
from the chapters. After a short break you come back to your list and write down a summary of what you
know about each item on your list. This accomplishes two things: first, you are able to immediately spot areas
where you need to learn more, and second, you can check your summaries against the text to make certain
what you know is correct and adequate. In this example, while you may not have yet achieved complete
success, you will have learned what you need to do next.
In true grit fashion, for your next try, you study those items on your list where you found you needed a bit
more information, and then you go through your list again. This time you are able to write down summaries of
all the important points, and you are confident you have the knowledge you need to do well on the exam.
After this, you still do not stop, but instead you change your approach to use other methods that keep what
you have learned fresh in your mind.
Keeping Grit in Mind: Grit to GRIT
The concept of grit has been taken beyond the original studies of successful learning. While the concept of grit
as a personality trait was originally recognized as something positive in all areas of activity, encouraging grit
became very popular in education circles as a way to help students become more successful. In fact, many of
those that were first introduced to grit through education have begun applying it to business, professional
development, and their personal lives. Using a grit approach and working until the goal is achieved has been
found to be very effective in not only academics, but in many other areas.[2]
The New York Times best-selling author Paul G. Stoltz has taken grit and turned it into an acronym (GRIT) to
help people remember and use the attributes of a grit mindset.[3] His acronym is Growth, Resilience, Instinct,
and Tenacity. Each of these elements is explained in the table below.
Growth Your propensity to seek and consider new ideas, additional alternatives, different
approaches, and fresh perspectives
Resilience Your capacity to respond constructively and ideally make use of all kinds of adversity
Instinct Your gut-level capacity to pursue the right goals in the best and smartest ways
Tenacity The degree to which you persist, commit to, stick with, and go after whatever you choose to
achieve
Table 2.2 The GRIT acronym as outlined by Paul G. Stoltz
There is one other thing to keep in mind when it comes to applying grit (or GRIT) to college success. The same
sort of persevering approach can not only be used for individual learning activities, but can be applied to your
entire degree. An attitude of tenacity and “sticking with it” until you reach the desired results works just as
2 Neisser, U.; Boodoo, G.; Bouchard, T.J.; Boykin, A.W.; Brody, N.; et al. (1996). “Intelligence: Knowns and unknowns” (PDF). American
Psychologist. 51 (2): 77–101. doi:10.1037/0003-066x.51.2.77.
3 Stoltz, Paul G. (2014). “GRIT The New Science of What It Takes To Persevere, Flourish, Succeed”. ClimbStrong Press
40 Chapter 2 Knowing Yourself as a Learner
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well for graduation as it does for studying for an exam.
How Do You Get Grit?
A quick Internet search will reveal that there are a large number of articles out there on grit and how to get it.
While these sources may vary in their lists, most cover about five basic ideas that all touch upon concepts
emphasized by Duckworth. What follows is a brief introduction to each. Note that each thing listed here begins
with a verb. In other words, it is an activity for you to do and keep doing in order to build grit.
1. Pursue what interests you.
Personal interest is a great motivator! People tend to have more grit when pursuing things that they have
developed an interest in.
2. Practice until you can do it, and then keep practicing.
The idea of practicing has been applied to every skill in human experience. The reason everyone seems to be
so fixated with practice is because it is effective and there is no “grittier” activity.
3. Find a purpose in what you do.
Purpose is truly the driver for anything we pursue. If you have a strong purpose in any activity, you have
reason to persist at it. Think in terms of end goals and why doing something is worth it. Purpose answers the
question of “Why should I accomplish this?”
4. Have hope in what you are doing.
Have hope in what you are doing and in how it will make things different for you or others. While this is
somewhat related to purpose, it should be viewed as a separate and positive overall outlook in regard to what
you are trying to achieve. Hope gives value to purpose. If purpose is the goal, hope is why the goal is worth
attaining at all.
5. Surround yourself with gritty people.
Persistence and tenacity tend to rub off on others, and the opposite does as well. As social creatures we often
adopt the behaviors we find in the groups we hang out with. If you are surrounded by people that quit early,
before achieving their goals, you may find it acceptable to give up early as well. On the other hand, if your
peers are all achievers with grit, you will tend to exhibit grit yourself.
A P P L I C A T I O N
Get a Grit Partner
It is an unfortunate statistic that far too many students who begin college never complete their degree.
Over the years a tremendous amount of research has gone into why some students succeed while others
do not. After reading about grit, you will probably not be surprised to learn that the research has shown
it to not only be a major contributor of learning but to be one of the strongest factors contributing to
student graduation.
Chapter 2 Knowing Yourself as a Learner 41
Uses and Gratification Theory and Learning
In the middle of the last century, experts held some odd beliefs that we might find exceptionally strange in our
present age. For example, many scholars were convinced that not only was learning a passive activity, but that
mass media such as movies, television, and newspapers held significant control over us as individuals. The
thinking at that time was that we were helpless to think for ourselves or make choices about learning or the
media we consumed. The idea was that we just simply ingested information fed to us and we were almost
completely manipulated by it.
What changed this way of thinking was a significant study on audience motivations for watching different
political television programs.[5] The study found that not only did people make decisions about what
information they consumed, but they also had preferences in content and how it was delivered. In other
words, people were active in their choices about information. What is more important is that the research
began to show that our own needs, goals, and personal opinions are bigger drivers for our choices in
While that may seem obvious since, by definition, grit is a tendency to keep going until you reach your
goal, there was something very significant that turned up in the details of a study conducted by
American College Testing (also known as ACT). ACT is a nonprofit organization that administers the
college admissions test by the same name, and they have been looking at over 50 years of student
persistence data to figure out why some students complete college while others do not. What they have
found is that the probability a student will stay in college is tied directly to social connections.[4] In other
words, students that found someone they connected with and that provided a sense of accountability
dramatically increased their grit. It did not matter if the person was another student, an instructor, or
someone else. What did matter is that they felt a strong motivation to keep working, even when their
college experience was at its most difficult. It has been surmised that from a psychological perspective,
the extra grit comes from not wanting to disappoint the person they have connected with. Regardless of
the reason, the data show that having a grit partner is one of the most effective ways to statistically
increase your chances of graduation.
A grit partner does not have to be a formal relationship. Your partner can simply be a
classmate—someone that you can talk with. It can be an instructor you admire or someone else that you
establish a connection with. It can even be a family member who will encourage you—someone you do
not want to disappoint. What you are looking for is someone who will help motivate you, either by their
example or by their willingness to give you a pep talk when you need it. The key is that it is someone you
respect and who will encourage you to do well in school.
Right now, think about someone who could be your grit partner. Keep in mind that you may not have the
same grit partner throughout your entire college experience. You may begin with another classmate but
later find that a school staff member steps into the role. Later, as you near graduation, you may find that
your favorite instructor motivates you more to do well in school than anyone else. Regardless, the
importance of finding the social connection that helps your grit is important.
4 King, David R., NduM, Edwin, Can Psychosocial Factors Predict First-to Second Year College Retention Above and Beyond Standard Variables,
ACT (2017) https://www.act.org/content/dam/act/unsecured/documents/R1656-psychosocial-factors-retention-2017-12
5 Blumler, J. G., & McQuail, D. (1969). Television in politics: Its uses and influence. University of Chicago Press.
42 Chapter 2 Knowing Yourself as a Learner
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information than anything else. This gave rise to what became known as the Uses and Gratification Theory
(UGT).
Figure 2.4 Concept maps, or idea clusters, are used to gather and connect ideas. The exercise of creating,
recreating, and improving them can be an excellent way to build and internalize a deeper knowledge of
subjects. (Credit: Johnny Goldstien / Flickr / Attribution 2.0 Generic (CC-BY 2.0))
At first, personal choices about television programs might seem a strange topic for a chapter on learning, but
if you think about it, learning at its simplest is the consumption of information to meet a specific need. You
choose to learn something so you can attain certain goals. This makes education and UGT a natural fit.
Applying UGT to education is a learner-centered approach that focuses on helping you take control of how and
what you learn. Not only that, but it gives you a framework as an informed learner and allows you to choose
information and learning activities with the end results in mind. The next section examines UGT a little more
closely and shows how it can be directly applied to learning.
The Uses and Gratification Model
The Uses and Gratification model is how people are thought to react according to UGT. It considers individual
behavior and motivation as the primary driver for media consumption. In education this means that the needs
of the learner are what determine the interaction with learning content such as textbooks, lectures, and other
information sources. Since any educational program is essentially content and delivery (the same as with any
media), the Uses and Gratification model can be applied to meet student needs, student satisfaction, and
student academic success. This is something that is not recognized in many other learning theories since they
begin with the premise that it is learning content and how it is delivered that influences the learner more than
the learner’s own wants and expectations.
The main assumption of the Uses and Gratification model is that media consumers will seek out and return to
specific media sources based on a personal need. For learners this is exceptionally useful since it gives an
insight and the ability to positively influence their own motivations, expectations, and the perceived value of
their education.
Chapter 2 Knowing Yourself as a Learner 43
Figure 2.5 The Uses and Gratification model indicates that people will actively seek out and integrate specific
media into their lives. (Credit: Garry Knight / Flickr / Attribution 2.0 Generic (CC-BY 2.0))
If you understand the key concepts of the Uses and Gratification model, you can make informed decisions
about your own learning: how you learn, which materials you use to learn, and what motivates you to learn.
An illustration of this was found in the example given in the previous section on grit. There, a series of exam
study activities were presented—first reading the appropriate chapters, then making a list of chapter concepts
and reviewing what was known, then returning to learn the information needed to fill the gaps. Each activity
was chosen by the learner based on how well it fit their needs to help reach the goal of doing well on an exam.
Here we should offer a brief word of caution about being wary when choosing materials and media. There is a
great deal of misleading and inaccurate information presented via the Internet and social media. Making
informed decisions about your learning and the material you consume includes checking sources and avoiding
information that is not credible.
“We are able to consciously make learning choices based on our own identified needs and
what we hope to gain by that learning.”
In his book Key Themes in Media Theory,[6] Dan Laughey presents the UGT model according to its original
authors as a single sentence that divides each area of influence into the following concerns:
1. Social and psychological origins of …
2. needs, which generate …
3. expectations of …
4. the mass media or other sources, which lead to …
5. differential patterns of media exposure, resulting in …
6. needs gratification and …
7. other unintended consequences.
Taken as a list or a single sentence, this can be a bit overwhelming to digest. There are many things being said
6 Dan Laughey, (2007). Key Themes in Media Theory, Open University Press
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at the same time, and they may not all be immediately clear. To better understand what each of the “areas of
concern” are and how they can impact learning, each has been separated and explained in the table below.
Area of
Concern
What it means for you How it applies to learning Real-world
example
1. Social and
psychological
origins of …
Your motivations, not
only as a student but as
a person, and both the
social and
psychological factors
that influence you
This can be everything from the
original motivation behind enrolling
in school in the first place, down to
more specific goals like why you
want to learn to write and
communicate well.
A drive to be self-
supporting and to
take on a productive
role in society.
2. needs,
which
generate …
Better job, increased
income, satisfying
career, prestige
This can include the area of study
you select and the school you choose
to attend.
Pursuing a degree
to seek a career in a
field you enjoy.
3.
expectations
of …
Expectation and
perception
(preconceived and
continuing) of
educational material
What you expect to learn to fulfill
goals and meet needs.
Understanding what
you need to
accomplish the
smaller goals. An
example would be
“study for an
exam.”
4. the mass
media or
other sources,
which lead
to…
The content and
learning activities of the
program
Selection of content aimed at
fulfilling needs. Results are student
satisfaction, perceived value, and
continued enrollment.
Choosing which
learning activities to
use (e.g., texts,
watch videos,
research alternative
content, etc.).
5. differential
patterns of
media
exposure,
resulting in …
Frequency and level of
participation
How you engage with learning
activities and how often. Results are
student satisfaction and perceived
value, and continued enrollment.
When, how often,
and how much time
you spend in
learning activities.
Table 2.3
Chapter 2 Knowing Yourself as a Learner 45
Area of
Concern
What it means for you How it applies to learning Real-world
example
6. needs
gratification
and …
Better job, increased
income, satisfying
career, prestige, more
immediate goals like
pass an exam, earn a
good grade, etc.
Needs fulfillment and completion of
goals.
Learning activities
that meet your
learning needs,
including fulfillment
of your original
goals.
7. other
unintended
consequences.
Increased skills and
knowledge,
entertainment, social
involvement and
networking
Causes positive loop-back into 4, 5,
and 6, reinforcing those positive
outcomes.
Things you learn
beyond your initial
goals.
Table 2.3
What to Do with UGT
On the surface, UGT may seem overly complex, but this is due to its attempt to capture everything that
influences how and why we take in information. At this point in your understanding, the main thing to focus
on is the bigger idea that our motivations, our end goals, and our expectations are what drive us to learn. If we
are aware of these motivations, we can use them to make influential decisions about what we learn and how
we learn.
One of the things that will become apparent as you continue reading this chapter and doing the included
activities is that all of it fits within the UGT model. Everything about learning styles, your own attitude about
learning, how you prefer to learn, and what you get out of it are covered in UGT. Being familiar with it gives
you a way to identify and apply everything else you will learn about learning. As you continue in this chapter,
rather than looking at each topic as a stand-alone idea, think about where each fits in the Uses and
Gratification model. Does it influence your motivations, or does it help you make decisions about the way you
learn? This way UGT can provide a way for you to see the value and how to apply everything you learn from
this point forward and for every learning experience along the way.
If you were going to define how UGT applies to learning with a few quick statements, it would look something
like this:
UGT asks:
• What is it that motivates you to learn something?
• What need does it fulfill?
• What do you expect to have happen with certain learning activities?
• How can you choose the right learning activities to better ensure you meet your needs and expectations?
• What other things might result from your choices?
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Combating Negative Bias
In addition to being a motivated learner through the use of grit and UGT, there is a third natural psychological
tendency you should be aware of. It is a tendency that you should guard against. Ignoring the fact that it exists
can not only adversely affect learning, but it can set up roadblocks that may prevent you from achieving many
goals. This tendency is called negative bias.
Negative bias is the psychological trait of focusing on the negative aspects of a situation rather than the
positive. An example of this in a learning environment would be earning a 95 percent score on an assignment
but obsessing over the 5 percent of the points that were missed. Another example would be worrying and
thinking negative thoughts about yourself over a handful of courses where you did not do as well as in
others—so much so that you begin to doubt your abilities altogether.
Figure 2.6 Some level of worry and concern is natural, but an overwhelming amount of negative thoughts
about yourself, including doubt in your abilities and place in school, can impede your learning and stifle your
success. You can develop strategies to recognize and overcome these feelings. (Credit: Inzmam Kahn / Pexels)
Unfortunately, this is a human tendency that can often overwhelm a student. As a pure survival mechanism it
does have its usefulness in that it reminds us to be wary of behaviors that can result in undesirable outcomes.
A N A L Y S I S Q U E S T I O N
Take a moment to think about your own choices when it comes to consuming media. Are there certain
sources you prefer? Why? What needs or gratifications do those particular sources fulfill in a way that
others do not? Now, use the same process to analyze your current college experience. Are there certain
classes or activities you like more than others? Why? Do any of your reasons have to do with the needs
or gratifications the classes or learning activities fulfill?
After you have answered those questions, you can always step beyond mere analysis and determine
what you could change to make the classes or activities you enjoy less better fulfill your needs.
Chapter 2 Knowing Yourself as a Learner 47
Imagine that as a child playing outside, you have seen dozens if not hundreds of bees over the years. But
once, out of all those other times, you were stung by a single bee. Now, every time you see a bee you recall the
sting, and you now have a negative bias toward bees in general. Whenever possible you avoid bees altogether.
It is easy to see how this psychological system could be beneficial in those types of situations, but it can be a
hindrance in learning since a large part of the learning process often involves failure on early attempts.
Recognizing this is a key to overcoming negative bias. Another way to combat negative bias is to purposefully
focus on successes and to acknowledge earlier attempts that fail as just a part of the learning.
What follows are a few methods for overcoming negative bias and negative self-talk. Each focuses on being
aware of any negative attitude or emphasizing the positive aspects in a situation.
• Be aware of any negative bias. Keep an eye out for any time you find yourself focusing on some
negative aspect, whether toward your own abilities or on some specific situation. Whenever you recognize
that you are exhibiting a negative bias toward something, stop and look for the positive parts of the
experience. Think back to what you have learned about grit, how any lack of success is only temporary,
and what you have learned that gets you closer to your goal.
• Focus on the positive before you begin. While reversing the impact of negative bias on your learning is
helpful, it can be even more useful to prevent it in the first place. One way to do this is to look for the
positives before you begin a task. An example of this would be receiving early feedback for an assignment
you are working on. To accomplish this, you can often ask your instructor or one of your classmates to
look over your work and provide some informal comments. If the feedback is positive then you know you
are on the right track. That is useful information. If the feedback seems to indicate that you need to make
a number of corrections and adjustments, then that is even more valuable information, and you can use it
to greatly improve the assignment for a much better final grade. In either case, accurate feedback is what
you really want most, and both outcomes are positive for you.
• Keep a gratitude and accomplishment journal. Again, the tendency to recall and overemphasize the
negative instances while ignoring or forgetting about the positive outcomes is the nature of negative
bias. Sometimes we need a little help remembering the positives, and we can prompt our memories by
keeping a journal. Just as in a diary, the idea is to keep a flowing record of the positive things that happen,
the lessons you learned from instances that were “less than successful,” and all accomplishments you
make toward learning. In your journal you can write or paste anything that you appreciated or that has
positive outcomes. Whenever you are not feeling up to a challenge or when negative bias is starting to
wear on you, you can look over your journal to remind yourself of previous accomplishments in the face
of adversity.
A N A L Y S I S Q U E S T I O N
Building the Foundation
In this section you read about three major factors that contribute to your motivation as a learner: grit
and perseverance, your own motivations for learning (UGT), and the pitfalls of negative bias. Now it is
time to do a little self-analysis and reflection.
Which of these three areas do you feel strongest in? Are you a person that naturally has grit, or do you
better understand your own motivations for learning (using UGT)? Do you struggle with negativity bias,
48 Chapter 2 Knowing Yourself as a Learner
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2.3 It’s All in the Mindset
Estimated completion time: 14 minutes.
Questions to consider:
• What is a growth mindset, and how does it affect my learning?
• What are performance goals versus learning goals?
In the previous sections of this chapter you have focused on a number of concepts and models about learning.
One of the things they all have in common is that they utilize different approaches to education by presenting
new ways to think about learning. In each of these, the common element has been a better understanding of
yourself as a learner and how to apply what you know about yourself to your own learning experience. If you
were to distill all that you have learned in this chapter so far down to a single factor, it would be about using
your mindset to your best advantage. In this next section, you will examine how all of this works in a broader
sense by learning about the significance of certain mindsets and how they can hinder or promote your own
learning efforts.
or is it something that you rarely have to deal with?
Determine in which of these areas you are strongest, and think about what things make you so strong. Is
it a positive attitude (you always see the glass as half full as opposed to half empty), or do you know
exactly why you are in college and exactly what you expect to learn?
After you have analyzed your strongest area, then do the same for the two weaker ones. What makes
you susceptible to challenges in these areas? Do you have a difficult time sticking with things or possibly
focus too much on the negative? Look back at the sections on your two weakest areas, and put together
a plan for overcoming them. For each one, choose a behavior you intend to change and think of some
way you will change it.
Chapter 2 Knowing Yourself as a Learner 49
Figure 2.7 Many fields of study and work create intersections of growth and fixed mindset. People may feel
great ability to grow and learn in some areas, like art and communication, but feel more limited in others, such
as planning and financials. Recognizing these intersections will help you approach new topics and tasks.
(Credit: mentatdgt / Pexels)
Performance vs. Learning Goals
As you have discovered in this chapter, much of our ability to learn is governed by our motivations and goals.
What has not yet been covered in detail has been how sometimes hidden goals or mindsets can impact the
learning process. In truth, we all have goals that we might not be fully aware of, or if we are aware of them, we
might not understand how they help or restrict our ability to learn. An illustration of this can be seen in a
comparison of a student that has performance-based goals with a student that has learning-based goals.
If you are a student with strict performance goals, your primary psychological concern might be to appear
intelligent to others. At first, this might not seem to be a bad thing for college, but it can truly limit your ability
to move forward in your own learning. Instead, you would tend to play it safe without even realizing it. For
example, a student who is strictly performance-goal-oriented will often only says things in a classroom
discussion when they think it will make them look knowledgeable to the instructor or their classmates. For
example, a performance-oriented student might ask a question that she knows is beyond the topic being
covered (e.g., asking about the economics of Japanese whaling while discussing the book Moby Dick in an
American literature course). Rarely will they ask a question in class because they actually do not understand a
concept. Instead they will ask questions that make them look intelligent to others or in an effort to “stump the
teacher.” When they do finally ask an honest question, it may be because they are more afraid that their lack
of understanding will result in a poor performance on an exam rather than simply wanting to learn.
If you are a student who is driven by learning goals, your interactions in classroom discussions are usually
quite different. You see the opportunity to share ideas and ask questions as a way to gain knowledge quickly.
In a classroom discussion you can ask for clarification immediately if you don’t quite understand what is being
discussed. If you are a person guided by learning goals, you are less worried about what others think since
you are there to learn and you see that as the most important goal.
Another example where the difference between the two mindsets is clear can be found in assignments and
other coursework. If you are a student who is more concerned about performance, you may avoid work that is
challenging. You will take the “easy A” route by relying on what you already know. You will not step out of your
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comfort zone because your psychological goals are based on approval of your performance instead of being
motivated by learning.
This is very different from a student with a learning-based psychology. If you are a student who is motivated
by learning goals, you may actively seek challenging assignments, and you will put a great deal of effort into
using the assignment to expand on what you already know. While getting a good grade is important to you,
what is even more important is the learning itself.
If you find that you sometimes lean toward performance-based goals, do not feel discouraged. Many of the
best students tend to initially focus on performance until they begin to see the ways it can restrict their
learning. The key to switching to learning-based goals is often simply a matter of first recognizing the
difference and seeing how making a change can positively impact your own learning.
What follows in this section is a more in-depth look at the difference between performance- and learning-
based goals. This is followed by an exercise that will give you the opportunity to identify, analyze, and
determine a positive course of action in a situation where you believe you could improve in this area.
W H A T S T U D E N T S S A Y
1. In the past, did you feel like you had control over your own learning?
a. No. Someone has always dictated how and what I learned.
b. Yes. I always look for ways to take control of what and how I learned.
c. I am uncertain. I never thought about it before.
2. Have you ever heard of learning styles or do you know your own learning style?
a. No. I have never heard of learning styles.
b. Yes. I have heard of learning styles and know my own.
c. Yes. I have heard of learning styles, but I don’t think they’re accurate or relate to me.
3. Which factors other than intelligence do you think have the greatest influence on learning?
a. Motivation
b. Perseverance
c. Understanding how I learn
d. Good teachers and support
You can also take the anonymous What Students Say (https://openstax.org/l/collegesurvey1-5) surveys
to add your voice to this textbook. Your responses will be included in updates.
Students offered their views on these questions, and the results are displayed in the graphs below.
In the past, did you feel like you had control over your own learning?
Chapter 2 Knowing Yourself as a Learner 51
https://openstax.org/l/collegesurvey1-5
Figure 2.8
Have you ever heard of learning styles or do you know your own learning style?
Figure 2.9
Which factors other than intelligence do you think have the greatest influence on learning?
Figure 2.10
52 Chapter 2 Knowing Yourself as a Learner
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Fixed vs. Growth Mindset
The research-based model of these two mindsets and their influence on learning was presented in 1988 by
Carol Dweck.[7] In Dr. Dweck’s work, she determined that a student’s perception about their own learning
accompanied by a broader goal of learning had a significant influence on their ability to overcome challenges
and grow in knowledge and ability. This has become known as the Fixed vs. Growth Mindset model. In this
model, the performance-goal-oriented student is represented by the fixed mindset, while the learning-goal-
oriented student is represented by the growth mindset.
In the following graphic, based on Dr. Dweck’s research, you can see how many of the components associated
with learning are impacted by these two mindsets.
7 Dweck, C.S. & Leggett, E.L. (1988). A Social-Cognitive Approach to Motivation and Personality
Chapter 2 Knowing Yourself as a Learner 53
Figure 2.11 The differences between fixed and growth mindset are clear when aligned to key elements of
learning and personality. (Credit: Based on work by Dr. Carol Dweck)
The Growth Mindset and Lessons About Failing
Something you may have noticed is that a growth mindset would tend to give a learner grit and persistence. If
you had learning as your major goal, you would normally keep trying to attain that goal even if it took you
multiple attempts. Not only that, but if you learned a little bit more with each try you would see each attempt
as a success, even if you had not achieved complete mastery of whatever it was you were working to learn.
With that in mind, it should come as no surprise that Dr. Dweck found that those people who believed their
abilities could change through learning (growth vs. a fixed mindset) readily accepted learning challenges and
persisted despite early failures.
54 Chapter 2 Knowing Yourself as a Learner
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Improving Your Ability to Learn
As strange as it may seem, research into fixed vs. growth mindsets has shown that if you believe you can learn
something new, you greatly improve your ability to learn. At first, this may seem like the sort of feel-good
advice we often encounter in social media posts or quotes that are intended to inspire or motivate us (e.g.,
believe in yourself!), but in looking at the differences outlined between a fixed and a growth mindset, you can
see how each part of the growth mindset path would increase your probability of success when it came to
learning.
Chapter 2 Knowing Yourself as a Learner 55
2.4 Learning Styles
Estimated completion time: 24 minutes.
Questions to consider:
• What are learning styles, and do they really work?
• How do I take advantage of learning styles in a way that works for me?
A C T I V I T Y
Very few people have a strict fixed or growth mindset all of the time. Often we tend to lean one way or
another in certain situations. For example, a person trying to improve their ability in a sport they enjoy
may exhibit all of the growth mindset traits and characteristics, but they find themselves blocked in a
fixed mindset when they try to learn something in another area like computer programming or
arithmetic.
In this exercise, do a little self-analysis and think of some areas where you may find yourself hindered by
a fixed mindset. Using the outline presented below, in the far right column, write down how you can
change your own behavior for each of the parts of the learning process. What will you do to move from a
fixed to a growth mindset? For example, say you were trying to learn to play a musical instrument. In the
Challenges row, you might pursue a growth path by trying to play increasingly more difficult songs rather
than sticking to the easy ones you have already mastered. In the Criticism row, you might take someone’s
comment about a weakness in timing as a motivation for you to practice with a metronome. For Success
of others you could take inspiration from a famous musician that is considered a master and study their
techniques.
Whatever it is that you decide you want to use for your analysis, apply each of the Growth characteristics
to determine a course of action to improve.
Parts of the learning
process
Growth characteristic What will you do to adopt a
growth mindset?
Challenges Embraces challenges
Obstacles Persists despite setbacks
Effort Sees effort as a path to success
Criticism Learns from criticism
Success of Others Finds learning and inspiration in the
success of others
Table 2.4
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• How can I combine learning styles for better outcomes?
• What opportunities and resources are available for students with disabilities?
Several decades ago, a new way of thinking about learning became very prominent in education. It was based
on the concept that each person has a preferred way to learn. It was thought that these preferences had to do
with each person’s natural tendencies toward one of their senses. The idea was that learning might be easier
if a student sought out content that was specifically oriented to their favored sense. For example, it was
thought that a student who preferred to learn visually would respond better to pictures and diagrams.
Over the years there were many variations on the basic idea, but one of the most popular theories was known
as the VAK model. VAK was an acronym for the three types of learning, each linked to one of the basic senses
thought to be used by students: visual, aural, and kinesthetic. What follows is an outline of each of these and
the preferred method.
• Visual: The student prefers pictures, images, and the graphic display of information to learn. An example
would be looking at an illustration that showed how to do something.
• Aural: The student prefers sound as a way to learn. Examples would be listening to a lecture or a podcast.
• Kinesthetic: The student prefers using their body, hands, and sense of touch. An example would be
doing something physical, such as examining an object rather than reading about it or looking at an
illustration.
The Truth about Learning Styles
In many ways these ideas about learning styles made some sense. Because of this, educators encouraged
students to find out about their own learning styles. They developed tests and other techniques to help
students determine which particular sense they preferred to use for learning, and in some cases learning
materials were produced in multiple ways that focused on each of the different senses. That way, each
individual learner could participate in learning activities that were tailored to their specific preferences.
While it initially seemed that dividing everyone by learning styles provided a leap forward in education,
continued research began to show that the fixation on this new model might not have been as effective as it
was once thought. In fact, in some cases, the way learning styles were actually being used created roadblocks
to learning. This was because the popularization of this new idea brought on a rush to use learning styles in
ways that failed to take into account several important aspects that are listed below:
• A person does not always prefer the same learning style all the time or for each situation. For example,
some learners might enjoy lectures during the day but prefer reading in the evenings. Or they may prefer
looking at diagrams when learning about mechanics but prefer reading for history topics.
• There are more preferences involved in learning than just the three that became popular. These other
preferences can become nearly impossible to make use of within certain styles. For example, some prefer
to learn in a more social environment that includes interaction with other learners. Reading can be
difficult or restrictive as a group effort. Recognized learning styles beyond the original three include:
social (preferring to learn as a part of group activity), solitary (preferring to learn alone or using self-
study), or logical (preferring to use logic, reasoning, etc.).
• Students that thought they were limited to a single preferred learning style found themselves convinced
that they could not do as well with content that was presented in a way that differed from their style.[8] For
example, a student that had identified as a visual learner might feel they were at a significant
disadvantage when listening to a lecture. Sometimes they even believed they had an even greater
8 Harold Pashler, Mark McDaniel, Doug Rohrer and Robert Bjork. Learning Styles: Concepts and Evidence. Psychological Science in the Public
Interest, Vol. 9, No. 3 (December 2008).
Chapter 2 Knowing Yourself as a Learner 57
impairment that prevented them from learning that way at all.
• Some forms of learning are extremely difficult in activities delivered in one style or another. Subjects like
computer programming would be almost impossible to learn using an aural learning style. And, while it is
possible to read about a subject such as how to swing a bat or how to do a medical procedure, actually
applying that knowledge in a learning environment is difficult if the subject is something that requires a
physical skill.
Knowing and Taking Advantage of Learning Styles in a Way That Works for You
The problem with relying on learning styles comes from thinking that just one defines your needs. Coupling
what you know about learning styles with what you know about UGT can make a difference in your own
learning. Rather than being constrained by a single learning style, or limiting your activities to a certain kind of
media, you may choose media that best fit your needs for what you are trying to learn at a particular time.
Following are a couple of ways you might combine your learning style preference with a given learning
situation:
• You are trying to learn how to build something but find the written instructions confusing so you watch a
video online that shows someone building the same thing.
• You have a long commute on the bus but reading while riding makes you dizzy. You choose an aural
solution by listening to pre-recorded podcasts or a mobile device that reads your texts out loud.
These examples show that by recognizing and understanding what different learning styles have to offer, you
can use the techniques that are best suited for you and that work best under the circumstances of the
moment. You may also find yourself using two learning styles at the same time – as when you watch a live
demonstration or video in which a person shows you how to do something while verbally explaining what you
are being shown. This helps to reinforce the learning as it utilizes different aspects of your thinking. Using
learning styles in an informed way can improve both the speed and the quality of your learning.
G E T C O N N E C T E D
Finding content related to a subject or topic can be relatively easy, but you must use caution and rely on
reputable sources. Relatively little of the material on the Web provides a way to ensure accuracy or
balance.
Below are descriptions of common informational sites with varying degrees of reliability:
• Khan Academy (https://www.khanacademy.org) : This site is full of useful tutorials and videos on a
wide range of subjects.
• Wikipedia (https://www.wikipedia.org) : Wikipedia is often frowned upon in some academic circles,
because review of its content takes place after publication, potentially resulting in inaccurate or
misleading information being available. But Wikipedia can provide a brief overview of a topic, and its
lists of references is often quite extensive. You probably shouldn’t rely Wikipedia as your only
source, but it can be useful.
• Government website:. Most items that governments administer are referenced on informational
websites. In the United States, these include educational statistics (https://nces.ed.gov) , economic
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https://www.khanacademy.org
https://www.wikipedia.org
https://nces.ed.gov
https://fred.stlouisfed.org
What about Students with Disabilities?
Students with disabilities are sometimes the most informed when it comes to making decisions about their
own learning. They should understand that it is in their best interest to take ownership of their own approach
to education, especially when it comes to leveraging resources and opportunities. In this section, you will learn
about the laws that regulate education for students with disabilities as well as look at some resources that are
available to them.
Just like anyone else, under the law, qualified students with disabilities are entitled to the same education
colleges and universities provide to students without disabilities. Even though a particular disability may make
attending college more difficult, awareness on the part of the government, learning institutions, and the
students themselves has brought about a great deal of change over the years. Now, students with disabilities
find that they have available appropriate student services, campus accessibility, and academic resources that
can make school attendance and academic success possible.
Due to this increased support and advocacy, colleges have seen an increase of students with disabilities.
data (https://fred.stlouisfed.org) , health information (https://www.nih.gov) , and many other topics.
When choosing alternate content, it is imperative to compare it to the content that is being provided to
you as a part of your course. If the alternate content does not line up, you should view it with a healthy
skepticism. In those cases, it is always a good idea to share the content with your instructor and ask their
opinion.
A C T I V I T Y
In this activity you will try an experiment by combining learning styles to see if it is something that works
for you. The experiment will test the example of combining reading/writing and aural learning styles for
better memorization.
To begin, you will start with a short segment of numbers. You will read the numbers only one time
without saying them aloud. When you are finished, wait 10 seconds and try to remember the numbers in
sequence by writing them down.
67914528
After you have finished you will repeat the experiment with a new set of numbers, but this time you will
read them aloud, wait 10 seconds, and then see how easy they are to remember. During this part of the
experiment you are free to say the numbers in any way you like. For example, the number 8734 could be
read as eight-seven-three-four, eighty-seven thirty-four, or any combination you would like.
10387264
Did you find that there was a difference in your ability to memorize a short sequence of numbers for 10
seconds? Even if you were able to remember both, was the example that combined learning styles
easier? What about if you had to wait for a full minute before attempting to rewrite the numbers? Would
that make a difference?
Chapter 2 Knowing Yourself as a Learner 59
https://fred.stlouisfed.org
https://www.nih.gov
According to the National Center for Education Statistics, in 2012, 11.1 percent of the total undergraduate
population in the United States was made up of people with disabilities.[9]
The Legal Rights of Students with Disabilities
Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 protects students “with a physical or mental impairment which
substantially limits one or more major life activities.”[10] Learning definitely falls within the definition of major
life activities.
In addition to Section 504, another set of laws that greatly help learners with disabilities is the Americans with
Disabilities Act of 1990 (also known as ADA). Both of these acts have been driving forces in making certain that
students with disabilities have equal access to higher education, and they have been instrumental in helping
educators looking for new ways and resources to provide services that do just that.
What follows is a list of services that schools commonly provide to help students with disabilities. These are
often referred to as ADA accommodations and are named after the American with Disabilities Act:
• Recordings of class lectures or lecture transcription by in-class note takers
• Text readers or other technologies that can deliver content in another format
• Test or assessment accommodations
• Interpreter services and Braille transcriptions
• Physical access accommodations
• Accommodations of time and due dates
Most colleges will have policies and staff that are designated to help arrange for these types of
accommodations. They are often found within the Department of Student Services or in related departments
within your college campus. If you are a student with disabilities protected under these acts, it is in your best
interest to contact the person responsible for ADA accommodations at your school. Even if you decide that you
do not need accommodations, it is a good idea to find out about any services and policies the school has in
place.
Organizations
In addition to the accommodations that schools commonly provide, there are also a number of national and
local organizations that can provide assistance and advice when it comes to being a student with a disability. If
you fit into this category, it is recommended that you make contact with one or more of these organizations in
order to find out how they can help. These can be tremendously beneficial resources that offer everything
from information and support to simple social connections that can make pursuing a formal education easier.
2.5 Personality Types and Learning
Estimated completion time: 19 minutes.
Questions to consider:
• Is there any connection between personality types and learning?
9 U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2019). Digest of Education Statistics, 2017 (2018-070), Chapter 3.
10 U.S. Department of Education. Protecting Students with Disabilities: Frequently Asked Questions. https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/
ocr/504faq.html
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• Can the Myers-Briggs test be used to identify personality traits and learning styles?
• Is there a real correlation between personality styles and learning?
• What is the impact on learning with work that you enjoy?
Much like learning styles, there have been a number of theories surrounding the idea that different
personality types may prefer different kinds of learning. Again, this builds on the original learning style
concept that people may have a single preference toward how they learn, and then adds to it that certain
personality traits may determine which learning style a person prefers.
Since it has already been determined that learning styles are more effective when selected for the subject
being learned rather than the sensory preference of the learner, it might seem foolish to revisit another
learning style theory. But, in this case, understanding how personality traits and learning styles are
categorized can be useful in making decisions and choices for your own learning activities. In other words, we
won’t dismiss the theory out of hand without first seeing if there is anything useful in it.
