Human resource management

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Session 6
Human Resource strategies for the international manager:
recruitment and selection

Recruitment and Selection
Recruitment:
The process of generating a pool of capable candidates to apply for your job vacancy
Selection:
The process of choosing from the pool of applicants the person most likely to succeed in the job

Recruitment and selection Process
Assessment centres used in UK, Germany, Netherlands, France
Psychometric testing popular in Spain, Italy, Denmark and Finland, Sweden; very unpopular in Germany, Netherlands and Norway
Interview panels popular in UK, USA, Germany; used somewhat in France and Japan
Cross-cultural differences in interviews, assessment centres, psychological testing

Recruitment Process
Job analysis
Job description and person specification
Competency profiles

Job Analysis Defined:
Defines a job in terms of specific….
tasks, duties and responsibilities and
abilities, skills and qualifications
…needed to perform it successfully.
Is a procedure through which you determine…
the duties and nature of jobs and
the kinds of people who should be hired for them.
Usually involves examining the performance of the incumbent in a given job.

Job Description (Competency-based)
‘What are the knowledge, skills and competencies a person needs to carry out this role?’
Person Specification
‘How can I describe the person who can fulfil this job description?’

(Rees and Porter)

Job Analysis Translates into:

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Person specification – based on asking yourself – how can I describe the person who can fulfil this job description ie description of duties/responsibilities
Job competencies – identify knowledge skills and knowledge a person needs to adequately do a job
Competencies are increasingly used to create a specification for the characteristics of the persons sought for a position (Roberts, 1997). It has been argued (Feltham, 1992, p. 92) that using competencies allows organizations to free themselves from traditional stereotypes in order to attract applicants from a variety of sources. Stereotypes of the ‘ideal’ person may be contained within personnel specifications. Despite warnings, organizations may be reinforcing the stereotype in their recruitment practices. Competencies appear to be more objective, have a variety of uses in attracting applicants, and will allow an organization to use more reliable and valid selection techniques.

Job Description (Competency-based)
‘What are the knowledge, skills and competencies a person needs to carry out this role?’
Knowledge and Skills:
Fluency in English/Russian/Mandarin Chinese
University degree (or equivalent) in the sciences, engineering or medicine
Astronaut selection

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Person specification – based on asking yourself – how can I describe the person who can fulfil this job description ie description of duties/responsibilities
Job competencies – identify knowledge skills and knowledge a person needs to adequately do a job
Competencies are increasingly used to create a specification for the characteristics of the persons sought for a position (Roberts, 1997). It has been argued (Feltham, 1992, p. 92) that using competencies allows organizations to free themselves from traditional stereotypes in order to attract applicants from a variety of sources. Stereotypes of the ‘ideal’ person may be contained within personnel specifications. Despite warnings, organizations may be reinforcing the stereotype in their recruitment practices. Competencies appear to be more objective, have a variety of uses in attracting applicants, and will allow an organization to use more reliable and valid selection techniques.

‘Hard’ Skills:
mental arithmetic, visual perception, working memory, pattern recognition, concentration
‘Soft’ Skills:
good judgement; interpersonal skills . . .
What others can you find?
Where do most applications fail?
https://www.theguardian.com/science/2018/nov/24/major-tim-peak-reveals-what-ground-control-wants-in-an-astronaut
Astronaut selection

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Person specification – based on asking yourself – how can I describe the person who can fulfil this job description ie description of duties/responsibilities
Job competencies – identify knowledge skills and knowledge a person needs to adequately do a job
Competencies are increasingly used to create a specification for the characteristics of the persons sought for a position (Roberts, 1997). It has been argued (Feltham, 1992, p. 92) that using competencies allows organizations to free themselves from traditional stereotypes in order to attract applicants from a variety of sources. Stereotypes of the ‘ideal’ person may be contained within personnel specifications. Despite warnings, organizations may be reinforcing the stereotype in their recruitment practices. Competencies appear to be more objective, have a variety of uses in attracting applicants, and will allow an organization to use more reliable and valid selection techniques.

Job Description – Competencies
Try the following for yourself!
Test your spatial ability and ability to cope under pressure:
https://www.bbc.co.uk/teach/do-you-have-what-it-takes-to-be-an-astronaut/zfsf2sg
How would you test for: memory, coordination, concentration?
Astronaut selection

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Person specification – based on asking yourself – how can I describe the person who can fulfil this job description ie description of duties/responsibilities
Job competencies – identify knowledge skills and knowledge a person needs to adequately do a job
Competencies are increasingly used to create a specification for the characteristics of the persons sought for a position (Roberts, 1997). It has been argued (Feltham, 1992, p. 92) that using competencies allows organizations to free themselves from traditional stereotypes in order to attract applicants from a variety of sources. Stereotypes of the ‘ideal’ person may be contained within personnel specifications. Despite warnings, organizations may be reinforcing the stereotype in their recruitment practices. Competencies appear to be more objective, have a variety of uses in attracting applicants, and will allow an organization to use more reliable and valid selection techniques.

Person Specification
‘How can I describe the person who can fulfil this job description?’
A former: pilot? surgeon? mathematician?
vaccine developer? North Pole explorer?
What would someone with the above experience have to offer?
Job Analysis Translates into:

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Person specification – based on asking yourself – how can I describe the person who can fulfil this job description ie description of duties/responsibilities
Job competencies – identify knowledge skills and knowledge a person needs to adequately do a job
Competencies are increasingly used to create a specification for the characteristics of the persons sought for a position (Roberts, 1997). It has been argued (Feltham, 1992, p. 92) that using competencies allows organizations to free themselves from traditional stereotypes in order to attract applicants from a variety of sources. Stereotypes of the ‘ideal’ person may be contained within personnel specifications. Despite warnings, organizations may be reinforcing the stereotype in their recruitment practices. Competencies appear to be more objective, have a variety of uses in attracting applicants, and will allow an organization to use more reliable and valid selection techniques.

Person Specification
What about the candidate’s:
Age?
Gender
Country of origin?
Job Analysis Translates into:

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Person specification – based on asking yourself – how can I describe the person who can fulfil this job description ie description of duties/responsibilities
Job competencies – identify knowledge skills and knowledge a person needs to adequately do a job
Competencies are increasingly used to create a specification for the characteristics of the persons sought for a position (Roberts, 1997). It has been argued (Feltham, 1992, p. 92) that using competencies allows organizations to free themselves from traditional stereotypes in order to attract applicants from a variety of sources. Stereotypes of the ‘ideal’ person may be contained within personnel specifications. Despite warnings, organizations may be reinforcing the stereotype in their recruitment practices. Competencies appear to be more objective, have a variety of uses in attracting applicants, and will allow an organization to use more reliable and valid selection techniques.

Person Specification
What other experiences would you be looking for and why?
Someone who has:
Lived abroad for more than 2 years? 5 years?
Worked in outreach?
Succeeded in a sport like mountaineering, diving, caving, or sky-diving?
Job Analysis Translates into:

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Person specification – based on asking yourself – how can I describe the person who can fulfil this job description ie description of duties/responsibilities
Job competencies – identify knowledge skills and knowledge a person needs to adequately do a job
Competencies are increasingly used to create a specification for the characteristics of the persons sought for a position (Roberts, 1997). It has been argued (Feltham, 1992, p. 92) that using competencies allows organizations to free themselves from traditional stereotypes in order to attract applicants from a variety of sources. Stereotypes of the ‘ideal’ person may be contained within personnel specifications. Despite warnings, organizations may be reinforcing the stereotype in their recruitment practices. Competencies appear to be more objective, have a variety of uses in attracting applicants, and will allow an organization to use more reliable and valid selection techniques.

R&S in the Cultural Context
Huo, Huang and Napier (2002) – examined data on hiring practices from 13 countries
Ryan et al, 1999 – surveyed 959 organisations from 20 countries
Two cultural dimensions – UAI and PDI
Cultures high in UAI used more test types, interviews and tight audit of processes
Structured interviews seen as constraining interpersonal interactions

Selection Strategy (Perlmutter, 1969)
Ethnocentric – Home Country bias
Geocentric – Best candidate on worldwide basis, no country bias
Polycentric – Host country bias
Regiocentric – Best candidate on regional basis

Susanna Michalek

Reasons for Failure of expat assignments

Mead: less than 1/3 of failures are work related
Tung ranks ex-pat failure in US in descending order:
managers’ inability to adapt to different physical/cultural environment;
other family problems;
overseas work;
lack of technical competence;
lack of motivation

