One of the dominant strategies in downtown development is to draw visitors (and/or residents) into the city. Cities have used a predictable playbook: constructing convention centers, stadiums, festival malls, etc. and using financial inducements (usually tax breaks) to draw in business partners. Examples from Memphis include Cook Convention Center, Redbirds/Forum, and Crosstown Concourse. Do you think this strategy has benefitted Memphis and which Memphians have or have not benefitted? Has it been effective in drawing visitors and/or residents? Why or why not? If you don’t live in Memphis, consider some examples of downtown development in your area and apply these questions. Please provide examples and evidence from the readings and films to support your arguments.
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MODULE
Seminar in Urban Problems
PADM 7224
University of Memphis
Department of Public &
Nonprofit Administration
Edwards & Imrie (2015)
Chapters 5 & 6
3
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2
CHAPTER 5: COMMUNITY
PLANNING AND PARTNERSHIP
Edwards & Imrie (2015) The Short Guide to Urban Policy
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Renew/improve cities through
community engagement
How do to it?
Note: Reminder that several parts of this book discuss urban policy
outside of the U.S. Most of the examples in this chapter focus on
community-based urban policy in the United Kingdom (UK).
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Community Planning and Partnership
Defining Community
What is community?
Complex term with socially constructed boundaries
Often seen as positive concept – used by policy-
makers to spur change (e.g., “there is a breakdown in
our community, so we need to act)
4 common conceptualizations:
Community as a place/geography (e.g., Memphis)
Community as an interest group (e.g., Black
community)
Community organizations (e.g., nonprofits)
Community as process (e.g., community development)
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5
Community Planning and Partnership
Community & the Urban Problem
~19th century urbanization was described as
antithesis of “community”
Conceptualization of the urban “community” was
different than the rural “community”
Urban policy typically targets “communities” to
encourage citizens to participate in urban
regeneration, or create “community”
Shift in urban policy from social community
regeneration (prior late 1970s) to economic
community regeneration (post late 1970s)
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Community Planning and Partnership
Reinvigorating Community in the 1990s
Communitarianism – idea that collective
bonds with those around us are
important to prevent social exclusion,
which leads to urban decline
Build social capital – linkages that
connect people – to build urban renewal
Communities should be given the
responsibility to drive change
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Community Planning and Partnership
Putting Community Activation into Practice
Community-based urban policy changes
governance – private (for-profit and non-
profit) organizations have more seats at the
governing table
Level of community-involvement can vary
substantially from policy to policy – from
“add-ons” to “key partners”
All communities (neighborhoods) do not
have the existing expertise, knowledge, or
ability to engage in policy-making
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Community Planning and Partnership
Critiquing Community Involvement in Regeneration
Unanswered questions –
Is community involvement in policy-making
simply tokenism by government or is it of
actual value?
Is the policy implemented with the level of
community involvement intended in the
spirit of the policy?
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Community Planning and Partnership
Critiquing Community Involvement in Regeneration
Looking for answers –
Who represents the community?
“Community” as conceptualized by policy-makers and
implementers often differs from those living in the
community
Who sets the rules for participation?
Policy-makers (city or broader) often continue to
create the top-down rules for engagement
How is power distributed in community
partnerships?
“Expert” knowledge tends to be prioritized over
“localized” knowledge
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Privatization & Entrepreneurial Urban Policy
Web Links
British Library – Community
Development and Regeneration
https://www.bl.uk/social-
welfare/collection-
items?allportalsubjects=community%20de
velopment%20and%20regeneration
https://www.bl.uk/social-welfare/collection-items?allportalsubjects=community%20development%20and%20regeneration
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CHAPTER 6: CULTURE & THE
CREATIVE CITY
Edwards & Imrie (2015) The Short Guide to Urban Policy
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Key to modern urban policy is promoting
the city’s culture and creativity to improve
well-being (economic and social)
Festivals, sport facilities and events, “place-
marketing”
General idea – cultural strategies lead to
economic development
Critical question – who benefits from this
policy and what who does the policy attract
to the city?
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Culture & the Creative City:
Origins of Culture-Led Urban Policy & Regen
Growing trend since late 20th century to
market/promote culture to grow the city
For many it was a part of a “reinventing”
process after loss of manufacturing
industry – adapting to a post-industrial
world
Challenged traditional urban planning with
a shot of innovation
New “cultural” industries (i.e., the arts) to
attract – fashion, design, music, film, etc.
