Please write 5 pages paper, and Address the following:
Building
Transcultural
Teams
Using Personal Stories to Build Professional
Relationships… Across Cultures
(Originally submitted as Interpretive Transcultural
Storytelling Method: A Contextual Narrative Approach to
Interpreting Transcultural Relationships)
Kent Mankins, Ph.D., M.Ed., N.C.C., L.M.H.C.
Copyright 2007
Preface
This book is an adaptation of my Ph.D. dissertation
presented at the University of Buckingham, UK in 2007. As
such this will not be a typical “commercial” work. Some
of the more academic requirements such as the declaration
and other elements have been deleted. In addition, please
forgive some of the formatting issues which were
unavoidable in converting this to a different format.
Building Transcultural Teams is offered as a resource
for those who may be interested in fields such as: cultural
studies, management, multicultural team building, and
leadership. If I can be of any assistance, feel free to
email me at: kent@leadtosucceed.net
Abstract
Kenneth Mankins
Building Transcultural Teams
Research Question: How can hermeneutic methodology and
narrative
storytelling identify and enrich cultural differences and
enhance communication, deepen understanding and create
synergy in multicultural organizations?
As the global economy continues expanding, managers and
organizations will be faced with issues that may have gone
unaddressed in the past. While opportunities for synergy
and creative emergence have increased, so has the potential
for conflict. The Interpretive Storytelling Method was
birthed from an observation of the growing multicultural
climate and the predominantly quantitative nature of
multicultural management literature. The purpose of the
present research is to develop a model utilizing hermeneutic
methodology and narrative storytelling as a protocol for
teambuilding in multicultural settings. The project begins
with an overview of the global cultural climate and
multicultural literature. Hermeneutics and narrative
storytelling then provide a backdrop from which the ITSM
unfolds. In working with multicultural teams from several
organizations, the case studies provide insight into the
contributions the Interpretive Transcultural Storytelling
Method can make, as well as areas in which further research
is warranted.
Table of Contents: Interpretive Transcultural
Storytelling Method
� Title Page 1
� Preface 2
� Abstract 3
� Table of Contents 4
Beginning
Chapter 1: Introduction to the Method 7
1. Research Question
2. The Problem
2.1 The Growing Global Economy
2.2 The Traditional Approach to Multicultural
Management
Chapter 2: Literature Review II: 20
Multicultural Material in
Breadth
Chapter 3: Literature Review III: 36
Multicultural Material In-depth
Chapter 4: Methodology Part I 76
Chapter 5: Methodology Part II 91
5.1: The Objective of the Present Research
5.2: The Choice for the present research
5.3: The Methodological Matrix: Hermeneutics
5.4: Conclusion
Chapter 6: Method: Narrative 112
Storytelling
6.1: Narrative Storytelling and Hermeneutics: Method
and Methodology
6.2: Narrative Storytelling within Organizations
6.3: Narrative Storytelling as a Research Method
6.4: Overview and Inner-view
Chapter 7: Contextualization: 132
From Texas to Mexico, via London
Chapter 8: Genesis of the ITSM: 151
M.Sc. Group
8.1: The M.Sc. Module
8.2: Final Project for the Module
8.3: Synthesis and Implications
Middle
Chapter 9: ITSM: Conception, Revision 164
Application
9.1: In-Spection
9.2: Expression
9.3: Interpretation
9.4: Clarification
9.5: Understanding
9.6: Emergence
9.7: Conclusion
Chapter 10: Fieldwork: An Introduction 179
Chapter 11: Fieldwork Project 1: 185
Mukogawa Ft Wright Institute- The Pilot
Chapter 12: Fieldwork Project 2: Private 203
Investigations Firm
Chapter 13: Fieldwork Project 3: Family 226
Counselling Centre
Chapter 14: Fieldwork Project 4: 250
Investment Group
Chapter 15: Fieldwork Project 5: 262
Pharmaceutical Manufacturer
End
Chapter 16: Summary of Fieldwork 278
Chapter 17: Implications of Hermeneutic 291
Methodology and Narrative Storytelling
Method within Multicultural Management
Chapter 18: Conclusions and 309
Recommendations for Further Research
Bibliography 317
Chapter 1
Introduction to the Interpretive Transcultural
Storytelling Method
1. Research Question:
How can hermeneutic methodology and narrative
storytelling identify and enrich cultural similarities and
differences, enhance communication, deepen understanding, and
create synergy in multicultural organizations?