Culture Shock
“A sense of psychological disorientation that most people suffer when they move into a culture that is different from their own.”
Can’t recognise cues; perceptions different
Symptoms – tension and frustration, alienation, need to be alone, depression
Study by Black adjustment < 50 months Reverse Culture Shock Reduced financial benefits Less power, status Change in jobs and personnel Poorer housing, loss of domestic help Solutions – mentor, training, brief managers on changes, debrief manager Potential Solutions (based on Black, J.S. et al – “Global Assignments”) Involve family early in process Most successful ex-pats are geo-centric Candidate should be non-judgemental, mature, willing to learn Experience in similar environment may help but Black found little relationship between previous ex-pat work and ability to adapt Ethnic affinity Potential Solutions (based on Black, J.S. et al – “Global Assignments”) Professional and technical support at subsidiary and head office Clarify duration to reduce uncertainty Guaranteed career security on repatriation Career planning, promotion opportunities Support for living eg medical, housing, insurance, social events, job for spouse Potential Solutions selection factors Professional Skills – technical and interpersonal Management Skills – able to manage conflict, collaboration, trust Communication – language proficiency, two-way conversation, cross-cultural ability Individual Characteristics – flexibility, open minds, ability to cope with stress Spouse and Family – language skills, spouse’s career, education facilities Recruitment Methods Headhunting- executive search Cross-national advertising Internet recruitment Graduate recruitment Variations in recruitment methods Brewster et al, 2011 (Cranet, 2010) Recruitment agencies most popular in UK, Australia, New Zealand; unpopular in Germany, Norway, Sweden, Greece Word of mouth common in Turkey, Greece, France Internal labour market dominant in Japan, USA, UK Both informal and formal methods used: formal- headhunting, cross-national advertising, Internet, international graduate programmes Informal – family, friends Selection Selection criteria Reliability – eg test astronaut’s physical fitness appropriate for age with a JAR-FCL 3 Class 2 medical certificate Validity – is the right test being used? A JAR-FCL 3 Class 2 medical certificate would not be an appropriate requirement for a yoga teacher Discrimination can be: Direct Indirect 24 Selection Selection criteria Reliability – eg test astronaut’s physical fitness appropriate for age with a JAR-FCL 3 Class 2 medical certificate Validity – is the right test being used? A JAR-FCL 3 Class 2 medical certificate would not be an appropriate requirement for a yoga teacher Discrimination can be: Direct Indirect 25 Selection Should a Covid-19 vaccination certificate be required to work in: Frontline healthcare? Client work involving entering a client home, such as estate agent, plumber? All new hires, all workplaces? All new hires and existing staff, all workplaces? 26

Session 3
Human Resource strategies for the international manager:
Intercultural communication and negotiation

Communication
Watch the following video which shows what happened when police in Victoria, Australia, attempted to arrest a woman for not wearing a face mask:
https://www.stuff.co.nz/world/australia/122414031/coronavirus-melbourne-woman-choked-arrested-after-being-stopped-for-not-wearing-face-mask-during-covid19-lockdown

What are your reactions after watching this footage?

https://www.theage.com.au/national/victoria/mask-dodging-woman-allegedly-smashed-female-cop-s-head-into-concrete-20200804-p55ica.html

https://catallaxyfiles.com/2020/08/11/can-she-breathe-ii/comment-page-1/

Learning Outcomes
Identify the elements of the intercultural communication process and compare one and two-way communication
List possible communication problems and barriers between countries
Consider ways in which cross-cultural communication can be enhanced
Highlight the importance of culture in negotiation processes

Communication
The transference and understanding of meaning
Functions: control (eg guidelines, hierarchies); motivation (common goals, training, feedback, appraisals); emotional (eg social needs); information for decisions
‘A message succeeds … when it is appropriate to its context’ (Mead)

The Process
The steps between a source and a receiver that result in the transference and understanding of meaning
The message: words, writing, body language
The channel: the medium through which the message travels; formal versus informal
The sender and receiver are limited by their individual skills, attitudes, knowledge

Communication Model (1)*

Relate to early use of the telephone system.
Doesn’t help much in interpreting the Victoria police arrest, as it doesn’t take into account shared experience or context.
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Communication Model (2)*

Schramm (1955) in Wood (2009) produced a more interactive model where the receiver or listener provides feedback to the sender or speaker. The speaker or sender of the message also listens to the feedback given by the receiver or listener. Both the speaker and the listener take turns to speak and listen to each other. Feedback is given either verbally or non-verbally, or in both ways. This model also indicates that the speaker and listener communicate better if they have common fields of experience , or fields which overlap.
In the Victoria police arrest scenario, it is noticeable that the arresting police officer does not appear to say anything. However, body language says it all!
Ironically, both parties have common fields of experience – pandemic and associated regulations – but this does not go very far to help us interpret the situation.

Communication Model (3)*

Transactional Model: The main drawback in the interactive model is that it does not indicate that communicators can both send and receive messages simultaneously. The interactive model also fails to show that communication is a dynamic process which changes over time.
The transactional model shows that the elements in communication are interdependent. Each person in the communication act is both a speaker and a listener, and can be simultaneously sending and receiving messages.
There are three implications in the transactional model:
‘Transactional’ means that communication is an ongoing and continuously changing process. You are changing, the people with whom you are communicating are changing, and your environment is also continually changing as well. This means we can take into account the presence of the crowd and their influence on the situation, where they become hostile to the police. Does the arresting police officer become more violent as a result?
In any transactional process, each element exists in relation to all the other elements. There is this interdependence where there can be no source without a receiver and no message without a source. Consider the elements which could have made this situation either more or less antagonistic: reactions of the passers-by/crowd; reactions of the other police officers; reactions of the two central characters
Each person in the communication process reacts depending on factors such as their background, prior experiences, attitudes, cultural beliefs and self-esteem. This slide shows a transactional model of communication that takes into account ‘noise’ or interference in communication as well as the time factor . The outer lines of the model indicate that communication happens within systems that both communicators share (e.g., a common campus, hometown, and culture) or personal systems (e.g., family, religion, friends, etc). It also takes into account changes that happen in the communicators’ fields of personal and common experiences. The model also labels each communicator as both sender as well as receiver simultaneously.
Here, it is worth noting that attitudes towards mask wearing are highly polarised in certain countries. For example, in certain Anglophone and European countries, there is a significant part of the population who are the strongly anti-mask. Equally, there is another significant part of the population that strongly defends the wearing of face masks.
These are highly polarised political views, relating to concepts of personal liberty.
In this sense, there is a cultural component to this scenario.
Pre-existing beliefs, such as the practice of wearing a face mask may have played a part in this confrontation; likewise attitudes to the police; any previous encounters with the police or authorities; attitudes towards the actions of the Victoria State authorities, which used private security firms instead of local police and civil guard to carry out the restrictions
A transactional model of communication Source : Wood, J. T. (2009). Communication in our lives (4th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson-Wadsworth.
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OTA Orientation: Communication
Based on your experience of the ‘Forage’ Virtual Experience Programme, is it your view that Virtual Experience Programmes can succeed despite the absence of face-to-face communication and the physical presence of a supervisor (leader)?
Justify your response with reference to Wood’s (2009) transactional model of communication.

3.2 Communication models

Barriers to Effective Communication (1)
(French, 2010)
Communication apprehension
Ambiguous or unfamiliar body language
Choice of wrong channel
Filtering – sender’s manipulation
Selective perception
Poor listening by individual or management
Poor questioning technique

Barriers to Effective Communication (3)
(French, 2010)
Noise, distance
Lack of opportunity/time
Too much/ little information
Emotions, stress, family problems
Different language/cultures/sex; jargon
Structure of firm
Lack of feedback

Barriers to Effective Communication (4)
(French, 2010)
Do you want onions with that?

I’m fine thanks.

Direction*
Downward (eg managers to employees) – problems such as distortion, lack of feedback
Upwards (eg surveys, appraisals) – problems and true feelings can be blocked
Lateral (eg peers, groups) – less formal
External (eg agencies, customers, government agencies) – important, legal implications

Communication during the pandemic:
In low-power distance cultures, such as Australia, regulations regarding the wearing of face masks etc can appear top-down and antidemocratic.
However, most people would recognise that in a health and safety emergency, this type of communication is necessary.
At the start of the pandemic, when little was known about the virus or how to treat it, people acquiesced in this. As more information became available, treatment improved, and lock downs were eased, it became harder for authorities to justify imposing restrictions during subsequent spikes of infection.

Barriers to Effective Communication (5)
(French, 2010)
Stereotyping
Mixed messages and non-verbal communication
Reinforcement of written/spoken communication, symbols, signifying attitudes and emotions
Kinesics
Chromatics
Proxemics

Non-Verbal Communication
(French, 2010)

Non-Verbal Communication
(French, 2010)
Body language or NVC is not solely based on how we move our body, it is made up of:
How close we are to another person, the personal space between two people and how it varies.
This is proxemics: an individual’s perception of and use of space, both personal (how much space do they take up) and social (distance from another).

Non-Verbal Communication
(French, 2010)
Kinesics describes an individual’s use of body language including the study of:
Our facial expressions
Our changing body postures
How we move our eyes/visual contact.
How we touch and make use of objects, for example, pens, or clothes.
How we breathe as well as other non-visible physical aspects

Head Movements
In some parts of India, people tilt their head from side to side to confirm something and demonstrate that they are actively listening.
In Western countries, it is usual to nod in order to affirm. However, in Bulgaria and Greece, nodding actually means the opposite.

Eye Contact
In the Japanese and Finnish culture, constant eye contact is considered awkward. In Caribbean communities, children are taught not to look adults in the eyes when they are being corrected or told off.
In most Western cultures, visual contact when speaking to someone is considered a positive aspect of body language.
Strong visual contact is common in Spain and the Arabic culture (among people of the same sex). Not looking back when someone is looking at you is considered disrespectful and demonstrates insecurity, lack of interest or indicates deception.

Greetings and Goodbyes
Shaking hands is a normal and formal way to greet or say goodbye in Western countries. But it’s done in different contexts in different countries. In Romania, for example, only men usually shake hands. And they do it every time they meet . . . .
Kissing cheeks is something done in many countries, especially in Europe. Though the number of kisses, the occasion for doing so, and which cheek they start off on vary. In East Asia it’s common to bow where as in Southeast Asia both hands are placed together as well (like when praying).

encounter in an Elevator
When you enter a lift (elevator), there is one other person inside.
They don’t say anything.
Is this rude? Unfriendly?
Who should make the first move and say ‘hello’?

Seminar Activity: Email to a University Lecturer
Using the following few slides to help you, read the email and answer the questions in the activity
‘Please answer me as soon as possible’

Imposition and ‘Face’ Issues (1)
The email lacks downgraders or politeness markers such as ‘could’, ‘just’, ‘maybe’, ‘please’.
It is composed from the sender’s perspective rather than the recipient’s perspective.
There are a number of requests in the email:
asking the lecturer to read through some study notes
making an assessment on the relevance of the key points
seeking advice on references.
They are different in the weight of imposition and the degree of obligation.