One part of this theory that can be useful is the identification of personality traits that affect your motivation,
emotions, and interests toward learning. You have already read a great deal about how these internal
characteristics can influence your learning. What knowing about personality traits and learning can do for you
is to help you be aware and informed about how these affect you so you can deal with them directly.
Myers-Briggs: Identifying Personality Traits and Styles
The Myers-Briggs system is one of the most popular personality tests, and it is relatively well known. It has
seen a great deal of use in the business world with testing seminars and presentations on group dynamics. In
fact, it is so popular that you may already be familiar with it and may have taken a test yourself to find out
which of the 16 personality types you most favor.
The basic concept of Myers-Briggs is that there are four main traits. These traits are represented by two
opposites, seen in the table below.
Extroverted (E) vs. Introverted (I)
Intuition (N) vs. Sensing (S)
Feeling (F) vs. Thinking (T)
Judging (J) vs. Perceiving (P)
Table 2.5
It is thought that people generally exhibit one trait or the other in each of these categories, or that they fall
along a spectrum between the two opposites. For example, an individual might exhibit both Feeling and
Thinking personality traits, but they will favor one more than the other.
Also note that with each of these traits there is a letter in parentheses. The letter is used to represent the
specific traits when they are combined to define a personality type (e.g., Extrovert is E and Introvert is I,
Intuition is N, etc.). To better understand these, each is briefly explained.
Extroverted (E) vs. Introverted (I): In the Myers-Briggs system, the traits of Extroverted and Introverted are
somewhat different from the more common interpretations of the two words. The definition is more about an
Chapter 2 Knowing Yourself as a Learner 61
individual’s attitude, interests, and motivation. The extrovert is primarily motivated by the outside world and
social interaction, while the introvert is often more motivated by things that are internal to them—things like
their own interests.
Intuition (N) vs. Sensing (S): This personality trait is classified as a preference toward one way of perceiving or
another. It is concerned with how people tend to arrive at conclusions. A person on the intuitive end of the
spectrum often perceives things in broader categories. A part of their process for “knowing things” is internal
and is often described as having a hunch or a gut feeling. This is opposed to the preferred method of a sensing
person, who often looks to direct observation as a means of perception. They prefer to arrive at a conclusion
by details and facts, or by testing something with their senses.
Feeling (F) vs. Thinking (T): This trait is considered a decision-making process over the information gathered
through the perception (N versus S). People that find themselves more on the Feeling end of the spectrum
tend to respond based on their feelings and empathy. Examples of this would be conclusions about what is
good versus bad or right versus wrong based on how they feel things should be. The Thinking person, on the
other hand, arrives at opinions based on reason and logic. For them, feeling has little to do with it.
Judging (J) vs. Perceiving (P): This category can be thought of as a personal preference for using either the
Feeling versus Thinking (decision-making) or the Intuition versus Sensing (perceiving) when forming opinions
about the outside world. A person that leans toward the Judging side of the spectrum approaches things in a
structured way—usually using Sensing and Thinking traits. The Perceiving person often thinks of structure as
somewhat inhibiting. They tend to make more use of Intuition and Feeling in their approach to life.
The Impact of Personality Styles on Learning
To find out their own personality traits and learning styles, a person takes an approved Myers-Briggs test,
which consists of a series of questions that help pinpoint their preferences. These preferences are then
arranged in order to build a profile using each of the four categories.
For example, a person that answered questions in a way that favored Extroverted tendencies along with a
preference toward Sensing, Thinking, and Judging would be designated as ESTJ personality type. Another
person that tended more toward answers that aligned with Intuitive traits than Sensing traits would fall into
the ENTJ category.
ESTJ ISTJ ENTJ INTJ
ESTP ISTP ENTP INTP
ESFJ ISFJ ENFJ INFJ
ESFP ISFP ENFP INFP
Table 2.6 Personality Types
As with other learning style models, Myers-Briggs has received a good deal of criticism based on the artificial
restrictions and impairments it tends to suggest. Additionally, the claim that each person has a permanent and
unwavering preference towards personality traits and learning styles has not turned out to be as concrete as it
was once thought. This has been demonstrated by people taking tests like the Myers-Briggs a few weeks apart
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and getting different results based on their personal preferences at that time.
What this means is that, just as with the VAK and other learning style models, you should not constrain your
own learning activities based on a predetermined model. Neither should you think of yourself as being limited
to one set of preferences. Instead, different types of learning and different preferences can better fit your
needs at different times. This and how to best apply the idea of personality types influencing learning styles is
explained in the next section.
How to Use Personality Type Learning Styles
To recap, personality tests such as the Myers-Briggs can provide a great deal of insight into personal choices
toward learning. Unfortunately, many people interpret them as being something that defines them as both a
person and a learner. They tell themselves things like “I am an ESTJ, so I am only at my best when I learn a
certain way” or “I rely on intuition, so a science course is not for me!” They limit themselves instead of
understanding that while they may have particular preferences under a given situation, all of the different
categories are open to them and can be put to good use.
What is important to know is that these sorts of models can serve you better as a way to think about learning.
They can help you make decisions about how you will go about learning in a way that best suits your needs
and goals for that particular task. As an example of how to do this, what follows are several different
approaches to learning about the play Julius Caesar by William Shakespeare. In each case, Myers-Briggs
categories are used to define what sort of activities would help you meet your desired learning goals.
• Your assignment is to read Julius Caesar as a work of English literature. Your learning goal is not just to
read the play, but to be able to compare it to other, more modern works of literature. To do that, it would
be beneficial to use a more introverted approach so that you can think about the influences that may have
affected each author. You might also want to focus on a thinking learning style when examining and
comparing the use of words and language in the 17th-century piece to more modern writing styles.
• Your use of learning style approaches would be very different if you were assigned to actually perform a
scene from Julius Caesar as a part of a class. In this case, it would be better for you to rely on an
extroverted attitude since you will be more concerned with audience reaction than your own inner
thoughts about the work. And since one of your goals would be to create a believable character for the
audience, you would want to base decisions on the gestures you might make during the performance
through feeling so that you have empathy with the character and are convincing in your portrayal.
• A third, completely different assignment, such as examining the play Julius Caesar as a political
commentary on English society during the reign of Queen Elizabeth, would have very different goals and
therefore should be approached using different learning styles. In this example, you might want to begin
by using a sensing approach to gather facts about what was happening politically in that time period and
then switch to intuition for insight into the motivations of Shakespeare and the attitudes of his audience in
England at that time.
As you can see in the examples above, the choices about each of the different approaches can be entirely
dictated by what you will be doing with the learning. Because of this, being aware of the personality type
learning styles you have available to you can make a tremendous difference in both how you go about it and
your success.
Chapter 2 Knowing Yourself as a Learner 63
The Impact of Work You Enjoy
For a final word on personality types and learning styles, there is no denying that there are going to be
different approaches you enjoy more than others. While you do have the ability to use each of the different
approaches to meet the goals of your learning activities, some will come more easily for you in certain
situations and some will be more pleasurable. As most people do, you will probably find that your work is
actually better when you are doing things you like to do. Because of this, it is to your advantage to recognize
your preferred methods of learning and to make use of them whenever possible. As discussed elsewhere in
this book, in college you will often have opportunities to make decisions about the assignments you complete.
In many instances, your instructor may allow for some creativity in what you do and in the finished product.
When those opportunities arise, you have everything to gain by taking a path that will allow you to employ
preferences you enjoy most. An example of this might be an assignment that requires you to give a
presentation on a novel you read for class. In such a case, you might have the freedom to focus your
presentation on something that interests you more and better aligns with how you like to learn. It might be
more enjoyable for you to present a study on each of the characters in the book and how they relate to each
other, or you might be more interested in doing a presentation on the historical accuracy of the book and the
background research the author put into writing it.
Whatever the case, discuss your ideas with your instructor to make certain they will both meet the criteria of
the assignment and fulfill the learning goals of the activity. There is a great potential for benefit in talking with
your instructors when you have ideas about how you can personalize assignments or explore areas of the
subject that interest you. In fact, it is a great practice to ask your instructors for guidance and
recommendations and, above all, to demonstrate to them that you are taking a direct interest in your own
learning. There is never any downside to talking with your instructors about your learning.
A N A L Y S I S Q U E S T I O N
To find out more about personality types and learning styles, you can take an online personality test to
experience it yourself. Several companies charge for this service, but there are a few that offer tests
online for free. Click here for one such free online personality test. (https://openstax.org/l/jungtypology)
Again, keep in mind that your results can change under different circumstances, but doing it for the first
time will give you a place to start.
Afterwards you can click here to read more about the connections between personality and learning
styles. (https://openstax.org/l/learningstyles) There you can look up the results from your personality
test and see how much you think it aligns with your learning style preferences. Again, this exercise is not
to determine your ultimate learning style, but it is to give you a deeper understanding of what is behind
the concept of connecting personality types to learning.
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https://openstax.org/l/jungtypology
https://openstax.org/l/learningstyles
https://openstax.org/l/learningstyles
2.6 Applying What You Know about Learning
Estimated completion time: 17 minutes.
Questions to consider:
• How can I apply what I now know to learning?
• How can I make decisions about my own learning?
• Will doing so be different from what I have experienced before?
Another useful part of being an informed learner is recognizing that as a college student you will have many
choices when it comes to learning. Looking back at the Uses and Gratification model, you’ll discover that your
motivations as well as your choices in how you interact with learning activities can make a significant
difference in not only what you learn, but how you learn. By being aware of a few learning theories, students
can take initiative and tailor their own learning so that it best benefits them and meets their main needs.
Making Decisions about Your Own Learning
As a learner, the kinds of materials, study activities, and assignments that work best for you will derive from
your own experiences and needs (needs that are both short-term as well as those that fulfill long-term goals).
In order to make your learning better suited to meet these needs, you can use the knowledge you have gained
about UGT and other learning theories to make decisions concerning your own learning. These decisions can
include personal choices in learning materials, how and when you study, and most importantly, taking
ownership of your learning activities as an active participant and decision maker. In fact, one of the main
principles emphasized in this chapter is that students not only benefit from being involved in planning their
instruction, but learners also gain by continually evaluating the actual success of that instruction. In other
words: Does this work for me? Am I learning what I need to by doing it this way?
While it may not always be possible to control every component of your learning over an entire degree
program, you can take every opportunity to influence learning activities so they work to your best advantage.
What follows are several examples of how this can be done by making decisions about your learning activities
based on what you have already learned in this chapter.
“My seating choice significantly affects my learning. Sitting at a desk where the professor’s voice can be
heard clearly helps me better understand the subject; and ensuring I have a clear view helps me take
notes. Therefore, sitting in the front of the classroom should be a “go to” strategy while attending
college. It will keep you focused and attentive throughout the lecture. Also, sitting towards the front of
the classroom limits the tendency to be on check my phone.”
—Luis Angel Ochoa, Westchester Community College
S T U D E N T P R O F I L E
Chapter 2 Knowing Yourself as a Learner 65
Make Mistakes Safe
Create an environment for yourself where mistakes are safe and mistakes are expected as just another part of
learning. This practice ties back to the principles you learned in the section on grit and persistence. The key is
to allow yourself the opportunity to make mistakes and learn from them before they become a part of your
grades. You can do this by creating your own learning activities that you design to do just that. An example of
this might be taking practice quizzes on your own, outside of the more formal course activities. The quizzes
could be something you find in your textbook, something you find online, or something that you develop with
a partner. In the latter case you would arrange with a classmate for each of you to produce a quiz and then
exchange them. That particular exercise would serve double learning duty, since to create a good quiz you
would need to learn the main concepts of the subject, and answering the questions on your partner’s quiz
might help you identify areas where you need more knowledge.
The main idea with this sort of practice is that you are creating a safe environment where you can make
mistakes and learn from them before those mistakes can negatively impact your success in the course. Better
to make mistakes on a practice run than on any kind of assignment or exam that can heavily influence your
final grade in a course.
Make Everything Problem Centered
When working through a learning activity, the practical act of problem-solving is a good strategy. Problem-
solving, as an approach, can give a learning activity more meaning and motivation for you, as a learner.
Whenever possible it is to your advantage to turn an assignment or learning task into a problem you are trying
to solve or something you are trying to accomplish.
In essence, you do this by deciding on some purpose for the assignment (other than just completing the
assignment itself). An example of this would be taking the classic college term paper and writing it in a way
that solves a problem you are already interested in.
Typically, many students treat a term paper as a collection of requirements that must be fulfilled—the paper
must be on a certain topic; it should include an introduction section, a body, a closing, and a bibliography; it
should be so many pages long, etc. With this approach, the student is simply completing a checklist of
attributes and components dictated by the instructor, but other than that, there is no reason for the paper to
exist.
Instead, writing it to solve a problem gives the paper purpose and meaning. For example, if you were to write
a paper with the purpose of informing the reader about a topic they knew little about, that purpose would
influence not only how you wrote the paper but would also help you make decisions on what information to
include. It would also influence how you would structure information in the paper so that the reader might
best learn what you were teaching them. Another example would be to write a paper to persuade the reader
about a certain opinion or way of looking at things. In other words, your paper now has a purpose rather than
just reporting facts on the subject. Obviously, you would still meet the format requirements of the paper, such
as number of pages and inclusion of a bibliography, but now you do that in a way that helps to solve your
problem.
Make It Occupation Related
Much like making assignments problem centered, you will also do well when your learning activities have
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meaning for your profession or major area of study. This can take the form of simply understanding how the
things you are learning are important to your occupation, or it can include the decision to do assignments in a
way that can be directly applied to your career. If an exercise seems pointless and possibly unrelated to your
long-term goals, you will be much less motivated by the learning activity.
An example of understanding how a specific school topic impacts your occupation future would be that of a
nursing student in an algebra course. At first, algebra might seem unrelated to the field of nursing, but if the
nursing student recognizes that drug dosage calculations are critical to patient safety and that algebra can
help them in that area, there is a much stronger motivation to learn the subject.
In the case of making a decision to apply assignments directly to your field, you can look for ways to use
learning activities to build upon other areas or emulate tasks that would be required in your profession.
Examples of this might be a communication student giving a presentation in a speech course on how the
Internet has changed corporate advertising strategies, or an accounting student doing statistics research for
an environmental studies course. Whenever possible, it is even better to use assignments to produce things
that are much like what you will be doing in your chosen career. An example of this would be a graphic design
student taking the opportunity to create an infographic or other supporting visual elements as a part of an
assignment for another course. In cases where this is possible, it is always best to discuss your ideas with your
instructor to make certain what you intend will still meet the requirements of the assignment.
Managing Your Time
One of the most common traits of college students is the constraint on their time. As adults, we do not always
have the luxury of attending school without other demands on our time. Because of this, we must become
efficient with our use of time, and it is important that we maximize our learning activities to be most effective.
In fact, time management is so important that there is an entire chapter in this text dedicated to it. When you
can, refer to that chapter to learn more about time management concepts and techniques that can be very
useful.
Instructors as Learning Partners
In K-12 education, the instructor often has the dual role of both teacher and authority figure for students.
Children come to expect their teachers to tell them what to do, how to do it, and when to do it. College
learners, on the other hand, seem to work better when they begin to think of their instructors as respected
experts that are partners in their education. The change in the relationship for you as a learner accomplishes
several things: it gives you ownership and decision-making ability in your own learning, and it enables you to
personalize your learning experience to best fit your own needs. For the instructor, it gives them the
opportunity to help you meet your own needs and expectations in a rich experience, rather than focusing all of
their time on trying to get information to you.
The way to develop learning partnerships is through direct communication with your instructors. If there is
something you do not understand or need to know more about, go directly to them. When you have ideas
about how you can personalize assignments or explore areas of the subject that interest you or better fit your
needs, ask them about it. Ask your instructors for guidance and recommendations, and above all, demonstrate
to them that you are taking a direct interest in your own learning. Most instructors are thrilled when they
encounter students that want to take ownership of their own learning, and they will gladly become a
resourceful guide for you.
Chapter 2 Knowing Yourself as a Learner 67
A P P L I C A T I O N
Applying What You Know about Learning to What You Are Doing: In this activity, you will work with
an upcoming assignment from one of your courses—preferably something you might be dreading or are
at least less than enthusiastic about working on. You will see if there is anything you can apply to the
assignment from what you know about learning that might make it more interesting.
In the table below are several attributes that college students generally prefer in their learning activities,
listed in the far left column. As you think about your assignment, consider whether or not it already
possesses the attribute. If it does, go on to the next row. If it does not, see if there is some way you can
approach the assignment so that it does follow preferred learning attributes; write that down in the last
column, to the far right.
Does it …? Yes No What you can do to turn the assignment into something that is
better suited to you as a learner?
Does it allow you
to make decisions
about your own
learning?
In essence, you are doing this right now. You are making decisions
on how you can make your assignment more effective for you.
Does it allow you
to make mistakes
without adversely
affecting your
grade?
Hints: Are there ways for you to practice? Can you create a series of
drafts for the assignment and get feedback?
Is it centered on
solving a problem?
Hint: Can you turn the assignment into something that solves a
problem? An example would be making a presentation that actually
educated others rather than just covered what you may have learned.
Is it related to your
chosen occupation
in any way?
Hint: Can you turn the assignment into something you might actually
do as a part of your profession or make it about your profession?
Examples might be creating an informative poster for the workplace or
writing a paper on new trends in your profession.
Does it allow you
to manage the
time you work on
it?
More than likely the answer here will be “yes,” but you can plan how
you will do it. For more information on this, see the chapter on time
management.
Table 2.7
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2.7 The Hidden Curriculum
Estimated completion time: 7 minutes.
Questions to consider:
• What is the hidden or invisible curriculum?
• How can I work within the hidden curriculum to prevent negative results?
The hidden curriculum is a phrase used to cover a wide variety of circumstances at school that can influence
learning and affect your experience. Sometimes called the invisible curriculum, it varies by institution and can
be thought of as a set of unwritten rules or expectations.
Situation: According to your syllabus, your history professor is lecturing on the chapter that covers the stock
market crash of 1929 on Tuesday of next week.
Sounds pretty straightforward and common. Your professor lectures on a topic and you will be there to hear it.
However, there are some unwritten rules, or hidden curriculum, that are not likely to be communicated. Can
you guess what they may be?
• What is an unwritten rule about what you should be doing before attending class?
• What is an unwritten rule about what you should be doing in class?
• What is an unwritten rule about what you should be doing after class?
• What is an unwritten rule if you are not able to attend that class?
Some of your answers could have included the following:
Before
class:
read the assigned chapter, take notes, record any questions you have about the reading
During
class:
take detailed notes, ask critical thinking or clarifying questions, avoid distractions, bring your book
and your reading notes
Table 2.8
Does it …? Yes No What you can do to turn the assignment into something that is
better suited to you as a learner?
Does it allow
interaction with
your instructor as
a learning
partner?
Hint: Talking to your instructor about the ideas you have for making
this assignment more personalized accomplishes this exact thing.
Table 2.7
Chapter 2 Knowing Yourself as a Learner 69
After
class:
reorganize your notes in relation to your other notes, start the studying process by testing yourself on
the material, make an appointment with your professor if you are not clear on a concept
Absent: communicate with the professor, get notes from a classmate, make sure you did not miss anything
important in your notes
Table 2.8
The expectations before, during, and after class, as well as what you should do if you miss class, are often
unspoken because many professors assume you already know and do these things or because they feel you
should figure them out on your own. Nonetheless, some students struggle at first because they don’t know
about these habits, behaviors, and strategies. But once they learn them, they are able to meet them with ease.
While the previous example may seem obvious once they’ve been pointed out, most instances of the invisible
curriculum are complex and require a bit of critical thinking to uncover. What follows are some common but
often overlooked examples of this invisible curriculum.
One example of a hidden curriculum could be found in the beliefs of your professor. Some professors may
refuse to reveal their personal beliefs to avoid your writing toward their bias rather than presenting a cogent
argument of your own. Other professors may be outspoken about their beliefs to force you to consider and
possibly defend your own position. As a result, you may be influenced by those opinions which can then
influence your learning, but not as an official part of your study.
Other examples of how this hidden curriculum might not always be so easily identified can be found in
classroom arrangements or even scheduling. To better understand this, imagine two different classes on the
exact same subject and taught by the same instructor. One class is held in a large lecture hall and has over 100
students in it, while the other meets in a small classroom and has fewer than 20 students. In the smaller class,
there is time for all of the students to participate in discussions as a learning activity, and they receive the
benefit of being able to talk about their ideas and the lessons through direct interaction with each other and
the professor. In the larger class, there is simply not enough time for all 100 students to each discuss their
thoughts. On the flip side, most professors who teach lecture classes use technology to give them constant
feedback on how well students understand a given subject. If the data suggests more time should be spent,
these professors discover this in real time and can adapt the class accordingly.
Another instance where class circumstances might heavily influence student learning could be found in the
class schedule. If the class was scheduled to meet on Mondays and Wednesdays and the due date for
assignments was always on Monday, those students would benefit from having the weekend to finalize their
work before handing it in. If the class met on a different day, students might not have as much free time just
before handing in the assignment. The obvious solution would be better planning and time management to
complete assignments in advance of due dates, but nonetheless, conditions caused by scheduling may still
impact student learning.
Working Within the Hidden Curriculum
The first step in dealing with the hidden curriculum is to recognize it and understand how it can influence your
learning. After any specific situation has been identified, the next step is to figure out how to work around the
circumstances to either take advantage of any benefits or to remove any roadblocks.
To illustrate this, here are some possible solutions to the situations given as examples earlier in this section:
70 Chapter 2 Knowing Yourself as a Learner
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Prevailing Opinions—Simply put, you are going to encounter instructors and learning activities that you
sometimes agree with and sometimes do not. The key is to learn from them regardless. In either case, take
ownership of your learning and even make an effort to learn about other perspectives, even if it is only for
your own education on the matter. There is no better time to expose yourself to other opinions and
philosophies than in college. In fact, many would say that this is a significant part of the college experience.
With a growth mindset, it is easy to view everything as a learning opportunity.
Classroom Circumstances—These kinds of circumstances often require a more structured approach to turn
the situation to your advantage, but they also usually have the most obvious solutions. In the example of the
large class, you might find yourself limited in the ability to participate in classroom discussions because of so
many other students. The way around that would be to speak to several classmates and create your own
discussion group. You could set up a time to meet, or you could take a different route by using technology
such as an online discussion board, a Skype session, or even a group text. Several of the technologically based
solutions might even be better than an in-class discussion since you do not all have to be present at the same
time. The discussion can be something that occurs all week long, giving everyone the time to think through
their ideas and responses.
Again, the main point is to first spot those things in the hidden curriculum that might put your learning at a
disadvantage and devise a solution that either reduces the negative impact or even becomes a learning
advantage.
Summary
The purpose of this chapter is to help make you a motivated learner and empower you to make informed
choices about your own learning. Throughout the chapter, you were introduced to ideas, research, and
popular models on learning and given examples of how to use each of these as an effective part of your own
learning experience.
Most importantly, you were able to explore how things like motivation, grit, and mindset are the most
influential aspects of successful learning.
Career Connection
Watch this TEDx video (https://openstax.org/l/learningstyles_tedx) on learning styles and the importance of
critical thinking. After you have watched the video, consider some of the reflective points below.
The concept of personalized learning styles has been popular for almost half a century. Given the information
presented in this video, why do you think people are attracted to the idea of personal learning styles even
though evidence shows they do not actually exist?
If you were going to devise an experiment to prove or disprove the idea of personalized learning styles, what
would you do?
Rethinking
Chapter 2 Knowing Yourself as a Learner 71
https://openstax.org/l/learningstyles_tedx
Recall the four statements that you evaluated at the beginning of this chapter (see below). Have you changed
your mind about any of them, or do you intend to work on changing any of them? If you answered no to either
or both, why do you feel no change is needed?
1. Learning for me is easy. I don’t even have to think about it.
2. I have a preferred learning style.
3. If I can’t learn something right away, I have difficulty staying with it.
4. I think my teachers are the most significant aspect of my learning.
Where do you go from here?
Learning about how we learn allows us to make informed decisions about our own learning activities. This
chapter covered a number of concepts, and more than likely a few may have sparked a deeper interest in you.
Hopefully these will be things you will choose to explore further. If you would like to learn more, choose from
any of the topics covered in this chapter or from those in the list below.
1. More details about the growth mindset
2. Additional strategies for overcoming negative bias
3. The influence of grit as a personal trait
4. Uses and Gratification model as a structure for understanding our daily decisions
72 Chapter 2 Knowing Yourself as a Learner
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Chapter Outline
3.1 The Benefits of Time Management
3.2 Time Management in College
3.3 Procrastination: The Enemy Within
3.4 How to Manage Time
3.5 Prioritization: Self-Management of What You Do and When You Do It
3.6 Goal Setting and Motivation
3.7 Enhanced Strategies for Time and Task Management
Introduction
Student Survey
How do you feel about your time management abilities? Take this quick survey to figure it out, ranking
questions on a scale of 1–4, 1 meaning “least like me” and 4 meaning “most like me.” These questions will
help you determine how the chapter concepts relate to you right now. As you are introduced to new concepts
and practices, it can be informative to reflect on how your understanding changes over time. We’ll revisit these
questions at the end of the chapter to see whether your feelings have changed.
1. I regularly procrastinate completing tasks that don’t interest me or seem challenging.
2. I use specific time management strategies to complete tasks.
3. I find it difficult to prioritize tasks because I am not sure what is really important.
4. I am pleased with my ability to manage my time.
You can also take the Chapter 3 survey (https://openstax.org/l/collegesurvey03) anonymously online.
Figure 3.1 Our devices can be helpful tools for managing time, but they can also lead to distraction.
3
Managing Your Time and Priorities
https://openstax.org/l/collegesurvey03
About This Chapter
In this chapter you will learn about two of the most valuable tools used for academic success: prioritizing and
time management. By the time you complete this chapter, you should be able to do the following:
• Articulate the ways in which time management differs from high school to college.
• Outline reasons and effects of procrastination, and provide strategies to overcome it.
• Describe ways to evaluate your own time management skills.
• Discuss the importance and the process of prioritization.
• Articulate the importance of goal setting and motivation.
• Detail strategies and specific tactics for managing your time.
3.1 The Benefits of Time Management
Estimated completion time: 9 minutes.
“Poor time management can set into motion a series of events that can seriously jeopardize a
student’s success.”
A very unfortunate but all-too-common situation in higher education is the danger students face from poor
time management. Many college administrators that work directly with students are aware that a single
mishap or a case of poor time management can set into motion a series of events that can seriously jeopardize
a student’s success. In some of the more extreme instances, the student may even fail to graduate because of
it.
To better understand how one instance of poor time management can trigger a cascading situation with
“Before I started college, I had heard that the amount of work would be overwhelming, and that it would
be much harder than high school. That was true, but after being in college for a couple of weeks, I felt
that people made it seem scarier than it actually was. I had some homework assignments here, some
essays, some hard classes, but it wasn’t that bad..until Midterms and Finals came knocking. I had so
much to study and so little time. The pressure was unimaginable. And since there was so much material
to learn, I kept procrastinating. The nights before the exams were a disaster.
“After the semester, I realized that I needed to do something differently. Instead of crashing before
midterms and finals, I would study throughout the semester. I would review notes after class, do a few
practice problems in the book even if homework wasn’t assigned, and try to ask professors questions
during their office hours if I was confused. This continual effort helped me do better on exams because I
built up my understanding and was able to get a good night’s sleep before the big test. I still studied
hard, but the material was in reach and understanding it became a reasonable goal, not an impossibility.
I also felt more confident going into the exams, because I knew that I had a deeper knowledge — I could
recall things more easily. Most importantly, I now had peace of mind throughout the day and during the
tests themselves, since I knew that I was better prepared.”
—Nachum Sash, Actuarial Science Major, City University of New York
S T U D E N T P R O F I L E
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disastrous results, imagine that a student has an assignment due in a business class. She knows that she
should be working on it, but she isn’t quite in the mood. Instead she convinces herself that she should think a
little more about what she needs to complete the assignment and decides to do so while looking at social
media or maybe playing a couple more rounds of a game on her phone. In a little while, she suddenly realizes
that she has become distracted and the evening has slipped away. She has little time left to work on her
assignment. She stays up later than usual trying to complete the assignment but cannot finish it. Exhausted,
she decides that she will work on it in the morning during the hour she had planned to study for her math
quiz. She knows there will not be enough time in the morning to do a good job on the assignment, so she
decides that she will put together what she has and hope she will at least receive a passing grade.
At this point in our story, an evening of procrastination has not only resulted in a poorly done business class
assignment, but now she is going to take a math quiz that she has not studied for. She will take the quiz tired
from staying up too late the night before. Her lack of time management has now raised potential issues in two
courses. Imagine that each of these issues also causes additional problems, such as earning low scores on
both the assignment and the quiz. She will now have to work harder in both courses to bring her grades up.
Any other problems she has with future assignments in either course could cause a domino effect of
circumstances that begins to overwhelm her.
In our imagined situation, you can see how events set into motion by a little procrastination can quickly spiral
out of control. You can probably think of similar experiences in your own life, when one small bit of poor time
management set off a chain of events that threatened to cause big problems.
The High Cost of Poor Time Management
It’s not just your academic performance that can be affected by cascading events that have a domino effect on
your college path. And dropping out of school is not your only danger. There are other consequences that
affect the financial cost to you as a student if your lack of time management skills causes you to delay when
you finish college.
Based on independent research, a Washington Post article details the financial impact delaying graduation by
two semesters can have on a student.[1] (Spending a Few Extra Years in College May Cost You More Than You
Think, Danielle Douglas-Gabriel, June 21, 2016)
According to the article, there is a significant cost associated with delaying graduation from college by only
one year (by dropping and retaking courses, taking less than a full credit load, etc.). Not only will you pay for
additional tuition, textbooks, and other fees associated with going to school, but if you are using student
loans, you will also accumulate interest on those loans. On average this would come to an extra $12,557 in
actual costs and $6,040 in interest at a public university, or $18,992 in tuition and fees and $7,823 in interest
(over 10 years) at a private school. That’s a lot of extra cost to you!
“In the long run, just two extra semesters of college can cost you almost $150,000.”
While a loss of $26,815 may seem like a lot of money, it pales in comparison to the other financial areas
impacted by a single extra year in school. The Washington Post article estimates that one year’s delay of
graduation would cost you an additional $46,355 based on average lost earnings. To make matters worse, like
the story of the student that procrastinates finishing her business assignment, there is a spiraling effect that
takes place with loss of income when it comes to retirement investments. The figure cited by the Washington
1 https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/grade-point/wp/2016/06/21/spending-a-few-extra-years-in-college-may-cost-you-more-than-you-
think/?noredirect=on&utm_term=.f06be365e5d6
Chapter 3 Managing Your Time and Priorities 75
Post as lost retirement earnings for taking five years instead of four years to graduate is $82,074. That brings
the average total cost for only two extra semesters to over $150,000. Measured by the financial cost to you,
even a slight delay of graduation can have a serious impact.
Average Cost of an Additional Year of College
Tuition, textbooks, and fees $15,774
Interest on student loans $6,932
Lost wages $46,335
Lost retirement earnings $82,074
Average total loss: $151,115
Table 3.1 Credit: Washington Post. Note the numbers in the table above have been averaged between the two
scenarios described.
It is worth noting that any situation that brings about a delay in graduation has the potential to increase the
cost of college. This also includes attending school on a part-time basis. While in some instances
responsibilities may make it impossible to go to school full-time, from a financial perspective you should do all
you can to graduate as soon as you can.
While it may not be possible to prevent life challenges while you are in college, you can do a great deal to
prevent the chaos and the chain reaction of unfortunate events that they can cause. This can be accomplished
through thoughtful prioritization and time management efforts.
What follows in the rest of this chapter is a close look at the nature of time management and prioritization in
ways that can help keep you on track to graduate college on time.
3.2 Time Management in College
Estimated completion time: 11 minutes.
Questions to consider:
• Is time management different in college from what I am used to?
• How different is college schoolwork from high school work?
A N A L Y S I S Q U E S T I O N
Can you identify any areas in your life that might be a potential problem if there were a temporary
setback (e.g., temporary loss of transportation, temporary loss of housing, an illness that lasted more
than a week, etc.)? What could you do for a backup plan if something did happen?
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You may find that time management in college is very different from anything you have experienced
previously. For the last 12 years, almost all your school time was managed by educators and your parents.
What you did and when you did it was controlled by others. In many cases, even after-school time was set by
scheduled activities (such as athletics) and by nightly homework that was due the next day.
In the workplace, the situation is not very different, with activities and time on task being monitored by the
company and its management. This is so much a part of the working environment that many companies
research how much time each task should take, and they hold employees accountable for the time spent on
these job functions. In fact, having these skills will help you stand out on the job and in job interviews.
K–12 College
Many class activities are planned. Class time is given to receiving information.
Homework is often similar for each student. You may have freedom in homework choices.
Time is managed by others more often. Time is managed by the student.
In college, there is a significant difference because a great deal of time management is left up to you. While it
is true that there are assignment due dates and organized classroom activities, learning at the college level
requires more than just the simple completion of work. It involves decision-making and the ability to evaluate
information. This is best accomplished when you are an active partner in your own learning activities.
Figure 3.2 Students may set aside specific times and specific places to study.
As an example of how this works, think about a college assignment that involves giving a classroom
presentation. To complete the assignment, you are given time to research and reflect on the information
found. As a part of the assignment, you must reach your own conclusions and determine which information
that you have found is best suited for the presentation. While the date of the actual presentation and how long
it will last are usually determined by the instructor, how much time you spend gathering information, the
sources you use, and how you use them are left to you.
Chapter 3 Managing Your Time and Priorities 77
W H A T S T U D E N T S S A Y
1. How difficult is it for you to keep track of multiple tasks over the course of a term?
a. Extremely easy
b. Somewhat easy
c. Somewhat difficult
d. Extremely difficult
2. Do you use a particular app to help you manage your time?
a. I use Google calendar
b. I use the calendar on my phone
c. I use a paper/notebook planner
d. I use the calendar on my learning management system
e. I use another app or system
f. I don’t use any type of planner or app
3. Rank the following in terms of what you would most like to improve regarding your time
management skills.
a. My ability to predict how much time my tasks will take.
b. My ability to balance various obligations.
c. My ability to avoid procrastination.
d. My ability to limit distractions.
You can also take the anonymous What Students Say (https://openstax.org/l/collegesurvey1-5) surveys
to add your voice to this textbook. Your responses will be included in updates.
Students offered their views on these questions, and the results are displayed in the graphs below.
How difficult is it for you to keep track of multiple tasks over the course of a term?
Figure 3.3
Do you use a particular app to help you manage your time?
78 Chapter 3 Managing Your Time and Priorities
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https://openstax.org/l/collegesurvey1-5
You Have Lots of Time to Manage
For college-level learning, this approach is important enough that you can expect to spend much more time on
learning activities outside the classroom than you will in the classroom. In fact, the estimated time you should
spend will be at least two hours of outside learning for every one hour of lecture. Some weeks may be more
intense, depending on the time of the semester and the courses you are taking. If those hours are multiplied
over several courses in a given session, you can see how there is a significant amount of time to manage.
Unfortunately, many students do not always take this into consideration, and they spend far less time than is
needed to be successful. The results of poor time management are often a shock to them.
“In college, as an active participant in your own education, what you do and when you do it is
Figure 3.4
Rank the following in terms of what you would most like to improve regarding your time management
skills.
Figure 3.5
Chapter 3 Managing Your Time and Priorities 79
largely determined by you.”
The Nature of What You Have to Do Has Changed
Returning to our example of the classroom-presentation assignment, you can see that the types of learning
activities in college can be very different from what you have experienced previously. While there may have
been similar assignments in high school, such as presentations or written papers, the level of expectation with
length and depth is significantly different in college. This point is made very clear when comparing facts about
the requirements of high school work to the type of work students produce in college. One very strong
statistic that underscores this comes from a study conducted by the Pew Research Center. They found that 82
percent of teens report that their typical high school writing assignments were only a single paragraph to one
page in length.[2] (Writing Technology and Teens, 2004, Pew Research Center) This is in stark contrast to a
number of sources that say that writing assignments in lower-level college courses are usually 5–7 pages in
length, while writing assignments in upper-level courses increase to 15–20 pages.
It is also interesting to note that the amount of writing done by a college student can differ depending on their
program of study. The table below indicates the estimated average amount of writing assigned in several
disciplines. To estimate the number of pages of assigned writing, the average number of writing assignments
of a given page length was multiplied by an approximate number of pages for the assignment type (see
Estimating Number of Pages Written for calculation details).
Writing Assignments Vary in Length
Discipline Number of Pages Assigned in Introductory
Course
Arts & Humanities 49
Biological Sciences, Agriculture, & Natural
Resources
47
Physical Sciences, Mathematics, & Computer
Science
44
Social Sciences 52
Business 48
Communications, Media, & Public Relations 50
Education 46
Engineering 46
Health Professions 43
Table 3.2 Credit: Updated NSSE (Since 2013)[3]
2 http://www.pewinternet.org/2008/04/24/writing-technology-and-teens/
3 http://nsse.indiana.edu/html/sample_analyses/amount_of_writing.cfm
80 Chapter 3 Managing Your Time and Priorities
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Writing Assignments Vary in Length
Discipline Number of Pages Assigned in Introductory
Course
Social Service Professions 47
Table 3.2 Credit: Updated NSSE (Since 2013)
High school homework often consists of worksheets or tasks based on reading or classroom activities. In other
words, all the students are doing the same tasks, at relatively the same time, with little autonomy over their
own education.