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Culture & the Creative City:
Origins of Culture-Led Urban Policy & Regen
Florida’s “Creative Class” (2002)
General idea – to thrive cities need to
attract new class of educated
professionals who work in post-
industrial tech, knowledge, and
cultural industries; to attract them
cities need to cater to their
“bohemian” lifestyle (three “T’s”)
Highly influential, but controversial
Blamed for (or contributed to) large
influx of gentrification and increasing
inequality in the 21st century city
U.S counties by “creativity index”
https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2017/oct/26/gentrification-richard-florida-interview-creative-class-new-urban-crisis
https://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/creative-class-county-codes/
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Culture & the Creative City:
Deploying Culture: Strategies & Practices
Not one specific “cultural promotion”
policy, multiple initiatives and strategies
Culture defined as art vs. culture defined as
society – different policy approaches
Typical goal is that these policies lead to
economic consumption (e.g., coffee shops,
shopping/retail, nightlife, etc.) and vibrant
public spaces
Typically creates neighborhood pockets
(“cultural quarters” – see figure 6.7, p. 162)
Culture and fads change, is it sustainable?
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Culture & the Creative City:
Deploying Culture: Strategies & Practices
Flagship urban development
Revitalizing urban areas with large
construction and architecture projects (such as
inner city, waterfront, etc.)
“…even the most landlocked cities have done
their best to find some sort of waterfront” (p.
163)
Place-marketing (“re-branding”)
Promote distinctive cultural features that set
apart the city, attract investment
Brand decay? Does the image represent all
local identities?
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Culture & the Creative City:
Deploying Culture: Strategies & Practices
Cultural Events and Festivals
Large-scale, short-term events that attract
tourism and investment
Also used to increase concept of
“community”, improve social bonds, and
reduce social exclusion
Example – Memphis in May
Example – soccer stadium in Chester, PA
Competitive example – Olympic Games
bidding process
Ten years later, is Chester better now with a soccer stadium?
https://www.olympic.org/all-about-the-candidature-process
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Culture & the Creative City:
Debating Culture-led Urban Policy
What much weight should we put into
cultural-led regeneration efforts?
Exists a knowledge gap in actual impact –
both economic and social
Further exploration needed in trickle-down
effects and sustainability of efforts
Multiple different types of strategies (i.e.,
policies) that fall within this “bucket” with
multiple different outcomes
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Culture & the Creative City:
Debating Culture-led Urban Policy
“The evidence shows that community-
based participatory cultural projects are
likely to be far more beneficial in
sustaining urban regeneration, but in the
eyes of city marketers and management,
such projects are less glamorous and
unlikely to project a city onto the world
stage.” (p. 170)
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Culture & the Creative City:
Debating Culture-led Urban Policy
Whose culture is being promoted?
Tension between successful cultural
marketing (what attracts economic
development) and real social inclusion
(what brings all people together)
Not always mutually exclusive, but can be
Political power struggles lie at the center of
this question
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Culture & the Creative City:
Debating Culture-led Urban Policy
Does cultural marketing eventually result
in “sameness” promotion?
All cities are promoting the same type of
cultural regeneration which “homogenizes
urban environments”
Fast policy transfer – X policy worked in City A
so why can’t it work in City B; flawed logic
Florida’s creative class thesis neglects
importance of city context in policymaking
and implementation
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Culture & the Creative City:
Web Links
Charles Landry (prolific author on
creative cities
https://charleslandry.com/about-charles-
landry/biography/
Urban Studies Special Issue on Culture-
led Regeneration
https://journals.sagepub.com/toc/usja/42/
5-6
https://charleslandry.com/about-charles-landry/biography/
https://journals.sagepub.com/toc/usja/42/5-6
Community Planning and Partnership
Community Planning and Partnership�Critiquing Community Involvement in Regeneration
Culture & the Creative City
Culture & the Creative City:�Origins of Culture-Led Urban Policy & Regen
Culture & the Creative City:�Deploying Culture: Strategies & Practices
Culture & the Creative City:�Deploying Culture: Strategies & Practices
Culture & the Creative City:�Debating Culture-led Urban Policy
Culture & the Creative City:�Debating Culture-led Urban Policy
Culture & the Creative City:�Debating Culture-led Urban Policy
PADM 7
2
24
1
MODULE
Seminar in Urban Problems
PADM 7224
University of Memphis
Department of Public &
Nonprofit Administration
Euchner & McGovern (2003)
Chapter 2 – Poverty & the
Divided Metropolis
2
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Poverty – “lack of adequate provisions
for the basic necessities for living
established by society” to be an active
and contributing member of society
“Basic necessities” is debatable – universal
medical care is a constant debate in the U.S.