Imposition and ‘Face’ Issues (2)
The requests are made in a tone of urgency:
‘Please answer me as soon as possible’; ‘I will write tomorrow’.
The number of requests made and the amount of time these requests require make it very unlikely for them to responded to by the next day.
Research finds that non-native speakers are not necessarily penalised for their language mistakes. However, the same does not apply to breach of etiquette. Teaching staff tend to think less favourably of those email requests that either assess staff obligations and duties inappropriately or incur greater cost and staff can afford in terms of time and commitment.
These are ‘face-threatening acts’ (FTAs).
NB: ‘saving face’; ‘giving face’ (dignity, respect)

Basic Communication Model
Who communicates? Identify importance
To whom? Relevant people included
What? Context, purpose
How? Correct channel, style
When? Time for effectiveness
Where? Choice of location imparts meaning
All must be appropriate to succeed

One-way Communication
Perception of imposed power-distance
Message from A to B where B has little input beyond acknowledging, acting
Task and culture deem whether appropriate
If PD high, reluctance to ask questions; low PD addressee will clarify
Problems with expectations of workers

Two-way Communication
Involves addresses/s making significant contribution
Can be face to face or through medium
Interpersonal relationships are important
Various forms eg initiating upwards communication, querying, giving advice
Used for non-routine, complex, non-urgent

Cross-Cultural Theory and Communication
HOFSTEDE
Low PD (eg Israel, Austria, Nordics) prevalence of participative, two-way communication styles; willingness on the part of subordinates to question authority of senior figures within hierarchies; need for a more democratic management approach and informal styles of communication.
High PD (eg United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, Malaysia); communication centres on non-verbal aspects: dress code formal; during meetings, real decision-makers identified by non-participation in verbal conversations

Neutral cultures – Japan, North America, Western Europe
(eg UK, Belgium)
Members do not telegraph their feelings but keep them carefully controlled and subdued
Affective cultures –(eg Brazil, Italy) Latin America, South East Europe, Arab countries, West Africa
People show their feelings plainly by laughing, smiling, grimacing and gesturing; they attempt to find immediate outlets to their feeling
Distinctive styles of verbal communication can lead to misunderstandings (eg Anglo-Saxon, Latin, Oriental)
Cross-Cultural Theory and Communication
TROMPENAARS

Hall: High / Low Context
Edward T. Hall, a cultural anthropologist is considered as a pioneer of intercultural investigation. In the 60s/ 70s he introduced the terms of ‘time’, ‘space’ and ‘directness of communication’ to describe how different cultures tend to deal with universal problems and questions .
High context – depends on external environment, situation, non-verbal. Clues and meanings indirect e.g. Arabic, Chinese
Low context – communicators have to be explicit, blunt style liked, ambiguity disliked, more open to change

High Context
Family, friends and co-workers have close personal relationships and large information networks, so do not require extensive background information
People don’t rely on language alone – tone of voice, timing, facial expression are major means of communicating

Low Context
Relationships are shorter in duration and deep personal involvement valued less
Messages must be made explicit – less dependence on non-verbal communication
Agreements written rather than spoken
People separate lives into different sectors like work and personal life, so need more detailed information in interacting
High dependence on words to convey meaning – complete and accurate meaning is important

Implications of Hall’s Work
Meaning needs decoding in high-context societies – power relationships
Non-verbal communication – rich source of meaning
High-context – indirect styles of communication, ambiguity valued; Low context – straight to the point
In high context, information contained within networks (guanxi); difficult for outsider to gain access

Communication Problems Between Cultures
Participative versus authoritarian
Style of address eg formality, distance
Speech style eg formality, jargon, abbreviations
Listening – what has and has not been said
Non-verbal eg stance, eye movement, tone
Written/ legal eg contracts in US

Seminar Activity: Price or Quantity First?

Negotiation
Differences in negotiation styles eg Japan, India, China, Taiwan, USA
Negotiation context: roles, relationships with constituencies, deadlines, behavioural predispositions of the parties
Negotiation process/outcomes

Effective Employee Communication:
‘Western’ Model

Managers’ actions match words
Appropriate use of one or two-way communication
Shared responsibility; top managers to keep middle, lower managers fully informed
Commitment at top – role model, vision
Truthful re bad news
Appropriate message for audience
Communication is ongoing and timely

Seminar Activity: Communication Group Exercise

Enhancing Intercultural/
Interpersonal Communication
Appoint appropriate candidates
Training – cultural awareness; body language; questioning techniques; active listening; presentation skills; report, letter writing; attitude changes; teamwork; technology
Open, non-judgemental attitude
Self-awareness
Resourcefulness and taking responsibility
Empathy

Session 4/5
Human Resource strategies for the international manager:
leadership

Learning Objectives
To understand and apply various models for analysing managerial and leadership styles
To differentiate between management and leadership as separate activities
To examine the impact of culture and cross-cultural differences as a factor affecting leadership style
To identify key competencies of leaders who engage with multinational teams

Why Leadership?
Overview of Leadership:
Leaders should be visible
Leaders should provide a clear mission which they believe in passionately
Leaders should be able to provide clear objectives and the necessary resources to deliver them

(5 mins)

Leadership and Management
Leader
inspires
thinks
motivates
initiates change
takes decisions
sets objectives
driving force
unmethodical
apart from others
self-sufficient
Manager
controls
does
organises
adjusts to change
implements decisions
gets results
co-ordinator
methodical
involved with others
dependent
Michael Shea 1990

Can a leader be too methodical? Look at some of the criticisms directed at US presidential candidate Marco Rubio. He is said to be ‘too scripted’. He gives the same responses to all instances the same question. On the face of it, this would seem to be a good point – after all, he’s been consistent. If he didn’t do this, he could be charged with ‘flipping’. However, in terms of a leader, this seems to be interpreted as a overly rigid mindset.
Chris Christie A- A B+
Jeb Bush B+ A- B
John Kasich B A- C
Donald Trump C+ B C-
Ted Cruz C+ B C-
Marco Rubio C- B D
Ben Carson
Rubio’s debate is likely to be remembered for his repeating the same line about President Obama almost verbatim four times (example: “Let’s dispel with this fiction that Barack Obama doesn’t know what he’s doing; he knows exactly what he’s doing”). Three of them came in an exchange with Christie, and two of them after Christie had already mocked Rubio for repeating the same sound bite answers. It was an embarrassing moment for Rubio, particularly given that the line of questioning that started the exchange was about his lack of accomplishments in office, a critique Rubio should have been better prepared for. He was not only repetitive but also nonresponsive.
Some of the reason we reporters thought Rubio’s answer was so awful is because it confirmed some of our gossip about Rubio, namely that he tends to give pat, repetitive answers. But we tend to be more sensitive about that stuff, because we watch every debate from start to finish, and then we see lots of the candidates’ stump speeches and town halls on top of it. There’s a fine line between a candidate who seems stilted and repetitive and one who seems “on message” instead.
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Leadership and Management
Leadership is more than just management
Focuses more on people than task
Requires ability to motivate and inspire
Has capacity for independent vision
Management is more than just leadership
Requires a wider range of skills
Responsible for tasks and people
Needs to work within organisational objectives

L
M

Management
Henri Fayol – forecasting, planning, organising, commanding, co-ordinating
Management is a set of competencies, attitudes and qualities distributed throughout the organisation
The Managerial Cycle
Identification of objectives – organisational, departmental, individual; Planning – in sufficient time, allowing for the unknown; The organisation of resources – time, money, material etc; Communication; Motivation; Feedback and Control – eg problems, priorities; Corrective action as appropriate

The Authority of the Manager
Dealing with conflicts
Change in workforce – technological, education, better communication, specialisms
Manager as a focal point for assembling the right mix of information and personnel
Facilitator – critical to know politics, organisational procedures, decision making
Relationship with other departments: Negotiation skills; Communication skills; Complex (with ‘authorities’ often overlapping); Specialist advisers may control part of manager’s authority

Leadership – Schools of Thought
Three main ways of looking at leadership:
Trait theories
What personal qualities are required for leadership?
Style theories
How leadership works (behaviour)
Situational theories
How the situation affects leadership

Trait theories (1)
Based on the belief that there are people born with leadership qualities (or develop them early in life)
Numerous studies (eg Bennis and Nanus, 1985) have tried to identify key traits
In 100 studies up to 1950 only 5% agreement:
intelligence initiative self-assurance
Hundreds of theories but only 5 traits keep reappearing:
Intelligence – above average, not genius
Initiative – independence and inventiveness
Self assurance – self confidence, self esteem
Helicopter ability to give overview
Good health

The trait approach has earned new interest through the current emphasis given to visionary and charismatic leadership. Charismatic leadership has catapulted to the forefront of public attention to 8 election United States first African-American president, Barrack Obama. In a study to determine what distinguishes charismatic leaders from others, researchers have found that charismatic leaders distantly possess traits of self-monitoring, engagement in impression management, motivation to attain social power, and motivation to attain self-actualisation. The trait approach began with an emphasis on identifying the qualities of great persons, shifted to include the impact of situations on leadership, and has apparently shifted back to re-emphasise the critical role of trades and effective leadership.
Me: however note the current emphasis on traits that imply self-awareness and self-monitoring – implies adjustment to the audience/stance triangle.
Scandals in the corporate world, such as Enron and WorldCom, have led people to become sceptical of leaders who are not highly ethical – hence the importance of the ‘integrity’ trait. Integrity is the quality of honesty and trustworthiness. People who are dear to a strong set of principles and take responsibility for their actions are exhibiting integrity. Leaders with integrity inspire confidence in others because they can be trusted to do what they say they are going to do. They are loyal, dependable, and not deceptive. Integrity makes a leader believable and worthy of our trust.