Using the earlier example of the presentation assignment, not only will what you do be larger in scale, but the
depth of understanding and knowledge you will put into it will be significantly more than you may have
encountered in previous assignments. This is because there are greater expectations required of college
graduates in the workplace. Nearly any profession that requires a college degree has with it a level of
responsibility that demands higher-level thinking and therefore higher learning. An often-cited example of this
is the healthcare professional. The learning requirements for that profession are strict because we depend on
those graduates for our health and, in some cases, our lives. While not every profession may require the same
level of study needed for healthcare, most do require that colleges maintain a certain level of academic rigor
to produce graduates who are competent in their fields.
3.3 Procrastination: The Enemy Within
Estimated completion time: 13 minutes.
Questions to consider:
• Why do we procrastinate?
• What are the effects of procrastination?
• How can we avoid procrastination?
Chapter 3 Managing Your Time and Priorities 81
Figure 3.6 We can think of many creative ways to procrastinate, but the outcome is often detrimental.
(Credit: University of the Fraser Valley / Flickr / Attribution 2.0 Generic (CC BY 2.0))
Simply put, procrastination is the act of delaying some task that needs to be completed. It is something we all
do to greater and lesser degrees. For most people, a little minor procrastination is not a cause for great
concern. But there are situations where procrastination can become a serious problem with a lot of risk. These
include: when it becomes a chronic habit, when there are a number of tasks to complete and little time, or
when the task being avoided is very important.
Because we all procrastinate from time to time, we usually do not give it much thought, let alone think about
its causes or effects. Ironically, many of the psychological reasons for why we avoid a given task also keep us
from using critical thinking to understand why procrastination can be extremely detrimental, and in some
cases difficult to overcome.
To succeed at time management, you must understand some of the hurdles that may stand in your way.
Procrastination is often one of the biggest. What follows is an overview of procrastination with a few
suggestions on how to avoid it.
The Reasons behind Procrastination
There are several reasons we procrastinate, and a few of them may be surprising. On the surface we often tell
ourselves it is because the task is something we do not want to do, or we make excuses that there are other
things more important to do first. In some cases this may be true, but there can be other contributors to
procrastination that have their roots in our physical well-being or our own psychological motivations.
Lack of Energy
Sometimes we just do not feel up to a certain task. It might be due to discomfort, an illness, or just a lack of
energy. If this is the case, it is important to identify the cause and remedy the situation. It could be something
as simple as a lack of sleep or improper diet. Regardless, if a lack of energy is continually causing you to
procrastinate to the point where you are beginning to feel stress over not getting things done, you should
definitely assess the situation and address it.
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Lack of Focus
Much like having low physical energy, a lack of mental focus can be a cause of procrastination. This can be due
to mental fatigue, being disorganized, or allowing yourself to be distracted by other things. Again, like low
physical energy, this is something that may have farther-reaching effects in your life that go beyond the act of
simply avoiding a task. If it is something that is recurring, you should properly assess the situation.
Fear of Failure
This cause of procrastination is not one that many people are aware of, especially if they are the person
avoiding tasks because of it. To put it in simple words, it is a bit of trickery we play on ourselves by avoiding a
situation that makes us psychologically uncomfortable. Even though they may not be consciously aware of it,
the person facing the task is afraid that they cannot do it or will not be able to do it well. If they fail at the task,
it will make them appear incompetent to others or even to themselves. Where the self-trickery comes in is by
avoiding the task. In the person’s mind, they can rationalize that the reason they failed at the task was
because they ran out of time to complete it, not that they were incapable of doing it in the first place.
It is important to note that a fear of failure may not have anything to do with the actual ability of the person
suffering from it. They could be quite capable of doing the task and performing well, but it is the fear that
holds them back.
The Effects of Procrastination
In addition to the causes of procrastination, you must also consider what effects it can have. Again, many of
these effects are obvious and commonly understood, but some may not be so obvious and may cause other
issues.
Loss of Time
The loss of time as an effect of procrastination is the easiest to identify since the act of avoiding a task comes
down to not using time wisely. Procrastination can be thought of as using the time you have to complete a
task in ways that do not accomplish what needs to be done.
Loss of Goals
Another of the more obvious potentially adverse effects of procrastination is the loss of goals. Completing a
task leads to achieving a goal. These can be large or small (e.g., from doing well on an assignment to being
hired for a good job). Without goals you might do more than delay work on a task—you may not complete it at
all. The risk for the loss of goals is something that is very impactful.
A N A L Y S I S Q U E S T I O N
Consider something right now that you may be procrastinating about. Are you able to identify the cause?
Chapter 3 Managing Your Time and Priorities 83
Loss of Self-Esteem
Often, when we procrastinate we become frustrated and disappointed in ourselves for not getting important
tasks completed. If this continues to happen, we can begin to develop a low opinion of ourselves and our own
abilities. We begin to suffer from low self-esteem and might even begin to feel like there is something wrong
with us. This can lead to other increasingly negative mental factors such as anger and depression. As you can
see, it is important for our own well-being to avoid this kind of procrastination effect.
Stress
Procrastination causes stress and anxiety, which may seem odd since the act of procrastination is often about
avoiding a task we think will be stressful in itself! Anyone who has noticed that nagging feeling when they
know there is something else they should be doing is familiar with this.
On the other hand, some students see that kind of stress as a boost of mental urgency. They put off a task
until they feel that surge of motivation. While this may have worked in the past, they quickly learn that
procrastinating when it comes to college work almost always includes an underestimation of the tasks to be
completed— sometimes with disastrous results.
Strategies for Psyching Ourselves Out and Managing Procrastination
Now that you understand a few of the major problems procrastination can produce, let’s look at methods to
manage procrastination and get you on to completing the tasks, no matter how unpleasant you think they
might be.
Get Organized
Much of this chapter is dedicated to defining and explaining the nature of time management. The most
effective way to combat procrastination is to use time and project management strategies such as schedules,
goal setting, and other techniques to get tasks accomplished in a timely manner.
Put Aside Distractions
Several of the methods discussed in this chapter deal specifically with distractions. Distractions are time-killers
and are the primary way people procrastinate. It is too easy to just play a video game a little while longer,
check out social media, or finish watching a movie when we are avoiding a task. Putting aside distractions is
one of the primary functions of setting priorities.
Reward Yourself
Rewarding yourself for the completion of tasks or meeting goals is a good way to avoid procrastination. An
example of this would be rewarding yourself with the time to watch a movie you would enjoy after you have
finished the things you need to do, rather than using the movie to keep yourself from getting things done.
Be Accountable—Tell Someone Else
A strong motivational tool is to hold ourselves accountable by telling someone else we are going to do
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something and when we are going to do it. This may not seem like it would be very effective, but on a
psychological level we feel more compelled to do something if we tell someone else. It may be related to our
need for approval from others, or it might just serve to set a level of commitment. Either way, it can help us
stay on task and avoid procrastination—especially if we take our accountability to another person seriously
enough to warrant contacting that person and apologizing for not doing what we said we were going to do.
3.4 How to Manage Time
Estimated completion time: 25 minutes.
Questions to consider:
• How can I use time-on-task estimates to improve time management?
• What behaviors can help or hinder when it comes to managing time?
In this next section you will learn about managing time and prioritizing tasks. This is not only a valuable skill
for pursuing an education, but it can become an ability that follows you through the rest of your life, especially
if your career takes you into a leadership role.
Figure 3.7 An online calendar is a very useful tool for keeping track of classes, meetings, and other events.
Most learning management systems contain these features, or you can use a calendar application.
A N A L Y S I S Q U E S T I O N
Read each statement in the brief self-evaluation tool below, and check the answer that best applies to
Chapter 3 Managing Your Time and Priorities 85
How to Manage Time
The simplest way to manage your time is to accurately plan for how much time it will take to do each task, and
then set aside that amount of time. How you divide the time is up to you. If it is going to take you five hours to
study for a final exam, you can plan to spread it over five days, with an hour each night, or you can plan on two
hours one night and three hours the next. What you would not want to do is plan on studying only a few hours
the night before the exam and find that you fell very short on the time you estimated you would need. If that
were to happen, you would have run out of time before finishing, with no way to go back and change your
you. There are no right or wrong answers.
Always Usually Sometimes Rarely Never
I like to be given strict deadlines for each task. It
helps me stay organized and on track.
I would rather be 15 minutes early than 1
minute late.
I like to improvise instead of planning
everything out ahead of time.
I prefer to be able to manage when and how I
do each task.
I have a difficult time estimating how long a
task will take.
I have more motivation when there is an
upcoming deadline. It helps me focus.
I have difficulty keeping priorities in the most
beneficial order.
Table 3.3
This exercise is intended to help you recognize some things about your own time management style. The
important part is for you to identify any areas where you might be able to improve and to find solutions
for them. This chapter will provide some solutions, but there are many others that can be found by
researching time management strategies.
After you have decided your best response to each statement, think about what they may mean in
regard to potential strengths and/or challenges for you when it comes to time management in college. If
you are a person that likes strict deadlines, what would you do if you took a course that only had one
large paper due at the end? Would you set yourself a series of mini deadlines that made you more
comfortable and that kept things moving along for you? Or, if you have difficulty prioritizing tasks, would
it help you to make a list of the tasks to do and order them, so you know which ones must be finished
first?
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decision. In this kind of situation, you might even be tempted to “pull an all-nighter,” which is a phrase that
has been used among college students for decades. In essence it means going without sleep for the entire
night and using that time to finish an assignment. While this method of trying to make up for poor planning is
common enough to have a name, rarely does it produce the best work.
Of all the parts of time management, accurately predicting how long a task will take is usually the most
difficult—and the most elusive. Part of the problem comes from the fact that most of us are not very accurate
timekeepers, especially when we are busy applying ourselves to a task. The other issue that makes it so
difficult to accurately estimate time on task is that our estimations must also account for things like
interruptions or unforeseen problems that cause delays.?
When it comes to academic activities, many tasks can be dependent upon the completion of other things first,
or the time a task takes can vary from one instance to another, both of which add to the complexity and
difficulty of estimating how much time and effort are required.
A C T I V I T Y
Many people are not truly aware of how they actually spend their time. They make assumptions about
how much time it takes to do certain things, but they never really take an accurate account.
In this activity, write down all the things you think you will do tomorrow, and estimate the time you will
spend doing each. Then track each thing you have written down to see how accurate your estimates
were.
Obviously, you will not want to get caught up in too much tedious detail, but you will want to cover the
main activities of your day—for example, working, eating, driving, shopping, gaming, being engaged in
entertainment, etc.
After you have completed this activity for a single day, you may consider doing it for an entire week so
that you are certain to include all of your activities.
Many people that take this sort of personal assessment of their time are often surprised by the results.
Some even make lifestyle changes based on it.
Activity Estimated Time Actual Time
Practice Quiz 5 minutes 15 minutes
Lab Conclusions 20 minutes 35 minutes
Food shopping 45 minutes 30 minutes
Drive to work 20 minutes 20 minutes
Physical Therapy 1 hour 50 minutes
Table 3.4 Sample Time Estimate Table
Chapter 3 Managing Your Time and Priorities 87
For example, if an instructor assigned three chapters of reading, you would not really have any idea how long
each chapter might take to read until you looked at them. The first chapter might be 30 pages long while the
second is 45. The third chapter could be only 20 pages but made up mostly of charts and graphs for you to
compare. By page count, it might seem that the third chapter would take the least amount of time, but actually
studying charts and graphs to gather information can take longer than regular reading.?
To make matters even more difficult, when it comes to estimating time on task for something as common as
reading, not all reading takes the same amount of time. Fiction, for example, is usually a faster read than a
technical manual. But something like the novel Finnegan’s Wake by James Joyce is considered so difficult that
most readers never finish it.
A C T I V I T Y
To better understand how much time different kinds of material can take to read, try this experiment.
You will use two examples of famous texts that are very close to being the same number of words: The
Gettysburg Address and the opening paragraphs from A Christmas Carol. Before you begin, estimate how
long it will take you to read each, and predict which you think will take longer. When you do the reading,
use a stopwatch function on a device such as a phone or some other timer to see how long it actually
takes.
Make certain that you are reading for understanding, not just skimming over words. If you must reread a
section to better comprehend what is being said, that is appropriate. The goal here is to compare
reading of different texts, not to see how fast you can sight-read the words on a page.
After you have finished The Gettysburg Address, read and time A Christmas Carol and compare both of
your times.
The Gettysburg Address
Abraham Lincoln
Gettysburg, Pennsylvania November 19, 1863
Word count: 278
Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent, a new nation, conceived in
Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.
Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation so conceived and so
dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great battle-field of that war. We have come to dedicate a
portion of that field, as a final resting place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live.
It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this.
But, in a larger sense, we can not dedicate — we can not consecrate — we can not hallow — this ground.
The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it, far above our poor power to
add or detract. The world will little note, nor long remember what we say here, but it can never forget
what they did here. It is for us the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they
who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great
task remaining before us — that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for
which they gave the last full measure of devotion — that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not
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Knowing Yourself
While you can find all sorts of estimates online as to how long a certain task may take, it is important to know
these are only averages. People read at different speeds, people write at different speeds, and those numbers
even change for each individual depending on the environment.
If you are trying to read in surroundings that have distractions (e.g., conversations, phone calls, etc.), reading
10 pages can take you a lot longer than if you are reading in a quiet area. By the same token, you may be
reading in a quiet environment (e.g., in bed after everyone in the house has gone to sleep), but if you are tired,
your attention and retention may not be what it would be if you were refreshed.
In essence, the only way you are going to be able to manage your time accurately is to know yourself and to
know how long it takes you to do each task. But where to begin?
have died in vain — that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom — and that government
of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.
A Christmas Carol
Charles Dickens
Chapman & Hall, 1843
Word count: 260
Marley was dead: to begin with. There is no doubt whatever about that. The register of his burial was
signed by the clergyman, the clerk, the undertaker, and the chief mourner. Scrooge signed it: and
Scrooge’s name was good upon ’Change, for anything he chose to put his hand to. Old Marley was as
dead as a door-nail.
Mind! I don’t mean to say that I know, of my own knowledge, what there is particularly dead about a
door-nail. I might have been inclined, myself, to regard a coffin-nail as the deadest piece of ironmongery
in the trade. But the wisdom of our ancestors is in the simile; and my unhallowed hands shall not disturb
it, or the Country’s done for. You will therefore permit me to repeat, emphatically, that Marley was as
dead as a door-nail.
Scrooge knew he was dead? Of course he did. How could it be otherwise? Scrooge and he were partners
for I don’t know how many years. Scrooge was his sole executor, his sole administrator, his sole assign,
his sole residuary legatee, his sole friend, and sole mourner. And even Scrooge was not so dreadfully cut
up by the sad event, but that he was an excellent man of business on the very day of the funeral, and
solemnised it with an undoubted bargain.
The mention of Marley’s funeral brings me back to the point I started from. There is no doubt that
Marley was dead. This must be distinctly understood, or nothing wonderful can come of the story I am
going to relate.
In comparing the two, was one or the other easier to understand or faster to read? Was it the piece you
predicted you would read faster?
It is important to note that in this case both readings were only three paragraphs long. While there may
have only been half a minute or so between the reading of each, that amount of time would multiply
greatly over an entire chapter.
Chapter 3 Managing Your Time and Priorities 89
Below, you will find a table of common college academic activities. This list has been compiled from a large
number of different sources, including colleges, publishers, and professional educators, to help students
estimate their own time on tasks. The purpose of this table is to both give you a place to begin in your
estimates and to illustrate how different factors can impact the actual time spent.
You will notice that beside each task there is a column for the unit, followed by the average time on task, and a
column for notes. The unit is whatever is being measured (e.g., pages read, pages written, etc.), and the time
on task is an average time it takes students to do these tasks. It is important to pay attention to the notes
column, because there you will find factors that influence the time on task. These factors can dramatically
change the amount of time the activity takes.
Time on Task
Activity Unit Time on
task
Notes
General academic reading
(textbook, professional journals)
1 page 5–7
minutes
Be aware that your personal reading speed
may differ and may change over time.
Technical reading (math, charts
and data)
1 page 10–15
minutes
Be aware that your personal reading speed
may differ and may change over time.
Simple Quiz or homework
question: short answer—oriented
toward recall or identification type
answers
Per
question
1–2
minutes
Complexity of question will greatly
influence the time required.
Complex Quiz or homework
question: short answer—oriented
toward application, evaluation, or
synthesis of knowledge
Per
question
2–3
minutes
Complexity of question will greatly
influence the time required.
Math problem sets, complex Per
question
15
minutes
For example, algebra, complex equations,
financial calculations
Writing: short, no research Per
page
60
minutes
Short essays, single-topic writing
assignments, summaries, freewriting
assignments, journaling—includes drafting,
writing, proofing, and finalizing
Writing: research paper Per
page
105
minutes
Includes research time, drafting, editing,
proofing, and finalizing (built into per-page
calculation)
Study for quiz Per
chapter
60
minutes
45–90 minutes per chapter, depending
upon complexity of material
Table 3.5 Time on task for common college activities.
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Time on Task
Activity Unit Time on
task
Notes
Study for exam Per
exam
90
minutes
1–2 hours, depending upon complexity of
material
Table 3.5 Time on task for common college activities.
Again, these are averages, and it does not mean anything if your times are a little slower or a little faster.
There is no “right amount of time,” only the time that it takes you to do something so you can accurately plan
and manage your time.
There is also another element to look for in the table. These are differentiations in the similar activities that will
also affect the time you spend. A good example of this can be found in the first four rows. Each of these
activities involves reading, but you can see that depending on the material being read and its complexity, the
time spent can vary greatly. Not only do these differences in time account for the different types of materials
you might read (as you found in the comparative reading exercise earlier in this chapter), but also they also
take into consideration the time needed to think about what you are reading to truly understand and
comprehend what it is saying.
3.5 Prioritization: Self-Management of What You Do and When You Do It
Estimated completion time: 21 minutes.
G E T C O N N E C T E D
Which apps help you best prepare for success when managing your time?
Do you have trouble keeping track of multiple tasks over the course of a term?
Trello (http://www.trello.com) lets you organize all your obligations in helpful boards. You can share
them with others (project collaborators), set alerts as reminders, and mark tasks off as you complete
them.
Do you use a particular app to help you manage your time?
Sticky note apps are available for PC, Mac, and mobile devices. They let you post quick reminders,
reorganize them as needed, and view them separately or as a full to-do list.
What do you wish you could improve about your time management skills?
Toggl (https://toggl.com) helps you keep track of how and where you are spending your time so you can
budget better and make time management changes that free you up for the really important stuff.
Chapter 3 Managing Your Time and Priorities 91
http://www.trello.com
https://toggl.com
Figure 3.8 Numbered lists are useful and easy tools to create.
Questions to consider:
• Why is prioritization important?
• What are the steps involved in prioritization?
• How do I deal with situation where others’ priorities are not the same as my own?
• What do I do when priorities conflict?
• What are the best ways to make sure I complete tasks?
Prioritization: Self-Management of What You Do and When You Do It
Another key component in time management is that of prioritization. Prioritization can be thought of as
ordering tasks and allotting time for them based on their identified needs or value.
This next section provides some insight into not only helping prioritize tasks and actions based on need and
value, but also how to better understand the factors that contribute to prioritization.
How to Prioritize
The enemy of good prioritization is panic, or at least making decisions based on strictly emotional reactions. It
can be all too easy to immediately respond to a problem as soon as it pops up without thinking of the
consequences of your reaction and how it might impact other priorities. It is very natural for us to want to
remove a stressful situation as soon as we can. We want the adverse emotions out of the way as quickly as
possible. But when it comes to juggling multiple problems or tasks to complete, prioritizing them first may
mean the difference between completing everything satisfactorily and completing nothing at all.
Make Certain You Understand the Requirements of Each Task
One of the best ways to make good decisions about the prioritization of tasks is to understand the
requirements of each. If you have multiple assignments to complete and you assume one of those
assignments will only take an hour, you may decide to put it off until the others are finished. Your assumption
could be disastrous if you find, once you begin the assignment, that there are several extra components that
you did not account for and the time to complete will be four times as long as you estimated. Or, one of the
assignments may be dependent on the results of another—like participating in a study and then writing a
report on the results. If you are not aware that one assignment depends upon the completion of the other
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before you begin, you could inadvertently do the assignments out of order and have to start over. Because of
situations like this, it is critically important to understand exactly what needs to be done to complete a task
before you determine its priority.
Make Decisions on Importance, Impact on Other Priorities, and Urgency
After you are aware of the requirements for each task, you can then decide your priorities based on the
importance of the task and what things need to be finished in which order.
To summarize: the key components to prioritization are making certain you understand each task and making
decisions based on importance, impact, and urgency.
A C T I V I T Y
To better see how things may need to be prioritized, some people make a list of the tasks they need to
complete and then arrange them in a quadrant map based on importance and urgency. Traditionally this
is called the Eisenhower Decision Matrix. Before becoming the 34th president of the United States,
Dwight Eisenhower served as the Allied forces supreme commander during World War II and said he
used this technique to better prioritize the things he needed to get done.
In this activity you will begin by making a list of things you need or want to do today and then draw your
own version of the grid below. Write each item in one of the four squares; choose the square that best
describes it based on its urgency and its importance. When you have completed writing each the tasks in
its appropriate square, you will see a prioritization order of your tasks. Obviously, those listed in the
Important and Urgent square will be the things you need to finish first. After that will come things that
are “important but not urgent,” followed by “not important, but urgent,” and finally “not urgent and not
important.”
Figure 3.9 The Eisenhower Matrix can help organize priorities and ensure that you focus on the correct
tasks.
Chapter 3 Managing Your Time and Priorities 93
Who Is Driving Your Tasks?
Another thing to keep in mind when approaching time management is that while you may have greater
autonomy in managing your own time, many of your tasks are being driven by a number of different
individuals. These individuals are not only unaware of the other things you need to do, but they often have
goals that are in conflict with your other tasks. This means that different instructors, your manager at work, or
even your friends may be trying to assert their needs into your priorities. An example of this might be a boss
that would like for you to work a few hours of overtime, but you were planning on using that time to do
research for a paper.
Just like assessing the requirements and needs for each priority, doing the same with how others may be
influencing your available time can be an important part of time management. In some cases, keeping others
informed about your priorities may help avert possible conflicts (e.g., letting your boss know you will need
time on a certain evening to study, letting your friends know you plan to do a journal project on Saturday but
can do something on Sunday, etc.).
It will be important to be aware of how others can drive your priorities and for you to listen to your own good
judgment. In essence, time management in college is as much about managing all the elements of your life as
it is about managing time for class and to complete assignments.
Making the Tough Decision When It Is Needed
Occasionally, regardless of how much you have planned or how well you have managed your time, events
arise where it becomes almost impossible to accomplish everything you need to by the time required. While
this is very unfortunate, it simply cannot be helped. As the saying goes, “things happen.”
Finding yourself in this kind of situation is when prioritization becomes most important. You may find yourself
in the uncomfortable position of only being able to complete one task or another in the time given. When this
occurs with college assignments, the dilemma can be extremely stressful, but it is important to not feel
overwhelmed by the anxiety of the situation so that you can make a carefully calculated decision based on the
value and impact of your choice.
“What do you do when faced with priority conflicts?”
As an illustration, imagine a situation where you think you can only complete one of two assignments that are
both important and urgent, and you must make a choice of which one you will finish and which one you will
not. This is when it becomes critical to understand all the factors involved. While it may seem that whichever
assignment is worth the most points to your grade is how you make the choice, there are actually a number of
other attributes that can influence your decision in order to make the most of a bad situation. For example,
one of the assignments may only be worth a minimal number of points toward your total grade, but it may be
foundational to the rest of the course. Not finishing it, or finishing it late, may put other future assignments in
jeopardy as well. Or the instructor for one of the courses might have a “late assignment” policy that is more
forgiving—something that would allow you to turn in the work a little late without too much of a penalty.
If you find yourself in a similar predicament, the first step is to try to find a way to get everything finished,
regardless of the challenges. If that simply cannot happen, the next immediate step would be to communicate
with your instructors to let them know about the situation. They may be able to help you decide on a course of
action, or they may have options you had not thought of. Only then can you make the choices about
prioritizing in a tough situation.
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The key here is to make certain you are aware of and understand all the ramifications to help make the best
decision when the situation dictates you make a hard choice among priorities.
Completing the Tasks
Another important part of time management is to develop approaches that will help you complete tasks in a
manner that is efficient and works for you. Most of this comes down to a little planning and being as informed
about the specifics of each task as you can be.
Knowing What You Need to Do
As discussed in previous parts of this chapter, many learning activities have multiple components, and
sometimes they must occur in a specific order. Additionally, some elements may not only be dependent on the
order they are completed, but can also be dependent on how they are completed. To illustrate this we will
analyze a task that is usually considered to be a simple one: attending a class session. In this analysis we will
look at not only what must be accomplished to get the most out of the experience, but also at how each
element is dependent upon others and must be done in a specific order. The graphic below shows the
interrelationship between the different activities, many of which might not initially seem significant enough to
warrant mention, but it becomes obvious that other elements depend upon them when they are listed out this
way.
Chapter 3 Managing Your Time and Priorities 95
Figure 3.10 Many of your learning activities are dependent on others, and some are the gateways to other
steps.
As you can see from the graphic above, even a task as simple as “going to class” can be broken down into a
number of different elements that have a good deal of dependency on other tasks. One example of this is
preparing for the class lecture by reading materials ahead of time in order to make the lecture and any
complex concepts easier to follow. If you did it the other way around, you might miss opportunities to ask
questions or receive clarification on the information presented during the lecture.
Understanding what you need to do and when you need to do it can be applied to any task, no matter how
simple or how complex. Knowing what you need to do and planning for it can go a long way toward success
and preventing unpleasant surprises.
Knowing How You Will Get It Done
After you have a clear understanding of what needs to be done to complete a task (or the component parts of
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a task), the next step is to create a plan for completing everything.
This may not be as easy or as simple as declaring that you will finish part one, then move on to part two, and
so on. Each component may need different resources or skills to complete, and it is in your best interest to
identify those ahead of time and include them as part of your plan.
A good analogy for this sort of planning is to think about it in much the same way you would preparing for a
lengthy trip. With a long journey you probably would not walk out the front door and then decide how you
were going to get where you were going. There are too many other decisions to be made and tasks to be
completed around each choice. If you decided you were going by plane, you would need to purchase tickets,
and you would have to schedule your trip around flight times. If you decided to go by car, you would need gas
money and possibly a map or GPS device. What about clothes? The clothes you will need are dependent on
how long will you be gone and what the climate will be like. If it far enough away that you will need to speak
another language, you may need to either acquire that skill or at least come with something or someone to
help you translate.
What follows is a planning list that can help you think about and prepare for the tasks you are about to begin.
What Resources Will You Need?
The first part of this list may appear to be so obvious that it should go without mention, but it is by far one of
the most critical and one of the most overlooked. Have you ever planned a trip but forgotten your most
comfortable pair of shoes or neglected to book a hotel room? If a missing resource is important, the entire
project can come to a complete halt. Even if the missing resource is a minor component, it may still
dramatically alter the end result.
Learning activities are much the same in this way, and it is also important to keep in mind that resources may
not be limited to physical objects such as paper or ink. Information can be a critical resource as well. In fact,
one of the most often overlooked aspects in planning by new college students is just how much research,
reading, and information they will need to complete assignments.
Figure 3.11 Allowing time to think is an important part of learning. Credit: Juhan Sonin / Flickr / Attribution
2.0 Generic (CC BY 2.0))
For example, if you had an assignment in which you were supposed to compare and contrast a novel with a
Chapter 3 Managing Your Time and Priorities 97
film adapted from that novel, it would be important to have access to both the movie and the book as
resources. Your plans for completing the work could quickly fall apart if you learned that on the evening you
planned to watch the film, it was no longer available.
What Skills Will You Need?
Poor planning or a bad assumption in this area can be disastrous, especially if some part of the task has a
steep learning curve. No matter how well you planned the other parts of the project, if there is some skill
needed that you do not have and you have no idea how long it will take to learn, it can be a bad situation.
Imagine a scenario where one of your class projects is to create a poster. It is your intent to use some kind of
imaging software to produce professional-looking graphics and charts for the poster, but you have never used
the software in that way before. It seems easy enough, but once you begin, you find the charts keep printing
out in the wrong resolution. You search online for a solution, but the only thing you can find requires you to
recreate them all over again in a different setting. Unfortunately, that part of the project will now take twice as
long.
It can be extremely difficult to recover from a situation like that, and it could have been prevented by taking
the time to learn how to do it correctly before you began or by at least including in your schedule some time to
learn and practice.
Set Deadlines
Of course, the best way to approach time management is to set realistic deadlines that take into account
which elements are dependent on which others and the order in which they should be completed. Giving
yourself two days to write a 20- page work of fiction is not very realistic when even many professional authors
average only 6 pages per day. Your intentions may be well founded, but your use of unrealistic deadlines will
not be very successful.
Setting appropriate deadlines and sticking to them is very important—so much so that several sections in the
rest of this chapter touch on effective deadline practices.
Be Flexible
It is ironic that the item on this list that comes just after a strong encouragement to make deadlines and stick
to them is the suggestion to be flexible. The reason that being flexible has made this list is because even the
best-laid plans and most accurate time management efforts can take an unexpected turn. The idea behind
being flexible is to readjust your plans and deadlines when something does happen to throw things off. The
worst thing you could do in such a situation is panic or just stop working because the next step in your careful
planning has suddenly become a roadblock. The moment when you see that something in your plan may
become an issue is when to begin readjusting your plan.
Adjusting a plan along the way is incredibly common. In fact, many professional project managers have
learned that it seems something always happens or there is always some delay, and they have developed an
approach to deal with the inevitable need for some flexibility. In essence, you could say that they are even
planning for problems, mistakes, or delays from the very beginning, and they will often add a little extra time
for each task to help ensure an issue does not derail the entire project or that the completion of the project
does not miss the final due date.
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“As you work through tasks, make certain you are always monitoring and adapting to ensure
you complete them.”
The Importance of Where You Do Your Work
Figure 3.12 Where you do work can be as important as when. (Credit: Mads Bodker / Flickr / Attribution 2.0
Generic (CC BY 2.0))
A large part of ensuring that you can complete tasks on time comes to setting up conditions that will allow you
“While in college, I recall an instance where I was awake for two nights in a row trying to cram for
upcoming midterms. I quickly learned that trying to navigate through college while working full time
posed a significant challenge. Because of inability to manage my responsibilities, my first year of college
was quite miserable. I went through a lot of trial and error to find out that time management was the key.
From my experiences, I have extrapolated three important components to this skill. First, knowing your
values is imperative. Values will serve as a guide, which will help you to determine which actions bring
you closer to your goals and those that don’t. Second, know your constraints. Constraints (in form of time
or other responsibilities) can help you set the parameter within which you can function efficiently. The
last component is action. This component was the hardest for me to master, but it was the most fruitful.
Because knowing values and limitations without engaging in appropriate actions does not serve any
meaningful purpose. I strongly believe that learning time management can contribute greatly towards
positive university experience.”
—Firdavs Khaydarov, Psychology Major, Minnesota State University, Mankato
S T U D E N T P R O F I L E
Chapter 3 Managing Your Time and Priorities 99
to do the work well. Much of this has to do with the environment where you will do your work. This not only
includes physical space such as a work area, but other conditions like being free from distractions and your
physical well-being and mental attitude.
The Right Space
Simple things, like where you are set up to do your work, can not only aid in your efficiency but also affect how
well you can work or even if you can get the work completed at all. One example of this might be typing on a
laptop. While it might seem more comfortable to lie back on a couch and type a long paper, sitting up at a
desk or table actually increases your typing speed and reduces the number of mistakes. Even the kind of
mouse you use can impact how you work, and using one you are comfortable with can make a big difference.
There are a host of other factors that can come into play as well. Do you have enough space? Is the space
cluttered, or do you have the room to keep reference materials and other things you might need within arm’s
reach? Are there other ways you could work that might be even more efficient? For example, buying an
inexpensive second monitor—even secondhand—might be the key to decreasing the amount of time you
spend when you can have more than one document displayed at a time.
The key is to find what works for you and to treat your work space as another important resource needed to
get the task finished.
Distraction Free
Few things are more frustrating than trying to do work while distractions are going on around you. If other
people are continually interrupting you or there are things that keep pulling your attention from the task at
hand, everything takes longer and you are more prone to mistakes.[4]
Many people say they work better with distractions—they prefer to leave the television or the radio on—but
the truth is that an environment with too many interruptions is rarely helpful when focus is required. Before
deciding that the television or talkative roommates do not bother you when you work, take an honest
accounting of the work you produce with interruptions compared to work you do without.
If you find that your work is better without distractions, it is a good idea to create an environment that reduces
interruptions. This may mean you have to go to a private room, use headphones, or go somewhere like a
library to work. Regardless, the importance of a distraction-free environment cannot be emphasized enough.
Working at the Right Time
Most people are subject to their own rhythms, cycles, and preferences throughout their day. Some are alert
and energetic in the mornings, while others are considered “night owls” and prefer to work after everyone
else has gone to sleep. It can be important to be aware of your own cycles and to use them to your advantage.
Rarely does anyone do their best work when they are exhausted, either physically or mentally. Just as it can be
difficult to work when you are physically ill, it can also be a hindrance to try to learn or do mental work when
you are tired or emotionally upset.
Your working environment definitely includes your own state of mind and physical well-being. Both have a
significant influence on your learning and production ability. Because of this, it is not only important to be
aware of your own condition and work preferences, but to actually try to create conditions that help you in
these areas. One approach is to set aside a specific time to do certain kinds of work. You might find that you
concentrate better after you have eaten a meal. If that is the case, make it a habit of doing homework every
4 https://en.calameo.com/read/00009178915b8f5b352ba
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night after dinner. Or you might enjoy reading more after you are ready for bed, so you do your reading
assignments just before you go to sleep at night. Some people find that they are more creative during a
certain time of the day or that they are more comfortable writing with subtle lighting. It is worth taking the
time to find the conditions that work best for you so that you can take advantage of them.
3.6 Goal Setting and Motivation
Estimated completion time: 11 minutes.
Questions to consider:
• How do I set motivational goals?
• What are SMART goals?
• What’s the importance of an action plan?
• How do I keep to my plan?
Motivation often means the difference between success and failure. That applies to school, to specific tasks,
and to life in general. One of the most effective ways to keep motivated is to set goals.
Goals can be big or small. A goal can range from I am going to write one extra page tonight, to I am going to
work to get an A in this course, all the way to I am going to graduate in the top of my class so I can start my career
with a really good position. The great thing about goals is that they can include and influence a number of other
things that all work toward a much bigger picture. For example, if your goal is to get an A in a certain course,
all the reading, studying, and every assignment you do for that course contributes to the larger goal. You have
motivation to do each of those things and to do them well.
A N A L Y S I S Q U E S T I O N
Student Survey on Work Environment
Analysis: Take the time to think about where you will do your work and when. What can you do to help
ensure your working environment will be helpful rather than harmful? What do you know doesn’t work
for you? What will you do to prevent those adverse conditions from creeping into your work
environment?
Below is a quick survey to help you determine your own preferences in regard to your work space, the
time you work, and distractions. Rank each option: 1–4, 1 meaning “least like me” and 4 meaning “most
like me.”
• I like my workspace to be organized and clean.
• There are certain places where I am more comfortable when I work.
• I prefer to be alone when I work on certain things.
• I find it difficult to read with other sounds or voices around me.
• There are certain times of the day when I can be more focused.
• My moods or emotions can interfere with my ability to concentrate
Chapter 3 Managing Your Time and Priorities 101
Setting goals is something that is frequently talked about, but it is often treated as something abstract. Like
time management, goal setting is best done with careful thought and planning. This next section will explain
how you can apply tested techniques to goal setting and what the benefits of each can be.
Set Goals That Motivate You
The first thing to know about goal setting is that a goal is a specific end result you desire. If the goal is not
something you are really interested in, there is little motivational drive to achieve it. Think back to when you
were much younger and some well-meaning adult set a goal for you—something that didn’t really appeal to
you at all. How motivated were you to achieve the goal? More than likely, if you were successful at all in
meeting the goal, it was because you were motivated by earning the approval of someone or receiving a
possible reward, or you were concerned with avoiding something adverse that might happen if you did not do
what you were told. From an honest perspective in that situation, your real goal was based on something else,
not the meeting of the goal set for you. To get the most from the goals you set, make sure they are things that
you are interested in achieving.
That is not to say you shouldn’t set goals that are supported by other motivations (e.g., If I finish studying by
Friday, I can go out on Saturday), but the idea is to be intellectually honest with your goals.
Set SMART Goals
Goals should also be SMART. In this case, the word smart is not only a clever description of the type of goal,
but it is also an acronym that stands for Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Relevant, and Time-bound. The
reason these are all desirable traits for your goals is because they not only help you plan how to meet the goal,
but they can also contribute to your decision-making processes during the planning stage.