Absolute standard (what needed to get by)
vs. relative standard (what needed to have
fair footing with others)
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Poverty & the Divided Metropolis
Summarized impact of poverty:
“But the effects of poverty ripple out beyond
impoverished households and touch the lives of
virtually all urban residents. When poverty
rises, many other issues are affected…crime
rate goes up…decay and abandonment of
housing… strains on the public school
system…tax revenues fall…communities that
suffer disinvestment and depopulation
experience a weakening in the bonds of civil
society…class and racial segregation follow, as
more affluent people distance themselves from
poor communities.“ (p. 35-36)
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Poverty & the Divided Metropolis
Urban policy has traditionally
contributed to segregation in the city
between the poor and affluent or middle
class
Poverty is everywhere – cities, suburbs,
and rural areas; concentrated poverty is
most evident in cities
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Poverty & the Divided Metropolis:
Measuring Poverty
Central to the story is Mollie Orshansky,
“Miss Poverty”
Poverty line calculation developed in the U.S.
Social Security Administration in 1963
Same measure of poverty is used today
Criticisms of the poverty line calculation
Doesn’t consider “in-kind” benefits received by
the poor (e.g., Medicaid)
Out of touch with today’s economy –
calculation relies heavily on food costs which
are only one-sixth of the typical family budget
today
https://www.ssa.gov/history/orshansky.html
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Poverty & the Divided Metropolis:
Measuring Poverty
Why continue to use a 60-year-old poverty
line calculation?
Lack of political support – new calculation
would likely drastically increase the aid needed
to be delivered
New calculation would likely make U.S. income
inequality look even worse a global stage
Easier to track changes when using the same
calculation
Poor neighborhoods have better access to
material benefits in modern America (e.g.,
cell phones) – but typically less social
capital than previous generations
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Poverty & the Divided Metropolis:
Dimensions of Poverty in the U.S.
https://www.brookings.edu/testimonies/the-changing-geography-of-us-poverty/
https://www.brookings.edu/testimonies/the-changing-geography-of-us-poverty/
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Poverty & the Divided Metropolis:
Dimensions of Poverty in the U.S.
Working poor – contributing to the labor
market but not earning enough income to
raise above the poverty line
Typical sectors/jobs include retail, restaurant
service industry, custodial, maintenance,
medical care, many others…
Disproportionally minority populations
Combat working poverty – growing
support for a Living Wage vs. a minimum
wage that doesn’t keep up with costs of
living to
https://livingwage.mit.edu/
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Poverty & the Divided Metropolis:
Causes of Poverty
Identifying factors that contribute to
poverty from different levels of analysis
Individual – lack of education, poor access to
jobs, medical conditions, alcohol and drug use
Family/Community – unstable home
environment; lack of parental role models;
perpetual “culture of poverty”
Economy/Society – structure of capitalism
inevitably creates inequality and a poverty
class; racial discrimination hinders ability of
minorities to rise out of poverty
Government – public policies either enable or
hinder ability to rise out of poverty
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Poverty & the Divided Metropolis:
The Evolution of the Welfare State
Government benefits/entitlements for
certain groups/classes originated with
pensions for Revolutionary War veterans
Local governments focused on public
assistance for poor in their area to foster
sense of “community”
Industrial Revolution escalated challenges
of urbanism, including poverty; state
governments began to get involved with
public program
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Poverty & the Divided Metropolis:
The Evolution of the Welfare State
Catalyst for federal government involvement
was the 1929 stock market crash, but at a slow
pace
FDR’s New Deal (1933-1939) established
multiple social
programs
to benefit
unemployed and poor
“people entered into a kind of social contract with
the government: in return for work or other
commitments, they got benefits” (p. 69)
Social Security Act of 1935 established old-age
pension – drastically reduced and prevented
elder poverty – and system of unemployment
insurance
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Poverty & the Divided Metropolis:
The Evolution of the Welfare State
Truman (late 40’s, early 50’s) – expanded
Social Security, established minimum
wage, legislation for public housing, and
the GI Bill
LBJ’s Great Society (1964-68) – landmark
legislation that focused on extending
access to basic rights for minorities and
disadvantaged; reduced poverty
Civil Rights Act, Voting Rights Act, Open
Housing Act
Entitlement programs – food stamps,
Medicare, Medicaid, WIC, Head Start, etc.