Trait theories (2)
The following traits appeared regularly in studies EITHER 1945-1989 OR 1990 – present. Which are which?
Masculinity Social Intelligence Openness
Self-Monitoring Dominance Integrity
Cognitive Abilities Emotional Stability
Intelligence Social and Emotional Intelligence
Responsibility Adjustment Conservatism

Watch the following video clip from 1960 showing a famous television encounter between presidential hopefuls Richard Nixon and John F Kennedy
In your view, which leadership qualities did both candidates demonstrate?
Which candidate had the upper hand, and why?

Now, read the retrospective of this famous interview:
https://www.history.com/topics/us-presidents/kennedy-nixon-debates

Trait Theories in Action (1)

Supreme Commander of Allied forces in Western Europe during World War II, Dwight D. Eisenhower
In 1952, leading Republicans convinced Eisenhower to run for president; he won a convincing victory over Democrat Adlai Stevenson and would serve two terms in the White House (1953-1961).

Trait Theories in Action (2)

Criticisms of Trait Theories
seek an impossible ideal personality
too many exceptions to the rule
difficult to define the qualities
impossible to measure the qualities
they do not acknowledge context of the leader
what came first – trait or leadership
more democratic society
organisations are complex

What are ‘Competencies’
The following article sets this out clearly:
https://www.talentalign.com/skills-vs-competencies-whats-the-difference/
Using the example of “Programming”, identify a competence that you have – be prepared to discuss!

Leadership Competencies
Bolden and Gosling (2006)
1980s/1990s – divergence in applying concept of competenices (p149). Limitations of the approach include too much focus on what is measurable (p150-2).
Study found the following ‘desirable qualities of leaders’ (in addition to some of the ‘key traits’ from previous studies) :

Leadership Competencies
Bolden and Gosling (2006)
Personal vision based on self-belief and moral courage
Leader makes sense of complexity and uncertainty on the basis of strong moral beliefs and an emotional engagement with others

Style Theories of Leadership
(1 dimension)
How does behaviour affect leaders’ effectiveness?
One dimensional theories identify a single continuum:
AUTOCRATIC DEMOCRATIC
power from one person power from group

Style Theories of leadership
(2 dimensions)
Two dimensional theories recognise that leaders tend to focus on task AND/OR people
Blake and Mouton 1964

The style approach differs from the trait approach to leadership because the style approach focuses on what leaders do rather than who leaders are. It suggests that leaders engage in two primary types of behaviour: task behaviour and relationship behaviour. How leaders combine these two types of behaviour to influence others is the focus of the style approach.
The style approach originated three different lines of research: the Ohio State University studies, the University of Michigan studies and the work of Blake and Mouton on the managerial/leadership grid. Researchers at Ohio State developed a leadership questionnaire the leader behaviour description questionnaire which identified initiation of structure situation as core leadership behaviours. The Michigan studies provided similar findings called the leader behaviours production orientation and employee orientation.
Using the Ohio State and Michigan studies as a basis, much research has been carried out to find the best way for leaders combine task and relationship behaviour. The goal has been to find a universal set of leadership behaviours capable of explaining leadership effectiveness in every situation. The results from these efforts have not been conclusive. Researchers have had difficulty identifying one best style of leadership.
Blake and Mouton developed a practical model for training managers ascribe leadership behaviour along the grid with two axes: concern for results and concern for people. How leaders confine these orientations results in five major leaderships styles: authority-compliance, country-club management, impoverished management, middle-of-the-road management and team management.
On the positive side, this approach broadens the scope of leadership research to include the study of behaviour of leaders rather than just personal characteristics. It has also been supported by a wide range of studies. On the other hand, researchers have not been able to associate the behaviours of leaders – task and relationship – with outcomes such as morale, job satisfaction and productivity. Moreover, researchers have not been able to identify a universal set of leadership behaviours that consistently result in effective leadership. The approach implies but fails to support fully the idea that the most effective leadership style is a high task and high relationship style.

Blake And Mouton Leadership Grid

Criticisms of Style Theories
Too simplistic to say autocratic leadership is wrong and democratic leadership is right
Some people prefer to be directed and their work to be structured
Theory may be round the wrong way:
Not –
Democratic leadership leads to effective working
But –
Effective working leads to democratic leadership
Theories emphasise relationship rather than tasks

Authority-compliance: heavy emphasis on task and job requirements, less emphasis on people, except to the extent that people are tools for getting the job done. Communicating subordinate is not emphasised except for the purpose of giving instructions about the task. The style is results driven people are regarded as tools to that end. A leader in this style is seen as controlling, demanding, hard-driving and overpowering: autocratic?
Team management style places a strong emphasis on both tasks and interpersonal relationships. It promotes a high degree of participation in teamwork in the organisation and satisfies a basic need employees to be involved they work. A leader in this style stimulates participation, gets issues into the open, makes priorities clear, follows through, is open-minded: democratic?
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Video – Style Theories
Expert Program Management is a company that explains very clearly the various models of Leadership Style:

(16 mins)
And/or read:

Leadership Styles

Seminar Activity – Media AG
Read the case study then answer Q1 and Q2.
Q1 relates to the intercultural aspects and leader style
We will return to Q2 later . . . .

Contingency Approach
Style AND Situation
John Adair (1982)
Fred Fiedler (1967, 1974)
John Adair
3 variables to decide appropriate action
Task needs, group needs, individual’s need
Successful leader reads situation and is aware of priorities

Contingency Theory (Fiedler)
This is a leader match theory because it tries to match leaders to appropriate situations
A leader’s effectiveness depends on how well the leader’s style fits the context
The theory was developed by studying the styles of leaders in situations and whether they were effective (primarily in military organizations)
Concerned with styles and situations
Fiedler, F.E. (1967), A Theory of Leadership Effectiveness, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY.

Contingency Theory
Leadership styles are either task motivated or relationship motivated
Situations have three factors: leader-member relations, task structure and position power:

LPC Scale
Used to measure a person’s leadership style
For example, it measures your style by having you describe a coworker with whom you had difficulty completing a job. NB: Not necessarily someone you dislike, but someone with whom you would least like to work with.
After you choose this person, the LPC instrument asks you to describe your coworker on 18 sets of adjectives

Least Preferred Coworker (LPC) Scale

Scoring
Your final score is the total of the numbers you circled on the 18 scales
57 or less = Low LPC (task motivated)
58-63 = Middle LPC (socio-independent leaders, self directed and not overly concerned with the task or with how others view them)
64 or above = High LPC (motivated by relationships)

Contingency Theory (1)
How it works:
By measuring a leader’s LPC score and three situational variables, you can predict whether the leader is going to be successful in a particular setting.
It is important to note that contingency theory stresses that leaders are NOT successful in all situations.
In short, contingency theory is concerned with style and situations. It provides a framework for effectively managing the leader and the situation. Effective leadership is contingent on matching the leader’s style to the right setting.

Contingency Theory (2)
Pros
Empirical research supports this theory
Includes the impact of situations on leaders
This theory is predictive and therefore provides useful information about the type of leadership that is most likely to be successful in a specific context
Does not require people to be successful in all situations (perfection is not required)
Data from this theory could be useful to organizations in developing leadership profiles

Contingency Theory
Cons
Fails to fully explain why people with certain leadership styles are more effective in situations than others
Questions regarding the LPC scale have been made because it does not correlate well with other standard leadership measures.
LPC instructions are not clear – leaders are unsure how to choose a least preferred coworker
Also fails to explain what to do when there is a mismatch between the leader and the situation in the workplace

Situational Leadership
Hersey and Blanchard

The Hersey and Blanchard model is also prescriptive – it suggests how leaders can become effective in many different types of organisational settings. The approach provides a model that suggests appropriate behaviour based on the demands of a particular situation. This model classifies leadership into four styles: high directive-low supportive; high directive-high supportive; low directive-high supportive and low directive-low supportive. The model describes how each of the leadership styles applies to subordinate who work at different levels of development, from low in competence and high in commitment through moderately competent and low in commitment; moderately competent but lacking commitment to high in competence and high in commitment.

In this model, effective leadership occurs when the leader can accurately diagnose the development level of subordinates in a task situation and then demonstrate the prescribed leadership style that matches that situation.

The model recognises that there is not one best style of leadership, but that leaders need to be flexible and adapt their style to the requirements of the situation. Although the model seems to suggest flexibility in matching leader styles to subordinates’ development levels, there is an insufficient body of research to suggest that any leader can adapt to any situation. Furthermore, it is not clear has subordinates move from low development levels to high development levels, or how commitment levels change.

32

Situational Approach
Situational leadership stresses that leadership is composed of both a directive and a supportive dimension, and needs to be applied appropriately in a given situation.
A leader must evaluate the subordinates, assessing how competent and committed they are to perform a given task.
In short, to be an effective leader requires that a person adapt their style to the demands of different situations.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pykuvuA-QFU (10 mins)

Seminar Activity – Media AG
Read the case study then answer Q1 and Q2.
Q1 relates to the intercultural aspects.
Q2 takes us deeper into leadership theory:
Does Fiedler’s contingency theory of leadership (1967) allow for sufficient flexibility on the part of the leader?
Justify your answer with reference to at least one other leadership model, such as the situational approach of Hersey and Blanchard (1985).