What does it mean to create SMART goals?
• Specific—For a goal to be specific, it must be defined enough to actually determine the goal. A goal of get
a good job when I graduate is too general. It doesn’t define what a good job is. In fact, it doesn’t even
necessarily include a job in your chosen profession. A more specific goal would be something like be hired
as a nurse in a place of employment where it is enjoyable to work and that has room for promotion.
• Measurable—The concept of measurable is one that is often overlooked when setting goals. What this
means is that the goal should have clearly defined outcomes that are detailed enough to measure and
can be used for planning of how you will achieve the goal. For example, setting a goal of doing well in
school is a bit undefined, but making a goal of graduating with a GPA above 3.0 is measurable and
something you can work with. If your goal is measurable, you can know ahead of time how many points
you will have to earn on a specific assignment to stay in that range or how many points you will need to
make up in the next assignment if you do not do as well as you planned.
• Attainable—Attainable or achievable goals means they are reasonable and within your ability to
accomplish. While a goal of make an extra one million dollars by the end of the week is something that would
be nice to achieve, the odds that you could make that happen in a single week are not very realistic.
• Relevant—For goal setting, relevant means it applies to the situation. In relation to college, a goal of
getting a horse to ride is not very relevant, but getting dependable transportation is something that would
contribute to your success in school.
• Time-bound—Time-bound means you set a specific time frame to achieve the goal. I will get my paper
written by Wednesday is time-bound. You know when you have to meet the goal. I will get my paper written
sometime soon does not help you plan how and when you will accomplish the goal.
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In the following table you can see some examples of goals that do and do not follow the SMART system. As
you read each one, think about what elements make them SMART or how you might change those that are
not.
Goal Is it
SMART?
I am going to be rich
someday.
No There is nothing really specific, measurable, or time-bound in this
goal.
I will graduate with my
degree, on time.
Yes The statement calls out specific, measureable, and time-bound
details. The other attributes of attainable and relevant are
implied.
I am going to save
enough money to buy a
newer car by June.
Yes All SMART attributes are covered in this goal.
I would like to do well in
all my courses next
semester.
No While this is clearly time-bound and meets most of the SMART
goal attributes, it is not specific or measurable without defining
what “do well” means.
I am going to start being
a nicer person.
No While most of the SMART attributes are implied, there is nothing
really measurable in this goal.
I will earn at least a 3.0
GPA in all my courses
next semester.
Yes All of the SMART attributes are present in this goal.
I am going to start being
more organized.
No While most of the SMART attributes are implied, there is nothing
really measurable in this goal.
Table 3.6
Make an Action Plan
Like anything else, making a step-by-step action plan of how you will attain your goals is the best way to make
certain you achieve them. It doesn’t matter if it is a smaller goal with immediate results (e.g., finish all your
A P P L I C A T I O N
Try writing two SMART goals—something with a one-week time frame and something that you will
accomplish over the next year. Make certain that you include all the appropriate elements—Specific,
Measurable, Attainable, Relevant, and Time-bound.
Chapter 3 Managing Your Time and Priorities 103
homework due by Friday) or something bigger that takes several years to accomplish (graduate with my
degree in the proper amount of time).
The planning techniques you use for time management and achieving goals can be similar. In fact, accurate
goal setting is very much a part of time management if you treat the completion of each task as a goal.
What follows is an example of a simple action plan that lists the steps for writing a short paper. You can use
something like this or modify it in a way that would better suit your own preferences.
Action Plan
Task Objective When
Choose topic. Select something interesting. Needs to be done
by Monday!
Write outline, look for references. Create structure of paper and outline
each part.
Monday, 6:00 p.m.
Research references to support
outline, look for good quotes.
Strengthen paper and resources. Tuesday, 6:00 p.m.
Write paper introduction and first page
draft.
Get main ideas and thesis statement
down.
Wednesday, 7:00
p.m.
Write second page and closing draft. Finish main content and tie it all together. Thursday, 6:00
p.m.
Rewrite and polish final draft. Clean up for grammar, writing style, and
effective communication.
Friday, 5:00 p.m.
Table 3.7
Another useful approach to goal setting is to create SMART goals and then write them down. For most people
there is a higher level of commitment when we write something down. If you have your goals written out, you
can refer to each component of the SMART acronym and make certain you are on track to achieve it.
Stick with It!
As with anything else, the key to reaching goals is to keep at it, keep yourself motivated, and overcome any
obstacles along the way. In the following graphic you will find seven methods that highly successful people
use to accomplish this.
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Figure 3.13 These seven ways to stay motivated are good suggestions from highly successful people. What
other strategies would you suggest?
3.7 Enhanced Strategies for Time and Task Management
Estimated completion time: 18 minutes.
Questions to consider:
Chapter 3 Managing Your Time and Priorities 105
• What strategy helps me prioritize my top tasks?
• How do I make the best use of my time when prioritizing?
• How do I make sure I tackle unpleasant tasks instead of putting them off?
• What’s the best way to plan for long-term tasks?
• How do I find time in a busy schedule?
Over the years, people have developed a number of different strategies to manage time and tasks. Some of
the strategies have proven to be effective and helpful, while others have been deemed not as useful.
The good news is that the approaches that do not work very well or do not really help in managing time do not
get passed along very often. But others, those which people find of value, do. What follows here are three
unique strategies that have become staples of time management. While not everyone will find that all three
work for them in every situation, enough people have found them beneficial to pass them along with high
recommendations.
Daily Top Three
The idea behind the daily top three approach is that you determine which three things are the most important
to finish that day, and these become the tasks that you complete. It is a very simple technique that is effective
because each day you are finishing tasks and removing them from your list. Even if you took one day off a
week and completed no tasks on that particular day, a daily top three strategy would have you finishing 18
tasks in the course of a single week. That is a good amount of things crossed off your list.
Pomodoro Technique
Figure 3.14 The Pomodoro Technique is named after a type of kitchen timer, but you can use any clock or
countdown timer. (Marco Verch /Flickr / Attribution 2.0 Generic (CC BY 2.0))
A N A L Y S I S Q U E S T I O N
Analysis: Think about what would be your top three tasks for today? What would you have on the list
tomorrow?
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The Pomodoro Technique was developed by Francesco Cirillo. The basic concept is to use a timer to set work
intervals that are followed by a short break. The intervals are usually about 25 minutes long and are called
pomodoros, which comes from the Italian word for tomato because Cirillo used a tomato-shaped kitchen timer
to keep track of the intervals.
In the original technique there are six steps:
1. Decide on the task to be done.
2. Set the timer to the desired interval.
3. Work on the task.
4. When the timer goes off, put a check mark on a piece of paper.
5. If you have fewer than four check marks, take a short break (3–5 minutes), then go to Step 1 or 2
(whichever is appropriate).
6. After four pomodoros, take a longer break (15–30 minutes), reset your check mark count to zero, and
then go to Step 1 or 2.
Figure 3.15 The Pomodoro Technique contains five defined steps.
There are several reasons this technique is deemed effective for many people. One is the benefit that is
derived from quick cycles of work and short breaks. This helps reduce mental fatigue and the lack of
productivity caused by it. Another is that it tends to encourage practitioners to break tasks down to things that
can be completed in about 25 minutes, which is something that is usually manageable from the perspective of
time available. It is much easier to squeeze in three 25-minute sessions of work time during the day than it is
to set aside a 75- minute block of time.
Eat the Frog
Of our three quick strategies, eat the frog probably has the strangest name and may not sound the most
inviting. The name comes from a famous quote, attributed to Mark Twain: “Eat a live frog first thing in the
morning and nothing worse will happen to you the rest of the day.” Eat the Frog is also the title of a best-
selling book by Brian Tracy that deals with time management and avoiding procrastination.
Chapter 3 Managing Your Time and Priorities 107
How this applies to time and task management is based on the concept that if a person takes care of the
biggest or most unpleasant task first, everything else will be easier after that.
Although stated in a humorous way, there is a good deal of truth in this. First, we greatly underestimate how
much worry can impact our performance. If you are continually distracted by anxiety over a task you are
dreading, it can affect the task you are working on at the time. Second, not only will you have a sense of
accomplishment and relief when the task you are concerned with is finished and out of the way, but other
tasks will seem lighter and not as difficult.
Breaking Down the Steps and Spreading Them over Shorter Work Periods
Above, you read about several different tried-and-tested strategies for effective time
management—approaches that have become staples in the professional world. In this section you will read
about two more creative techniques that combine elements from these other methods to handle tasks when
time is scarce and long periods of time are a luxury you just do not have.
The concept behind this strategy is to break tasks into smaller, more manageable units that do not require as
much time to complete. As an illustration of how this might work, imagine that you are assigned a two-page
paper that is to include references. You estimate that to complete the paper—start to finish—would take you
between four and a half and five hours. You look at your calendar over the next week and see that there
simply are no open five-hour blocks (unless you decided to only get three hours of sleep one night). Rightly so,
you decide that going without sleep is not a good option. While looking at your calendar, you do see that you
can squeeze in an hour or so every night. Instead of trying to write the entire paper in one sitting, you break it
up into much smaller components as shown in the table below:
A P P L I C A T I O N
Try Three Time Management Strategies
Over the next two weeks, try each of these three methods to see which ones might work for you. Is there
one you favor over the others? Might each of these three approaches serve you better in different
situations or with different tasks? Do you have a creative alternative or possibly a way to use some
combination of these techniques?
In addition to these three strategies, you could also develop whole new approaches from suggestions
found earlier in this chapter. For example, you could apply some of the strategies for avoiding
procrastination or for setting appropriate priorities and see how they work in combination with these
techniques or on their own.
The key is to find which system works best for you.
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Breaking Down Projects into Manageable-Sized Tasks
Day/Time Task Time
Monday, 6:00 p.m. Write outline; look for references. 60 minutes
Tuesday, 6:00 p.m. Research references to support outline; look for good quotes. 60 minutes
Wednesday, 7:00 p.m. Write paper introduction and first page draft. 60 minutes
Thursday, 6:00 p.m. Write second page and closing draft. 60 minutes
Friday, 5:00 p.m. Rewrite and polish final draft. 60 minutes
Saturday, 10:00 a.m. Only if needed—finish or polish final draft. 60 minutes?
Table 3.8
Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday
8:00–10:00 Work Work
10:00–12:00 Algebra Work Algebra Work Algebra 10
a.m.–11
a.m.
Only if
needed
Work
12:00–2:00 Lunch/
study
1 p.m.
English
Comp
Lunch/study 1 p.m.
English
Comp
Lunch/study Family
picnic
Work
2:00–4:00 History English
Comp
History English
Comp
History Family
picnic
4:00–6:00 Study for
Algebra
quiz.
Grocery Study for
History
exam.
Study for
History
exam.
5 p.m.–6
p.m.
Rewrite and
polish final
draft.
Family
picnic
Laundry
Table 3.9
Chapter 3 Managing Your Time and Priorities 109
Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday
6:00–7:00 Write
outline;
look for
references.
Research
references
to support
outline;
look for
good
quotes.
Research
presentation
project.
Write
second page
and closing
draft
Create
presentation.
Meet
with
Darcy.
Prepare
school
stuff for
next
week.
7:00–8:00 Free time Free time Write paper
introduction
and first
page draft.
Research
presentation
project.
Create
presentation.
Free
time
Table 3.9
While this is a simple example, you can see how it would redistribute tasks to fit your available time in a way
that would make completing the paper possible. In fact, if your time constraints were even more rigid, it would
be possible to break these divided tasks down even further. You could use a variation of the Pomodoro
Technique and write for three 20-minute segments each day at different times. The key is to look for ways to
break down the entire task into smaller steps and spread them out to fit your schedule.
“Time management is probably one of the hardest things I had to pick up when I got to college. For
starters, I didn’t have anyone to come wake me up if I forgot to set an alarm or to tell me to get out of
bed so that I wouldn’t be late. I had to start placing my phone far away from my bed; so that way, I
would have to get out of bed in order to turn the alarm off. Accomplishing work on time can also be
difficult. It’s tough to find the fine balance between when you have to stay in and work on assignments
and when is acceptable to go out and do leisure activities.
“I learned the 8-8-8 rule. Every day you spend eight hours working on school work or going to class,
eight hours of free time to do what you want, and then eight hours to sleep at night so that you will get
enough rest. Sleep is crucial for time management. I learned very quickly that you cannot focus or be
productive if you are struggling to keep your head from falling over because you are so tired. Basically,
I’ve learned that if you want to be successful in college, then you have to be on top of your game when it
comes to time. It’s something thing you cannot make up once it’s gone.”
—Preston Allen, University of Central Arkansas
S T U D E N T P R O F I L E
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Analyzing Your Schedule and Creating Time to Work
Of all the strategies covered in this chapter, this one may require the most discipline, but it can also be the
most beneficial in time management. The fact is most of us waste time throughout the day. Some of it is due
to a lack of awareness, but it can also be caused by the constraints of our current schedules. An example of
this is when we have 15 to 20 minutes before we must leave to go somewhere. We don’t do anything with that
time because we are focused on leaving or where we are going, and we might not be organized enough to
accomplish something in that short of a time period. In fact, a good deal of our 24- hour days are spent a few
minutes at a time waiting for the next thing scheduled to occur. These small units of time add up to a fair
amount each day.
The intent of this strategy is to recapture those lost moments and use them to your advantage. This may take
careful observation and consideration on your part, but the results of using this as a method of time
management are more than worth it.
The first step is to look for those periods of time that are wasted or that can be repurposed. In order to
identify them, you will need to pay attention to what you do throughout the day and how much time you
spend doing it. The example of waiting for the next thing in your schedule has already been given, but there
are many others. How much time do you spend in activities after you have really finished doing them but are
still lingering because you have not begun to do something else (e.g., letting the next episode play while
binge-watching, reading social media posts or waiting for someone to reply, surfing the Internet, etc.)? You
might be surprised to learn how much time you use up each day by just adding a few unproductive minutes
here and there.
If you set a limit on how much time you spend on each activity, you might find that you can recapture time to
do other things. An example of this would be limiting yourself to reading news for 30 minutes. Instead of
reading the main things that interest you and then spending an additional amount of time just looking at
things that you are only casually interested in because that is what you are doing at the moment, you could
stop after a certain allotted period and use the extra time you have gained on something else.
After you identify periods of lost time, the next step will be to envision how you might restructure your
activities to bring those extra minutes together into useful blocks of time. Using the following scenario as an
illustration, we will see how this could be accomplished.
Chapter 3 Managing Your Time and Priorities 111
Figure 3.16 Sarah has to balance a lot of obligations.
On Tuesday nights, Sarah has a routine: After work, she does her shopping for the week (2 hours driving and
shopping) and then prepares and eats dinner (1 hour). After dinner, she spends time on homework (1 hour)
and catching up with friends, reading the news, and other Internet activities (1 hour), and then she watches
television or reads before going to bed (1 hour). While it may seem that there is very little room for
improvement in her schedule without cutting out something she enjoys, limiting the amount of time she
spends on each activity and rethinking how she goes about each task can make a significant difference.
In this story, Sarah’s Tuesday-night routine includes coming home from work, taking stock of which items in
her home she might need to purchase, and then driving to the store. While at the store, she spends time
picking out and selecting groceries as she plans for meals she will eat during the rest of the week. Then, after
making her purchases, she drives home. Instead, if she took the time to make a list and plan for what she
needed at the store before she arrived, she would not spend as much time looking for inspiration in each aisle.
Also, if she had a prepared list, not only could she quickly pick up each item, but she could stop at the store on
the way home from work, thus cutting out the extra travel time. If purchasing what she needed took 30
minutes less because she was more organized and she cut out an additional 20 minutes of travel time by
saving the extra trip to the store from her house, she could recapture a significant amount of her Tuesday
evening. If she then limited the time she spent catching up with friends and such to 30 minutes or maybe did
some of that while she prepared dinner, she would find that she had added almost an extra hour and a half to
the time available to her on that evening, without cutting out anything she needed to do or enjoys. If she
decided to spend her time on study or homework, this would more than double the time she previously had
available in her schedule for homework.
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Summary
This chapter began by pointing out the dangers of poor time management, both in cost and even the potential
risk to graduation. After presenting why time management is important, sections of the text covered how time
management for college can be different from what students may have experienced before. Following this, the
chapter contained several sections on how to effectively manage time (including predicting time on task), how
to use technology to your advantage, and how to prioritize tasks. Other topics included goal setting and
motivation, some specific strategies for time and task management, and avoiding procrastination.
Career Connection
Rick says: I’ve wanted to work in radio since I was in high school and had great opportunities in college to
learn at the campus station. I interned for a semester at a local Top 40 station and, after graduation, was
offered a position as the producer of the station’s morning show.
The only problem: I had to be at the radio station by 4:45 a.m. I couldn’t do it. I tried everything—alarms on
my phone, clock radio alarms, friends calling me. This is not a job you can be late for—dead air is a radio DJ’s
greatest nightmare. But no matter what I tried, I could not wake up on time. The third time I arrived late, the
radio station let me go.
Reflection question: How might you have handled the situation differently? How might this aspiring radio DJ
have managed his time differently to ensure he was not late for work?
For discussion: Is the Internet responsible for most of our wasted work time? Read through this article. What
do you think?
https://openstax.org/l/whowastestime
Rethinking
Revisit the questions you answered at the beginning of the chapter, and consider one option you learned in
this chapter that might change your answer to one of them.
1. I regularly procrastinate completing tasks that don’t interest me or seem challenging.
2. I use specific time management strategies to complete tasks.
3. I find it difficult to prioritize tasks because I am not sure what is really important.
A N A L Y S I S Q U E S T I O N
Reflection
Analysis: Identify areas in the way you spend your day where you may be able to recapture and
repurpose time. Are there things you can move around to gain more time? Are there ways you can
combine tasks or reduce travel time?
Chapter 3 Managing Your Time and Priorities 113
4. I am pleased with my ability to manage my time.
Where do you go from here?
Refining your time management skills based on an honest assessment is something that should never stop.
The benefits of good time management skills are something that will apply to the rest of your life. What would
you like to learn more about? Choose a topic from the list below, and create an annotated bibliography that
would direct further research.
• Psychological reasons for procrastinating
• Technology and social media as distractions
• Additional time management strategies
• Time management strategies that successful people use
114 Chapter 3 Managing Your Time and Priorities
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Chapter Outline
4.1 Defining Values and Setting Goals
4.2 Planning Your Degree Path
4.3 Making a Plan
4.4 Managing Change and the Unexpected
Introduction
Student Survey
How do you feel about your readiness to create an academic and life plan? These questions will help you
determine how the chapter concepts relate to you right now. As you are introduced to new concepts and
practices, it can be informative to reflect on how your understanding changes over time. We’ll revisit these
questions at the end of the chapter to see whether your feelings have changed. Take this quick survey to
figure it out, ranking questions on a scale of 1–4, 1 meaning “least like me” and 4 meaning “most like me.”
1. I have reflected on and can identify my personal values.
2. I have set both short- and long-term academic goals.
3. I am familiar with the requirements I must complete and options I must select to obtain a college degree.
4. I am familiar with the resources, tools, and individuals who can assist me in developing an effective plan
for success.
You can also take the Chapter 4 survey (https://openstax.org/l/collegesurvey04) anonymously online.
Figure 4.1 Credit: University of the Fraser Valley / Flickr / Attribution 2.0 Generic (CC-BY 2.0)
4
Planning Your Academic Pathways
https://openstax.org/l/collegesurvey04
About This Chapter
Among the most celebrated differences between high school and college is the freedom that students look
forward to when they complete their mandatory high school education and take up the voluntary pursuit of a
college degree. Though not every college freshman comes fresh from high school, those who do might be
looking forward to the freedom of moving away from home onto a campus or into an apartment. Others
might be excited about the potential to sleep in on a Monday morning and take their classes in the afternoon.
For others, balancing a class schedule with an already-busy life filled with work and other responsibilities may
make college seem less like freedom and more like obligation. In either case, and however they might imagine
their next experience to be, students can anticipate increased freedom of choice in college and the ability to
begin to piece together how their values, interests, and developing knowledge and skills will unfold into a
career that meets their goals and dreams.
In Chapter 3, Managing Your Time and Priorities, we cover how goal setting and prioritizing help you plan and
manage your time effectively. This chapter extends that discussion by recognizing that it can be challenging to
stay on task and motivated if you don’t see how those tasks fit into a larger plan. Even the freedom to choose
can become overwhelming without a plan to guide those choices. The goal of this chapter is to help you
develop the personal skills and identify the resources, tools, and support people to help you make sense of
your choices and formulate a personal academic and career plan. We will also consider how to take those first
steps toward making your plan a reality and what to do if or when you realize you’re off track from where you
had hoped to be.
By the time you complete this chapter, you should be able to do the following:
• Use your personal values to guide your decision-making, set short-term goals that build toward a long-
term goal, and plan how you will track progress toward your goals.
• List the types of college certificates, degrees, special programs, and majors you can pursue, as well as
general details about their related opportunities and requirements.
• Take advantage of resources to draft and track an academic plan.
• Recognize decision-making and planning as continuous processes, especially in response to unexpected
change.
“I came into my university with little to no knowledge about how to decide a college major. I can now say
with confidence that I have found the major for me! This was not an easy process though. It takes a lot
of reflection to decide where you will focus your time and energy for your college career. The most
important thing I had to consider was what major would provide me with learning outcomes that matter
the most to me? I switched my major three or four times and each time I weighed the pros and cons of
the major I was exiting and the one I was transitioning into. I decided to major in sociology and it has
been the best decision of my academic career! I value social awareness and deep understandings of
social phenomenon and sociology provided the course material necessary to place me on a path to
begin learning about those topics. As a first-generation and low-income student navigating college
pathways can be difficult. That is why it is so important to be open to change and set on learning what
you want to learn how to get yourself to the next step!”
—Drew Carter, Rice University
S T U D E N T P R O F I L E
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4.1 Defining Values and Setting Goals
Estimated completion time: 24 minutes.
Questions to consider:
• What beliefs help shape your decision-making and goals?
• How do you set manageable goals that will help you stay on track?
Figure 4.2 Figuring out the best major and your academic pathway can be confusing and challenging.
(Credit: Bruce Mars / Pexels)
“In every single thing you do, you are choosing a direction. Your life is a product of choices.”
— Dr. Kathleen Hall, CEO of the Stress Institute and Mindful Living Network[1]
A recent high school graduate, Mateo was considering his options for the future. He knew he wanted to go to
college, but he wasn’t quite sure what he would study. At a family picnic to celebrate his graduation, he talked
about his indecision with his two uncles. One uncle, his Uncle Nico, told him that his best bet was to find out
what types of jobs would be hiring in a couple years at high enough salary for Mateo to afford to live however
he desired. His other uncle, who rarely agreed with Uncle Nico, nodded and said, “Hey, that’s one way to look
at it, but don’t you want to enjoy what you do every day regardless of how much money you make? You should
do whatever interests you. After all, don’t they say that if you love what you do, you’ll never work a day in your
life?”
Mateo appreciated the advice of his uncles and realized that they might both be right. He wanted to do
something that interested him, but he also wanted to be employable and to make money. Clarifying his
interests and recognizing his values would be key to helping Mateo decide his path.
Values
Values are the basic beliefs that guide our thinking and actions. Whether we are consciously aware of them or
not, values influence both our attitudes and our actions. They help us determine what is important and what
1 Hall, Kathleen. Alter Your Life: Overbooked, Overworked, Overwhelmed? Oak Haven Press. Georgia. 2005.
Chapter 4 Planning Your Academic Pathways 117
makes us happy. It is important to think about and reflect on your values, especially as you make decisions.
Another way to recognize the important influence of values is to consider if you have ever made a decision
that you later regretted. Did you reflect on your values prior to making that choice? Sometimes others ask us
A C T I V I T Y
Determining Your Values
To begin to identify some of your personal values, consider the examples listed below. As a first step,
select the five that you find most important, that bring you the greatest happiness, or that make you feel
the most proud. Then, rank those five values in order of importance. Feel encouraged to write in other
options that are relevant to you.
Achievement Efficiency Hard Work Positivity
Adventure Empathy Health Security
Ambition Equality Honesty Selflessness
Balance Excellence Honor Service
Belonging Exploration Humility Simplicity
Calm Fairness Independence Spontaneity
Challenge Faith Intelligence Stability
Commitment Family Joy Strength
Community Fitness Justice Success
Competition Flexibility Love Trustworthiness
Contribution Freedom Loyalty Understanding
Control Friends Making a Difference Uniqueness
Creativity Fun Merit
Curiosity Generosity Openness
Dependability Growth Originality
Diversity Happiness Perfection
Table 4.1
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to do things that are inconsistent with our values. Knowing what you value and making plans accordingly is an
important effort to help you stay on track toward your goals.
Figure 4.3 Credit: Curt Smith / Flickr / Attribution 2.0 Generic (CC-BY 2.0)
Goals and Planning
Have you ever put together a jigsaw puzzle? Many people start by looking for the edge and corner pieces to
assemble the border. Some will then group pieces with similar colors, while others just try to fit in new pieces
as they pick them up. Regardless of strategy, a jigsaw puzzle is most easily solved when people have a picture
to reference. When you know what the picture should look like, you can gauge your progress and avoid
making mistakes. If you were to put a puzzle together facedown (cardboard side up, rather than picture side
up), you could still connect the pieces, but it would take you much longer to understand how it should fit
together. Your attempts, beyond the border, would be mostly by trial and error. Pursuing anything without
goals and a plan is like putting together an upside-down puzzle. You can still finish, or get to where you’re
meant to be, but it will take you much longer to determine your steps along the way.
In Chapter 3, you learned about the SMART goal method for setting actionable goals, or goals that are planned
and stated with enough clarity for the goal-setter to take realistic action toward meeting those goals. SMART
goals help you focus on your priorities and manage your time while also providing a means of organizing your
thinking and actions into manageable steps. Long- and short-term goals help to connect the action steps.
A N A L Y S I S Q U E S T I O N
Recall a decision that you have recently made (for example, a smaller decision about how to spend your
Saturday, or maybe a larger decision about where to apply for part-time work). Did the values you
identified through this exercise influence that decision? If so, how?
Chapter 4 Planning Your Academic Pathways 119
Long-Term Goals
Long-term goals are future goals that often take years to complete. An example of a long-term goal might be
to complete a bachelor of arts degree within four years. Another example might be purchasing a home or
running a marathon. While this chapter focuses on academic and career planning, long-term goals are not
exclusive to these areas of your life. You might set long-term goals related to fitness, wellness, spirituality, and
relationships, among many others. When you set a long-term goal in any aspect of your life, you are
demonstrating a commitment to dedicate time and effort toward making progress in that area. Because of
this commitment, it is important that your long-term goals are aligned with your values.
Short-Term Goals
Setting short-term goals helps you consider the necessary steps you’ll need to take, but it also helps to chunk
a larger effort into smaller, more manageable tasks. Even when your long-term goals are SMART, it’s easier to
stay focused and you’ll become less overwhelmed in the process of completing short-term goals.
You might assume that short-term and long-term goals are different goals that vary in the length of time they
take to complete. Given this assumption, you might give the example of a long-term goal of learning how to
create an app and a short-term goal of remembering to pay your cell phone bill this weekend. These are valid
goals, but they don’t exactly demonstrate the intention of short- and long-term goals for the purposes of
effective planning.
Instead of just being bound by the difference of time, short-term goals are the action steps that take less time
to complete than a long-term goal, but that help you work toward your long-term goals. To determine your
best degree option, it might make sense to do some research to determine what kind of career you’re most
interested in pursuing. Or, if you recall that short-term goal of paying your cell phone bill this weekend,
perhaps this short-term goal is related to a longer-term goal of learning how to better manage your
budgeting and finances.
Setting Long- and Short-Term Goals
Sunil’s story provides an example of effective goal setting. While meeting with an academic advisor at his
college to discuss his change of major, Sunil was tasked with setting long- and short-term goals aligned with
that major. He selected a degree plan in business administration, sharing with his advisor his intention to work
in business and hopefully human relations in particular. His advisor discussed with him how he could set
short-term goals that would help his progress on that plan. Sunil wondered if he should be as specific as
setting short-term goals week by week or for the successful completion of every homework assignment or
exam. His advisor shared that he could certainly break his goals down into that level of specificity if it helped
him to stay focused, but recommended that he start by outlining how many credits or courses he would hope
to complete. Sunil drafted his goals and planned to meet again with his advisor in another week to discuss.
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Figure 4.4 Sunil drafted his goals before meeting with his advisor to discuss them.
Sunil worried that his list of short-term goals looked more like a checklist of tasks than anything. His advisor
reassured him, sharing that short-term goals can absolutely look like a checklist of tasks because their
purpose is to break the long-term goal down into manageable chunks that are easier to focus on and
complete. His advisor then recommended that Sunil add to his plan an additional note at the end of every
other semester to “check in” with his advisor to make certain that he was on track.
Planning for Adjustments
You will recall from the SMART goals goal-setting model that goals should be both measurable and attainable.
Far too often, however, we set goals with the best of intentions but then fail to keep track of our progress or
adjust our short-term goals if they’re not helping us to progress as quickly as we’d like. When setting goals,
the most successful planners also consider when they will evaluate their progress. At that time, perhaps after
each short-term goal should have been met, they may reflect on the following:
1. Am I meeting my short-term goals as planned?
◦ If so, celebrate!
◦ If not, you may want to additionally consider:
2. Are my short-term goals still planned across time in a way where they will meet my long-term
goals?
◦ If so, continue on your path.
◦ If not, reconsider the steps you need to take to meet your long-term goal. If you’ve gotten off track
or if you’ve learned that other steps must be taken, set new short-term goals with timelines
appropriate to each step. You may also want to seek some additional advice from others who have
successfully met long-term goals that are similar to your own.
Chapter 4 Planning Your Academic Pathways 121
3. Are my long-term goals still relevant, or have my values changed since I set my goals?
◦ If your goals are still relevant to your interests and values, then continue on your path, seeking
advice and support as needed to stay on track.
◦ If your goals are no longer relevant or aligned with your values, give careful consideration to setting
new goals.
While departing from your original goals may seem like a failure, taking the time to reflect on goals before you
set them aside to develop new ones is a success. Pivoting from a goal to new, better-fitting goal involves
increased self-awareness and increased knowledge about the processes surrounding your specific goal (such
as the details of a college transfer, for example). With careful reflection and information seeking, your change
in plans may even demonstrate learning and increased maturity!
Keep in mind that values and goals may change over time as you meet new people, your life circumstances
change, and you gain more wisdom or self-awareness. In addition to setting goals and tracking your progress,
you should also periodically reflect on your goals to ensure their consistency with your values.
A P P L I C A T I O N
Take a moment to practice setting long- and short-term goals. Your short-term goal should help you
progress toward your long-term goal. Include a plan for when and how you will know if you’re on track
or if you need to adjust your goals to match new priorities.
My Long-Term Goal:
My Short-Term Goal:
My Plan for Checking My Progress:
Table 4.2
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4.2 Planning Your Degree Path
Estimated completion time: 32 minutes.
Questions to consider:
• What types of college degrees or certifications can I pursue?
• What is the difference between majors and minors?
• How do preprofessional programs differ from other majors?
• Do some majors have special requirements beyond regular coursework?
To set goals for your academic and career path, you must first have an understanding of the options available
for you to pursue and the requirements you will need to meet. The next section provides an overview of
academic programs and college degrees that are common among many colleges and universities in the
United States. Please note that each institution will have its own specific options and requirements, so the
intention of this section is both to help you understand your opportunities and to familiarize you with
language that colleges typically use to describe these opportunities. After reviewing this section, you should be
better able to formulate specific questions to ask at your school or be better prepared to navigate and search
your own college’s website.
Types of Degrees
Whereas in most states high school attendance through the 12th grade is mandatory, or compulsory, a college
degree may be pursued voluntarily. There are fields that do not require a degree. Bookkeeping, computer
repair, massage therapy, and childcare are all fields where certification programs—tracks to study a specific
subject or career without need of a complete degree—may be enough.
However, many individuals will find that an associate’s or bachelor’s degree is a requirement to enter their
desired career field. According to United States Census data published in 2017, more than one-third of the
adult population in the country has completed at least a bachelor’s degree, so this may be the degree that is
most familiar to you.
A N A L Y S I S Q U E S T I O N
Now that you’ve set some goals, what is your plan to track your progress on those goals? Can you
identify a time you will set aside to intentionally reflect on your progress and whether you need to set
any new short-term goals or perhaps adjust your larger plans?
Chapter 4 Planning Your Academic Pathways 123
Figure 4.5 The number of American’s receiving Bachelor’s degrees has increased significantly. While not
every job requires one, the level of overall education required for most careers continues to go up. (Credit: US
Department of Commerce / Public Domain)
Not every job requires a bachelor’s degree, and some require even higher degrees or additional specialized
certifications. As you develop your academic plan, it is important to research your field of interest to see what
requirements might be necessary or most desirable.
124 Chapter 4 Planning Your Academic Pathways
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Require Associate’s
Degrees
Require Bachelor’s Degrees Require Additional
Certifications
Require Graduate
Degrees
Radiology
Technician
Nurse Public School Teacher Lawyer
Dental Hygienist Computer/Information
Systems Manager
Accountant College or University
Professor
Web Developer Airline Pilot Financial Advisor Pharmacist
Graphic Designer Electrical Engineer Marriage and Family
Therapist
Automotive
Technician
Construction Manager Occupational
Therapist
Table 4.3 Example Jobs by Minimum Degree Qualification[2]
To distinguish between the types of degrees, it is useful to understand that courses are often assigned a
number of credits, sometimes called semester hours as well. Credits relate to the calculated hours during a
course that a student spends interacting with the instructor and/or the course material through class time,
laboratory time, online discussions, homework, etc. Courses at all degree levels are typically assigned a value
of one to six credits, although students often need to complete a developmental education course or two,
often in English or math. These requirements, which cost as much as typical college courses but do not grant
college credit, are meant to provide some basic information students may have missed in high school but that
will be necessary to keep up in college-level coursework.
The minimum or maximum number of credits required to graduate with different degrees varies by state or
institution, but approximate minimum numbers of credits are explained below. Keep in mind that although a
minimum number of credits must be completed to get a certain degree, total credits completed is not the only
consideration for graduation—you must take your credits or courses in particular subjects indicated by your
college.
To determine your best degree option, it might make sense to do some research to determine what kind of
career you’re most interested in pursuing. Visit your campus career center to meet with a counselor to guide
you through this process. These services are free to students—similar services can be pricey once you’ve
graduated, so take advantage. There are other tools online you can investigate.
G E T C O N N E C T E D
These free, online self-assessments help you narrow down your choices.
2 Minimum degree qualifications may vary by state.
Chapter 4 Planning Your Academic Pathways 125
Associate’s Degrees
To enter an associate’s degree program, students must have a high school diploma or its equivalent.
Associate’s degree programs may be intended to help students enter a technical career field, such as
automotive technology, graphic design, or entry-level nursing in some states. Such technical programs may be
considered an Associate of Applied Arts (AAA) or Associate of Applied Science (AAS) degrees, though there are
other titles as well.
Other associate’s degree programs are intended to prepare a student with the necessary coursework to
transfer into a bachelor’s degree program upon graduation. These transfer-focused programs usually require
similar general education and foundational courses that a student would need in the first half of a bachelor’s
degree program. Transfer-focused associate’s degrees may be called Associate of Arts (AA) or Associate of
Science (AS), or other titles, depending on the focus of study.
Figure 4.6 Air traffic controllers are extremely important and well-paid jobs that typically require an
associates degree. (Credit: Expert Infantry / Flickr / Attribution 2.0 Generic (CC-BY 2.0))
An associate’s degree is typically awarded when a student has completed a minimum of 60 credits,
approximately 20 courses, meeting the requirements of a specific degree. Some technical associate’s degrees,
such as nursing, may require additional credits in order to meet requirements for special certifications. You
may find that your college or university does not offer associate’s degrees. Most associate’s degrees are
offered by community or junior colleges, or by career and technical colleges.
• MyPlan (https://openstax.org/l/valuesassessment) identifies your motivations by having you rank
different aspects of work, then creating a ranked list of different possible jobs.
• MAPP Test (https://openstax.org/l/MAPPassessment) helps you determine what you love to do and
what you don’t love to do and then creates a list of jobs that might be a good fit for you.
• The Career Cluster Interest Survey (https://openstax.org/l/clustersurvey) is a quick tool to let you
create career clusters based on personal qualities and school subjects and activities you especially
enjoy.
126 Chapter 4 Planning Your Academic Pathways
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https://openstax.org/l/valuesassessment
https://openstax.org/l/MAPPassessment
https://openstax.org/l/clustersurvey
Bachelor’s Degrees
When someone generally mentions “a college degree,” they are often referring to the bachelor’s degree, or
baccalaureate degree. Because it takes four years of full-time attendance to complete a bachelor’s degree, this
degree is also referred to as a “four-year degree.” Similar to an associate’s degree, to enter a bachelor’s
degree program a student must have completed a high school diploma or its equivalent. Both associate’s
degrees and bachelor’s degrees are considered undergraduate degrees, thus students working toward these
degrees are often called undergraduates. A student with an associate’s degree may transfer that degree to
meet some (usually half) of the requirements of a bachelor’s degree; however, completion of an associate’s
degree is not necessary for entry into a bachelor’s degree program.