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Poverty & the Divided Metropolis:
The Evolution of the Welfare State
Nixon (1970s) – expanded social welfare safety
net
COLA to Social Security; Blind and disabled
assistance at federal level; Job programs (CETA);
Affirmative action policies
Growing support for conservative scholars in
the 1970s (including controversial Charles
Murray, see AEI and SPLC) who argued against a
welfare state and any benefit of such
Regan (1980s) – “replace the carrot of work
incentives with the sticks of work
requirements”
https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/extremist-files/individual/charles-murray
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Poverty & the Divided Metropolis:
The Evolution of the Welfare State
Welfare reform in the 1990s
Bush and Clinton granted state waivers to alter
their AFDC programs (“laboratories of
democracy”)
Tighter eligibility restrictions, shorter
timeframes, work requirements, penalties for
failure to comply
Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity
Reconciliation Act of 1996 (PRWORA)
Idea was to shift from dependency to self-reliance
Replaced AFDC with block-grant-based TANF
Shifted power to states to create own welfare
programs
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Poverty & the Divided Metropolis:
Evaluating Welfare Reform
What defines success of welfare reform?
Primary measure used – reduction in families
receiving assistance (caseload declines)
Reform caused sharp decline in caseloads
Have those families really transitioned out of
poverty?
Some studies suggest employment is high for
those who left welfare, yet wages are still
below poverty line
Success depends on one’s interpretation of
the goal of reform
Different outcomes in different states
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Poverty & the Divided Metropolis:
Future of Welfare Policy
States look to each other for innovative reform
ideas and best practices (Wisconsin’s W-2) –
think policy transfer or policy diffusion
“… to reduce welfare dependency and poverty
over the long run, the emphasis on personal
responsibility must be coupled with a broader
sense of public obligation” (p. 89)
Policy suggestions – increase support service
for people with minimal skills; reconsider
lifetime limits; reconsider limits on education
and job-training; reconsider restricted eligibility
Urban welfare reform requires coupling with
economic development
https://dcf.wisconsin.gov/w2/parents/w2
https://poliscizurich.wordpress.com/2010/10/18/what-is-policy-diffusion-and-why-should-we-care/:%7E:text=Policy%20diffusion%20(the%20idea%20that,this%20area%20is%20Craig%20Volden.
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Poverty & the Divided Metropolis:
Future of Welfare Policy
What will be the lasting impact of the
COVID-19 pandemic on welfare policy?
Center for Budget and Policy Priorities
(CBPP) COVID Hardship Watch
Urban Institute COVID-19 Policies to Protect
People and Communities
World Economic Forum – COVID-19 could
change the welfare state forever
Chicago Tribune – About 6 months in, will
the COVID-19 pandemic change Americans’
views of the social safety net?
https://www.cbpp.org/research/poverty-and-inequality/tracking-the-covid-19-recessions-effects-on-food-housing-and
https://www.urban.org/features/covid-19-policies-protect-people-and-communities#chapter-1
https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/06/coronavirus-welfare-state-covid19/
https://www.chicagotribune.com/coronavirus/ct-nw-american-social-safety-net-coronavirus-20200813-hx3iliwk5nhfjpyuan5tt5kjp4-story.html
Poverty & the Divided Metropolis
Poverty & the Divided Metropolis
Poverty & the Divided Metropolis
Poverty & the Divided Metropolis: Measuring Poverty
Poverty & the Divided Metropolis: Dimensions of Poverty in the U.S.
Poverty & the Divided Metropolis: �The Evolution of the Welfare State
Poverty & the Divided Metropolis: �The Evolution of the Welfare State
Poverty & the Divided Metropolis: �The Evolution of the Welfare State
Poverty & the Divided Metropolis: �The Evolution of the Welfare State
Poverty & the Divided Metropolis: �Future of Welfare Policy