Seminar Activity – Commentary (1)
The Hersey and Blanchard model is also prescriptive – it suggests how leaders can become effective in many different types of organisational settings. The approach provides a model that suggests appropriate behaviour based on the demands of a particular situation.
What the two models have in common:
leader-match theory – emphasises the importance of matching a leader style with the demands of a situation
prescriptive – provides a model that suggests appropriate behaviour based on the demands of a particular situation

Seminar Activity – Commentary (2)
The Hersey and Blanchard model seems to suggest flexibility in matching leader styles to subordinates’ development levels, but there is an insufficient body of research to suggest that any leader can adapt to any situation.
Furthermore, it is not clear how subordinates move from low development levels to high development levels, or how commitment levels change.

Seminar Activity – Commentary (3)
The Hersey and Blanchard model does at least show that effective leadership occurs when the leader can accurately diagnose the development level of subordinates in a task situation and then demonstrate the prescribed leadership style that matches that situation.
Fiedler – does not offer adequate explanation of the links between style and situation, and relies heavily on the LPC scale. This scale has been questioned for its face validity and workability.

Differences in how people from specific countries view
authority and leadership in work teams:
High PD countries (eg Malaysia) – do not react well to delegated responsibility; Low PD – comfortable in bypassing their boss and accepting high levels of responsibility
‘Doing’ cultures (USA) – more willing to set own goals than ‘Being’ cultures (Malaysia)
‘Free-will’ cultures (USA)- citizens happy to make changes within a work team; ‘Deterministic’ cultures (Malaysia)- greater reluctance to engage in self-management
USA – society values makes easier for leaders to set up self-managing work teams; Malaysia – employees require a more interventionist leadership approach
Cultural Variations

Project GLOBE
Project GLOBE (2001-onwards) – large scale research programme looking at relationship culture-leadership
Leaders influenced by dominant norms and values in their culture
Strategic organisational contingencies (size, environment) affect leader attributes and behaviour

39
GLOBE = Global Leadership and Organisational Behaviour Effectiveness research programme
Authors: House, Javidan and Dorfman, 2002- 2004
Data collected from 17,000 participants (managers) from 950 work organisations (financial services, food and telecommunications)
See French (2010) – pages 178-179
The globe research programme was initiated by Robert House in 1991. The primary purpose of the project is to increase our understanding of cross-cultural interactions and the impact of culture on leadership effectiveness.

The Multicultural Team
Project GLOBE (2001-onwards) – large scale research programme looking at relationship culture-leadership
Leaders influenced by dominant norms and values in their culture
Strategic organisational contingencies (size, environment) affect leader attributes and behaviour
Harris, Brewster, Sparrow’s research (2003-2012)
International strategies mean managers need to work through multicultural team networks
Strategies of localisation try to reduce reliance on expatriates

40
GLOBE = Global Leadership and Organisational Behaviour Effectiveness research programme
Authors: House, Javidan and Dorfman, 2002- 2004
Data collected from 17,000 participants (managers) from 950 work organisations (financial services, food and telecommunications)
See French (2010) – pages 178-179
The globe research programme was initiated by Robert House in 1991. The primary purpose of the project is to increase our understanding of cross-cultural interactions and the impact of culture on leadership effectiveness.

Modern Organisations
Typified by diversity and difference
Modern leaders must have vision
Team based leadership takes over from single leader; many different views needed
Different skills needed at different levels
eg middle managers very competitive,
CEOs need integrity and corporate thinking

Modern Organisations
Zaha Hadid, revolutionary architect:
https://www.engelvoelkers.com/en/blog/luxury-living/architecture/zaha-hadids-style-and-design-philosophy/
See also:
https://www.wallpaper.com/tags/zaha-hadid
And:
https://www.zaha-hadid.com/

Reading
Brewster et al (2011) – pages 56-67 in Chapter 3
French (2010) – Chapter 7
Northouse, P.G. (2007) Leadership Theory and Practice. Sage Publications, Inc. Thousand Oaks, CA.

Session 2
Human Resource strategies for the international manager:
culture

Dawn de Kock
Module Leader
Email: D.Dekock@westminster.ac.uk

Room C273 (Chiltern Building, 2nd floor)

Staff team

Recap From Last Week

HRM
Human Resource Management
01
SHRM
Strategic Human Resource Management
02
ISHRM
International Strategic Human Resource Management
03
Human Resource Management
(HRM)

HRM is the development of policies, and management of processes and activities undertaken by a HR Department of an organisation.

The activities have evolved from what used to be called Personnel Management. It includes the management of recruitment and selection of employees, their training and development, the management of their performance and rewards, and finally the termination of their employment.

It also involves the management of employment relations, which may include dealing with employee representatives or their trade unions. It is usually studied in the context of one country and its legislation which affects the policies and practices.

Coursework Assignment orientation

Iceberg Model of Culture
(Schneider and Barsoux, 2003)
Visible : behaviours, appearance, dress, language, traditions, food, music, architecture, gestures, greetings, devotional practices.
Invisible : beliefs, norms, expectations, perceptions, time and space orientation, assumptions, values, thought processes, attitudes, approach to family, motivations, modes of thinking, comfort with risk, difference between public and private, gender differences

Exploring the Coursework Briefing
Consider the type of skills needed for the new hires in the given scenario. Which of these would you class as global, which as local? Taking the example of communication skills, experience of working in a global environment would equip you with a certain set of communication skills. How many of these can you identify?
On the other hand, when getting to know an unfamiliar culture, you may need unexpected communication skills (aside from linguistic skills). What types of skills might fall into this category? You can include ‘intercultural skills’ in this category.
Hint: ‘Culture as an iceberg’ exercise on BB

Using a Referencing Tool

The ‘Watch Folder’ is a great feature in Mendeley!

“A set of basic assumptions – shared solutions to universal problems of external adaptation (how to survive) and internal integration (how to stay together) – which have evolved over time and are handed down from one generation to the next.”
Schein, 2004

The concept of culture

Norms, values, rules, climate, symbols – Mead
relationship between employees and organisations
system of authority
general views of employees about company’s goals, purpose, and their role
Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner

organisational culture

Beliefs, attitudes and values
Beliefs and attitudes are conscious, values are unconscious
Values more difficult to change
Seen by looking at behaviour and attributing reasons (rightly or wrongly)
Seen by considering how we use language
perceptions

Wherever we are the world, what problems do we face? Scarcity of food, protection from harm etc (houses vs tents). Food and shelter are most basic.
How a community or village is organised comes down to questions of authority.
Self and other – individual vs group based.
Male and female rites of passage (boys and girls), dealing with the body and change.
How do we handle conflict? Fisticuffs, or do they leave the village and not come back for a week?
What’s interesting is that they started to put things into scales/dimensions – one thing at one end and another thing at the opposite end.
11

You are helping a friend to give up smoking. At an intellectual level, your friend understand the benefits of giving up smoking.
She has tried many times to give up, and despite her determination has not yet succeeded.
How can you persuade her – change her belief – that she will be able to succeed in the future?
beliefs

Watch the first two minutes of the video clip on learning Vietnamese:

In particular, notice the different ways of addressing people. How does this differ from your own language? If you are Vietnamese, compare to English.
Culture expressed through language – vietnamese

Culture Expressed Through Language:
Turkish

Study the vocabulary list (link below) in Turkish and English on the topic of ‘family members’. You will see that each language clearly has a word for mother, father, sister, brother etc. But what do you notice about differences between the two languages in the way that relationships are expressed?
http://turkishbasics.com/vocabulary/family-members.php

Culture expressed through language – turkish

‘The collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one group of people from another’(Hofstede, 2005)
‘every person carries within him or herself patterns of thinking, feeling and potential acting which were learned throughout their lifetime’. (Hofstede, 2005)
Culture is particular to one group, learned, passed through generations, includes values, helps predict behaviour – socialisation.

Culture is . . .

Culture as response to basic problems facing societies/groups – how resolved:
relation to authority (hierarchy/power)
concept of self (gender identity, life goals)
ways of dealing with conflicts (group harmony/confrontation?)
communication styles (formality/informality/space)
how does culture develop?
(Inkeles and Levinson, 1969:449)

16
If watch a new society being set up eg community on remote island televised, see these challenges facing group and how they are resolved:
Authority: who has power over whom? How much? Do we treat people differently in societies? On what basis?
Self: what does it mean to be a woman/man in a society? What life goals are prominent? What is allowed/not allowed? How important is education to a sense of self (Malala Yousefzai: Pakistani schoolgirl)
Conflict: how much is it accepted? How much is directness valued? (Japan versus Netherlands)
Communication : how do we address people? Formal or informal (tu/vous in French) and use of first names in power relationshjip?

Layers of Culture
(Hofstede, 2005)
National level – Country
Regional and/or ethnic and/or religions and linguistic level
Gender level
Generational level
Social class level
Organisational level
Functional level

17
complexity of our identities formed of different levels and social affinities.
One of questions we ask on the module: can we talk of a culture/nation as a whole? Is there a dominant norm?
Also other levels above that interact eg regional;/ethnic/religious
Gender roles in society/ generational eg ‘youth culture’ and preoccupations. Organisational cultures eg University of Oxford versus University of Westmisnter
Function: our educa\tion/training/job and career choices influend our identities.

Factors Contributing to Culture and Cultural Characteristics
History
Geography
Political system
Wealth
Social Structure/Stratification
Religion
Education
Language

18
A countries history: you cannot understand the present unless you understand the past that shaped it eg wars/natural disasters
The Geography: Holland as part of Europe versus Britain’s island mentality?
Political system: choices made , democracies? Eg Conservative step to offer referendum to choose to take us out of Europe
Wealth: research shows poorer countries are more group oriented and collectivist/ richers ones are more individualistic
Class and social structures and privilege
Religion: how dominant in national cultures? Are several religions allowed? How much does it dictated day to day life
Education: what is taught? How much is it open to all? (debate currently in UK about Theresa May’s plan to increase grammar schools: do they promote privilege or reduce it?
Language: gives us concepts/to express our ideas eg ‘joie de vivre’ ‘bien dans sa peau’ – untranslateable.