A bachelor’s degree is usually completed with a minimum of 120 credits, or approximately 40 courses. Some
specialized degree programs may require more credits. (If an associate’s degree has been transferred, the
number of credits from that degree usually counts toward the 120 credits. For example, if an associate’s
degree was 60 credits, then a student must take 60 additional credits to achieve their bachelor’s degree.)
Bachelor of Arts (BA), Bachelor of Science (BS), Bachelor of Science in Nursing (BSN), and Bachelor of Fine Arts
(BFA) are the most popular degree titles at this level and differ primarily in their focus on exploring a broader
range of subject areas, as with a BA, versus focusing in more depth on a particular subject, as with a BS, BSN,
or BFA. Regardless of whether a student is pursuing a BA, BS, BSN, or BFA, each of these programs requires a
balance of credits or courses in different subject areas. In the United States, a bachelor’s degree comprises
courses from three categories: general education courses, major courses, and electives. A fourth category of
courses would be those required for a minor, which we will discuss in more detail in the section on majors and
minors.
A C T I V I T Y
What to Ask
If you’re planning your associate’s degree, here are some specific questions you may want to research.
If you intend to enter a technical career that requires special certification:
• Does your college prepare you to take a certification exam, or will you be meeting those
requirements through your courses?
• Does your college have any special internship or employment placement arrangements with
employers to help you gain experience or get started in the field?
If you intend to transfer upon graduation:
• Is your college regionally accredited?
• Does your college have any special transfer agreements for guaranteed transfer of credits or
perhaps for discounted tuition?
• Does your state have special transfer agreements or requirements that make it easier to transfer to
colleges or universities within the same state?
Chapter 4 Planning Your Academic Pathways 127
General Education
General education, also called core curriculum, is a group of courses that are often set as requirements by your
state or by your individual college. These courses provide you with a foundation of knowledge across a
breadth of fields and are also intended to help you further develop college-level critical-thinking and problem-
solving abilities. You may be able to select courses from a general education menu of courses available at your
institution. More than half of your bachelor’s degree program is likely made up of general education courses.
English composition
Humanities courses that study our beliefs and the expression of our beliefs such as literature, philosophy,
politics, art, or religious studies
Social science courses that study our behavior such as psychology, sociology, anthropology, or economics
Laboratory science courses such as biology, chemistry, physics, and environmental science
Mathematics
Technology or computer skills
Foreign language, diversity, or global studies courses that provide introduction to different cultures or
global social issues and promote cultural awareness
College success or first-year experience courses that provide introduction to your specific institution,
discuss college-level expectations and skills, and/or provide assistance with academic and career planning
Table 4.4 General Education Categories. While your college may use different labels, general education
courses often include a selection of courses from these categories.
Major Courses
Major courses are courses in your field of interest and provide you with the foundational knowledge required
for further study in that field or with the skills necessary to enter your career. Some schools may refer to these
as career studies courses. Major courses often have a series of prerequisites, or courses that must be taken in
sequence prior to other courses, starting with an introductory course and progressing into more depth. Major
courses usually make up about a fourth or more of a bachelor’s degree (30 credits, or approximately 10
courses). A BS or BFA degree may require more major courses than a BA degree. Colleges and universities
usually require students to select a major by the time they’ve completed 30 total credits.
Electives
Electives are free-choice courses. Though you may have a choice to select from a menu of options to meet
general education and major requirements, electives are even less restricted. Some students may be able to
take more electives than others due to their choice of major or if they are able to take courses that meet more
than one requirement (for example, a sociology course may be both a major requirement and a general
education social science course). Some colleges intentionally allow room for electives in a program to ensure
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that students, particularly those students who are undecided about their major, are able to explore different
programs without exceeding the total number of credits required to graduate with a bachelor’s degree. In
other cases, students may have taken all of their major courses and fulfilled their general education
requirements but still need additional credits to fulfill the minimum to graduate. The additional courses taken
to meet the total credit requirement (if necessary) are considered electives.
Graduate Degrees
According to United States Census data published in 2018, 13.1 percent of the U.S. adult population have
completed advanced degrees.[3] Whereas associate’s and bachelor’s degrees are considered undergraduate
degrees and require high school graduation for entry, advanced degrees called graduate degrees require
prior completion of a bachelor’s degree. Some professions require graduate degrees as a minimum job
qualification, such as pharmacists, lawyers, physical therapists, psychologists, and college professors. In other
cases, students may be motivated to pursue a graduate degree to obtain a higher-level job or higher salary, or
to be more competitive in their field. Some students are also interested in learning about some subject in
greater depth than they did at the undergraduate level. Because graduate degrees do not include general
education or free elective courses, they are very focused on career-specific knowledge and skills. Graduate
degrees include master’s, doctoral, and professional degrees. Master’s degrees often require 30–60 credits and
take one to two years of full-time attendance to complete. Some master’s degrees, like those for counselors,
require supervised job experience as a component of the degree and therefore require more credits.
Figure 4.7 Pharmacists and related scientific or medical careers require master’s degrees. (Credit: US
Department of Agriculture / Flickr / Public Domain)
Doctorate and professional degrees are the highest level of advanced degrees. Approximately 3.5% of the U.S.
adult population has completed a doctorate or professional degree. Very few careers require this level of
education for entry, so fewer individuals pursue these degrees. Doctorates are offered in many subjects and
primarily prepare students to become researchers in their field of study. This in-depth level of education often
3 United States Census Bureau. (2019, February 21). Number of People with Master’s and Doctoral Degrees Doubles Since 2000. Retrieved
from: https://www.census.gov/library/stories/2019/02/number-of-people-with-masters-and-phd-degrees-double-since-2000.html
Chapter 4 Planning Your Academic Pathways 129
requires an additional 90–120 credits beyond the bachelor’s degree, and may or may not require a master’s
degree prior to entry. (A master’s degree as an entry requirement may reduce the number of credits required
to complete the doctoral degree.)
Professional degrees are a specific type of doctorate-level degree that focus on skills to be applied in a
practical, or hands-on, career rather than as a researcher. The most common professional degrees are Doctor
of Medicine (MD) for aspiring medical doctors, Juris Doctor (JD) for aspiring lawyers, Doctor of Pharmacy
(PharmD) for aspiring pharmacists, and Doctor of Education (EdD) for aspiring school and college or university
administrators. If the career you are pursuing requires a graduate degree, you should keep this end goal in
mind as you plan for the timeline and finances required to meet your goals. You may also want to inquire
about special agreements that your college or university may have to expedite admission into or completion of
graduate degrees. For example, some universities offer 4+1 master’s programs, wherein students take both
bachelor’s and master’s level courses during their last year as an undergraduate to accelerate the completion
of both degrees.
Other Post-Baccalaureate Credentials
Post-baccalaureate refers to structured learning experiences pursued after a bachelor’s degree is achieved.
While some such activities are structured into graduate degrees as described in the sections above, other
fields value continuing education credits, competency badges, and additional certifications. These post-
baccalaureate credentials may need to be completed prior to entering a career field, may be obtained as an
option to gain competitive advantage for hiring, or may be achieved during the course of an individual’s
career to stay current, maintain qualification, or be promoted. To determine if your field requires post-
baccalaureate credentials, you may want to speak with an established professional in that career, review the
qualifications section of related job descriptions, or visit with a career counselor on your campus. In a world
that changes as rapidly as ours, engaging in lifelong learning is advisable regardless of the specific
requirements of any particular career choice.
Figure 4.8 Some computing, networking, and database careers require post-baccalaureate certificates.
(Credit: WOCinTechChat / Flickr / Attribution 2.0 Generic (CC-BY 2.0))
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Figure 4.9 This example timeline for a nuclear medicine technician spaces different types of courses across
four semesters. Note that some courses may be prerequisites for other courses and experiences. For example,
Introduction to Nuclear Medicine, Patient Care, and a Field Observation may be required before students
engage in the formal Clinical in Semester 3. When planning, look at each course description in the college
catalog to understand its prerequisites.
Majors and Minors
One of the most common questions an undergraduate college student will be asked is “What’s your major?”
As we already noted, your major is only one part of your undergraduate (associate’s or bachelor’s) degree, but
it is the part that most demonstrates your interests and possible future goals. At some point during your
A C T I V I T Y
Draft an Education Timeline
Use the Bureau of Labor Statistics online Occupational Outlook Handbook (https://www.openstax.org/l/
OOH) to search for occupations that interest you, and note the level of education that these jobs require.
Refer to your college’s academic catalog (frequently located on the college’s website) or curriculum
maps to see the suggested sequence of courses for majors that relate to your career or careers of
interest.
Select three interesting jobs and sketch a timeline for each, starting with your first semester of
undergraduate study (whether you’re getting an associate’s or a bachelor’s) and ending with the point
when you will meet the minimum requirements to be qualified for that job. Keep in mind that the
timeline of students attending full-time may differ from those who are attending part-time.
Chapter 4 Planning Your Academic Pathways 131
https://www.openstax.org/l/OOH
https://www.openstax.org/l/OOH
studies you will be asked to decide on, or declare, a major. You may also be able to select a minor or additional
concentration. Whereas a major comprises approximately 10–12 courses of a bachelor’s degree program and
is required, a minor is usually 5–8 courses, is often optional, and may count toward or contribute to exceeding
the total number of credits required for graduation. Rather than take elective courses, some students will
select courses that meet the requirements for a minor. When selecting a major and possibly a minor, you’ll
want to consider how the knowledge and skills you gain through those fields of study prepare you for a
particular career. Majors and minors can be complementary. For example, a major in business might be well-
matched with a minor in a foreign language, thus allowing the student to pursue a career in business with a
company that hires bilingual employees. It is important to research careers of interest to you when selecting
your major and/or minor to determine what will best help you to meet your goals.
Figure 4.10 Many majors, such nursing, allied health, and emergency medical technician, may include
simulations and other activities to expose students to the real-world activities of their field. (Credit: COD
Newsroom / Flickr / Attribution 2.0 Generic (CC-BY 2.0))
Preprofessional Programs
Some undergraduate degrees are specifically designed to prepare students to later pursue professional
degrees (such as the MD or PharmD) at the graduate level. Such programs are called preprofessional programs,
preprofessional majors, or preprofessional tracks. The most common preprofessional programs are premed,
prelaw, and prepharmacy, but you may see other offerings. Although some preprofessional programs are
structured as majors that you can declare, many preprofessional programs are a sequence of recommended
courses and activities that a student can follow alongside a related major. While following a preprofessional
program may not guarantee your admittance to a professional program, it does increase the likelihood of
132 Chapter 4 Planning Your Academic Pathways
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acceptance to and preparation for a graduate professional program.
Consider Loretta’s story as an example of how a student might be on a preprofessional track. Loretta has
decided that she would like to become a medical doctor. She has declared biology as her major and is taking
the courses required to graduate with a bachelor of science degree in biology. Her university does not have a
premed major, but it does have a premed track. She informs her academic advisor of her career goals, and her
advisor provides her information about the premed track. The premed track includes a list of courses that
students should take to prepare for the medical school entrance exams, called MCATs. Some of these courses
are biology courses that overlap with Loretta’s biology major, while others are higher-level chemistry courses
that are not required for her major. She can take these chemistry courses, and any other premed-track
courses, as her elective courses. The premed track at Loretta’s university includes opportunities to attend
MCAT study workshops and premed student club meetings. It also provides recommendations for summer
volunteering and internships that will strengthen Loretta’s resume and application to medical school following
the completion of her bachelor’s degree.
Special Requirements of Majors
While preprofessional programs prepare students for entrance into graduate professional degree programs,
some undergraduate majors involve special requirements beyond the usual courses and classroom experience
to prepare students for entrance to their career. Such requirements provide students practical experience or
prerequisites for licensure necessary for a particular job. When requirements are major-specific, it is often
because the requirement is state-mandated for that job. Majors that often include state-mandated special
requirements are education, social work, and nursing. Some colleges and universities may require all students
to participate in additional experiences beyond their regular coursework. You will want to ask your college
about details specific to your major or institution. In this section we will generally discuss four such special
requirements and experiences: fieldwork and internships, clinicals, student teaching, and service learning.
Fieldwork and Internships
Fieldwork and internships may also be referred to as practicums and field experience. These requirements
provide hands-on work experience in a career, or field. When fieldwork or internships are required for your
major, such as with a social work major, it is often listed as a course requirement among your major
requirements. In other words, you usually receive credits for your fieldwork as you would for a lab or lecture
course. Your fieldwork instructor will likely ask you to reflect on and report on your experiences. They will likely
confer with a supervisor at your fieldwork site, the place where you are working, to help assess your hands-on
learning. Fieldwork and internships provide students with opportunities to practice the skills they’ve learned in
the classroom while also introducing them to the values and culture of the organizations and communities in
which they hope to be employed. It is important to note that fieldwork and internship experiences are often
available to students even if they are not required for their major. You may want to inquire with your academic
advisors, faculty, or career services office to determine what opportunities might be available for you to gain
this type of experience in your field of interest.
Clinicals
Clinicals are a type of fieldwork specifically required of nursing students. Clinicals may take place in hospitals,
nursing homes, or mental health facilities. They provide nursing students who are nearing the end of their
Chapter 4 Planning Your Academic Pathways 133
degree programs with the opportunity to practice nursing skills that cannot be learned in a regular classroom.
During clinicals, students will interact with real patients to conduct physical examinations, draw blood,
administer medicine, and provide other care as necessary. Because of the risk to patients, students
participating in clinicals are more closely supervised by experienced professionals than those in other types of
fieldwork experiences. Thus, clinicals function very much like a real-world classroom and progress to more
independent work through the semester. Before undertaking clinicals, nursing students will need to complete
certain coursework and pass a physical examination and background check. Because clinicals are often much
longer than a class meeting, students will need to work with staff from the program to plan their schedule. It
may not be feasible to work at another job while completing clinicals, so if you must work while you’re in
college, it’s important to discuss this with nursing staff or academic advisors and to plan ahead.
Student Teaching
Student teaching is a specific type of fieldwork undertaken by students who plan to teach at the preschool,
elementary, or middle and high school levels. Education students are often required to complete a student
teaching experience in order to obtain a teaching license in their state. Students must often complete core
education coursework prior to student teaching and must complete a background check prior to placement in
a school setting. During their student teaching experience, students are usually paired one-on-one with an
experienced teacher and have the opportunity to observe that teacher, get to know the students, understand
the classroom culture, and participate in lessons as a teaching assistant as needed or appropriate. Much like
nursing clinicals, this highly supervised fieldwork experience usually progresses to more independent work
when the student teacher is asked to deliver and reflect on a lesson plan of their own design. Keep in mind as
you plan for student teaching that unlike other fieldwork experiences, student teaching is limited to fall or
spring semesters and cannot be completed in the summer because most schools are closed during the
summer terms. Also, it may not be feasible to work at another job while completing your student teaching
experience, so if you must work while you’re in college, it’s important to discuss this with your program staff
or academic advisors and to plan ahead.
Figure 4.11 Student teaching is an extremely important aspect of becoming a K-12 educator. The experience
helps future teachers practice their skills and understand the complexity of working in the classroom. (Credit:
seansinnit / Flickr / Attribution 2.0 Generic (CC-BY 2.0))
134 Chapter 4 Planning Your Academic Pathways
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Service Learning
While service learning may not be required of a specific major, you may see this special requirement for a
course or as a general graduation requirement for your college or university. It’s also an excellent opportunity
to try out something that interests you, something that could lead to or be part of your eventual career.
Service learning is very much like volunteering or community service. The purpose of service learning is to
interact with and meet the needs of your local community. Service learning does differ from volunteering in
that it is more structured to meet specific learning goals. For example, if you were engaging in service learning
for an environmental science course, your activities would likely be focused on local environmental issues. Or,
if you were engaging in service learning for a sociology course, you would likely be working with local
community groups or organizations not only to assist these organizations, but also to observe how groups
interact. Like fieldwork, service learning provides you an opportunity to observe and apply concepts learned in
the classroom in a real-world setting. Students are often asked to reflect on their service learning activities in
the context of what they’ve been learning in class, so if you’re engaged in service learning, be thinking about
how the activities you do relate to what you’ve learned and know.
W H A T S T U D E N T S S A Y
1. Does your major have any special requirements that must be completed outside of the classroom?
a. Fieldwork, internships, and/or student teaching
b. Clinicals
c. Other (write in)
d. None
2. While in college, which of the following do you think you are most likely to do?
a. Internship
b. Part-time job
c. Full-time job
d. Study Abroad
3. What has influenced your academic and career plan the most? (rank order)
a. The advice of friends and/or family
b. The practical, hands-on experiences I’ve had outside of the classroom
c. The knowledge and skills I’ve learned in class
d. The advice I’ve gotten from mentors, advisors, or college faculty
You can also take the anonymous What Students Say (https://openstax.org/l/collegesurvey1-5) surveys
to add your voice to this textbook. Your responses will be included in updates.
Students offered their views on these questions, and the results are displayed in the graphs below.
Does your major have any special requirements that must be completed outside of the classroom?
Chapter 4 Planning Your Academic Pathways 135
https://openstax.org/l/collegesurvey1-5
Figure 4.12
While in college, which of the following do you think you are most likely to do?
Figure 4.13
What has influenced your academic and career plan the most?
136 Chapter 4 Planning Your Academic Pathways
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4.3 Making a Plan
Estimated completion time: 28 minutes.
Questions to consider:
• What resources are available to help me understand my degree program requirements?
• Who can assist me in making a plan?
• What tools are available to help me develop and track the progress of my plan?
• Is there anything else I can do now to plan for after I graduate?
As previously noted, most associate’s degrees require a minimum of 60 credit hours for completion, and
bachelor’s degrees minimally require a total of 120 credits. Some individuals refer to these degrees as “two-
year” and “four-year” degrees, respectively. To complete a 60-credit associate’s degree in two years, you
would need to take 15 credits (about five classes) in the fall and spring semesters during both years of your
attendance. To complete a 120-credit bachelor’s degree in four years, you would need to take 15 credits in the
fall and spring semesters each of your four years. It is therefore entirely possible to complete these degrees in
two and four years, particularly if you use the three primary resources that colleges provide to help you with
your planning: curriculum maps, academic advisors, and interactive planning technology.
Curriculum Maps
Many colleges and universities will provide curriculum maps, or course checklists to illustrate the sequence of
courses necessary to follow this timeline. These timelines often assume that you are ready to take college-level
math and English courses and that you will be attending college as a full-time student. If placement tests
demonstrate a need for prerequisite math and English coursework to get you up to speed, your timeline will
likely be longer.
Many students attend college part-time, often because of family or work responsibilities. This will obviously
have an impact on your completion timeline as well. Programs that have special requirements may also
require that you plan for additional time. For example, it may be the case that you cannot take other courses
Figure 4.14
Chapter 4 Planning Your Academic Pathways 137
while completing clinicals or student teaching, so you will need to plan accordingly. Alternatively, you may be
able to speed up, or accelerate, your timeline to degree by taking courses during summer or winter terms. Or if
you take fewer than 15 credits per semester, you can take courses during the summer terms to “make up”
those credits and stay on track toward those two- or four-year graduation goals.[4]
Academic Advisors
All colleges and universities provide resources such as a curriculum map to assist you with your academic
planning. Academic advisors may also be called success coaches, mentors, preceptors, or counselors. They
may be staff members, or faculty may provide advisement as an additional role to their teaching
responsibilities. Regardless of what your college calls this role, academic advisors are individuals who are able
to assist you in navigating the puzzle of your academic plan and piecing your courses and requirements
together with your other life obligations to help you meet your goals.
An advisor is an expert on college and major requirements and policies, while you are the expert on your life
circumstances and your ability to manage your study time and workload. It is also an advisor’s responsibility to
understand the details of your degree requirements. This person can teach you how to best utilize college
resources to make decisions about your academic and career path. An advisor can help you connect with other
college staff and faculty who might be integral to supporting your success. Together with your advisor, you
can create a semester-by-semester plan for the courses you will take and the special requirements you will
meet. Refer to the end of this section for a detailed planning template that you could use in this process. Even
if your college does not require advising, it is wise to meet with your advisor every semester to both check
your progress and learn about new opportunities that might lend you competitive advantage in entering your
career.
Common Functions of Academic Advisors
Academic advisors can help you:
• Set educational and career goals
• Select a major and/or minor
• Understand the requirements of your degree
• Navigate the online tools that track the progress of your degree
• Calculate your GPA and understand how certain choices may impact your GPA
• Discuss your academic progress from semester to semester
• Assist with time management strategies
• Connect with other support and resources at the college such as counseling, tutoring, and career services
• Navigate institutional policies such as grade appeals, admission to special programs, and other concerns
• Strategize how to make important contacts with faculty or other college administrators and staff as
necessary (such as discussing how to construct professional emails)
• Discuss transfer options, if applicable
• Prepare for graduate school applications
4 Brookdale Community College Office of Career and Leadership Development. (2016). Your Career Checklist. Retrieved from:
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Interactive Planning Technology
In addition to a curriculum map and an advisor, colleges and universities usually have technological tools that
can assist you in your academic planning. Degree audit reporting systems, for example, are programmed to
align with degree requirements and can track individual student progress toward completion. They function
like an interactive checklist of courses and special requirements. Student planning systems often allow
students to plan multiple semesters online, to register for planned courses, and to track the progress of their
plan. Though friends and family are well-intentioned in providing students with planning advice and can
provide important points for students to consider, sometimes new students make the mistake of following
advice without consulting their college’s planning resources. It’s important to bring all of these resources
together as you craft your individual plan.
Despite all of the resources and planning assistance that is available to you, creating an individual plan can still
be a daunting task. Making decisions about which major to pursue, when to take certain courses, and whether
to work while attending school may all have an impact on your success, and it is tough to anticipate what to
expect when you’re new to college. Taking the time to create a plan and to revise it when necessary is essential
to making well-informed, mindful decisions. Spur-of-the-moment decisions that are not well-informed can
have lasting consequences to your progress.
The key to making a mindful decision is to first be as informed as possible about your options. Make certain
that you have read the relevant resources and discussed the possibilities with experts at your college. Then
you’ll want to weigh your options against your values and goals. You might ask: Which option best fits my
values and priorities? What path will help me meet my goals in the timeframe I desire? What will be the impact
of my decision on myself or on others? Being well-informed, having a clear sense of purpose, and taking the
necessary time to make a thoughtful decision will help to remove the anxiety associated with making the
“right” decision, and help you make the best decision for you.
A P P L I C A T I O N
Academic Planning Readiness Checklist: Review the checklist below and mark each item if you agree.
For those you cannot yet answer, consult your instructor, academic advisor, or college website to locate
these important details.
1. I know the total number of credits required to graduate from my program.
2. I know the difference between general education, major, and elective classes.
3. I know whether I am required to take preparatory or developmental courses in math and English,
and whether these courses will count among my total credits toward my degree.
4. I am aware of the special requirements of my major (if any) and the prerequisites I must complete.
5. I am aware of the minimum entry requirements for my desired career field and know whether I
should be preparing to plan for a graduate degree as well.
Chapter 4 Planning Your Academic Pathways 139
Figure 4.15 This sample of an academic plan was completed with the help of a college advisor. Below you’ll
find a blank template that you can use (or adapt) for your own plan.
A C T I V I T Y
Draft an Academic Plan
With the assistance of your instructor or academic advisor, find the curriculum map for your major or for
an example major that you might be considering if you’re still exploring. Use the information in the
curriculum map to draft an academic plan for your undergraduate degree. This plan should include both
a semester-by-semester sequence of courses and a list of related activities to help you progress toward
your career or graduate school goals. Keep in mind any personal circumstances that may impact your
plan (such as whether you’ll need to attend part-time or full-time). You may use the grid provided or
utilize your college’s student planning software if available. For your reference, you will find the start of
an example grid from a dedicated environmental science student below.
Note: If your college offers courses using the quarter system rather than semesters, you may need to
draft your own grid. You can find example planning grids for quarter systems online.
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Figure 4.16 This two-year version of the planning document may need to be adopted for colleges operating
on a quarter, trimester, or other schedule. (Downloadable versions are available at OpenStax.org.)
Chapter 4 Planning Your Academic Pathways 141
Planning for After Graduation
Students usually pursue a college degree with some additional end goal in mind, whether that goal is further
study as a graduate student or entry into a desired career. As you develop a plan for your undergraduate
studies, you can also plan pursuits outside of the classroom to prepare for these future goals. To begin
planning for life after graduation, consider the experiences that would best complement your coursework. If
you are not required to participate in fieldwork or internships, perhaps you could plan a summer internship to
help you gain workplace experience and learn more about what you do and do not want to do. It is also
valuable to gain leadership experience through participation in student clubs and organizations. Plan to find a
club that matches your interests. Set a goal to attend regularly your first year and then run for a club
leadership role in your second or third year.
Figure 4.17 Graduation is a significant milestone, both for students and often for their families, friends, and
support networks. A good academic plan will help you reach this important step, and then go far beyond it.
(Credit: COD Newsroom / Flickr / Attribution 2.0 Generic (CC-BY 2.0))
Even before you begin an internship or career search in earnest, sites like Internships.com
(https://www.internships.com) can be helpful simply to explore the possibilities and get ideas. Often, a
dedicated career-oriented website will provide more filtered and specific information than a general search
engine.
Consult with services or offices at your college that can assist with you with making your future plans and
incorporating experiences into your academic plan that will prepare you to enter your career. These services
are often accessible both to current students as well as to graduates, providing assistance with résumé writing
and job searches. Chapter 12: Planning for Your Future provides further insight into career planning and
college career services.
Alumni associations help graduates connect with other former students of all ages so that they can begin to
build and strengthen their professional networks, leading to further job opportunities. And don’t discount the
role of your professors in helping you build your network as well! In addition to providing valuable letters of
recommendation for both graduate school and job applications, professors often have well-established
professional networks and may be willing to help connect dedicated students with additional opportunities.
You can plan these experiences to be distributed across your academic semesters and during the summer.
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https://www.internships.com
https://www.internships.com
Exploring Options
• Locate and visit your career services office on campus to discover what services are available.
• Take a career assessment that matches your values, interests, and skills to career options.
• Join a student organization.
• Seek volunteer opportunities to gain additional skills.
• Research trends and salary expectations for careers of interest.
Gain Experience
• Develop relationships with faculty by visiting during office hours and speaking to them after class.
• Network with employers by attending career fairs.
• Pursue an internship or part-time employment that is relevant to your field of interest.
• Take a leadership role on campus or in a student organization.
• Practice for interviews with friends or career counselors.
Document Experiences
• Begin your resume and continuously update it to include new experiences.
• Create a LinkedIn profile.
• Review and monitor your social media accounts through the lens of a potential employer.
• Solidify relationships with faculty and ask about letters of recommendation.
• Draft additional job application materials, such as cover letters.
• Seek assistance from career counselors on campus in reviewing your resumes/cover letters/portfolios.
Table 4.5 Prepare for Your Career While in College
This Draft an Academic Plan activity provides you an opportunity to consider and plan experiences alongside
your coursework that could help you better prepare to meet your career goals. Also, the chapter on Planning
Your Career goes into these topics in more depth.
4.4 Managing Change and the Unexpected
Estimated completion time: 18 minutes.
Questions to consider:
• What happens if things don’t go according to plan?
• How can I make adjustments to my plan if things change?
• Is it OK to ask for planning help, and from whom?
Though we’ve discussed planning in a great degree of detail, the good news is that you don’t have to have it
all figured out in order to be successful. Recall the upside-down puzzle analogy from earlier in this chapter.
You can still put a puzzle together picture-side down by fitting together the pieces with trial and error.
Similarly, you can absolutely be successful in your academic and career life even if you don’t have it all figured
out. It will be especially important to keep this in mind as circumstances change or things don’t go according
to your original plan.
Chapter 4 Planning Your Academic Pathways 143
Consider Elena’s and Ray’s stories as examples.
Elena had always intended to go to college. It was her goal to become a nurse like her grandmother. She
decided that the best path would be to complete her BSN degree at a state university nearby. She researched
the program, planned her bachelor’s degree semester by semester, and was very excited to work with real
patients while completing her clinicals! During her second year, Elena’s grandmother fell ill and needed more
regular care. Elena made the difficult decision to stop-out of her program to help care for her grandmother.
She spoke with her academic advisor, who told her about the policies for readmission. Because the nursing
program was limited to a certain number of students, it would be challenging to reenter her program
whenever she was ready to return.
At first Elena felt discouraged, but then her advisor assisted her in mapping a plan to take some prerequisite
courses part-time at a community college near her home while she cared for her grandmother. She could then
transfer those credits back to the university so they would count toward her degree there, or she could finish
an associate’s degree and then return to a bachelor’s degree program whenever she was able. Although
things weren’t following her original plans, she would be able to continue working toward her goals while also
tending to one of her greatest values—her family. Elena’s plans changed, but her values and long-term goals
didn’t have to change.
Ray’s parents wanted him to go to college to increase his chances of getting a good job. He wasn’t really sure
what he wanted to study, so his dad suggested he choose business. During Ray’s first semester he took an
introduction to business course that was required of all business majors in their first semester. He did well in
the course, but it wasn’t his favorite topic. Conversely, he loved the history course on early Western civilization
that he was taking to meet a general education requirement. He wasn’t necessarily ready to change his major
from business to history, so he met with an academic advisor to see if there were any classes he could take
during his second semester that would count toward either major. Ray was still exploring and had yet to set
specific goals. But Ray did know that he wanted to finish college within a reasonable amount of time, so he
made flexible plans that would allow him to change his mind and change his major if necessary.
Expecting Change
After you’ve devoted time to planning, it can be frustrating when circumstances unexpectedly change. Change
can be the result of internal or external factors. Internal factors are those that you have control over. They may
include indecision, or changing your mind about a situation after receiving new information or recognizing
that something is not a good fit for your values and goals. Though change resulting from internal factors can
be stressful, it is often easier to accept and to navigate because you know why the change must occur. You can
plan for a change and make even better decisions for your path when the reason for change is, simply
put—you! Ray’s story demonstrates how internal factors contribute to his need or desire to change plans.
External factors that necessitate change are often harder to plan for and accept. Some external factors are
very personal. These may include financial concerns, your health or the health of a loved one, or other family
circumstances, such as in Elena’s example. Other external factors may be more related to the requirements of
a major or college. For example, perhaps you are not accepted into the college or degree program that you
had always hoped to attend or study. Or you may not perform well enough in a class to continue your studies
without repeating that course during a semester when you had originally planned to move on to other
courses. Change caused by external factors can be frustrating. Because external factors are often unexpected,
when you encounter them you’ll often have to spend more time changing your plans or even revising your
goals before you’ll feel as though you’re back on track.
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Managing Change
It is important to recognize that change, whether internal or external, is inevitable. You can probably think of
an example of a time when you had to change your plans due to unforeseen circumstances. Perhaps it’s a
situation as simple as canceling a date with friends because of an obligation to babysit a sibling. Even though
this simple example would not have had long-term consequences, you can probably recall a feeling of
disappointment. It’s okay to feel disappointed; however, you’ll also want to recognize that you can manage
your response to changing circumstances. You can ask yourself the following questions:
• What can I control in this situation?
• Do I need to reconsider my values?
• Do I need to reconsider my goals?
• Do I need to change my plans as a result of this new information or these new circumstances?
• What resources, tools, or people are available to assist me in revising my plans?
When encountering change, it helps to remember that decision-making and planning are continuous
processes. In other words, active individuals are always engaged in decision-making, setting new plans, and
revising old plans. This continuous process is not always the result of major life-changing circumstances either.
Oftentimes, we need to make changes simply because we’ve learned some new information that causes a shift
in our plans. Planning, like learning, is an ongoing lifetime process.
Asking for Help
“Be strong enough to stand alone, be yourself enough to stand apart, but be wise enough to
stand together when the time comes.”
— Mark Amend, American Author
Figure 4.18 Your instructors are an important not only in your courses, but as potential advisors and
mentors. (Credit: Rural Institute / Flickr / Public Domain)
Throughout this chapter we have made mention of individuals who can help you plan your path, but noted
that your path is ultimately your own. Some students make the mistake of taking too much advice when
planning and making decisions. They may forgo their values and goals for others’ values and goals for them.
Chapter 4 Planning Your Academic Pathways 145
Or they may mistakenly trust advice that comes from well-meaning but ill-informed sources.
In other cases, students grapple with unfamiliar college paperwork and technology with little assistance as
they proudly tackle perhaps newfound roles as adult decision makers. It’s important to know that seeking help
is a strength, not a weakness, particularly when that help comes from well-informed individuals who have your
best interests in mind. When you share your goals and include others in your planning, you develop both a
support network and a system of personal accountability. Being held accountable for your goals means that
others are also tracking your progress and are interested in seeing you succeed. When you are working
toward a goal and sticking to a plan, it’s important to have unconditional cheerleaders in your life as well as
folks who keep pushing you to stay on track, especially if they see you stray. It’s important to know who in
your life can play these roles.
For those facing personal and emotional challenges including depression and anxiety, specific guidance is
covered in Chapter 11.
Asking for Help: Anton’s Story
Anton is in his first semester at State University. His high school guidance counselor, who he was required to
meet with in his junior and senior years, was very helpful in preparing his college applications and in
discussing what he could expect through the admissions process. When he was accepted to State University,
she celebrated with him as well! Now that he’s arrived at college, though, he’s found it to be different from his
high school. There are so many more options available to him and more freedom to plan his own time. About
halfway through the semester, Anton falls behind in his information technology course, the introductory class
for his major. He had been so excited to study more about computers and systems networking, but he’s
finding it harder and harder to understand the content and he feels discouraged.
After learning that he’s headed for a D grade in the course, Anton is not certain what to do both about the
class and about his major. In high school he would have spoken with his guidance counselor, who he knew by
name and ran into in the hallway frequently. But he’s not yet well-connected to resources at his college. When
his mom texts him from back home to share a story about his younger sister, he considers confiding in her
about the course but doesn’t want her to worry about his focus or dedication. Anton is the first person from
his family to attend college, so he feels a particular pressure to succeed and isn’t even certain if his mom
would know how to help. He ends the text thread with a generic thumbs-up emoji and heads to the college
fitness center to let off some steam.
At the fitness center he sees another student from his class, Noura, who mentions that she just came from
meeting with an academic advisor. After talking a bit more about Noura’s interaction with her advisor, Anton
learns that advising is both free and available on a walk-in basis. In fact, he finds out that at State University he
even has an advisor who is assigned to him, similar to his high school counselor. Anton heads over to the
advising center after class the next morning. He’s a bit hesitant to share about his concerns about his grade,
but he feels more confident after speaking with Noura about her experiences. When he meets his advisor,
Anton also finds out that the information he shares is confidential to his personal academic records. After
introductions and sharing this privacy information, Anton’s advisor starts by asking him how everything is
going this term. The casual conversation develops from there into a detailed plan for how Anton can seek
some additional help in his course, including language he can use in an email to his instructor, the hours and
location of the computer science tutoring lab, and “intel” on where the computer science students hang out so
he can drop by to discuss their experiences in classes further along in the major. When Anton leaves his
advisor’s office, he’s still considering a change to his major but decides to focus on improving his grade first
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and then making more decisions from there. Anton makes arrangements to meet with his advisor again
before registering for the next semester and plans to follow up with him about his course via email after he
speaks with his instructor. The whole experience was more casual and friendly than he could have imagined.
He looks forward to running into Noura again to thank her (after he texts his mom back, of course!).
Mentors
When making academic decisions and career plans, it is also useful to have a mentor who has had similar
goals. A mentor is an experienced individual who helps to guide a mentee, the less experienced person seeking
advice. A good mentor for a student who is engaged in academic and career planning is someone who is
knowledgeable about the student’s desired career field and is perhaps more advanced in their career than an
entry-level position. This is a person who can model the type of values and behaviors that are essential to a
successful career. Your college or university may be able to connect you with a mentor through an organized
mentorship program or through the alumni association. If your college does not have an organized mentor
program, you may be able to find your own by reaching out to family friends who work in your field of interest,
searching online for a local professional association or organization related to your field (as some associations
have mentorship programs as well), or speaking to the professors who teach the courses in your major.
A C T I V I T Y
Your Support Call List
When you start a new job, go to a new school, or even fill out paperwork at a new doctor’s office, you’re
often asked to provide contact information for someone who can assist in making decisions and look out
for your best interests in the event of an emergency. Academic decision-making and planning doesn’t
involve the same level of urgency, but it’s useful to have in mind the people in your life or the offices and
individuals available to you at your college who motivate and support your plans, or can assist you in
setting them. Prepare your support call (or text, email, or DM) list now so that all you have to do is pick
up your phone to get the support you need. Keep in mind that one person can fulfill more than one role.