2. The Problem: Growing Global Economy and Traditional
Approaches to Multicultural Management
2.1 The Growing Global Economy
As immigration and globalization increase, so will the
demand for multicultural fluency. The purpose of the
Interpretive Transcultural Storytelling Method (ITSM) is to
provide a protocol for building synergy in multicultural
teams. Culture, multicultural, and transcultural have varying
definitions. In the present work, culture refers to the
collective programming of the human mind that distinguishes
the members of one human group from those of another. Culture
in this sense is a system of collectively held values.
(Hofstede, 2001) Culture is an “historically transmitted
pattern of meanings embodied in symbols, a system of
inherited conceptions expressed in symbolic form by means of
which men communicate, perpetuate, and develop their
knowledge about and attitudes towards life”(Geertz, 1973).
Culture does not necessarily imply different races or
nationalities. For example, great cultural differences
exist in the United States between the Northern, Southern,
Eastern, and Western cultures. Multicultural refers to a
community, group or organization with individuals from more
than one cultural context. Transcultural refers to an item
or philosophy that extends through many cultures.
Therefore, the Interpretive Transcultural Storytelling Method
is transcultural because of the contention that storytelling
extends to many cultures and in essence transcends cultural
boundaries.
Individuals from specific cultural backgrounds may
exhibit characteristics different from their general cultural
context. While experts, such as Hofstede, recognize this,
most of the present research is based on the generalization
of cultural populations. By utilizing storytelling and
hermeneutics, the participants in the ITSM are exposed to
specific cultural characteristics of individuals rather than
simply relying on generalized assumptions about an individual
based upon their cultural background. The Interpretive
Transcultural Storytelling Method is intended to provide a
method for building relationships within a group or team by
identifying cultural differences and intentionally enhancing
these differences to create synergy.
Stephen R. Covey states, “Simply defined, [synergy]
means that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts”
(Covey, 1989, p.262). He continues, “Valuing the
differences is the essence of synergy- the mental, the
emotional, the psychological differences between people. And
the key to valuing those differences is to realize that all
people see the world, not as it is, but as they are” (Covey,
1989, p. 277). During the ITSM workshop, participants are
introduced to exercises that assist them in gaining self
knowledge so that they can better understand the lenses with
which they see the world. I contend that cultural differences
are included in the essence of synergy, and in light of the
evolving cultural climate, these differences will become more
pronounced.
Thomas Friedman (The World is Flat, 2005), and Samuel
Huntington (The Clash of Civilizations, 1996, and Who Are We?
2004) have written extensively on the changing nature of the
global climate. Friedman offers a broad view of the
evolution of the global market place. Huntington places the
evolving American culture in context of an evolving world.
Both are prominent figures on the subject, and both present
substantially different approaches to addressing this
cultural evolution. Thomas Friedman, in The World Is Flat: A
Brief History of the Twentieth Century (2005) chronicles the
explosion of the global market place in the twentieth
century. He begins this prolific work with a personal
experience of his journey to Bangalore, India. Friedman
(2005) states:
Outside, some of the traffic signs were also sponsored
by Texas Instruments, and the Pizza Hut billboard on
the way over showed a steaming pizza, under the
headline “Gigabites of Taste!” No, this definitely
wasn’t Kansas. It didn’t even seem like India.
Was this the New World, the Old World, or the Next
World?