Cross cultural management scholarship
In groups: What makes Cross cultural management scholarship critical?
Refer to the article ‘Understanding of culture’ by Terence Jackson. In particular, look at the last page (p269) and consider the following questions:
Why does Jackson think that ‘culture vs institutions’ is an artificial divide?
How is a ‘nation’ different from a ‘culture’?
In what sense are these terms ‘fictions’? (cf: Chinese ‘minguo’)

Activity: Comparing Cultures
What is your culture of origin, or the culture you are most at home in? We are going to compare our own cultures in small groups.
We will adopt two different approaches to this comparison.
Look at the questions on the four slides that follow. To compare your answers, can you give a score out of 10? Is this a good way to compare responses?
If you find it hard to give a score, or if you find yourself saying ‘it depends . . . . ‘, make a note of your responses. This includes any objections you have to the question itself!

20
A countries history: you cannot understand the present unless you understand the past that shaped it eg wars/natural disasters
The Geography: Holland as part of Europe versus Britain’s island mentality?
Political system: choices made , democracies? Eg Conservative step to offer referendum to choose to take us out of Europe
Wealth: research shows poorer countries are more group oriented and collectivist/ richers ones are more individualistic
Class and social structures and privilege
Religion: how dominant in national cultures? Are several religions allowed? How much does it dictated day to day life
Education: what is taught? How much is it open to all? (debate currently in UK about Theresa May’s plan to increase grammar schools: do they promote privilege or reduce it?
Language: gives us concepts/to express our ideas eg ‘joie de vivre’ ‘bien dans sa peau’ – untranslateable.

Where Do You Stand? (1)
You are working on a project as part of a team.
It is 17:00 and you have finished your work for the day.
You are very tired and just want to get home!
But other members in your team are still working.
You consider staying back until they have finished.

21
A countries history: you cannot understand the present unless you understand the past that shaped it eg wars/natural disasters
The Geography: Holland as part of Europe versus Britain’s island mentality?
Political system: choices made , democracies? Eg Conservative step to offer referendum to choose to take us out of Europe
Wealth: research shows poorer countries are more group oriented and collectivist/ richers ones are more individualistic
Class and social structures and privilege
Religion: how dominant in national cultures? Are several religions allowed? How much does it dictated day to day life
Education: what is taught? How much is it open to all? (debate currently in UK about Theresa May’s plan to increase grammar schools: do they promote privilege or reduce it?
Language: gives us concepts/to express our ideas eg ‘joie de vivre’ ‘bien dans sa peau’ – untranslateable.

Where Do You Stand? (2)
At work, your manager does something embarrassing (like slip on a banana skin!).
You find it funny and want to laugh.
Do you go ahead and laugh?
Do you stifle a laugh and look serious?

22
A countries history: you cannot understand the present unless you understand the past that shaped it eg wars/natural disasters
The Geography: Holland as part of Europe versus Britain’s island mentality?
Political system: choices made , democracies? Eg Conservative step to offer referendum to choose to take us out of Europe
Wealth: research shows poorer countries are more group oriented and collectivist/ richers ones are more individualistic
Class and social structures and privilege
Religion: how dominant in national cultures? Are several religions allowed? How much does it dictated day to day life
Education: what is taught? How much is it open to all? (debate currently in UK about Theresa May’s plan to increase grammar schools: do they promote privilege or reduce it?
Language: gives us concepts/to express our ideas eg ‘joie de vivre’ ‘bien dans sa peau’ – untranslateable.

Where Do You Stand? (3)
You go for a job interview. It is a fairly informal interview, with just one manager.
Do you begin by doing most of the talking, offering to talk through your CV?
Or do you wait for the interviewer to take the initiative?

23
A countries history: you cannot understand the present unless you understand the past that shaped it eg wars/natural disasters
The Geography: Holland as part of Europe versus Britain’s island mentality?
Political system: choices made , democracies? Eg Conservative step to offer referendum to choose to take us out of Europe
Wealth: research shows poorer countries are more group oriented and collectivist/ richers ones are more individualistic
Class and social structures and privilege
Religion: how dominant in national cultures? Are several religions allowed? How much does it dictated day to day life
Education: what is taught? How much is it open to all? (debate currently in UK about Theresa May’s plan to increase grammar schools: do they promote privilege or reduce it?
Language: gives us concepts/to express our ideas eg ‘joie de vivre’ ‘bien dans sa peau’ – untranslateable.

Where Do You Stand? (4)
You are assigned a project to work on. The theme is ‘Cognitive Diversity in the Workplace’.
There are no detailed instructions, for example what sort of data to collect, or the scope of the survey. On the contrary, you are advised that you can ‘be creative’ in your approach.
Does this feel like freedom?
Or do you feel uncomfortable with the open-endedness of the project?

24
A countries history: you cannot understand the present unless you understand the past that shaped it eg wars/natural disasters
The Geography: Holland as part of Europe versus Britain’s island mentality?
Political system: choices made , democracies? Eg Conservative step to offer referendum to choose to take us out of Europe
Wealth: research shows poorer countries are more group oriented and collectivist/ richers ones are more individualistic
Class and social structures and privilege
Religion: how dominant in national cultures? Are several religions allowed? How much does it dictated day to day life
Education: what is taught? How much is it open to all? (debate currently in UK about Theresa May’s plan to increase grammar schools: do they promote privilege or reduce it?
Language: gives us concepts/to express our ideas eg ‘joie de vivre’ ‘bien dans sa peau’ – untranslateable.

Hofstede’s Research (1980, 2001)
Hofstede surveyed 116,000 employees in 50 countries
All were employed by IBM
Findings widely used in intercultural management

Hofstede
Power distance – the distance between individuals at different levels of the hierarchy
Uncertainty avoidance – more or less need to avoid uncertainty about the future
Individualism vs collectivism – relations between individuals
Masculinity (achievement in terms of recognition/wealth) vs femininity (human contacts)– division of roles/values

Hofstede
High PDI means hierarchical, lower PDI more democratic
Uncertainty avoidance (UAI) – threatened by ambiguous situations if high
Individualism (IDV) – high means interest in self respect and personal achievement; low means an interest in face saving and harmony
Hofstede found high relationship between high PDI and collectivism
Masculinity (MAS) – values e.g. assertiveness, money, self; high in Japan, Austria; low in most Scandinavian countries, ie ‘feminine’

A Contrasting View of Authority
France:
Society based on pyramidal hierarchy held together by tight rules and unity of command

Germany:
Personal command largely unnecessary as rules settle everything

28
What do you think?

Cross-cultural Comparisons
Now, look up your country profiles on the Hofstede website:
https://www.hofstede-insights.com/country-comparison

If your country is not represented, is there an option for a country that would be considered culturally close?
How does this compare with the ratings you came up within your group?
A cross-cultural comparison of this kind represents an ‘etic’ approach . . . .

The Chinese Value Survey
Conducted by Bond (Canadian and Chinese colleagues)
Shared many Hofstede ideas but based questions on Confucius (traditional Chinese values)
Translated and administered to students in 23 countries
Four dimensions match Hofstede (PDI, IDV, UAI and MAS) plus Confucian Work Dynamism

Long-term/Short-term Orientation
High Confucian work dynamism/Long-term oriented
Concern with future, value thrift and persistence
Low Confucian work dynamism/Short-term oriented
Oriented toward past and present, respect for personal tradition, social obligations and saving face.

Fang’s (2003) Critique of STO/LTO
For the Chinese, the values at the two ends of long-term orientation are not contrasting or opposing values, but rather closely interrelated with one another.
For example, the Chinese are long-term and future-oriented in certain settings and situations.
But there has been considerable research showing that Chinese culture is past-oriented. ‘Past experience, if not forgotten, is a guide for the future’

Fang’s (2003) Critique of STO/LTO
Chinese values: wenzhong (‘personal steadiness and stability’); yaomianzi (‘protecting your face’); zunjingchuantong (‘respect for tradition’); and li shangwanglai (‘reciprocation of greetings, favors and gifts’).
From a linguistic point of view, these Chinese phrases sound more positive than negative, or at least neutral. Whether these values are positive or negative cannot be judged at face value; it all depends on the specific contexts and situations in which they are used.

Fang’s (2003) Critique of STO/LTO
Two major objections:
The list of 40 ‘fundamental and basic values for Chinese people’ reveals that a number of core Chinese values are not included, such as Guanxi, Yin Yang, and Wu Wei.
Confucian dynamism (long-term orientation) divides interrelated values into two opposing poles. Values labeled as ‘short-term oriented’ or ‘negative’ may not necessarily be so, and values labeled as ‘long-term oriented’ or ‘positive’ may not necessarily be so either.

Fang’s (2003) Critique of STO/LTO
Moreover, there is redundancy among the 40 Chinese values in the Chinese Value Survey (CVS). Some values either mean essentially the same thing or are highly interrelated. This leads to the fact that the two ‘opposite’ ends of Confucian dynamism (long-term orientation) are actually not opposed to each
Given the flaws inherent in its conceptualisation, Hofstede’s fifth dimension’s viability is questioned, and its relevance for cross cultural research and practice has been found and will remain very limited.

Comparing Cultures
The Nordic countries consist of Finland, Norway, Sweden and Denmark.
Compare these countries using the Hofstede cultural comparison tool:
https://www.hofstede-insights.com/product/compare-countries/
Are there significant differences between these countries?
Hint: compare Finland and Singapore by way of comparison!