Who knows your interests? Knows what you love or what you hate to do sometimes
even before you do? Who can list your strengths and weaknesses without bias? This
is the person who can support you when you are deciding on a degree program or
major:
Name of
individual(s)
or office:
Who knows the college or university degree and program details, policies,
procedures, and technological systems? This is the person who can support you when
you are drafting your plan:
Name of
individual(s)
or office:
Table 4.6
Chapter 4 Planning Your Academic Pathways 147
This chapter focuses on the importance of decision-making and planning, stressors that can sometimes feel
overwhelming. If you are feeling less excited about the possibilities of planning and more overwhelmed, it’s
important that you take a break from this process. If you talk to others who are already working in their career
fields, even those who work at your college, you’ll probably find many individuals who were undecided in their
path. Take some comfort in their stories and in knowing that you can absolutely find success even if you don’t
yet have a plan. Take a break and engage in those self-care activities that bring you some peace of mind. You
can also reference Chapter 11: Health and Wellness, which provides further details regarding these concerns.
If you are ever feeling anxious, stressed, depressed, or overwhelmed, please find the resources available at
your college to assist you.
Who knows the career and graduate school opportunities available to someone in
your major or program? This is the person who can support you in planning for
activities beyond your courses:
Name of
individual(s)
or office:
Who is your biggest cheerleader who you can contact when you’re feeling
discouraged or unmotivated? This is the person who can support you when plans
need to change:
Name of
individual(s)
or office:
Who has successfully navigated all of this college planning in the past and is now
working in a career that interests you as well? This is the person who can become
your mentor:
Name of
individual
or office:
Table 4.6
A N A L Y S I S Q U E S T I O N
Consider, are you someone who panics if there is a change in plans, or are you relatively flexible? What
techniques will you employ to help you manage change if you encounter it?
“I graduated with my bachelor’s degree in elementary education about 10 years ago and was lucky to
get a job at the same school where I completed my student teaching requirement. I absolutely love my
students and am very happy as a teacher. Recently, though, I’ve had the opportunity to mentor some
new teachers at my school. After I got over the shock of not being the new teacher myself anymore (am I
that old?!), I realized how much I enjoyed helping new teachers get established in their classroom as
S T U D E N T P R O F I L E
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Summary
This chapter began by describing the personal guideposts for our planning: our values and our goals. After a
discussion of the relationship between short- and long-term goals and the importance of tracking the
progress of our goals, the chapter dove into the specifics of academic plans. Sections on degree types and the
special considerations and requirements of certain programs should help you understand the type of
opportunities that may be available to you and the types of questions you should research and ask. The
section on planning your semesters provides you with the types of resources, people, and tools that you
should look for when developing your academic plan. It also provides you an example planning grid to begin
to draft a plan for your undergraduate studies. Keep in mind that you may need to make changes to your plan
as you follow it. You can refer back to the section on managing change to consider how you might respond.
Finally, the chapter concludes with a section on asking for help. Recall that others can both help you plan and
hold you accountable to your plan, but only you set your values, so stick to them!
Career Connection
This article (https://openstax.org/l/makingharddecisions) discusses the challenges that business leaders face
in making decisions under pressure and the impact of stress in making poorer decisions. Read the article and
consider times when you’ve had to make consequential decisions. Can you relate to the pitfalls of making
decisions under stress rather than taking the time to think things through and develop a plan?
Rethinking
well. I’ve been thinking about maybe going to back school to get a master’s degree in education so that
I can someday become an administrator or maybe a principal at a school. I guess I should start
researching programs that will help me meet my goal, because I know I won’t get started until I have a
plan in place. I’ll need a program that can allow me to continue working full-time while going back to
school. It’s totally exciting, but I’m also overwhelmed.”
—Amara, Brookdale Community College
A N A L Y S I S Q U E S T I O N
Some jobs require a graduate degree as a minimum entry requirement, but in other career fields, a
graduate degree can help an individual advance to a management position or to a higher-level job with a
higher salary. If you were in Amara’s position, what would you factor into your consideration when
deciding whether to go back to college for a master’s degree? If you were Amara’s friend or advisor,
what questions would you ask her to help her find a fitting program and create an academic plan?
Chapter 4 Planning Your Academic Pathways 149
https://openstax.org/l/makingharddecisions
Revisit the questions you answered at the beginning of the chapter. After reviewing this chapter, were you as
ready to plan as you thought you were? Are you more prepared now? Rate your readiness again, ranking
questions on a scale of 1–4, 1 meaning “least like me” and 4 meaning “most like me.”
1. I have reflected on and can identify my personal values.
2. I have set both short- and long-term academic goals.
3. I am familiar with the requirements I must complete and options I must select to obtain a college degree.
4. I am familiar with the resources, tools, and individuals who can assist me in developing an effective plan
for success.
Where do you go from here?
Planning and decision-making are continuous processes, but if you’re reading this text you presumably have a
specific educational end goal in mind—you want to graduate with a degree! After you’ve decided on a degree
and major path, you’re already well-prepared to begin your academic planning. Use the resources discussed in
this chapter and available at your college or university to draft your plan, and then review it with others who
can provide feedback. If you’re undecided about your degree and major, you will still have some work ahead
of you before you can craft a more detailed academic plan. Here are some steps you can take to help you find
a major that’s right for you:
• Consider your interests and skills. Your academic advisor and/or your college’s career services office can
connect you with an academic and career path through discussion about your interests and skills. These
offices and individuals often provide interest and skills tests that offer a starting point for your discussion.
There are also free assessments available on the internet, such as the this one (https://openstax.org/l/
interestprofiler) , that can help identify your interests and skills and match them with careers and related
majors. (Refer to the Get Connected section earlier in this chapter for additional online resources.)
• Consider the future. Imagine yourself in job. What types of tasks or work environments are attractive to
you? Is there anything you would absolutely hate to do that you can already rule out? Also consider the
future of work. The Bureau of Labor Statistics’ Occupational Outlook Handbook identifies some career
fields as having a bright outlook with expected job growth in the future. Ideally, you’ll want to study for a
career that’s growing, not declining.
• Consider your preferred lifestyle. Although we all like to have a balanced life, perhaps it’s less important
to you to follow your interests and more important to follow the bottom line. If your preferred lifestyle will
require that you make a high salary, you’ll want to research those jobs that are highest paying and take
note of the degrees and majors that prepare you for those fields.
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Chapter Outline
5.1 The Nature and Types of Reading
5.2 Effective Reading Strategies
5.3 Taking Notes
Introduction
Student Survey
These questions will help you determine how the chapter concepts relate to you right now. As we are
introduced to new concepts and practices, it can be informative to reflect on how your understanding changes
over time. We’ll revisit these questions at the end of the chapter to see whether your feelings have changed.
On a scale of 1 (I need significant improvement) to 4 (I’m doing great), reflect on how you’re doing right now
on these statements:
1. I am reading on a college level.
2. I take good notes that help me study for exams.
3. I understand how to manage all the reading I need to do for college.
4. I recognize the need for different notetaking strategies for different college subjects.
You can also take the Chapter 5 survey (https://openstax.org/l/collegesurvey05) anonymously online.
Figure 5.1 Each of us reads and records information in our own way.
5
Reading and Notetaking
https://openstax.org/l/collegesurvey05
About this Chapter
In this chapter we will explore two skills you probably think you already understand—reading and notetaking.
But the goal is to make sure you’ve honed these skills well enough to lead you to success in college. By the
time you finish this chapter, you should be able to do the following:
• Discuss the way reading differs in college and how to successfully adapt to that change.
• Demonstrate the usefulness of strong notetaking for college students.
Reading and consuming information are increasingly important today because of the amount of information
we encounter. Not only do we need to read critically and carefully, but we also need to read with an eye to
distinguishing fact from opinion and identifying solid sources. Reading helps us make sense of the
world—from simple reminders to pick up milk to complex treatises on global concerns, we read to
comprehend, and in so doing, our brains expand. An interesting study from Emory University in Atlanta,
Georgia, used MRI scans to track the brain conductivity while participants were reading. The researchers
assert that a biological change to your brain actually happens when you read, and it lingers. If you want to
read the study, published in the journal Brain Connectivity, you can find it online at https://openstax.org/l/
brainconnectivity (https://openstax.org/l/brainconnectivity) .
In academic settings, as we deliberately work to become stronger readers and better notetakers, we are both
helping our current situation and enhancing our abilities to be successful in the future. Seems like a win-win.
Take advantage of all the study aids you have at hand, including human, electronic, and physical resources, to
increase your performance in these crucial skill sets.
Why? You need to read. It improves your thinking, your vocabulary, and your ability to make connections
between disparate parts, which are all parts of critical thinking. Educational researchers Anne Cunningham
and Keith Stanovich discovered after extensive study with college students that “reading volume [how much
you read] made a significant contribution to multiple measures of vocabulary, general knowledge, spelling,
and verbal fluency.”
Research continues to assess and support the fact that one of the most significant learning skills necessary for
success in any field is reading. You may have performed this skill for decades already, but learning to do it
more effectively and practicing the skill consistently is critical to how well you do in all subjects. If reading isn’t
your thing, strive to make that your challenge. Your academic journey, your personal well-being, and your
professional endeavors will all benefit from your reading. Put forth the effort and make it your thing. The long-
“Before I came to college, I always loathed reading from the textbook, taking notes during class, and
even listening to lectures. I’ve since learned that in most cases I should do what my teacher suggests. I
have a course that requires me to read two textbook chapters each week. Taking notes on the chapters
is optional, making it easy to brush off these assignments. But there are reasons that professors tell
students to read and do other classwork. They believe it is valuable information for a student to learn.
Note taking in class may become tedious and, in some cases, feel redundant. But you can’t recall a whole
class from memory. There is not much time to learn the contents of a class in one semester, and it can
feel overwhelming. It’s important to take notes because writing them helps you remember.”
—Christopher Naldini, Westchester Community College
S T U D E N T P R O F I L E
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term benefits will far outweigh the sacrifices you make now.
5.1 The Nature and Types of Reading
Estimated completion time: 16 minutes.
Questions to consider:
• What are the pros and cons of online reading?
• How can distinguishing between reading types help you academically and personally?
• How can you best prepare to read for college?
Research supports the idea that reading is good for you. Students who read at or above reading level
throughout elementary and secondary school have a higher chance of starting—and more importantly,
finishing—college. Educational researchers convincingly claim that reading improves everything from grades
to vocabulary (Cunningham 2).
If you don’t particularly enjoy reading, don’t despair. We read for a variety of reasons, and you may just have
to step back and take a bigger picture of your reading habits to understand why you avoid engaging in this
important skill. The myriad distractions we now face as well as the intense information overload we can suffer
on a daily basis in all aspects of our lives can combine to make it difficult to slow down to read, an activity that
demands at least a modicum of attention in a way that most television and music do not. You may need to
adjust your schedule for more reading time, especially in college, because every class you take will expect you
to read more pages than you probably have in the past.
Types of Reading
We may read small items purely for immediate information, such as notes, e-mails, or directions to an
unfamiliar location. You can find all sorts of information online about how to fix a faucet or tie a secure knot.
You won’t have to spend too much time reading these sorts of texts because you have a specific goal in mind
for them, and once you have accomplished that goal, you do not need to prolong the reading experience.
These encounters with texts may not be memorable or stunning, but they don’t need to be. When we consider
why we read longer pieces—outside of reading for pleasure—we can usually categorize the reasons into about
two categories: 1) reading to introduce ourselves to new content, and 2) reading to more fully comprehend
familiar content.
Chapter 5 Reading and Notetaking 153
Figure 5.2 A bookstore or library can be a great place to explore. Aside from books and resources you need,
you may find something that interests you or helps with your course work.
Reading to Introduce New Content
Glenn felt uncomfortable talking with his new roommates because he realized very quickly that he didn’t know
anything about their major—architecture. Of course he knew that it had something to do with buildings and
construction sites, but the field was so different from his discipline of biology that he decided he needed to
find out more so he could at least engage in friendly conversation with his roommates. Since he would likely
not go into their field, he didn’t need to go into full research mode. When we read to introduce new content,
we can start off small and increase to better and more sophisticated sources. Much of our further study and
reading depends on the sources we originally read, our purpose for finding out about this new topic, and our
interest level.
Chances are, you have done this sort of exploratory reading before. You may read reviews of a new restaurant
or look at what people say about a movie you aren’t sure you want to spend the money to see at the theater.
This reading helps you decide. In academic settings, much of what you read in your courses may be relatively
new content to you. You may have heard the word volcano and have a general notion of what it means, but
until you study geology and other sciences in depth, you may not have a full understanding of the
environmental origins, ecological impacts, and societal and historic responses to volcanoes. These
perspectives will come from reading and digesting various material. When you are working with new content,
you may need to schedule more time for reading and comprehending the information because you may need
to look up unfamiliar terminology and you may have to stop more frequently to make sure you are truly
grasping what the material means. When you have few ways to connect new material to your own prior
knowledge, you have to work more diligently to comprehend it.
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Reading to Comprehend Familiar Content
Reading about unfamiliar content is one thing, but what if you do know something about a topic already? Do
you really still need to keep reading about it? Probably. For example, what if during the brainstorming activity
in the previous section, you secretly felt rather smug because you know about the demotion of the one-time
planet Pluto and that there is currently quite the scientific debate going on about that whole de-planet-ation
thing. Of course, you didn’t say anything during the study session, mostly to spare your classmates any
embarrassment, but you are pretty familiar with Pluto-gate. So now what? Can you learn anything new?
Again—probably. When did Pluto’s qualifications to be considered a planet come into question? What are the
qualifications for being considered a planet? Why? Who even gets to decide these things? Why was it called
Pluto in the first place? On Amazon alone, you can find hundreds of books about the once-planet Pluto (not to
be confused with the Disney dog also named Pluto). A Google search brings up over 34 million options for
your reading pleasure. You’ll have plenty to read, even if you do know something or quite a bit about a topic,
but you’ll approach reading about a familiar topic and an unfamiliar one differently.
With familiar content, you can do some initial skimming to determine what you already know in the book or
article, and mark what may be new information or a different perspective. You may not have to give your full
attention to the information you know, but you will spend more time on the new viewpoints so you can
determine how this new data meshes with what you already know. Is this writer claiming a radical new
definition for the topic or an entirely opposite way to consider the subject matter, connecting it to other topics
or disciplines in ways you have never considered?
When college students encounter material in a discipline-specific context and have some familiarity with the
topic, they sometimes can allow themselves to become a bit overconfident about their knowledge level. Just
A P P L I C A T I O N
Try an experiment with a group of classmates. Without looking on the Internet, try to brainstorm a list of
10 topics about which all of you may be interested but for which you know very little or nothing at all. Try
to make the topics somewhat obscure rather than ordinary—for example, the possibility of the non-
planet Pluto being reclassified again as opposed to something like why we need to drink water.
After you have this random list, think of ways you could find information to read about these weird
topics. Our short answer is always: Google. But think of other ways as well. How else could you read
about these topics if you don’t know anything about them? You may well be in a similar circumstance in
some of your college classes, so you should listen carefully to your classmates on this one. Think beyond
pat answers such as “I’d go to the library,” and press for what that researcher would do once at the
library. What types of articles or books would you try to find? One reason that you should not always
ignore the idea of doing research at the physical library is because once you are there and looking for
information, you have a vast number of other sources readily available to you in a highly organized
location. You also can tap into the human resources represented by the research librarians who likely can
redirect you if you cannot find appropriate sources.
Chapter 5 Reading and Notetaking 155
because a student may have read an article or two or may have seen a TV documentary on a subject such as
the criminal mind, that does not make them an expert. What makes an expert is a person who thoroughly
studies a subject, usually for years, and understands all the possible perspectives of a subject as well as the
potential for misunderstanding due to personal biases and the availability of false information about the topic.
5.2 Effective Reading Strategies
Estimated completion time: 25 minutes.
Questions to consider:
• What methods can you incorporate into your routine to allow adequate time for reading?
• What are the benefits and approaches to active reading?
• Do your courses or major have specific reading requirements?
Allowing Adequate Time for Reading
You should determine the reading requirements and expectations for every class very early in the semester.
You also need to understand why you are reading the particular text you are assigned. Do you need to read
closely for minute details that determine cause and effect? Or is your instructor asking you to skim several
sources so you become more familiar with the topic? Knowing this reasoning will help you decide your timing,
what notes to take, and how best to undertake the reading assignment.
Figure 5.3 If you plan to make time for reading while you commute, remember that unexpected events like
delays and cancellations could impact your concentration.
Depending on the makeup of your schedule, you may end up reading both primary sources—such as legal
documents, historic letters, or diaries—as well as textbooks, articles, and secondary sources, such as
summaries or argumentative essays that use primary sources to stake a claim. You may also need to read
current journalistic texts to stay current in local or global affairs. A realistic approach to scheduling your time
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to allow you to read and review all the reading you have for the semester will help you accomplish what can
sometimes seem like an overwhelming task.
When you allow adequate time in your hectic schedule for reading, you are investing in your own success.
Reading isn’t a magic pill, but it may seem like it when you consider all the benefits people reap from this
ordinary practice. Famous successful people throughout history have been voracious readers. In fact, former
U.S. president Harry Truman once said, “Not all readers are leaders, but all leaders are readers.” Writer of the
U.S. Declaration of Independence, inventor, and also former U.S. president Thomas Jefferson claimed “I cannot
live without books” at a time when keeping and reading books was an expensive pastime. Knowing what it
meant to be kept from the joys of reading, 19th-century abolitionist Frederick Douglass said, “Once you learn
to read, you will be forever free.” And finally, George R. R. Martin, the prolific author of the wildly successful
Game of Thrones empire, declared, “A reader lives a thousand lives before he dies . . . The man who never reads
lives only one.”
You can make time for reading in a number of ways that include determining your usual reading pace and
speed, scheduling active reading sessions, and practicing recursive reading strategies.
Determining Reading Speed and Pacing
To determine your reading speed, select a section of text—passages in a textbook or pages in a novel. Time
yourself reading that material for exactly 5 minutes, and note how much reading you accomplished in those 5
minutes. Multiply the amount of reading you accomplished in 5 minutes by 12 to determine your average
reading pace (5 times 12 equals the 60 minutes of an hour). Of course, your reading pace will be different and
take longer if you are taking notes while you read, but this calculation of reading pace gives you a good way to
estimate your reading speed that you can adapt to other forms of reading.
Example Reading Times
Reader Pages Read in 5 Minutes Pages per Hour Approximate Hours to Read 500 Pages
Marta 4 48 10 hours, 30 minutes
Jordi 3 36 13 hours
Estevan 5 60 8 hours, 20 minutes
So, for instance, if Marta was able to read 4 pages of a dense novel for her English class in 5 minutes, she
should be able to read about 48 pages in one hour. Knowing this, Marta can accurately determine how much
time she needs to devote to finishing the novel within a set amount of time, instead of just guessing. If the
novel Marta is reading is 497 pages, then Marta would take the total page count (497) and divide that by her
hourly reading rate (48 pages/hour) to determine that she needs about 10 to 11 hours overall. To finish the
novel spread out over two weeks, Marta needs to read a little under an hour a day to accomplish this goal.
Calculating your reading rate in this manner does not take into account days where you’re too distracted and
you have to reread passages or days when you just aren’t in the mood to read. And your reading rate will likely
vary depending on how dense the content you’re reading is (e.g., a complex textbook vs. a comic book). Your
pace may slow down somewhat if you are not very interested in what the text is about. What this method will
Chapter 5 Reading and Notetaking 157
help you do is be realistic about your reading time as opposed to waging a guess based on nothing and then
becoming worried when you have far more reading to finish than the time available.
Chapter 3, “Time Management and Prioritization,” offers more detail on how best to determine your speed
from one type of reading to the next so you are better able to schedule your reading.
Scheduling Set Times for Active Reading
Active reading takes longer than reading through passages without stopping. You may not need to read your
latest sci-fi series actively while you’re lounging on the beach, but many other reading situations demand
more attention from you. Active reading is particularly important for college courses. You are a scholar actively
engaging with the text by posing questions, seeking answers, and clarifying any confusing elements. Plan to
spend at least twice as long to read actively than to read passages without taking notes or otherwise marking
select elements of the text.
To determine the time you need for active reading, use the same calculations you use to determine your
traditional reading speed and double it. Remember that you need to determine your reading pace for all the
classes you have in a particular semester and multiply your speed by the number of classes you have that
require different types of reading.
Example Active Reading Times
Reader Pages Read in 5
Minutes
Pages
per Hour
Approximate Hours to
Read 500 Pages
Approximate Hours to Actively
Read 500 Pages
Marta 4 48 10 hours, 30 minutes 21 hours
Jordi 3 36 13 hours 26 hours
Estevan 5 60 8 hours, 20 minutes 16 hours, 40 minutes
Practicing Recursive Reading Strategies
One fact about reading for college courses that may become frustrating is that, in a way, it never ends. For all
the reading you do, you end up doing even more rereading. It may be the same content, but you may be
reading the passage more than once to detect the emphasis the writer places on one aspect of the topic or
how frequently the writer dismisses a significant counterargument. This rereading is called recursive reading.
For most of what you read at the college level, you are trying to make sense of the text for a specific
purpose—not just because the topic interests or entertains you. You need your full attention to decipher
everything that’s going on in complex reading material—and you even need to be considering what the writer
of the piece may not be including and why. This is why reading for comprehension is recursive.
Specifically, this boils down to seeing reading not as a formula but as a process that is far more circular than
linear. You may read a selection from beginning to end, which is an excellent starting point, but for
comprehension, you’ll need to go back and reread passages to determine meaning and make connections
between the reading and the bigger learning environment that led you to the selection—that may be a single
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course or a program in your college, or it may be the larger discipline, such as all biologists or the community
of scholars studying beach erosion.
People often say writing is rewriting. For college courses, reading is rereading.
Strong readers engage in numerous steps, sometimes combining more than one step simultaneously, but
knowing the steps nonetheless. They include, not always in this order:
• bringing any prior knowledge about the topic to the reading session,
• asking yourself pertinent questions, both orally and in writing, about the content you are reading,
• inferring and/or implying information from what you read,
• learning unfamiliar discipline-specific terms,
• evaluating what you are reading, and eventually,
• applying what you’re reading to other learning and life situations you encounter.
Let’s break these steps into manageable chunks, because you are actually doing quite a lot when you read.
Figure 5.4 The six elements of recursive reading should be considered as a circular, not linear, process.
Accessing Prior Knowledge
When you read, you naturally think of anything else you may know about the topic, but when you read
deliberately and actively, you make yourself more aware of accessing this prior knowledge. Have you ever
watched a documentary about this topic? Did you study some aspect of it in another class? Do you have a
hobby that is somehow connected to this material? All of this thinking will help you make sense of what you
are reading.
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Asking Questions
Humans are naturally curious beings. As you read actively, you should be asking questions about the topic you
are reading. Don’t just say the questions in your mind; write them down. You may ask: Why is this topic
important? What is the relevance of this topic currently? Was this topic important a long time ago but
irrelevant now? Why did my professor assign this reading?
You need a place where you can actually write down these questions; a separate page in your notes is a good
place to begin. If you are taking notes on your computer, start a new document and write down the questions.
Leave some room to answer the questions when you begin and again after you read.
Inferring and Implying
When you read, you can take the information on the page and infer, or conclude responses to related
challenges from evidence or from your own reasoning. A student will likely be able to infer what material the
professor will include on an exam by taking good notes throughout the classes leading up to the test.
Writers may imply information without directly stating a fact for a variety of reasons. Sometimes a writer may
not want to come out explicitly and state a bias, but may imply or hint at his or her preference for one political
party or another. You have to read carefully to find implications because they are indirect, but watching for
them will help you comprehend the whole meaning of a passage.
Learning Vocabulary
Vocabulary specific to certain disciplines helps practitioners in that field engage and communicate with each
other. Few people beyond undertakers and archeologists likely use the term sarcophagus in everyday
communications, but for those disciplines, it is a meaningful distinction. Looking at the example, you can use
context clues to figure out the meaning of the term sarcophagus because it is something undertakers and/or
archeologists would recognize. At the very least, you can guess that it has something to do with death. As a
potential professional in the field you’re studying, you need to know the lingo. You may already have a system
in place to learn discipline-specific vocabulary, so use what you know works for you. Two strong strategies are
to look up words in a dictionary (online or hard copy) to ensure you have the exact meaning for your discipline
and to keep a dedicated list of words you see often in your reading. You can list the words with a short
definition so you have a quick reference guide to help you learn the vocabulary.
Evaluating
Intelligent people always question and evaluate. This doesn’t mean they don’t trust others; they just need
verification of facts to understand a topic well. It doesn’t make sense to learn incomplete or incorrect
information about a subject just because you didn’t take the time to evaluate all the sources at your disposal.
When early explorers were afraid to sail the world for fear of falling off the edge, they weren’t stupid; they just
A P P L I C A T I O N
Imagining that you were given a chapter to read in your American history class about the Gettysburg
Address, write down what you already know about this historic document. How might thinking through
this prior knowledge help you better understand the text?
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didn’t have all the necessary data to evaluate the situation.
When you evaluate a text, you are seeking to understand the presented topic. Depending on how long the text
is, you will perform a number of steps and repeat many of these steps to evaluate all the elements the author
presents. When you evaluate a text, you need to do the following:
• Scan the title and all headings.
• Read through the entire passage fully.
• Question what main point the author is making.
• Decide who the audience is.
• Identify what evidence/support the author uses.
• Consider if the author presents a balanced perspective on the main point.
• Recognize if the author introduced any biases in the text.
When you go through a text looking for each of these elements, you need to go beyond just answering the
surface question; for instance, the audience may be a specific field of scientists, but could anyone else
understand the text with some explanation? Why would that be important?
Applying
When you learn something new, it always connects to other knowledge you already have. One challenge we
have is applying new information. It may be interesting to know the distance to the moon, but how do we
apply it to something we need to do? If your biology instructor asked you to list several challenges of
colonizing Mars and you do not know much about that planet’s exploration, you may be able to use your
knowledge of how far Earth is from the moon to apply it to the new task. You may have to read several other
texts in addition to reading graphs and charts to find this information.
That was the challenge the early space explorers faced along with myriad unknowns before space travel was a
more regular occurrence. They had to take what they already knew and could study and read about and apply
it to an unknown situation. These explorers wrote down their challenges, failures, and successes, and now
scientists read those texts as a part of the ever-growing body of text about space travel. Application is a
sophisticated level of thinking that helps turn theory into practice and challenges into successes.
A N A L Y S I S Q U E S T I O N
Think of an article you need to read for a class. Take the steps above on how to evaluate a text, and apply
the steps to the article. When you accomplish the task in each step, ask yourself and take notes to
answer the question: Why is this important? For example, when you read the title, does that give you any
additional information that will help you comprehend the text? If the text were written for a different
audience, what might the author need to change to accommodate that group? How does an author’s
bias distort an argument? This deep evaluation allows you to fully understand the main ideas and place
the text in context with other material on the same subject, with current events, and within the discipline.
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Preparing to Read for Specific Disciplines in College
Different disciplines in college may have specific expectations, but you can depend on all subjects asking you
to read to some degree. In this college reading requirement, you can succeed by learning to read actively,
researching the topic and author, and recognizing how your own preconceived notions affect your reading.
Reading for college isn’t the same as reading for pleasure or even just reading to learn something on your
own because you are casually interested.
In college courses, your instructor may ask you to read articles, chapters, books, or primary sources (those
original documents about which we write and study, such as letters between historic figures or the Declaration
of Independence). Your instructor may want you to have a general background on a topic before you dive into
that subject in class, so that you know the history of a topic, can start thinking about it, and can engage in a
class discussion with more than a passing knowledge of the issue.
If you are about to participate in an in-depth six-week consideration of the U.S. Constitution but have never
read it or anything written about it, you will have a hard time looking at anything in detail or understanding
how and why it is significant. As you can imagine, a great deal has been written about the Constitution by
scholars and citizens since the late 1700s when it was first put to paper (that’s how they did it then). While the
actual document isn’t that long (about 12–15 pages depending on how it is presented), learning the details on
how it came about, who was involved, and why it was and still is a significant document would take a
considerable amount of time to read and digest. So, how do you do it all? Especially when you may have an
instructor who drops hints that you may also love to read a historic novel covering the same time period . . . in
your spare time, not required, of course! It can be daunting, especially if you are taking more than one course
that has time-consuming reading lists. With a few strategic techniques, you can manage it all, but know that
you must have a plan and schedule your required reading so you are also able to pick up that recommended
historic novel—it may give you an entirely new perspective on the issue.
Strategies for Reading in College Disciplines
No universal law exists for how much reading instructors and institutions expect college students to undertake
for various disciplines. Suffice it to say, it’s a LOT.
For most students, it is the volume of reading that catches them most off guard when they begin their college
careers. A full course load might require 10–15 hours of reading per week, some of that covering content that
will be more difficult than the reading for other courses.
You cannot possibly read word-for-word every single document you need to read for all your classes. That
doesn’t mean you give up or decide to only read for your favorite classes or concoct a scheme to read 17
percent for each class and see how that works for you. You need to learn to skim, annotate, and take notes. All
of these techniques will help you comprehend more of what you read, which is why we read in the first place.
We’ll talk more later about annotating and notetaking, but for now consider what you know about skimming
as opposed to active reading.
Skimming
Skimming is not just glancing over the words on a page (or screen) to see if any of it sticks. Effective skimming
allows you to take in the major points of a passage without the need for a time-consuming reading session
that involves your active use of notations and annotations. Often you will need to engage in that painstaking
level of active reading, but skimming is the first step—not an alternative to deep reading. The fact remains that
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neither do you need to read everything nor could you possibly accomplish that given your limited time. So
learn this valuable skill of skimming as an accompaniment to your overall study tool kit, and with practice and
experience, you will fully understand how valuable it is.
When you skim, look for guides to your understanding: headings, definitions, pull quotes, tables, and context
clues. Textbooks are often helpful for skimming—they may already have made some of these skimming
guides in bold or a different color, and chapters often follow a predictable outline. Some even provide an
overview and summary for sections or chapters. Use whatever you can get, but don’t stop there. In textbooks
that have some reading guides, or especially in text that does not, look for introductory words such as First or
The purpose of this article . . . or summary words such as In conclusion . . . or Finally. These guides will help you
read only those sentences or paragraphs that will give you the overall meaning or gist of a passage or book.
Now move to the meat of the passage. You want to take in the reading as a whole. For a book, look at the titles
of each chapter if available. Read each chapter’s introductory paragraph and determine why the writer chose
this particular order. Depending on what you’re reading, the chapters may be only informational, but often
you’re looking for a specific argument. What position is the writer claiming? What support, counterarguments,
and conclusions is the writer presenting?
Don’t think of skimming as a way to buzz through a boring reading assignment. It is a skill you should master
so you can engage, at various levels, with all the reading you need to accomplish in college. End your
skimming session with a few notes—terms to look up, questions you still have, and an overall summary. And
recognize that you likely will return to that book or article for a more thorough reading if the material is useful.
Active Reading Strategies
Active reading differs significantly from skimming or reading for pleasure. You can think of active reading as a
sort of conversation between you and the text (maybe between you and the author, but you don’t want to get
the author’s personality too involved in this metaphor because that may skew your engagement with the text).
When you sit down to determine what your different classes expect you to read and you create a reading
schedule to ensure you complete all the reading, think about when you should read the material strategically,
not just how to get it all done. You should read textbook chapters and other reading assignments before you go
into a lecture about that information. Don’t wait to see how the lecture goes before you read the material, or
you may not understand the information in the lecture. Reading before class helps you put ideas together
between your reading and the information you hear and discuss in class.
Different disciplines naturally have different types of texts, and you need to take this into account when you
schedule your time for reading class material. For example, you may look at a poem for your world literature
class and assume that it will not take you long to read because it is relatively short compared to the dense
textbook you have for your economics class. But reading and understanding a poem can take a considerable
amount of time when you realize you may need to stop numerous times to review the separate word
meanings and how the words form images and connections throughout the poem.
The SQ3R Reading Strategy
You may have heard of the SQ3R method for active reading in your early education. This valuable technique is
perfect for college reading. The title stands for Survey, Question, Read, Recite, Review, and you can use the
steps on virtually any assigned passage. Designed by Francis Pleasant Robinson in his 1961 book Effective
Study, the active reading strategy gives readers a systematic way to work through any reading material.
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Survey is similar to skimming. You look for clues to meaning by reading the titles, headings, introductions,
summary, captions for graphics, and keywords. You can survey almost anything connected to the reading
selection, including the copyright information, the date of the journal article, or the names and qualifications
of the author(s). In this step, you decide what the general meaning is for the reading selection.
Question is your creation of questions to seek the main ideas, support, examples, and conclusions of the
reading selection. Ask yourself these questions separately. Try to create valid questions about what you are
about to read that have come into your mind as you engaged in the Survey step. Try turning the headings of
the sections in the chapter into questions. Next, how does what you’re reading relate to you, your school, your
community, and the world?
Read is when you actually read the passage. Try to find the answers to questions you developed in the
previous step. Decide how much you are reading in chunks, either by paragraph for more complex readings or
by section or even by an entire chapter. When you finish reading the selection, stop to make notes. Answer the
questions by writing a note in the margin or other white space of the text.
You may also carefully underline or highlight text in addition to your notes. Use caution here that you don’t try
to rush this step by haphazardly circling terms or the other extreme of underlining huge chunks of text. Don’t
over-mark. You aren’t likely to remember what these cryptic marks mean later when you come back to use this
active reading session to study. The text is the source of information—your marks and notes are just a way to
organize and make sense of that information.
Recite means to speak out loud. By reciting, you are engaging other senses to remember the material—you
read it (visual) and you said it (auditory). Stop reading momentarily in the step to answer your questions or
clarify confusing sentences or paragraphs. You can recite a summary of what the text means to you. If you are
not in a place where you can verbalize, such as a library or classroom, you can accomplish this step adequately
by saying it in your head; however, to get the biggest bang for your buck, try to find a place where you can
speak aloud. You may even want to try explaining the content to a friend.
Review is a recap. Go back over what you read and add more notes, ensuring you have captured the main
points of the passage, identified the supporting evidence and examples, and understood the overall meaning.
You may need to repeat some or all of the SQR3 steps during your review depending on the length and
complexity of the material. Before you end your active reading session, write a short (no more than one page
is optimal) summary of the text you read.
Reading Primary and Secondary Sources
Primary sources are original documents we study and from which we glean information; primary sources
include letters, first editions of books, legal documents, and a variety of other texts. When scholars look at
these documents to understand a period in history or a scientific challenge and then write about their
findings, the scholar’s article is considered a secondary source. Readers have to keep several factors in mind
when reading both primary and secondary sources.
Primary sources may contain dated material we now know is inaccurate. It may contain personal beliefs and
biases the original writer didn’t intent to be openly published, and it may even present fanciful or creative
ideas that do not support current knowledge. Readers can still gain great insight from primary sources, but
readers need to understand the context from which the writer of the primary source wrote the text.
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Likewise, secondary sources are inevitably another person’s perspective on the primary source, so a reader of
secondary sources must also be aware of potential biases or preferences the secondary source writer inserts
in the writing that may persuade an incautious reader to interpret the primary source in a particular manner.
For example, if you were to read a secondary source that is examining the U.S. Declaration of Independence
(the primary source), you would have a much clearer idea of how the secondary source scholar presented the
information from the primary source if you also read the Declaration for yourself instead of trusting the other
writer’s interpretation. Most scholars are honest in writing secondary sources, but you as a reader of the
source are trusting the writer to present a balanced perspective of the primary source. When possible, you
should attempt to read a primary source in conjunction with the secondary source. The Internet helps
immensely with this practice.
W H A T S T U D E N T S S A Y
1. What is the most influential factor in how thoroughly you read the material for a given course?
a. How engaging the material is or how much I enjoy reading it.
b. Whether or not the course is part of my major.
c. Whether or not the instructor assesses knowledge from the reading (through quizzes, for
example), or requires assignments based on the reading.
d. Whether or not knowledge or information from the reading is required to participate in lecture.
2. What best describes your reading approach for required texts/materials for your classes?
a. I read all of the assigned material.
b. I read most of the assigned material.
c. I skim the text and read the captions, examples, or summaries.
3. What best describes your notetaking style?
a. I use a systematic method such as the Cornell method or something similar.
b. I highlight or underline all the important information.
c. I create outlines and/or note-cards.
d. I use an app or program.
e. I write notes in my text (print or digital).
f. I don’t have a style. I just write down what seems important.
g. I don’t take many notes.
You can also take the anonymous What Students Say (https://openstax.org/l/collegesurvey1-5) surveys
to add your voice to this textbook. Your responses will be included in updates.
Students offered their views on these questions, and the results are displayed in the graphs below.
What is the most influential factor in how thoroughly you read the material for a given course?
Chapter 5 Reading and Notetaking 165
https://openstax.org/l/collegesurvey1-5
Figure 5.5
What best describes your reading approach for required texts/materials for your classes?
Figure 5.6
What best describes your notetaking style?
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Researching Topic and Author
During your preview stage, sometimes called pre-reading, you can easily pick up on information from various
sources that may help you understand the material you’re reading more fully or place it in context with other
important works in the discipline. If your selection is a book, flip it over or turn to the back pages and look for
an author’s biography or note from the author. See if the book itself contains any other information about the
author or the subject matter.
The main things you need to recall from your reading in college are the topics covered and how the
information fits into the discipline. You can find these parts throughout the textbook chapter in the form of
headings in larger and bold font, summary lists, and important quotations pulled out of the narrative. Use
these features as you read to help you determine what the most important ideas are.