Here I was in Bangalore- more than five hundred
years after Columbus sailed over the horizon, using
the rudimentary navigational technologies of his day,
and returned safely to prove definitively that the
world was round- and one of India’s smartest
engineers, trained at his country’s top technical
institute and backed by the most modern technologies
of his day, was essentially telling me that the world
was flat- as flat as that screen on which he can host
a meeting of his whole global supply chain. Even
more interesting, he was citing this development as a
good thing, as a new milestone in human progress and a
great opportunity for India and the world- the fact
that we had made our world flat! (p. 5, 7)
Freidman identifies two forces that “flattened” the
world. First and foremost was the fall of the Berlin
Wall. This event had major implications for the people of
Germany, the Soviet and Communist countries, and it also
impacted foreign policy. However, Friedman states that the
fall of the Wall had far-reaching philosophical impact that
changed the global market. Friedman (2005) states:
The fall of the Berlin Wall didn’t just help
flatten the alternatives to free-market capitalism and
unlock enormous pent-up energies for hundreds of
millions of people in places like India, Brazil,
China, and the former Soviet Empire. It also allowed
us to think about the world differently- to see it as
more of a seamless whole. Because the Berlin Wall
was not only blocking our way; it was blocking our
sight- our ability to think about the world as a
single market, a single ecosystem, and a single
community. Before 1989, you could have an Eastern
policy or a Western policy, but it was hard to think
about having a “global” policy.
Friedman quotes Indian economist, Amartya Sen, who tells a
Sanskrit story of a frog who lived in a well, and how his
whole world view consisted of that well. After the Wall fell,
it was as though that frog was suddenly able to communicate
with frogs in other wells. (p.51) Sen states, “Most
knowledge is learning from the other across the border”
(Friedman, 2005, p. 51). The fall of the Berlin Wall opened
up the borders to communicate with others around the globe,
and had a significant impact upon globalization. Of course,
Friedman acknowledges, the fall of the Berlin Wall did not
initiate globalization. In fact, globalization had as much
of an impact on the fall of the Wall. With technology such
as computers, Windows operating system, the internet, and
telephones, the iron hold of information necessary for
totalitarian regimes to control masses was compromised.
Netscape’s IPO, Friedman acknowledges, was the second
factor in flattening the world. Netscape’s influence made
the internet accessible to the masses, and therefore further
changing the way the world communicates and does business.
Work Flow Software is the third flattener Friedman
acknowledges. This software enables the creation of literal
global offices that are not contingent on the boundaries of
time or space. People and programs anywhere on globe can be
in instant communication at any time. The fourth flattener
is Open-Sourcing, which “makes available for free many
tools, from software to encyclopaedias that millions of
people around the world would have had to buy in order to
use” (Friedman, 2005, p. 102). Outsourcing is Friedman’s
fifth flattener and Offshoring is the sixth. Supply-
chaining is number seven, which is a method of collaborating
among suppliers, retailers, and customers in order to create
better value. (Friedman, 2005) Number eight on
Friedman’s list is Insourcing, and In-forming is his
ninth. In-forming constitutes the information technologies
that have dramatically impacted global business, such as
search engines. The tenth flattener, Friedman calls the
Steroids, which includes the myriads of high technology
advancements, such as wireless connections, which are
relatively young and maturing with speed.
On a global scale multicultural management issues are
increasing, and these issues equally affect the United
States. Estimates place the world’s Caucasian population
at less than ten percent by the year 2010, a dramatic drop
from seventeen percent in 1997. In the USA, the populations
considered to be minorities today, will be the majority by
2040. In 2005, Texas joined the ranks of California and
Hawaii as states where Caucasians are no longer majorities.