Comparing Cultures
Based on the above, you might expect that each country had a similar approach to dealing with Covid-19. Now, read the following article:

Different COVID-19 strategies in the Nordic countries

Has your opinion changed? Why?
Some more questions!
Give an example of a national stereotype mentioned in the article.
What do you think the authors mean by ‘the explanation of Swedish exceptionality’?
Given Sweden’s low PDI score, how do you account for the following observation:
‘Sweden has a reputation for being a paternalistic, prohibitive society, which appears not to be in keeping with the liberal attitude Sweden has had during the corona crisis.’

Etic vs Emic Approaches
Emic and etic are two different approaches when trying to explain social realities from the perspective of the social sciences.
An etic approach is the perspective of the observer – usually the researcher.
In this approach the researcher is trying to explain the social realities they observe using the theoretical apparatus of social sciences.
An emic approach is the perspective of the studied social group.
In this approach, the perspectives, explanations, logic, meanings, beliefs and worldview of the studied people are used to explain the particular values, beliefs or practices. This is the way the actual people understand what they do and think.
These approaches may contradict each other in some respects, but a well crafted research methodology will use both.
.

Low-High Context – It’s All Relative!

Monochronic vs Polychronic

Based on the concept of ‘timelines’. Discover your own personal timeline!
Think of something that you did today, that you do every day, such as brushing your teeth. As you imagine doing this, where do you ‘see’ this happening in your visual field? For instance, you might picture yourself as you see yourself in the mirror cleaning your teeth. Is this image to your right or left? Up or down?
Now think about cleaning your teeth yesterday, last week, last month . . . Where do these images ‘appear’?

Monochronic vs Polychronic

Now, repeat the same activity but thinking of something you will do in the future. This can be cleaning your teeth, or something like working on your coursework assignment.
Thinking about an early stage activity, such as reading the assignment briefing. Then think about the final stage, submitting your coursework.
Where do you ‘see’ these activities in your mind’s eye?

Monochronic vs Polychronic

Examples of polychronic cultures (from highest to middling):

Latin America, Arab countries, Africa
Indian subcontinent
Mediterranean cultures
Portugal, N Italy
Examples of monochronic cultures (from highest to middling):

Germany, Switzerland Austria
USA
Nordic countries
Other ‘Anglo’ countries: UK, Canada, New Zealand, Australia
Netherlands, Belgium
South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore

Monochronic vs Polychronic

The following two links are not academic sources, but will give you a flavour of the differences, along with some practical business considerations.
Which source is better in your opinion, and why?

https://manasikakade.com/blog/2015/05/decode-a-culture-perception-of-time-monochronic-vs-polychronic/

https://vplegacies.com/monochronic-vs-polychronic-cultures-what-are-the-differences/

Fons Trompenaars
general relationship between employees and organisation
vertical or hierarchical system of authority defining superiors/subordinates
general views of employees about organisation’s destiny, goals, purpose and their place in it
based on a values questionnaire to over 15,000 managers in 28 countries (1993)
later extended to other countries including former Soviet-bloc countries not covered by Hofstede

Trompenaars’s dimensions
Universalism vs Particularism
Individualism vs Collectivism
Range of emotions expressed: neutral vs affective
Range of involvement with other people: specific vs diffuse
Method of according status to other people:
achievement vs ascription
Time
Environment

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Universalism as a belief that what is true and good can be discovered and applied universally
Particularism -A belief that unique circumstances determine what is right or good
Similar to Hofstede – the degree to which one plans actions with reference to individual benefits or those of the group
In neutral cultures, emotion should be held in check and maintaining an appearnace of self-control is important
In affective cultures it is natural to express emotions openly
The degree to which individuals are willing to allow access to their inner selves to others.
In specific cultures people separate private life from public, whereas in diffuse cultures they overlap
This is about how power and status are determined in society
In an ascription society status is based on who a person is, whereas in an achievement society it is what a person does
Sequential:-
Time seen as measurable and a sequence of events – ordered, rels > schedule, recent performance counts, initial plan preferred
Synchronic:-
Members juggle various activities in parallel at same time. Rels>Schedule, performance is judged over whole history, plans can change.
Past vs future orientation – also how far time is linear as opposed to holistic and integrated past, present and future
How far individuals see themselves as the primary influence on their lives vs environment as more powerful than they and they should seek harmony with it.

The GLOBE project
Global Leadership and Organisational Behaviour Effectiveness research project: nine cultural dimensions
assertiveness,
future orientation,
gender differentiation,
uncertainty avoidance,
power distance,
institutional collectivism,
in-group collectivism,
performance orientation,
humane orientation

National Cultural Clusters
Anglo: Australia, Canada, Ireland, New Zealand, South Africa, United Kingdom, United States.
Arab: Abu-Dhabi, Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates.
Far Eastern: Hong Kong, China, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Vietnam, Taiwan, Thailand.
Germanic: Austria, Germany, Switzerland.
Latin American: Argentina, Chile, Colombia, Mexico, Peru, Venezuela.
Latin European: Belgium, France, Italy, Portugal, Spain.
Near Eastern: Greece, Iran, Turkey.
Nordic: Denmark, Finland, Norway, Sweden.
Independent: Brazil, India, Israel, Japan, South Korea.

Development of Intercultural Competence:
International Profiler (1)

Development of Intercultural Competence:
International Profiler (2)

See Chapter 8 in: Spencer-Oatey, H. and Franklin, P. (2009). “Intercultural Interaction: A Multidisciplinary Approach to Intercultural Communication”. Palgrave: Basingstoke.
Development of Intercultural Competence:
International Profiler (3)

Culture Shock
Can lead to a sense of isolation, depression, uncertainty and reduce productivity
It is a natural response, cumulative too and can stem from ‘trivial’ incidents
Psychological disorientation. Cannot rely on familiar signals regarding relationships, behaviour, communication

Symptoms
A sense of tension and frustration – low energy levels. Difficulty making decisions
Alienation leads to feelings of homesickness and antagonism towards new culture
Behaviour problems e.g. drinking
Depression

Reverse Shock
Repatriate needs to adjust to their return
Reduced financial benefits
Less power and autonomy
Job alienation, being out of the loop
Increased cost of living, less domestic help
Reduced status and social life

Company Strategies
Having a mentor
Introducing manager to support groups, networking possibilities
Before and after repatriation, briefing manager on living conditions at home and at new post
Debriefing manager to show interest, learn important information
Acknowledge status, value of contribution

CULTURAL adaptation (1)
Maude (2016) writes of psychological growth and new skills that can occur with cultural adaptation.
In groups:
From your experiences or from those you have heard about, or read about, share in your groups some thoughts on the psychological growth and new skills that you learned when adapting to a foreign culture.

CULTURAL adaptation (2)
Discuss the ‘Miranda’ case study (from French, 2015)
Why do you think that keeping contact with one’s own (expatriate) culture as well as the new (‘host’) culture is a better strategy than total immersion in the new culture?
If you speak more than one language, can you relate these adaptation behaviours to your ability to use both languages?

CULTURAL HERTAGE
In groups: discussion of ‘Miranda’ case study (from French, 2015) and thoughts on above questions.
Why do you think that keeping contact with one’s own (expatriate) culture as well as the new (‘host’) culture is a better strategy than total immersion in the new culture?
If you speak more than one language, can you relate these adaptation behaviours to your ability to use both languages?

Reading for this week . . .
This week, please consult the following books which are available online in the University Library:
Spencer-Oatey, H. and Franklin, P. (2009). “Intercultural Interaction: A Multidisciplinary Approach to Intercultural Communication”. Palgrave: Basingstoke.

Reading for this week . . .
Guirdham, M. (2004). “Communicating Across Cultures at Work”. London: Palgrave Macmillan

Locate the relevant chapters. At this point on the module, I suggest you dip in and read up on concepts that you recognise and interest you. This will help you to assimilate the material from this week. When you start drafting your coursework assignment, you will be more familiar with concepts and able to navigate around the textbook.

Session 5
motivation and managing rewards

Motivation
The amount of effort that an individual puts into something
(Francesco and Gold 1998)
The willingness to exert high levels of effort towards organisational goals, conditioned by the effort’s ability to satisfy some individual need.’ (Robbins 1996)
The degree to which an individual wants and chooses to engage in certain specified behaviors
(Mitchell, 1982)

Characteristics of Motivation

An individual phenomenon. Every person is unique.
Intentional, assumed to be under one’s control and behaviour influenced by motivation are seen as choices of action.
Multifaceted. Two factors of greatest importance
what gets people activated (arousal);
the force of an individual to engage in desired behaviour (direction or choice of behaviour).

Characteristics of Motivation
Driving force within individuals by which they attempt to achieve some goal in order to fulfil some need or expectation.
People’s behaviour determined by what motivates them.
Performance is a product of ability, motivation, skills, knowledge, feelings and emotions, conditions beyond one’s control
What is this driving force?
What are people’s needs and expectations?
How do they influence behaviour and performance at work?

Purpose of Motivational Theories:
to predict behaviour

Motivation is not the behaviour itself, nor performance.
Motivation concerns action, and the internal and external forces which influence a person’s choice of action.

Basic Motivational Model

The Two Aspects of Motivation
Extrinsic motivation
Related to ‘tangible’ rewards
salary and fringe benefits,
security,
promotion,
conditions of work, etc.…
Such rewards are often determined at the organisational level
Intrinsic motivation
Related to ‘psychological’ reward
opportunity to use one’s ability,
sense of challenge and achievement,
receiving appreciation, positive recognition, and
being treated in a caring and considerate manner.
Psychological rewards can usually be determined by the actions and behavior of individuals.