Figure 5.7
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Figure 5.8 Learning about the book you’re reading can provide good context and information. Look for an
author’s biography and forward on the back cover or in the first few pages. (Credit: Mark Hillary / Flickr /
Attribution 2.0 Generic (CC-BY 2.0))
Remember, many books use quotations about the book or author as testimonials in a marketing approach to
sell more books, so these may not be the most reliable sources of unbiased opinions, but it’s a start.
Sometimes you can find a list of other books the author has written near the front of a book. Do you recognize
any of the other titles? Can you do an Internet search for the name of the book or author? Go beyond the
search results that want you to buy the book and see if you can glean any other relevant information about
the author or the reading selection. Beyond a standard Internet search, try the library article database. These
are more relevant to academic disciplines and contain resources you typically will not find in a standard search
engine. If you are unfamiliar with how to use the library database, ask a reference librarian on campus. They
are often underused resources that can point you in the right direction.
Understanding Your Own Preset Ideas on a Topic
Laura really enjoys learning about environmental issues. She has read many books and watched numerous
televised documentaries on this topic and actively seeks out additional information on the environment. While
Laura’s interest can help her understand a new reading encounter about the environment, Laura also has to
be aware that with this interest, she also brings forward her preset ideas and biases about the topic.
Sometimes these prejudices against other ideas relate to religion or nationality or even just tradition. Without
evidence, thinking the way we always have is not a good enough reason; evidence can change, and at the very
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least it needs honest review and assessment to determine its validity. Ironically, we may not want to learn new
ideas because that may mean we would have to give up old ideas we have already mastered, which can be a
daunting prospect.
With every reading situation about the environment, Laura needs to remain open-minded about what she is
about to read and pay careful attention if she begins to ignore certain parts of the text because of her
preconceived notions. Learning new information can be very difficult if you balk at ideas that are different
from what you’ve always thought. You may have to force yourself to listen to a different viewpoint multiple
times to make sure you are not closing your mind to a viable solution your mindset does not currently allow.
5.3 Taking Notes
Estimated completion time: 21 minutes.
Questions to consider:
• How can you prepare to take notes to maximize the effectiveness of the experience?
• What are some specific strategies you can employ for better notetaking?
• Why is annotating your notes after the notetaking session a critical step to follow?
Beyond providing a record of the information you are reading or hearing, notes help you organize the ideas
and help you make meaning out of something about which you may not be familiar, so notetaking and
reading are two compatible skill sets. Taking notes also helps you stay focused on the question at hand.
Nanami often takes notes during presentations or class lectures so she can follow the speaker’s main points
and condense the material into a more readily usable format. Strong notes build on your prior knowledge of a
subject, help you discuss trends or patterns present in the information, and direct you toward areas needing
further research or reading.
A N A L Y S I S Q U E S T I O N
Can you think of times you have struggled reading college content for a course? Which of these
strategies might have helped you understand the content? Why do you think those strategies would
work?
Chapter 5 Reading and Notetaking 169
Figure 5.9 Strong notes build on your prior knowledge of a subject, help you discuss trends or patterns
present in the information, and direct you toward areas needing further research or reading.
It is not a good habit to transcribe every single word a speaker utters—even if you have an amazing ability to
do that. Most of us don’t have that court-reporter-esque skill level anyway, and if we try, we would end up
missing valuable information. Learn to listen for main ideas and distinguish between these main ideas and
details that typically support the ideas. Include examples that explain the main ideas, but do so using
understandable abbreviations.
Think of all notes as potential study guides. In fact, if you only take notes without actively working on them
after the initial notetaking session, the likelihood of the notes helping you is slim. Research on this topic
concludes that without active engagement after taking notes, most students forget 60–75 percent of material
over which they took the notes—within two days! That sort of defeats the purpose, don’t you think? This
information about memory loss was first brought to light by 19th-century German psychologist Hermann
Ebbinghaus. Fortunately, you do have the power to thwart what is sometimes called the Ebbinghaus
Forgetting Curve by reinforcing what you learned through review at intervals shortly after you take in the
material and frequently thereafter.
If you are a musician, you’ll understand this phenomenon well. When you first attempt a difficult piece of
music, you may not remember the chords and notes well at all, but after frequent practice and review, you
generate a certain muscle memory and cognitive recall that allows you to play the music more easily.
Notetaking may not be the most glamorous aspect of your higher-education journey, but it is a study practice
you will carry throughout college and into your professional life. Setting yourself up for successful notetaking
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is almost as important as the actual taking of notes, and what you do after your notetaking session is equally
significant. Well-written notes help you organize your thoughts, enhance your memory, and participate in class
discussion, and they prepare you to respond successfully on exams. With all that riding on your notes, it would
behoove you to learn how to take notes properly and continue to improve your notetaking skills.
Preparing to Take Notes
Preparing to take notes means more than just getting out your laptop or making sure you bring pen and
paper to class. You’ll do a much better job with your notes if you understand why we take notes, have a strong
grasp on your preferred notetaking system, determine your specific priorities depending on your situation,
and engage in some version of efficient shorthand.
Like handwriting and fingerprints, we all have unique and fiercely independent notetaking habits. These
understandably and reasonably vary from one situation to the next, but you can only improve your skills by
learning more about ways to take effective notes and trying different methods to find a good fit.
The very best notes are the ones you take in an organized manner that encourages frequent review and use as
you progress through a topic or course of study. For this reason, you need to develop a way to organize all
your notes for each class so they remain together and organized. As old-fashioned as it sounds, a clunky three-
ring binder is an excellent organizational container for class notes. You can easily add to previous notes, insert
handouts you may receive in class, and maintain a running collection of materials for each separate course. If
the idea of carrying around a heavy binder has you rolling your eyes, then transfer that same structure into
your computer files. If you don’t organize your many documents into some semblance of order on your
computer, you will waste significant time searching for improperly named or saved files.
You may be interested in relatively new research on what is the more effective notetaking strategy:
handwriting versus typing directly into a computer. While individuals have strong personal opinions on this
subject, most researchers agree that the format of student notes is less important than what students do with
the notes they take afterwards. Both handwriting notes and using a computer for notetaking have pros and
cons.
A N A L Y S I S Q U E S T I O N
Do you currently have a preferred way to take notes? When did you start using it? Has it been effective?
What other strategy might work for you?
Chapter 5 Reading and Notetaking 171
Figure 5.10 The best notes are the ones you take in an organized manner. Frequent review and further
annotation are important to build a deep and useful understanding of the material. (Credit: English106 / Flickr
/ Attribution 2.0 Generic (CC-BY 2.0))
Managing Notetaking Systems (Computer, Paper/Pen, Note Cards, Textbook)
Whichever of the many notetaking systems you choose (and new ones seem to come out almost daily), the
very best one is the one that you will use consistently. The skill and art of notetaking is not automatic for
anyone; it takes a great deal of practice, patience, and continuous attention to detail. Add to that the fact that
you may need to master multiple notetaking techniques for different classes, and you have some work to do.
Unless you are specifically directed by your instructor, you are free to combine the best parts of different
systems if you are most comfortable with that hybrid system.
Just to keep yourself organized, all your notes should start off with an identifier, including at the very least the
date, the course name, the topic of the lecture/presentation, and any other information you think will help you
when you return to use the notes for further study, test preparation, or assignment completion. Additional,
optional information may be the number of notetaking sessions about this topic or reminders to cross-
reference class handouts, textbook pages, or other course materials. It’s also always a good idea to leave
some blank space in your notes so you can insert additions and questions you may have as you review the
material later.
Notetaking Strategies
You may have a standard way you take all your notes for all your classes. When you were in high school, this
one-size-fits-all approach may have worked. Now that you’re in college, reading and studying more advanced
topics, your general method may still work some of the time, but you should have some different strategies in
place if you find that your method isn’t working as well with college content. You probably will need to adopt
different notetaking strategies for different subjects. The strategies in this section represent various ways to
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take notes in such a way that you are able to study after the initial notetaking session.
Cornell Method
One of the most recognizable notetaking systems is called the Cornell Method, a relatively simple way to take
effective notes devised by Cornell University education professor Dr. Walter Pauk in the 1940s. In this system,
you take a standard piece of note paper and divide it into three sections by drawing a horizontal line across
your paper about one to two inches from the bottom of the page (the summary area) and then drawing a
vertical line to separate the rest of the page above this bottom area, making the left side about two inches (the
recall column) and leaving the biggest area to the right of your vertical line (the notes column). You may want
to make one page and then copy as many pages as you think you’ll need for any particular class, but one
advantage of this system is that you can generate the sections quickly. Because you have divided up your
page, you may end up using more paper than you would if you were writing on the entire page, but the point
is not to keep your notes to as few pages as possible. The Cornell Method provides you with a well-organized
set of notes that will help you study and review your notes as you move through the course. If you are taking
notes on your computer, you can still use the Cornell Method in Word or Excel on your own or by using a
template someone else created.
Chapter 5 Reading and Notetaking 173
Figure 5.11 The Cornell Method provides a straightforward, organized, and flexible approach
Now that you have the notetaking format generated, the beauty of the Cornell Method is its organized
simplicity. Just write on one side of the page (the right-hand notes column)—this will help later when you are
reviewing and revising your notes. During your notetaking session, use the notes column to record
information over the main points and concepts of the lecture; try to put the ideas into your own words, which
will help you not transcribe the speaker’s words verbatim. Skip lines between each idea in this column.
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Practice the shortcut abbreviations covered in the next section and avoid writing in complete sentences. Don’t
make your notes too cryptic, but you can use bullet points or phrases equally well to convey meaning—we do
it all the time in conversation. If you know you will need to expand the notes you are taking in class but don’t
have time, you can put reminders directly in the notes by adding and underlining the word expand by the ideas
you need to develop more fully.
As soon as possible after your notetaking session, preferably within eight hours but no more than twenty-four
hours, read over your notes column and fill in any details you missed in class, including the places where you
indicated you wanted to expand your notes. Then in the recall column, write any key ideas from the
corresponding notes column—you can’t stuff this smaller recall column as if you’re explaining or defining key
ideas. Just add the one- or two-word main ideas; these words in the recall column serve as cues to help you
remember the detailed information you recorded in the notes column.
Once you are satisfied with your notes and recall columns, summarize this page of notes in two or three
sentences using the summary area at the bottom of the sheet. This is an excellent time to get with another
classmate or a group of students who all heard the same lecture to make sure you all understood the key
points. Now, before you move onto something else, cover the large notes column, and quiz yourself over the
key ideas you recorded in the recall column. Repeat this step often as you go along, not just immediately
before an exam, and you will help your memory make the connections between your notes, your textbook
reading, your in-class work, and assignments that you need to succeed on any quizzes and exams.
Chapter 5 Reading and Notetaking 175
Figure 5.12 This sample set of notes in the Cornell Method is designed to make sense of a large amount of
information. The process of organizing the notes can help you retain the information more effectively than
less consistent methods.
The main advantage of the Cornell Method is that you are setting yourself up to have organized, workable
notes. The neat format helps you move into study-mode without needing to re-copy less organized notes or
making sense of a large mass of information you aren’t sure how to process because you can’t remember key
ideas or what you meant. If you write notes in your classes without any sort of system and later come across
something like “Napoleon—short” in the middle of a glob of notes, what can you do at this point? Is that
important? Did it connect with something relevant from the lecture? How would you possibly know? You are
your best advocate for setting yourself up for success in college.
Outlining
Other note organizing systems may help you in different disciplines. You can take notes in a formal outline if
you prefer, using Roman numerals for each new topic, moving down a line to capital letters indented a few
spaces to the right for concepts related to the previous topic, then adding details to support the concepts
indented a few more spaces over and denoted by an Arabic numeral. You can continue to add to a formal
outline by following these rules.
You don’t absolutely have to use the formal numerals and letter, but you have to then be careful to indent so
you can tell when you move from a higher level topic to the related concepts and then to the supporting
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information. The main benefit of an outline is how organized it is. You have to be on your toes when you are
taking notes in class to ensure you keep up the organizational format of the outline, which can be tricky if the
lecture or presentation is moving quickly or covering many diverse topics.
The following formal outline example shows the basic pattern:
I. Dogs (main topic–usually general)
A. German Shepherd (concept related to main topic)
1. Protection (supporting info about the concept)
2. Assertive
3. Loyal
B. Weimaraner (concept related to main topic)
1. Family-friendly (supporting info about the concept)
2. Active
3. Healthy
II. Cats (main topic)
Siamese
You would just continue on with this sort of numbering and indenting format to show the connections
between main ideas, concepts, and supporting details. Whatever details you do not capture in your notetaking
session, you can add after the lecture as you review your outline.
Chart or table
Similar to creating an outline, you can develop a chart to compare and contrast main ideas in a notetaking
session. Divide your paper into four or five columns with headings that include either the main topics covered
in the lecture or categories such as How?, What?, When used?, Advantages/Pros, Disadvantages/Cons, or
other divisions of the information. You write your notes into the appropriate columns as that information
comes to light in the presentation.
Example of a Chart to Organize Ideas and Categories
Structure Types Functions in Body Additional Notes
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins
Nucleic Acid
This format helps you pull out the salient ideas and establishes an organized set of notes to study later. (If you
haven’t noticed that this reviewing later idea is a constant across all notetaking systems, you should…take note
of that.) Notes by themselves that you never reference again are little more than scribblings. That would be a
bit like compiling an extensive grocery list so you stay on budget when you shop, work all week on it, and then
just throw it away before you get to the store. You may be able to recall a few items, but likely won’t be as
efficient as you could be if you had the notes to reference. Just as you cannot read all the many books, articles,
Chapter 5 Reading and Notetaking 177
and documents you need to peruse for your college classes, you cannot remember the most important ideas
of all the notes you will take as part of your courses, so you must review.
Concept Mapping and Visual Notetaking
One final notetaking method that appeals to learners who prefer a visual representation of notes is called
mapping or sometimes mind mapping or concept mapping, although each of these names can have slightly
different uses. Variations of this method abound, so you may want to look for more versions online, but the
basic principles are that you are making connections between main ideas through a graphic depiction; some
can get rather elaborate with colors and shapes, but a simple version may be more useful at least to begin.
Main ideas can be circled or placed in a box with supporting concepts radiating off these ideas shown with a
connecting line and possibly details of the support further radiating off the concepts. You can present your
main ideas vertically or horizontally, but turning your paper long-ways, or in landscape mode, may prove
helpful as you add more main ideas.
Figure 5.13 Concept mapping, sometimes referred to as mind mapping, can be an effective and very
personalized approach to capturing information. (Credit: ArtistIvanChew / Flickr / Attribution 2.0 Generic (CC-
BY 2.0))
You may be interested in trying visual notetaking or adding pictures to your notes for clarity. Sometimes when
you can’t come up with the exact wording to explain something or you’re trying to add information for
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complex ideas in your notes, sketching a rough image of the idea can help you remember. According to
educator Sherrill Knezel in an article entitled “The Power of Visual Notetaking,” this strategy is effective
because “When students use images and text in notetaking, it gives them two different ways to pull up the
information, doubling their chances of recall.” Don’t shy away from this creative approach to notetaking just
because you believe you aren’t an artist; the images don’t need to be perfect. You may want to watch Rachel
Smith’s TEDx Talk called “Drawing in Class” (https://openstax.org/l/drawinginclass) to learn more about visual
notetaking.
You can play with different types of notetaking suggestions and find the method(s) you like best, but once you
find what works for you, stick with it. You will become more efficient with the method the more you use it, and
your notetaking, review, and test prep will become, if not easier, certainly more organized, which can delete
decrease your anxiety.
Practicing Decipherable Shorthand
Most college students don’t take a class in shorthand, once the domain of secretaries and executive assistants,
but maybe they should. That almost-lost art in the age of computers could come in very handy during intense
notetaking sessions. Elaborate shorthand systems do exist, but you would be better served in your college
notetaking adventures to hone a more familiar, personalized form of shorthand to help you write more in a
shorter amount of time. Seemingly insignificant shortcuts can add up to ease the stress notetaking can
induce—especially if you ever encounter an “I’m not going to repeat this” kind of presenter! Become familiar
with these useful abbreviations:
Shortcut symbol Meaning
w/, w/o, w/in with, without, within
& and
# number
b/c because
X, √ incorrect, correct
Diff different, difference
etc. and so on
ASAP as soon as possible
US, UK United States, United Kingdom
info information
Measurements: ft, in, k, m foot, inch, thousand, million
¶ paragraph or new paragraph
Chapter 5 Reading and Notetaking 179
https://openstax.org/l/drawinginclass
https://openstax.org/l/drawinginclass
Shortcut symbol Meaning
Math symbols: =, +, >, <, ÷ equal, plus, greater, less, divided by
WWI, WWII World Wars I and II
impt important
?, !, ** denote something is very significant; don't over use
Do you have any other shortcuts or symbols that you use in your notes? Ask your parents if they remember
any that you may be able to learn.
Annotating Notes After Initial Notetaking Session
Annotating notes after the initial notetaking session may be one of the most valuable study skills you can
master. Whether you are highlighting, underlining, or adding additional notes, you are reinforcing the material
in your mind and memory.
Admit it—who can resist highlighting markers? Gone are the days when yellow was the star of the show, and
you had to be very careful not to press too firmly for fear of obliterating the words you were attempting to
emphasize. Students now have a veritable rainbow of highlighting options and can color-code notes and text
passages to their hearts’ content. Technological advances may be important, but highlighter color choice is
monumental! Maybe.
The only reason to highlight anything is to draw attention to it, so you can easily pick out that ever-so-
important information later for further study or reflection. One problem many students have is not knowing
when to stop. If what you need to recall from the passage is a particularly apt and succinct definition of the
term important to your discipline, highlighting the entire paragraph is less effective than highlighting just the
actual term. And if you don’t rein in this tendency to color long passages (possibly in multiple colors) you can
end up with a whole page of highlighted text. Ironically, that is no different from a page that is not highlighted
at all, so you have wasted your time. Your mantra for highlighting text should be less is more. Always read your
text selection first before you start highlighting anything. You need to know what the overall message is
before you start placing emphasis in the text with highlighting.
Another way to annotate notes after initial notetaking is underlying significant words or passages. Albeit not
quite as much fun as its colorful cousin highlighting, underlining provides precision to your emphasis.
Some people think of annotations as only using a colored highlighter to mark certain words or phrases for
emphasis. Actually, annotations can refer to anything you do with a text to enhance it for your particular use
(either a printed text, handwritten notes, or other sort of document you are using to learn concepts). The
annotations may include highlighting passages or vocabulary, defining those unfamiliar terms once you look
them up, writing questions in the margin of a book, underlining or circling key terms, or otherwise marking a
text for future reference. You can also annotate some electronic texts.
Realistically, you may end up doing all of these types of annotations at different times. We know that repetition
in studying and reviewing is critical to learning, so you may come back to the same passage and annotate it
separately. These various markings can be invaluable to you as a study guide and as a way to see the evolution
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of your learning about a topic. If you regularly begin a reading session writing down any questions you may
have about the topic of that chapter or section and also write out answers to those questions at the end of the
reading selection, you will have a good start to what that chapter covered when you eventually need to study
for an exam. At that point, you likely will not have time to reread the entire selection especially if it is a long
reading selection, but with strong annotations in conjunction with your class notes, you won’t need to do that.
With experience in reading discipline-specific texts and writing essays or taking exams in that field, you will
know better what sort of questions to ask in your annotations.
Chapter 5 Reading and Notetaking 181
Figure 5.14 Annotations may include highlighting important topics, defining unfamiliar terms, writing
questions in, underlining or circling key terms, or otherwise marking a text for future reference. Whichever
approach you choose, try not to overdo it; neat, organized, and efficient notes are more effective than
crowded or overdone notes.
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Figure 5.15 While these notes may be meaningful to the person who took them, they are neither organized
nor consistent. For example, note that some of the more commonly used terms, like “we” and “unfinished,”
are defined, but less common ones -- “consecrate” and “hallow” -- are not.
What you have to keep in the front of your mind while you are annotating, especially if you are going to
conduct multiple annotation sessions, is to not overdo whatever method you use. Be judicious about what you
Chapter 5 Reading and Notetaking 183
annotate and how you do it on the page, which means you must be neat about it. Otherwise, you end up with
a mess of either color or symbols combined with some cryptic notes that probably took you quite a long time
to create, but won’t be worth as much to you as a study aid as they could be. This is simply a waste of time and
effort.
You cannot eat up every smidgen of white space on the page writing out questions or summaries and still
have a way to read the original text. If you are lucky enough to have a blank page next to the beginning of the
chapter or section you are annotating, use this, but keep in mind that when you start writing notes, you aren’t
exactly sure how much space you’ll need. Use a decipherable shorthand and write only what you need to
convey the meaning in very small print. If you are annotating your own notes, you can make a habit of using
only one side of the paper in class, so that if you need to add more notes later, you could use the other side.
You can also add a blank page to your notes before beginning the next class date in your notebook so you’ll
end up with extra paper for annotations when you study.
Professional resources may come with annotations that can be helpful to you as you work through the various
documentation requirements you’ll encounter in college as well. Purdue University’s Online Writing Lab (OWL
(https://openstax.org/l/mlaformatting) ) provides an annotated sample for how to format a college paper
according to guidelines in the Modern Language Association (MLA) manual that you can see, along with other
annotations.
Adding Needed Additional Explanations to Notes
Marlon was totally organized and ready to take notes in a designated course notebook at the beginning of
every philosophy class session. He always dated his page and indicated what the topic of discussion was. He
had various colored highlighters ready to denote the different note purposes he had defined: vocabulary in
pink, confusing concepts in green, and note sections that would need additional explanations later in yellow.
He also used his own shorthand and an impressive array of symbols to indicate questions (red question mark),
highly probable test material (he used a tiny bomb exploding here), additional reading suggestions, and
specific topics he would ask his instructor before the next class. Doing everything so precisely, Marlon’s
methods seemed like a perfect example of how to take notes for success. Inevitably though, by the end of the
hour-and-a-half class session, Marlon was frantically switching between writing tools, near to tears, and
scouring his notes as waves of yellow teased him with uncertainty. What went wrong?
As with many of us who try diligently to do everything we know how to do for success or what we think we
know because we read books and articles on success in between our course work, Marlon is suffering from
trying to do too much simultaneously. It’s an honest mistake we can make when we are trying to save a little
time or think we can multitask and kill two birds with one stone.
Unfortunately, this particular error in judgement can add to your stress level exponentially if you don’t step
back and see it for what it is. Marlon attempted to take notes in class as well as annotate his notes to get them
ready for his test preparation. It was too much to do at one time, but even if he could have done all those
things during class, he’s missing one critical point about notetaking.
As much as we may want to hurry and get it over with, notetaking in class is just the beginning. Your instructor
likely gave you a pre-class assignment to read or complete before coming to that session. The intention of that
preparatory lesson is for you to come in with some level of familiarity for the topic under consideration and
questions of your own. Once you’re in class, you may also need to participate in a group discussion, work with
your classmates, or perform some other sort of lesson-directed activity that would necessarily take you away
from taking notes. Does that mean you should ignore taking notes for that day? Most likely not. You may just
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https://openstax.org/l/mlaformatting
https://openstax.org/l/mlaformatting
need to indicate in your notes that you worked on a project or whatever other in-class event you experienced
that date.
Very rarely in a college classroom will you engage in an activity that is not directly related to what you are
studying in that course. Even if you enjoyed every minute of the class session and it was an unusual format for
that course, you still need to take some notes. Maybe your first note could be to ask yourself why you think the
instructor used that unique teaching strategy for the class that day. Was it effective? Was it worth using the
whole class time? How will that experience enhance what you are learning in that course?
If you use an ereader or ebooks to read texts for class or read articles from the Internet on your laptop or
tablet, you can still take effective notes. Depending on the features of your device, you have many choices.
Almost all electronic reading platforms allow readers to highlight and underline text. Some devices allow you
to add a written text in addition to marking a word or passage that you can collect at the end of your
notetaking session. Look into the specific tools for your device and learn how to use the features that allow
you to take notes electronically. You can also find apps on devices to help with taking notes, some of which you
may automatically have installed when you buy the product. Microsoft’s OneNote, Google Keep, and the Notes
feature on phones are relatively easy to use, and you may already have free access to those.
Taking Notes on Non-Text Items (i.e., Tables, Maps, Figures, etc.)
You may also encounter situations as you study and read textbooks, primary sources, and other resources for
your classes that are not actually texts. You can still take notes on maps, charts, graphs, images, and tables,
and your approach to these non-text features is similar to when you prepare to take notes over a passage of
text. For example, if you are looking at the following map, you may immediately come up with several
questions. Or it may initially appear overwhelming. Start by asking yourself these questions:
What is the main point of this map?
• Who is the intended audience?
• Where is it?
• What time period does it depict?
• What does the map’s legend (the explanation of symbols) include?
• What other information do I need to make sense of this map?
Chapter 5 Reading and Notetaking 185
Figure 5.16 Graphics, charts, graphs, and other visual items are also important to annotate. Not only do they
often convey important information, but they may appear on exams or in other situations where you’ll need to
use or demonstrate knowledge. Credit: “Lpankonin” / Wikipedia Commons / Attribution 3.0 Generic (CC BY
3.0)
You may want to make an extra copy of a graphic or table before you add annotations if you are dealing with a
lot of information. Making sense of all the elements will take time, and you don’t want to add to the confusion.
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Returning to Your Notes
Later, as soon as possible after the class, you can go back to your notes and add in missing parts. Just as you
may generate questions as you’re reading new material, you may leave a class session or lecture or activities
with many questions. Write those down in a place where they won’t get lost in all your other notes.
The exact timing of when you get back to the notes you take in class or while you are reading an assignment
will vary depending on how many other classes you have or what other obligations you have in your daily
schedule. A good starting place that is also easy to remember is to make every effort to review your notes
within 24 hours of first taking them. Longer than that and you are likely to have forgotten some key features
you need to include; must less time than that, and you may not think you need to review the information you
so recently wrote down, and you may postpone the task too long.
Use your phone or computer to set reminders for all your note review sessions so that it becomes a habit and
you keep on top of the schedule.
Your personal notes play a significant role in your test preparation. They should enhance how you understand
the lessons, textbooks, lab sessions, and assignments. All the time and effort you put into first taking the notes
and then annotating and organizing the notes will be for naught if you do not formulate an effective and
efficient way to use them before sectional exams or comprehensive tests.
The whole cycle of reading, notetaking in class, reviewing and enhancing your notes, and preparing for exams
is part of a continuum you ideally will carry into your professional life. Don’t try to take short cuts; recognize
each step in the cycle as a building block. Learning doesn’t end, which shouldn’t fill you with dread; it should
help you recognize that all this work you’re doing in the classroom and during your own study and review
sessions is ongoing and cumulative. Practicing effective strategies now will help you be a stronger
professional.
A C T I V I T Y
What resources can you find about reading and notetaking that will actually help you with these crucial
skills? How do you go about deciding what resources are valuable for improving your reading and
notetaking skills?
The selection and relative value of study guides and books about notetaking vary dramatically. Ask your
instructors for recommendations and see what the library has available on this topic. The following list is
not comprehensive, but will give you a starting point for books and articles on notetaking in college.
• College Rules!: How to Study, Survive, and Succeed in College, by Sherri Nist-Olejnik and Jodi Patrick
Holschuh. More than just notetaking, this book covers many aspects of transitioning into the rigors
of college life and studying.
• Effective Notetaking, by Fiona McPherson. This small volume has suggestions for using your limited
time wisely before, during, and after notetaking sessions.
• How to Study in College, by Walter Pauk. This is the book that introduced Pauk’s notetaking
suggestions we now call the Cornell Method. It is a bit dated (from the 1940s), but still contains
some valuable information.
Chapter 5 Reading and Notetaking 187
Summary
Reading and notetaking are major elements of college studying and learning. The expectations in college is
that you read considerable amounts of text for each subject. You may encounter reading situations, such as
professional journal articles and long textbook chapters, that are more difficult to understand than texts you
have read previously. As you progress through your college courses, you can employ reading strategies to
help you complete your college reading assignments. Likewise, you will take notes in college that need to be
complete so you can study and recall the information you learn in lectures and lab sessions. With so much
significant information that you need to collect, study, and recall for your college courses, you need to be
deliberate in your reading and notetaking.
Career Connection
Sanvi is a pre-nursing student who is having trouble between all the reading she is expected to complete, her
general dislike of reading, and her need to comprehend both her reading assignments and her own notes to
be successful in nursing school. She has spoken with several of her instructors and a tutor at the Student
Success Center on campus, and their advice centers around Sanvi’s reluctance to read in general. She is
working on how to manage her time so she has more dedicated time to read her assignments in between her
classes and her work schedule.
That is helping some, but Sanvi is still worried because she knows one problem is that she doesn’t exactly
know what types of reading or notetaking she would need to know how to do as a professional nurse. This
confusion makes her doubt that the extra reading she is doing now is really beneficial. After some reflection
on what was holding her back, Sanvi mentioned this aspect of her studying to one of her instructors who had
been a hospital RN for years before coming to the college to teach. She recalled that the first time she read a
patient chart in the hospital, she had to think quickly about how to get all the meaning out of the chart in the
same way she would have read a complex textbook chapter.
Sanvi’s nursing instructor reminded her that all professions need their personnel to read. They may not all
• Learn to Listen, Listen to Learn 2: Academic Listening and Note-taking, by Roni S. Lebauer. The main
point of this book is to help students get the most from college lectures by watching for clues to
lecture organization and adapting this information into strong notes.
• Study Skills: Do I Really Need this Stuff?, by Steve Piscitelli. Written in a consistently down-to-earth
manner, this book will help you with the foundations of strong study skills, including time
management, effective notetaking, and seeing the big picture.
• “What Reading Does for the Mind,” by Anne Cunningham and Keith Stanovich, 1998,
https://www.aft.org/sites/default/files/periodicals/cunningham (https://www.aft.org/sites/
default/files/periodicals/cunningham )
• Adler, Mortimer J. and Charles Van Doren. How to Read a Book: The Classic Guide to Intelligent Reading.
NY: Simon & Schuster, 1940.
• Berns, Gregory S., Kristina Blaine, Michael J. Prietula, and Brandon E. Pye. Brain Connectivity. Dec
2013.ahead of print http://doi.org/10.1089/brain.2013.0166 (http://doi.org/10.1089/brain.2013.0166)
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https://www.aft.org/sites/default/files/periodicals/cunningham
https://www.aft.org/sites/default/files/periodicals/cunningham
http://doi.org/10.1089/brain.2013.0166
need to read books or articles, but all jobs involve reading to some extent. For example, consider this list of
disciplines and the typical types of reading they do. You may be surprised that not all reading is in text form.
Nurses/doctors Patient charts, prescription side effects, medical articles
Teachers Student work, lesson plans, educational best practices
Architects Blueprints, construction contracts, permit manuals
Accountants Financial spreadsheets, tax guidelines, invoices, trend diagrams
Beauticians Client hair and facial features, best practices articles, product information
Civil engineers Work site maps, government regulations, financial spreadsheets
Auto mechanics Car engines, auto manuals, government regulations
As this incomplete list shows, not every job you pursue will require you to read text-based documents, but all
jobs require some reading.
• How could Sanvi and her instructor use this list to make more sense of how college reading will prepare
Sanvi to be a stronger nurse?
• How would understanding the types of professional reading help you complete your reading
assignments?
• If your chosen field of study is not listed above, can you think of what sort of reading those professionals
would need to do?
Think about the questions that opened this chapter and what you have read. How do you feel about your
reading and notetaking skills now that you have some more strategies?
Rethinking
Revisit the questions you answered at the beginning of the chapter, and consider one option you learned in
this chapter that might change your answer to one of them.
1. I am reading on a college level
2. I take good notes that help me study for exams
3. I understand how to manage all the reading I need to do for college
4. I recognize the need for different notetaking strategies for different college subjects
Where do you go from here?
Reading is such a part of our everyday lives that we sometimes take it for granted. And even we don’t formally
write down our thoughts, we take notes in our heads far more often than we use our notetaking skills to make
sense of a textbook passage or a graphic. Honing these fundamental skills can only help you succeed in
college and beyond. What else about reading and note taking would you like to learn more about? Choose
topics form the list below to research more.
Chapter 5 Reading and Notetaking 189
• How to maximize e-readers to comprehend texts.
• How professional use reading and note taking in their careers.
• Is speed-reading a myth or a viable strategy?
• Compare reading and notetaking strategies from different countries to those you use
190 Chapter 5 Reading and Notetaking
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Chapter Outline
6.1 Memory
6.2 Studying
6.3 Test Taking
Introduction
Student Survey
How confident are you in preparing for and taking tests? Take this quick survey to figure it out, ranking
questions on a scale of 1–4, 1 meaning “least like me” and 4 meaning “most like me.” These questions will
help you determine how the chapter concepts relate to you right now. As you are introduced to new concepts
and practices, it can be informative to reflect on how your understanding changes over time. We’ll revisit these
questions at the end of the chapter to see whether your feelings have changed.
1. I set aside enough time to prepare for tests.
2. If I don’t set aside enough time, or if life gets in the way, I can usually cram and get positive results.
3. I prefer to pull all-nighters. The adrenaline and urgency help me remember what I need come test time.
4. I study my notes, highlight book passages, and use flash cards, but I still don’t feel like I’m as successful
as I should be on tests.
You can also take the Chapter 6 Survey (https://openstax.org/l/collegesurvey06) anonymously online.
Figure 6.1 How we study is as important as what we study. The environment is a critical element of success.
6
Studying, Memory, and Test Taking
https://openstax.org/l/collegesurvey06
About this Chapter
By the time you finish this chapter, you should be able to do the following:
• Outline the importance of memory when studying, and note some opportunities to strengthen memory.
• Discuss specific ways to increase the effectiveness of studying.
• Articulate test-taking strategies that minimize anxiety and maximize results.
Kerri didn’t need to study in high school. She made good grades, and her friends considered her lucky
because she never seemed to sweat exams or cram. In reality, Kerri did her studying during school hours, took
excellent notes in class, asked great questions, and read the material before class meetings—all of these are
excellent strategies. Kerri just seemed to do them without much fuss.
Then when she got to college, those same skills weren’t always working as well. Sound familiar? She
discovered that, for many classes, she needed to read paragraphs and textbook passages more than once for
comprehension. Her notes from class sessions were longer and more involved—the subject material was more
complicated and the problems more complex than she had ever encountered. College isn’t high school, as
most students realize shortly after enrolling in a higher ed program. Some old study habits and test-taking
strategies may serve as a good foundation, but others may need major modification.
It makes sense that, the better you are at studying and test taking, the better results you’ll see in the form of
high grades and long-term learning and knowledge acquisition. And the more experience you have using your
study and memorization skills and employing success strategies during exams, the better you’ll get at it. But
you have to keep it up—maintaining these skills and learning better strategies as the content you study
becomes increasingly complex is crucial to your success. Once you transition into a work environment, you will
be able to use these same skills that helped you be successful in college as you face the problem-solving
demands and expectations of your job. Earning high grades is one goal, and certainly a good one when you’re
in college, but true learning means committing content to long-term memory.
6.1 Memory
Estimated completion time: 32 minutes.
Questions to consider:
• How does working memory work, exactly?
“I didn’t have to study much for tests in high school, but I learned really quick that you have to for
college. One of the best strategies is to test yourself over the material. This will help you improve your
retrieval strength and help you remember more when it comes to the test. I also learned about
reviewing your graded tests. This will help you see where you went wrong and why. Being able to see
your mistakes and correct them helps the storage and retrieval strength as well as building those
dendrites. Getting a question wrong will only improve those things helping you remember the next time
it comes up.”
—Lilli Branstetter, University of Central Arkansas
S T U D E N T P R O F I L E
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• What’s the difference between working and short-term memory?
• How does long-term memory function?
• What obstacles exist to remembering?
• When and how should you memorize things?
In what situations is it best to memorize, and what do you memorize?
What can you do consistently to improve both your short- and long-term memory?
Memory is one of those cherished but mysterious elements in life. Everyone has memories, and some people
are very good at rapid recall, which is an enviable skill for test takers. We know that we seem to lose the
capacity to remember things as we age, and scientists continue to study how we remember some things but
not others and what memory means, but we don’t know that much about memory, really.
Nelson Cowan is one researcher who is working to explain what we do know about memory. His article “What
Are the Differences between Long-Term, Short-Term, and Working Memory?” breaks down the different types
of memory and what happens when we recall thoughts and ideas. When we remember something, we actually
do quite a lot of thinking.[1]
We go through three basic steps when we remember ideas or images: we encode, store, and retrieve that
information. Encoding is how we first perceive information through our senses, such as when we smell a lovely
flower or a putrid trash bin. Both make an impression on our minds through our sense of smell and probably
our vision. Our brains encode, or label, this content in short-term memory in case we want to think about it
again.
If the information is important and we have frequent exposure to it, the brain will store it for us in case we
need to use it in the future in our aptly named long-term memory. Later, the brain will allow us to recall or
retrieve that image, feeling, or information so we can do something with it. This is what we call remembering.
Figure 6.2
Foundations of Memory
William Sumrall et al. in the International Journal of Humanities and Social Science explain the foundation of
memory by noting: “Memory is a term applied to numerous biological devices by which living organisms
acquire, retain, and make use of skills and knowledge. It is present in all forms of higher order animals. The
most evolutionary forms of memory have taken place in human beings. Despite much research and
exploration, a complete understanding of human memory does not exist.”[2]
A N A L Y S I S Q U E S T I O N
Take a few minutes to list ways you create memories on a daily basis. Do you think about how you make
memories? Do you do anything that helps you keep track of your memories?
1 NCBI. “What are the differences between long-term, short-term, and working memory?” https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/
PMC2657600/
2 Sumrall, William, et. al. “A Review of Memory Theory.” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 2016. Vol. 6. No. 5.
Chapter 6 Studying, Memory, and Test Taking 193
Working Memory
Working memory is a type of short-term memory, but we use it when we are actively performing a task. For
example, nursing student Marilyn needs to use her knowledge of chemical reactions to suggest appropriate
prescriptions in various medical case studies. She does not have to recall every single fact she learned in years
of chemistry classes, but she does need to have a working memory of certain chemicals and how they work
with others. To ensure she can make these connections, Marilyn will have to review and study the relevant
chemical details for the types of drug interactions she will recommend in the case studies.
In working memory, you have access to whatever information you have stored in your memory that helps you
complete the task you are performing. For instance, when you begin to study an assignment, you certainly
need to read the directions, but you must also remember that in class your professor reduced the number of
problem sets the written instructions indicated you needed to finish. This was an oral addition to the written
assignment. The change to the instructions is what you bring up in working memory when you complete the
assignment.
Short-Term Memory
Short-term memory is a very handy thing. It helps us remember where we set our keys or where we left off on
a project the day before. Think about all the aids we employ to help us with short-term memory: you may hang
your keys in a particular place each evening so you know exactly where they are supposed to be. When you go
grocery shopping, do you ever choose a product because you recall an advertising jingle? You see the box of
cereal and you remember the song on the TV commercial. If that memory causes you to buy that product, the
advertising worked. We help our memory along all the time, which is perfectly fine. In fact, we can modify
these everyday examples of memory assistance for purposes of studying and test taking. The key is deliberate
use of strategies that are not so elaborate that they are too difficult to remember in our short-term memory.
A C T I V I T Y
Consider this list of items. Look at the list for no more than 30 seconds. Then, cover up the list and use
the spaces below to complete an activity.
Baseball Picture frame Tissue Paper clip
Bread Pair of dice Fingernail polish Spoon
Marble Leaf Doll Scissors
Cup Jar of sand Deck of cards Ring
Blanket Ice Marker String
Without looking at the list, write down as many items as you can remember.
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Harvard psychology professor George A. Miller in 1956 claimed humans can recall about five to nine bits of
information in our short-term memory at any given time. Other research has come after this claim, but this
concept is a popular one. Miller’s article is entitled "The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two" and is
easily accessible online if you’re interested in learning more about this seminar report.[3]
Considering the vast amount of knowledge available to us, five to nine bits isn’t very much to work with. To
combat this limitation, we clump information together, making connections to help us stretch our capacity to
remember. Many factors play into how much we can remember and how we do it, including the subject
matter, how familiar we are with the ideas, and how interested we are in the topic, but we certainly cannot
remember absolutely everything, for a test or any other task we face. As such, we have to use effective
strategies, like those we cover later in this chapter, to get the most out of our memories.
Now, look back at your list and make sure that you give yourself credit for any that you got right. Any
items that you misremembered, meaning they were not in the original list, you won’t count in your total.
TOTAL ITEMS REMEMBERED _______________________.
There were 20 total items. Did you remember between 5 and 9 items? If you did, then you have a typical
short-term memory and you just participated in an experiment, of sorts, to prove it.
A C T I V I T Y
Now, let’s revisit the items above. Go back to them and see if you can organize them in a way that you
would have about five groups of items. See below for an example of how to group them.
Row 1: Items found in a kitchen
Row 2: Items that a child would play with
Row 3: Items of nature
Row 4: Items in a desk drawer/school supplies
Row 5: Items found in a bedroom
Cup Spoon Ice Bread
Baseball Marble Pair of dice Doll Deck of cards
Jar of sand Leaf
Marker String Scissors Paper clip
Ring Picture frame Fingernail polish Tissue Blanket
3 Miller, George A. "The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our capacity for Processing Information." Psychological
Review, 1956.
Chapter 6 Studying, Memory, and Test Taking 195
Long-Term Memory
Long-term memory is exactly what it sounds like. These are things you recall from the past, such as the smell
of your elementary school cafeteria or how to pop a wheelie on a bicycle. Our brain keeps a vast array of
information, images, and sensory experiences in long-term memory. Whatever it is we are trying to keep in
our memories, whether a beautiful song or a list of chemistry vocabulary terms, must first come into our
brains in short-term memory. If we want these fleeting ideas to transfer into long-term memory, we have to
do some work, such as causing frequent exposure to the information over time (such as studying the terms
every day for a period of time or the repetition you performed to memorize multiplication tables or spelling
rules) and some relevant manipulation for the information.
According to Alison Preston of the University of Texas at Austin's Center for Learning and Memory, “A short-
term memory's conversion to a long-term memory requires changes within the brain . . . and result[s] in
changes to neurons (nerve cells) or sets of neurons. . . . For example, new synapses—the connections between
neurons through which they exchange information—can form to allow for communication between new
networks of neurons. Alternatively, existing synapses can be strengthened to allow for increased sensitivity in
the communication between two neurons.”[4]
When you work to convert your thoughts into memories, you are literally changing your mind. Much of this
brain work begins in the part of the brain called the hippocampus. Preston continues, “Initially, the
hippocampus works in concert with sensory-processing regions distributed in the neocortex (the outermost
layer of the brain) to form the new memories. Within the neocortex, representations of the elements that
constitute an event in our life are distributed across multiple brain regions according to their content. . . .
When a memory is first formed, the hippocampus rapidly combines this distributed information into a single
memory, thus acting as an index of representations in the sensory-processing regions. As time passes, cellular
and molecular changes allow for the strengthening of direct connections among the neocortical regions,
enabling access to the memory independent of the hippocampus.”
We learn the lyrics of a favorite song by singing and/or playing the song over and over. That alone may not be
enough to get that song into the coveted long-term memory area of our brain, but if we have an emotional
connection to the song, such as a painful breakup or a life-changing proposal that occurred while we were
listening to the song, this may help. Think of ways to make your study session memorable and create
connections with the information you need to study. That way, you have a better chance of keeping your study
material in your memory so you can access it whenever you need it.
Now that you have grouped items into categories, also known as chunking, you can work on
remembering the categories and the items that fit into those categories, which will result in
remembering more items. Check it out below by covering up the list of items again and writing down
what you can remember.
Now, look back at your list and make sure that you give yourself credit for any that you got right. Any
items that you misremembered, meaning they were not in the original list, you won’t count in your total.
TOTAL ITEMS REMEMBERED _______________________. Did you increase how many items you could
remember?
4 Preston, Alison. “Ask the Experts: How do short-term memories become long-term memories?” Scientific American, Dec. 2017.
https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-do-short-term-memories-become-l/
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Obstacles to Remembering
If remembering things we need to know for exams or for learning new disciplines were easy, no one would
have problems with it, but students face several significant obstacles to remembering, including a persistent
lack of sleep and an unrealistic reliance on cramming. Life is busy and stressful for all students, so you have to
keep practicing strategies to help you study and remember successfully, but you also must be mindful of
obstacles to remembering.
Lack of Sleep
Let’s face it, sleep and college don’t always go well together. You have so much to do! All that reading, all
those papers, all those extra hours in the science lab or tutoring center or library! And then we have the social
and emotional aspects of going to school, which may not be the most critical aspect of your life as you pursue
more education but are a significant part of who you are. When you consider everything you need to attend to
in college, you probably won’t be surprised that sleep is often the first thing we give up as we search for more
time to accomplish everything we’re trying to do. That seems reasonable—just wake up an hour earlier or stay
up a little later. But you may want to reconsider picking away at your precious sleep time.
Sleep benefits all of your bodily functions, and your brain needs sleep time to dream and rest through the
night. You probably can recall times when you had to do something without adequate sleep. We say things like
“I just can’t wake up” and “I’m walking around half asleep.”
In fact, you may actually be doing just that. Lack of sleep impairs judgment, focus, and our overall mood. Do
you know anyone who is always grumpy in the morning? A fascinating medical study from the University of
California Los Angeles (UCLA) claims that sleep deprivation is as dangerous as being drunk, both in what it
does to our bodies and in the harm we may cause to ourselves and others in driving and performing various
daily tasks.[5][6]
If you can’t focus well because you didn’t get enough sleep, then you likely won’t be able to remember
whatever it is you need to recall for any sort of studying or test-taking situation. Most exams in a college
setting go beyond simple memorization, but you still have a lot to remember for exams. For example, when
Saanvi sits down to take an exam on introductory biology, she needs to recall all the subject-specific
vocabulary she read in the textbook’s opening chapters, the general connections she made between biological
studies and other scientific fields, and any biology details introduced in the unit for which she is taking the
exam.
A N A L Y S I S Q U E S T I O N
What are some ways you convert short-term memories into long-term memories?
Do your memorization strategies differ for specific courses (e.g., how you remember for math or
history)?
5 Nir, Yuval, et. al. “Selective neuronal lapses precede human cognitive lapses following sleep deprivation,” Nature Medicine volume23, pages
1474–1480 (2017).
6 UCLA Health. “Drowsy Driving.” https://www.uclahealth.org/sleepcenter/drowsy-driving
Chapter 6 Studying, Memory, and Test Taking 197
Trying to make these mental connections on too little sleep will take a large mental toll because Saanvi has to
concentrate even harder than she would with adequate sleep. She isn’t merely tired; her brain is not refreshed
and primed to conduct difficult tasks. Although not an exact comparison, think about when you overtax a
computer by opening too many programs simultaneously. Sometimes the programs are sluggish or slow to
respond, making it difficult to work efficiently; sometimes the computer shuts down completely and you have
to reboot the entire system. Your body is a bit like that on too little sleep.
On the flip side, though, your brain on adequate sleep is amazing, and sleep can actually assist you in making
connections, remembering difficult concepts, and studying for exams. The exact reasons for this is still a
serious research project for scientists, but the results all point to a solid connection between sleep and
cognitive performance.
If you’re interested in learning more about this research, the American Academy of Sleep Medicine (AASM) is a
good place to start. One article is entitled “College Students: Getting Enough Sleep Is Vital to Academic
Success.”
Downside of Cramming
At least once in their college careers, most students will experience the well-known pastime called cramming.
See if any of this is familiar: Shelley has lots of classes, works part-time at a popular restaurant, and is just
amazingly busy, so she puts off serious study sessions day after day. She isn’t worried because she has set
aside time she would have spent sleeping to cram just before the exam. That’s the idea anyway. Originally, she
planned to stay up a little late and study for four hours from 10 p.m. to 2 a.m. and still get several hours of
refreshing sleep. But it’s Dolphin Week or Beat State Day or whatever else comes up, and her study session
doesn’t start until midnight—she’ll pull an all-nighter (to be more precise, this is actually an all-really-early-
morning-er, but it doesn’t quite have the same ring to it). So, two hours after her original start time, she tries to
cram all the lessons, problems, and information from the last two weeks of lessons into this one session.
Shelley falls asleep around 3 a.m. with her notes and books still on her bed. After her late night, she doesn’t
sleep well and goes into the morning exam tired.
Shelley does OK but not great on the exam, and she is not pleased with her results. More and more research is
showing that the stress Shelley has put on her body doing this, combined with the way our brains work, makes
cramming a seriously poor choice for learning.
One sleep researcher, Dr. Susan Redline from Boston, says, "Sleep deficiency can affect mood and the ability to
make memories and learn, but it also affects metabolism, appetite, blood pressure, levels of inflammation in
the body and perhaps even the immune response."[7]
Your brain simply refuses to cooperate with cramming—it sounds like a good idea, but it doesn’t work.
A N A L Y S I S Q U E S T I O N
How long do you sleep every night on average? Do you see a change in your ability to function when you
haven’t had enough sleep? What could you do to limit the number of nights with too little sleep?
7 Redline, Susan https://abcnews.go.com/Health/Sleep/health-hazards-linked-lack-sleep/story?id=16524313
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Cramming causes stress, which can lead to paralyzing test anxiety; it erroneously supposes you can remember
and understand something fully after only minimal exposure; and it overloads your brain, which, however
amazing it is, can only focus on one concept at a time and a limited number of concepts all together for
learning and retention.
Leading neuroscientist John Medina claims that the brain begins to wander at about 10 minutes, at which
point you need a new stimulus to spark interest.[8] That doesn’t mean you can’t focus for longer than 10
minutes; you just have to switch gears a lot to keep your brain engaged. Have you ever heard a speaker drone
on about one concept for, say, 30 minutes without somehow changing pace to engage the listeners? It doesn’t
take much to re-engage—pausing to ask the listeners questions or moving to a different location in the room
will do it—but without these subtle attention markers, listeners start thinking of something else. The same
thing happens to you if you try to cram all reading, problem-solving, and note reviewing into one long session;
your brain will wander.
W H A T S T U D E N T S S A Y
1. Which of the following is your most common method of studying?
a. Reading or rereading the text or my class notes.
b. Watching videos of my instructor's lecture or other people discussing the topics.
c. Taking practice quizzes/tests.
d. Creating/using study tools (flashcards, mnemonic devices, etc.)
e. Working with a study group, tutor, or academic support.
2. Which of the following do you have the most difficulty remembering?
a. Vocabulary and facts (such as Biology vocab, Historical facts.)
b. Problem-solving methods (such as in Math)
c. Details from text and literature
d. Skills and processes (such as a lab technique or a building process)
e. Computer functions/locations/processes
f. Which formulas, processes, or categories to apply in situations (such as in Physics or
Accounting)
3. How much anxiety do you feel when an exam or other major course evaluation is approaching?
a. A great deal
b. A lot
c. A moderate amount
d. A little
e. None at all
You can also take the anonymous What Students Say (https://openstax.org/l/collegesurvey6-12) surveys
to add your voice to this textbook. Your responses will be included in updates.
Students offered their views on these questions, and the results are displayed in the graphs below.
Which of the following is your most common method of studying?
8 Medina, John. Brain Rules. 2018, Pear Press.
Chapter 6 Studying, Memory, and Test Taking 199
https://openstax.org/l/collegesurvey6-12
Figure 6.3
Which of the following do you have the most difficulty remembering?
Figure 6.4
How much anxiety do you feel when an exam or other major course evaluation is approaching?
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Determining When/What to Memorize
In the realm of learning and studying, some conditions warrant memorization as the most effective way to
work with information. For instance, if you are expected to have a working knowledge of conversational
French or Spanish, you will have to memorize some words. Simply knowing a long list of terms isn’t going to
help you order food in a café or ask for directions in a foreign country because you also need to understand
the other language’s grammar and have some sort of context for what needs to be said from your vocabulary
list. But you cannot say the words in a different language if you cannot remember your vocabulary. From this
scenario, you can assume that memorization is a good fit for some parts of language acquisition.
A worthwhile book on memory, thinking, and learning is a short study called Make It Stick: The Science of
Successful Learning by Peter Brown, Henry Roediger, and Mark McDaniel. The authors conclude, after extensive
research, that our attempts to speed up learning and make studying easier are not good ideas. Studying is
hard work, and it should be. For learning to stick, we need to work hard to pull the information out of our
memory and use it by continually pushing ourselves to accomplish increasingly difficult tasks.[9]
6.2 Studying
Estimated completion time: 27 minutes.
Questions to consider:
• How do you prepare yourself and your environment for successful studying?
• What study strategies will be most beneficial to you?
• What are learning preferences and strategies, and how can you leverage those to your advantage?
Figure 6.5
9 Brown, Peter, et. al. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning. Brown, Roediger, Daniel, 2014.
Chapter 6 Studying, Memory, and Test Taking 201
Preparing to Study
Studying is hard work, but you can still learn some techniques to help you be a more effective learner. Two
major and interrelated techniques involve avoiding distractions to the best of your ability and creating a study
environment that works to help you concentrate.
Avoiding Distractions
We have always had distractions—video games, television shows, movies, music, friends—even housecleaning
can distract us from doing something else we need to do, like study for an exam. That may seem extreme, but
sometimes vacuuming is the preferred activity to buckling down and working through calculus problems! Cell
phones, tablets, and portable computers that literally bring a world of possibilities to us anywhere have
brought distraction to an entirely new level. When was the last time you were with a large group of people
when you didn’t see at least a few people on devices?
Figure 6.6 Video games are a common distraction, but we need to be aware that even tedious activities like
cleaning can be a distraction from studying.
When you study, your biggest challenge may be to block out all the competing noise. And letting go of that
connection to our friends and the larger world, even for a short amount of time, can be difficult. Perhaps the
least stressful way to allow yourself a distraction-free environment is to make the study session a definite
amount of time: long enough to get a significant amount of studying accomplished but short enough to hold
your attention.
You can increase that attention time with practice and focus. Pretend it is a professional appointment or
meeting during which you cannot check e-mail or texts or otherwise engage with your portable devices. We
have all become very attached to the ability to check in—anonymously on social media or with family and
friends via text, chat, and calls. If you set a specific amount of time to study without interruptions, you can
convince your wandering mind that you will soon be able to return to your link to the outside world. Start
small and set an alarm—a 30-minute period to review notes, then a brief break, then another 45-minute study
session to quiz yourself on the material, and so on.
When you prepare for your optimal study session, remember to do these things:
• Put your phone out of sight—in another room or at least some place where you will not see or hear it
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vibrate or ring. Just flipping it over is not enough.
• Turn off the television or music (more on that in the next section).
• Unless you are deliberately working with a study group, study somewhere alone if possible or at least
away from others enough to not hear them talking.
If you live with lots of other people or don’t have access to much privacy, see if you can negotiate some space
alone to study. Ask others to leave one part of the house or an area in one room as a quiet zone during certain
hours. Ask politely for a specific block of time; most people will respect your educational goals and be willing
to accommodate you. If you’re trying to work out quiet zones with small children in the house, the bathtub
with a pillow can make a fine study oasis.
Study Environment
You may not always be in the mood or inspired to study. And if you have a long deadline, maybe you can blow
off a study session on occasion, but you shouldn’t get into the habit of ignoring a strong study routine. Jane
Austen once wrote in a letter, “I am not at all in a humor for writing; I must write on till I am.” Sometimes just
starting is the hard part; go ahead and begin. Don’t wait around for your study muse; start working, and she’ll
show up.
Sometimes you just need to plop down and study whenever and wherever you can manage—in the car waiting
for someone, on the bus, at the Little League field as you cheer on your shortstop. And that’s OK if this is the
exception. For long-term success in studying, though, you need a better study setting that will help you get the
most out of your limited study time. Whatever your space limitations, carve out a place that you can dedicate
to reading, writing, note taking, and reviewing. This doesn’t need to be elaborate and expensive—all you truly
need is a flat surface large enough to hold either your computer or writing paper, book or notes, pens/pencils/
markers, and subject-specific materials you may need (e.g., stand-alone calculators, drawing tools, and
notepads). Your space should be cool or warm enough for you to be comfortable as you study. What do you
have now that you consider your study space? Is it set up for your optimal success?
Figure 6.7 Which is before, and which is after? (Credit: Ali West / Flickr / Attribution 2.0 Generic (CC-BY 2.0))
If it is at all possible, try to make this area exclusive to your study sessions and something you can leave set up
all the time and a place out of the way of family or roommate traffic. For example, Martina thought setting up
her study station on the dining room table was a good idea at first. The view was calming, and the table was
big enough to spread out and could even hold all her materials to study architectural drawings, her favorite
subject. But then she needed the table for a small family dinner party, so she had to find a cubbyhole to hide
away her supplies with some needing to go into a closet in the next room. Now she was spread out over
multiple study spaces. And the family TV was in an adjacent room, not visible from the table but certainly an
auditory distraction. Martina ultimately decided to forgo her view and create a smaller station in an unused
Chapter 6 Studying, Memory, and Test Taking 203
bedroom so she could leave her supplies out and have a quieter area. You may have to try out numerous
places to determine what works best for you.
Wherever you study, try to make it a welcoming place you want to be in—not an uncomfortable environment
that makes you want to just do the minimum you must complete and leave. You should include the basics: a
good chair, a work surface, and whatever materials, books, notes, and other supplies you need for the subject
you are studying. If you want to make it even more of a productive place, you can look in magazines for ideas
or search the web to see how others have set up simple areas or more elaborate arrangements. Don’t let
decorating your workspace be an excuse to get out of studying!
You don’t need an elaborate setting, but you may want to consider including a few effective additions if you
have the space:
• small bulletin board for often-used formulas
• encouraging quotes or pictures of your goal
• whiteboard for brainstorming
• sticky notes for reminders in texts and notes
• file holder for most-used documents
• bookshelf for reference books
Debunking Study Myths
MYTH #1: You can multitask while studying.
How many times do you eat in the car? Watch TV while you write out a grocery list? Listen to music while you
cook dinner? What about type an e-mail while you’re on the phone with someone else and jot down notes
about the call? The common term for this attempt to do more than one thing at a time is multitasking, and
almost everyone does it at some point. On some days, you simply cannot accomplish all that you want to get
done, so you double up. The problem is, multitasking doesn’t really work. Of course, it exists, and we do it. For
instance, we walk and chew gum or drive and talk, but we are not really thinking about two or more distinct
things or doing multiple processes simultaneously.
MYTH #2: Highlighting main points of a text is useful.
Another myth of studying that seems to have a firm hold is that the idea of highlighting text—in and of
itself—is the best way to review study material. It is one way, and you can get some benefit from it, but don’t
trick yourself into spending too much time on this surface activity and consider your study session complete.
A C T I V I T Y
Describe every element in your ideal study environment and explain why it’s there as well as how it will
make more efficient use of your time, limit distractions, or in some other way strengthen your ability to
study.
After you have described your ideal study environment, think about how you can adapt that environment
if you cannot be in your favorite place to study. How do you make your own space in the library, a student
lounge, or a dedicated space on campus for student studying?
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Annotating texts or notes is a first-step type of study practice. If you allow it to take up all your time, you may
want to think you are fully prepared for an exam because you put in the time. Actually, you need much more
time reviewing and retrieving your lessons and ideas from the text or class lecture as well as quizzing yourself
to accomplish your goal of learning so you can perform well on the exam. Highlighting is a task you can do
rather easily, and it makes you feel good because you are actively engaging with your text, but true learning
needs more steps.
MYTH #3: Studying effectively is effortless.
There is nothing effortless, or even pleasant at times, about studying. This is why so many students don’t put
in the time necessary to learn complex material: it takes time, effort, and, in some cases, a little drudgery. This
is not to say that the outcome, learning—and maybe making an A—is not pleasant and rewarding. It is just
that when done right, learning takes focus, deliberate strategies, and time. Think about a superstar athlete
who puts in countless hours of drills and conditioning so that she makes her work on the field look easy. If you
can also enjoy the studying, the skill development, and the knowledge building, then you will most likely be
more motivated to do the work.
Study Strategies
Everyone wishes they had a better memory or a stronger way to use memorization. You can make the most of
the memory you have by making some conscious decisions about how you study and prepare for exams.
Incorporate these ideas into your study sessions:
Practicing effective memorization is when you use a trick, technique, or strategy to recall something—for
another class, an exam, or even to bring up an acquaintance’s name in a social situation. Really whatever
works for you to recall information is a good tool to have. You can create your own quizzes and tests to go
over material from class. You can use mnemonics to jog your memory. You can work in groups to develop
unique ways to remember complex information. Whatever methods you choose to enhance your memory,
keep in mind that repetition is one of the most effective tools in any memory strategy. Do whatever you do
over and over for the best results.
Using Mnemonics
Mnemonics (pronounced new-monics) are a way to remember things using reminders. Did you learn the
points of the compass by remembering NEWS (north, east, west, and south)? Or the notes on the music staff
as FACE or EGBDF (every good boy does fine)? These are mnemonics. When you’re first learning something
and you aren’t familiar with the foundational concepts, these help you bring up the information quickly,
especially for multistep processes or lists. After you’ve worked in that discipline for a while, you likely don’t
A N A L Y S I S Q U E S T I O N
When are you most liable to multitask? How could you be more aware of this practice and try to
eliminate it, especially when it comes to studying? How can you make your initial text highlighting more
time efficient so you can include other study practices?
Chapter 6 Studying, Memory, and Test Taking 205
need the mnemonics, but you probably won’t forget them either.
Here are some familiar mnemonics you may find useful:
Figure 6.8
You can certainly make up your own mnemonics, but be careful that your reminder isn’t so complex and
convoluted that it is more difficult to remember than the information you were relating it to!
Practicing Concept Association
When you study, you’re going to make connections to other things—that’s a good thing. It shows a highly
intelligent ability to make sense of the world when you can associate like and even somewhat unlike
components. If, for instance, you were reading Martin Luther King Jr.’s “Letter from a Birmingham Jail,” and
you read the line that he had been in Birmingham, you may remember a trip you took with your family last
summer through Alabama and that you passed by and visited the civil rights museum in Birmingham. This
may remind you of the different displays you saw and the discussions you had with your family about what
had happened concerning civil rights in the 1950s,’60s, and ’70s in the United States.
This is a good connection to make, but if your assignment is to critique the literary aspects of King’s long
epistle, you need to be able to come back to the actual words of the letter and see what trends you can see in
his writing and why he may have used his actual words to convey the powerful message. The connection is
fine, but you can’t get lost in going down rabbit holes that may or may not be what you’re supposed to be
doing at the time. Make a folder for this assignment where you can put things such as a short summary of
A N A L Y S I S Q U E S T I O N
Do you have other mnemonics that help you remember difficult material? What are they? How have they
helped you with remembering important things?
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your trip to Alabama. You may eventually include notes from this summary in your analysis. You may include
something from a website that shows you information about that time period. Additionally, you could include
items about Martin Luther King Jr.’s life and death and his work for civil rights. All of these elements may help
you understand the significance of this one letter, but you need to be cognizant of what you’re doing at the
time and remember it is not usually a good idea to just try to keep it all in your head. The best idea is to have a
way to access this information easily, either electronically or in hard copy, so that if you are able to use it, you
can find it easily and quickly.
Generating Idea Clusters
Like mnemonics, idea clusters are nothing more than ways to help your brain come up with ways to recall
specific information by connecting it to other knowledge you already have. For example, Andrea is an avid
knitter and remembers how to create complicated stitches by associating them with nursery rhymes she read
as a child. A delicate stitch that requires concentration because it makes the yarn look like part of it is hiding
brings to mind Red Riding Hood, and connecting it to that character helps Andrea recall the exact order of
steps necessary to execute the design. You can do the same thing with song lyrics, lines from movies, or
favorite stories where you draw a connection to the well-known phrase or song and the task you need to
complete.
Three Effective Study Strategies
There are more than three study strategies, but focusing on the most effective strategies will make an
enormous difference in how well you will be able to demonstrate learning (also known as “acing your tests”).
Here is a brief overview of each of the three strategies:
• Spacing—This has to do with when you study. Hint: Don’t cram; study over a period of days, preferably
with “breaks” in between.
• Interleaving—This has to do with what you study. Hint: Don’t study just one type of content, topic,
chapter, or unit at a time; instead, mix up the content when you study.
• Practice testing—This has to do with how you study. Hint: Don’t just reread content. You must quiz or test
your ability to retrieve the information from your brain.
A P P L I C A T I O N
Choose one of the following, and create an idea cluster to group and organize:
• Example A: aviation jobs in North America
• Example B: the use of analytics in sports to determine team rosters
• Example C: how social media affects political campaigns
Start the idea cluster with the topic circled in the middle of the page. For Example A, you might make one
cluster off the main circle for specific positions; you could add another cluster for salary ranges and
another for geographic regions.
Chapter 6 Studying, Memory, and Test Taking 207
Spacing
We all know that cramming is not an effective study strategy, but do we know why? Research on memory
suggests that giving yourself time in between study sessions actually helps you forget the information. And
forgetting, which sounds like it would be something you don’t want to do, is actually good for your ability to
remember information long-term. That’s because every time you forget something, you need to relearn it,
leading to gains in your overall understanding and “storage” of the material. The table below demonstrates
how spacing works. Assume you are going to spend about four hours studying for a Sociology exam.
Cramming would have you spending most of those four hours the night before the exam. With spacing, on the
other hand, you would study a little bit each day.
Spacing
Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday
Cramming Study for 1
hour
Study for 3
hours
Sociology
Test
Spacing Study
for 1
hour
Study for
30 minutes
Study for 1
hour
Study for
90 minutes
Sociology
Test
Table 6.1
Interleaving
One particular studying technique is called interleaving, which calls for students to mix up the content that is
being studied. This means not just spending the entire study session on one sort of problem and then moving
on to a different sort of problem at a later time.
If you take the schedule we used for the spacing example above, we can add the interleaving concepts to it.
Notice that interleaving includes revisiting material from a previous chapter or unit or revisiting different types
of problems or question sets. The benefit is that your brain is “mixing up” the information, which can
sometimes lead to short-term forgetting but can lead to long-term memory and learning.
208 Chapter 6 Studying, Memory, and Test Taking
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Interleaving
Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday
Reread
Sociology,
Chapter 1.
Reorganize
notes
Reread
Sociology,
Chapter 1 and
2
Take Ch 1
online quiz.
Create Chapter
2 concept map
Reread Sociology,
Chapters 1-3.
Take online
quizzes for
chapters 2 and 3.
Reorganize notes.
Create practice
test
Reread notes.
Review items missed
on online quizzes.
Take practice test
and review
challenge areas.
TEST in
sociology,
Chapters 1-3
Table 6.2
Practice Testing
You can do a practice “test” in two ways. One is to test yourself as you are reading or taking in information.
This is a great way to add a little variety to your studying. You can ask yourself what a paragraph or text
section means as you read. To do this, read a passage in a text, cover up the material, and ask yourself, “What
was the main idea of this section?” Recite aloud or write down your answer, and then check it against the
original information.
Another, more involved, way to practice test is to create flashcards or an actual test by writing a test. This takes
more time, but there are online programs such as Quizlet that make it a little easier. Practice testing is an
effective study strategy because it helps you practice retrieving information, which is what you want to be able
to do when you are taking the real test.
One of the best ways to learn something is to teach it to someone else, so ask a friend or family member if you
can explain something to them, and teach them the lesson. You may find you know more about the subject
than you thought . . . or you may realize quickly that you need to do more studying. Why does teaching
someone else rank as one of the most effective ways to learn something? It is a form of practice testing that
requires you to demonstrate you know something in front of someone else! No one wants to look like they
don’t know what they are talking about, even if it your audience is another classmate.
Recognizing Strengths/Weaknesses of Preferred Study Approaches
Most children don’t learn to ride a bicycle by reading a manual; they learn by watching other kids, listening to
instructions, and getting up on the seat and learning to balance—sometimes with training wheels or a proud
parent holding on, but ultimately without any other support. They may fall over and feel insecure, but usually,
they learn to make the machine go. Most of us employ multiple methods of study all the time. You usually only
run into trouble if you stubbornly rely on just one way to learn or study and the material you’re studying or the
task you want to accomplish doesn’t lend itself to that preference. You can practice specific strategies to help
you learn in your preferred learning approach. Can you think of a time when the way you usually study a
situation didn’t work?
Chapter 6 Studying, Memory, and Test Taking 209
When deciding on a study approach, consider what you know about the material and the type of knowledge it
involves. Is it a group of concepts related to problem-solving methods, such as those you’d find in a physics
class? Or is it a literary analysis of a novel? Consider as many elements as possible about the material -- and
the way the material will be assessed -- to help choose a study approach.
You should also consider your instructor’s preferred method of teaching and learning. Watching the way they
teach lessons or convey necessary course information to the class. Do they almost always augment lessons
with video clips to provide examples or create a memorable narrative? Do they like to show you how
something works by demonstrating and working with their hands—for instance, assembling a piece of
equipment by taking it apart and putting it back together again? Echoing their teaching approach may help
your study. That doesn’t mean you have to change your entire learning approach to match your instructors’
methods. Many instructors understand that their students will have different ways of learning and try to
present information in multiple ways.
Practicing Active Continuous Improvement for All Preferences
You can certainly learn through specific approaches or according to specific preferences, but you will also need
to adapt to different situations, skills, and subject areas. Don’t limit yourself to thinking you can only learn one
way or another. That mindset induces anxiety when you encounter a learning situation that doesn’t match
your preference. What if your instructor only uses a spoken lecture to teach concepts in your chemistry class,
and you consider yourself a visual learner? Or what if the only method presented to you for learning
mathematical computations is to see videos of others working problems, and you’re more hands-on? You may
have to concentrate in a different way or devise other strategies to learn, but you can do it. In fact, you should
sometimes work on the styles/preferences that you feel are your least favorite; it will actually strengthen your
overall ability to learn and retain information.[10]
Dr. Stephen Covey, famous leadership coach and businessman, called this attention to knowing and honing all
your skill sets, not just your favorites, sharpening the saw. He advised that people should be aware of their
strengths but should always hone their weaknesses by saying, “We must never become too busy sawing to
take time to sharpen the saw.”[11] For instance, in the chemistry lecture example, you may need to take good
notes from the spoken lecture and then review those notes as you sketch out any complex ideas or formulas.
If the math videos are not enough for you to grasp difficult problems, you may ask for or find your own
problems for additional practice covering that particular mathematical concept to solve on your own.
6.3 Test Taking
Estimated completion time: 23 minutes.
Questions to consider:
• What are the differences between test prep and taking the actual test?
• How can you take a whole person approach to test taking?
• What can you do on test day to increase your confidence and success?
• What should you know about test anxiety?
10 Newton, Phillip M., & Miah, Mahallad. “Evidence-Based Higher Education—Is the Learning Style ‘Myth’ Important?” Frontiers in Psychology
8:444 (2017) DOI: 10. 3389/FPSYG. 2017.00444.
11 Covey, Stephen. The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People ® https://www.franklincovey.com/the-7-habits.html
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Once you are practicing good study habits, you’ll be better prepared for actual test taking. Since studying and
test taking are both part of learning, honing your skills in one will help you in the other.
Probably the most obvious differences between your preparation for an exam and the actual test itself is your
level of urgency and the time constraints. A slight elevation in your stress level can actually be OK for
testing—it keeps you focused and on your game when you need to bring up all the information, thinking, and
studying to show what you’ve learned. Properly executed, test preparation mixed in with a bit of stress can
significantly improve your actual test-taking experience.
Preparation vs. Actual Test
You can replicate the effective sense of urgency an actual test produces by including timed writing into your
study sessions. You don’t need all of your study time to exactly replicate the test, but you would be well served
to find out the format of the exam in advance and practice the skills you’ll need to use for the various test
components. On one early exam in history, Stuart learned the prof was going to include several short-answer
essay questions—one for each year of the time period covered. Stuart set up practice times to write for about
15 to 20 minutes on significant events from his notes because he estimated that would be about how much
time he could devote out of the hour-long testing session to write one or two required short-answer
questions. He would write a prompt from his notes, set a timer, and start writing. If you’re ready and you have
practiced and know the material, 20 minutes is adequate to prepare, draft, and revise a short response, but
you don’t have a lot of extra time.
Likewise, in a math exam, you will need to know what kinds of problems you will have to solve and to what
extent you’ll need to show your computational work on the exam. If you are able to incorporate this sort of
timed problem-solving into your study time, you’ll be more prepared and confident when you actually come to
the exam. Making yourself adhere to a timed session during your study can only help. It puts a sense of
urgency on you, and it will help you to find out what types of problems you need to practice more than ones
that perhaps you’re more comfortable solving.
Leveraging Study Habits for Test Prep
In your mind, you probably know what you need to do to be prepared for tests. Occasionally, something may
surprise you—emphasis on a concept you considered unimportant or a different presentation of a familiar
problem. But those should be exceptions. You can take all your well-honed study habits to get ready for
exams. Here’s a checklist for study and test success for your consideration:
Chapter 6 Studying, Memory, and Test Taking 211
Figure 6.9
Read this list with each separate class in mind, and check off the items you already do. Give yourself one point
for every item you checked. If you always take the success steps—congratulations! They are not a guarantee,
but doing the steps mindfully will give you a nice head start. If you do fewer than five of the steps—you have
some work to do. But recognition is a good place to start, and you can incorporate these steps starting now.
As strange as this may sound, you can find some interesting research articles online about using the taste or
smell of peppermint to increase memory, recall, and focus. Read more at: http://naturalsociety.com/mint-
scent-improve-brain-cognition-memory. While sucking on a peppermint disk won’t replace studying, why not
212 Chapter 6 Studying, Memory, and Test Taking
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experiment with this relatively easy idea that seems to be gaining some scientific traction?
Whole Person Approach to Testing
Just because you are facing a major exam in your engineering class (or math or science or English class)
doesn’t mean everything else in your life comes to a stop. Perhaps that’s somewhat annoying, but that’s
reality. Allergies still flare up, children still need to eat, and you still need to sleep. You must see your academic
life as one segment of who you are—it’s an important segment, but just one aspect of who you are as a whole
person. Neela trie