Motivation and Organisational Performance
Organisational success – when members are motivated to use their full talents and abilities, and directed to perform well in the right areas.
Organisational loss /productivity loss: poor working morale
people feeling undervalued and poorly rewarded;
absence of positive team spirit;
low motivation;
lack of attention to quality;
unwillingness to see a job well done;
poor sense of belonging

Content Theories
The ‘what’ that causes people to put effort into work
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Herzberg’s 2 factors

Process Theories
Attempt to find universal mechanisms to explain ‘how’ motivation works
Goal-setting theory (Locke, 1960, 1980)
Expectancy theory (Vroom, 1964)
Equity theory (Adams, 1965)

Abraham Maslow’s Theory Of Human Motivation (1954)
Self-actualisation
Self/Ego/Social Esteem
Social/belonging
Safety/security
Basic/physiological

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

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Levels 1-3 are basic satisfied by extrinsic outcomes external to person – food, money, praise
4-5 are intrinsic and internal – spring from personal feelings of worth.
Model does not make clear values associated with each level e.g. what promises security in one culture may differ from another
Onedo 1991 – less developed countries (Australia, Papua New guinea in his case) managers regarded SA as most important, but Papuan’s were most dissatisfied with level of security and placed them higher than autonomy needs as in other studies in Chile, India, Malawi, Kenya

Self-actualisation

Esteem/ego needs

Social/belonging needs

Safety/security needs

Basic/physiological needs

Hierarchy of Needs Compared
Maslow’s Hierarchy
Hierarchy of Needs in China
See Buchanan & Huczynski, 2010:270

Self Actualisation

Esteem

Love & affiliation

Safety

Biological

Safety (Personal & National)

Belongingness

Esteem, family, tradition

Self-actualisation thru’ fitting in

Biological

Criticism and Relevance of Maslow’s Theory
Two main criticisms:
Vague and cannot readily predict behaviour
Social philosophy reflecting American middle-class values, hence ‘culture bound’
Relevance
Still influential: behaviour depends on different motives
Used in reward policy, management style, and job design

FREDERICK HERZBERG’S
TWO-FACTOR THEORY
MOTIVATORS
(satisfaction) HYGIENE (dissatisfaction)
Achievement Admin Policies
Recognition Supervision
Work itself Work conditions
Responsibility Interpersonal relations
Advancement Salary/wages
Growth Job security
Safety

16
A chance for `self-actualisation’ at work may be needed to motivate people
Absence of dissatisfaction ≠ motivation
Good `hygiene’ factors were not enough to cause positive satisfaction/motivation

Absence of dissatisfaction ≠ motivation

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People can not have any specific grumbles without having a particular impetus to give more to their work.
Dissatisfiers can lead to low motivation and grumbles but more is needed to motivate staff than removing them – they are often called `maintenance’ factors
So `hygiene factors’ equate more to Maslow’s bottom two levels – physiological and safety needs, yet to achieve and grow you need top satisfy higher level needs i.e. by factors intrinsic to job itself.
The process of providing incentives or a threat of punishment to cause someone to do something.
Herzberg argued that this leads to only short-term success because it doesn’t offer anything instrinsic to job.

Job enrichment
The job should have sufficient challenge to fully use the employee’s ability
Employees who show increasing ability should be given more responsibility
If the job can’t be designed to use the employee’s full abilities, automate the task or replace employee with one less skilled.

19
Critics of Herzberg – it’s natural to take credit for satisfaction and to blame dissatisfaction on external factors.
Job satisfaction does not necessarily imply a high motivation or productivity.

Process Theories
Attempt to find universal mechanisms to explain ‘how’ motivation works
Goal-setting theory (Locke, 1960, 1980)
Expectancy theory (Vroom, 1964)
Equity theory (Adams, 1965)

Locke’s Goal-Setting Theory
(Source: Mullins, 2013:268)

Locke’s Goal-Setting Theory
Watch the video (9 mins):

Goals must have:
Clarity
Challenge
Commitment
Feedback
Task Complexity

Expectancy Theory (Vroom 1964)
The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that an act will be followed by a given outcome

23
and others – Nadler, Porter and Lawler
This is a process theory – i.e. is about HOW people are motivated and not specifying particular factors

Expectancy Theory (Vroom 1964)
Attractiveness – the importance that the individual places on the potential outcome or reward that can be achieved on the job
Performance-reward linkage – the degree to which the individual believes that performing at a particular level will lead to the attainment of a desired outcome
Effort-performance linkage – the probability perceived by the individual that exerting a given amount of effort will lead to performance

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and others – Nadler, Porter and Lawler
This is a process theory – i.e. is about HOW people are motivated and not specifying particular factors

Change Opportunities
What personal lifestyle changes have you made due to Covid-19?

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and others – Nadler, Porter and Lawler
This is a process theory – i.e. is about HOW people are motivated and not specifying particular factors

Change Opportunities
Principles for changing behaviour:
Unexpected events
Friendly jealousy
Power of community
Willpower – the hardest to activate
Happy accidents

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and others – Nadler, Porter and Lawler
This is a process theory – i.e. is about HOW people are motivated and not specifying particular factors

Expectancy Theory in Action (1)
You have successfully run a public health programme in Sweden.
You have now been asked to join the executive board of an international programme to help manage the public’s response to the coronavirus pandemic.
As the northern hemisphere enters into the winter flu season, there is concern that the virus is spreading in a series of spikes just at the time when the population is tired of the numerous restrictions on everyday activity.
On your first day, you are presented with the following problems:
In some countries under your remit, there is a strong following of social media posts which cast doubt on the efficacy of vaccines. In these countries, there is considerable resistance to the possibility of a Covid-19 vaccine…

27
and others – Nadler, Porter and Lawler
This is a process theory – i.e. is about HOW people are motivated and not specifying particular factors

Expectancy Theory in Action (2)
In addition, there is a smaller minority of the population who are persuaded that the coronavirus pandemic is an artificial creation by governments to control their citizens.
These views tend to coincide with resistance to wearing face masks, however the overlap is not exact.
Some of this resistance is on civil liberties grounds (‘I have the right to live my life as I see fit’).
In other cases the resistance to face masks seems to be more tied up with the prevalence of ‘conspiracy theories’.

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and others – Nadler, Porter and Lawler
This is a process theory – i.e. is about HOW people are motivated and not specifying particular factors

Expectancy Theory in Action (3)
The next problem is concerned with practical rather than ideological resistance. In some ways this is more worrying, as it affects a large proportion of the population. In many countries, populations pulled together during the first wave of the pandemic.
Now however, as local lockdowns and curfews are in force, citizens are asking why their particular town or city or region is subject to restrictions, while others are not.
Furthermore, compliance varies from country to country, and in those countries where compliance has been ‘loose’, there is evidence of resentment on the part of those who have, so far, stuck to the rules.

29
and others – Nadler, Porter and Lawler
This is a process theory – i.e. is about HOW people are motivated and not specifying particular factors

Expectancy Theory in Action (4)
Finally, as governments attempt to tailor the restrictions they are imposing on the population so as to avoid the full economic impact of a national lockdown, local and regional representatives complain of lack of clarity.
How can citizens comply with the regulations if they don’t fully understand what is expected of them, or why such measures are necessary in the first place?
In a brainstorming session with your colleagues, suggest how you might tackle each of these three problems. To strengthen your argument, make reference to Vroom’s expectancy theory.

How might you need to adapt your proposed strategy to account for cultural differences?

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and others – Nadler, Porter and Lawler
This is a process theory – i.e. is about HOW people are motivated and not specifying particular factors

Adam’s Equity Theory
Restoration of equity
Restoration of equity
Person’s Other’s
outcomes outcomes
inputs inputs
Person’s Other’s
outcomes outcomes
inputs inputs
Perceived inequity
Tension
Motivation
Changes to
input
outcomes
cognitive distortion
leaving the field
acting on others
changing the object of comparison

Comparing one’s own inputs to the job and the output that result with the inputs and outputs of as chosen other person (start at the left)
31

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Algorithmic vs Heuristic Tasks
An algorithmic task is one in which you follow a set of established instructions down a single pathway to one conclusion.
A heuristic task is one in which you have to experiment with possibilities and devise a novel solution.
See Dan Pink’s ‘Motivation 3.0’ (18 mins):

An Integrated Motivation Programme (Whetton et al, 2002)
Establish moderately difficult goals
Remove personal and organisational obstacles
Feedback
Use rewards and discipline appropriately
Provide relevant internal and external incentives
Distribute rewards equitably
Provide timely rewards and honest feedback

Motivating by Teamwork
Naumann ’93 found organisational features eg work relationships can be motivating
Influence of collectivist cultures eg Quality Circles – volunteers meet regularly to identify, analyse and resolve production problems
Toyota, Motorola, Xerox – groups encourage involvement, use skills of whole workforce

Factors affecting motivation for the MNE
Compensation for other family members
Currency fluctuation
Taxes – local and head office
Return package
Comparison with ex-pats and locals; comparison with other departments
Education, home leave travel

Cultural Factors
Most studies based on USA research where there is
High individualism
Low power distance
Relatively high masculinity (hence material values)
Based on assumption that workforce has same values as US society

High Uncertainty Avoidance (UAI) cultures value job security
Low UAI cultures value job variety
High Power Distance (PDI) cultures value opportunities to work for manager who shows loyalty to staff and gives clear instructions
Lower PDI cultures – value opportunities to work with a manager who is consultative

Cultural Factors

International Strategies
Parent-country equivalency – all expatriates based on market rates at home – works well if home firm has high pay and conditions
Regional or composite markets – calculation of an average pay for a region eg Central America, Scandinavia; could be problematic
Local markets – works if firm takes multi-domestic strategy

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