“In 1970, nearly 99 percent of all Americans were identified
as either white or black. Thirty years later, that percentage
had fallen to about 87 percent, with the white population
declining from 87.4 percent in 1970 to 75.1 percent in 2000,
and the black population increasing from 11.1 percent to 12.3
percent over the same period. The change in the white
population was offset by the rise in the ‘other’
population, which increased from 1.4 percent in 1970 to 12.5
percent in 2000” (Singer, 2005). The ‘other’ populations
include all other races. It is estimated that Hispanics,
for example, will constitute up to twenty-five percent of the
USA population, by the year 2040. (Huntington, 2004, p.224)
Samuel Huntington’s work, Who We Are?: The Challenges to
America’s National Identity (2004), addresses what he terms,
“The crisis of national identity”. In the foreword,
Huntington (2004) states:
This book deals with the changes occurring in
the salience and substance of American national
identity. Salience is the importance that Americans
attribute to their national identity compared to their
many other identities. Substance refers to what
Americans think they have in common and distinguishes
them from other peoples. (p. xv)
Huntington addresses three key arguments:
1. The salience of American national Identity has
varied through history. Following the Civil War, national
identity flourished until the 1960s when subnational, dual-
national, transnational identities evolved and began to
deteriorate the national identity. This multi-identity
lasted until the tragedy of September 11 when the national
identity was given a remarkable boost. Huntington states
that the high sense of national identity is a result of
Americans feeling their nation is endangered or threatened.
“If their perception of that threat fades, other identities
could again take precedence over national identity”
(Huntington, 2004, p. xv). I agree with his assessment that
the rise in national identity has the 9-11 tragedy as its
motivator, and that the fear of the enemy, perceived as
Islamic Militants, kept that identity intact. However, I
have two observations that lead me to different
conclusions. First, as the dissidence over the current
administration’s foreign policy, in general, and the Iraq
War, specifically, continues to boil, the national identity
that initially bound the USA together is evaporating,
resulting in a defined schism between and within political
parties. Although there is no evidence that the threat of
terrorism has diminished, the fear of attack is not potent
enough to withstand severe discrimination of ideologies. It
is apparent that fear is a powerful motivator, but an
inadequate sustainer of national identity.
2. Americans have, over the years, defined the
substance of their identity in terms of race, ethnicity,
ideology, and culture. “Race and ethnicity are now largely
eliminated: Americans see their country as a multiethnic,
multiracial society” (Huntington, 2004, p. xv). Huntington
asserts that key elements of the original American culture
included the English language, Christianity, religious
commitment, English concepts of law, responsibility of
rulers, and the rights of individuals. Protestant values of
individualism, work ethic, and the belief that humans have
the right to create heaven on earth were also fundamental
elements of national identity. These key elements and the
economic opportunities presented by this culture, Huntington
states, attracted millions of immigrants to the USA.
3. The primary force of the Anglo-Protestant culture
has been the distinguishing element of the USA national
identity, and has been common ground for most American
citizens. However, in the late twentieth century, the
salience and substance of this culture was challenged by the
mass immigration from Latin America and Asia. Huntington
states that a politically correct political and academic
environment, coupled with an influx, of specifically Hispanic
immigrants, could cause the American identity to evolve in a
variety of directions. First of these is that of a
“creedal America, lacking its historical core, and united
only by a common commitment to the principles of the American
creed” (Huntington, 2004, p. xvi). The next would be a split
country with two cultures, and two languages, Spanish and
English. Third, an Anglo, exclusivist America could return to
its racist and discriminatory past. The fourth direction is
that of a revitalized American identity, “affirming its
historic Anglo-Protestant culture, religious commitments, and
values and bolstered by confrontations with an unfriendly
world” (Huntington, 2004, p. xvi). The final possibility,
Huntington presents is some combination of any or all of the
above. I find no amenable option among the possibilities
Huntington proposes. The propositions Huntington discusses
appear to present his ideal outcome of a return to the “way
things used to be,” or a disastrous outcome that will
virtually destroy any sense of American identity. However,
I contend that other possibilities must exist. The American
people, with proper leadership, can be foreword thinking and
proactive in purposefully evolving into a new paradigm of
American identity. Instead of relying upon fear, the
American people can strive for understanding and appreciation
of those who are culturally different than themselves. A
transformed American identity can respect and value
differences and the contributions a variety of cultures can
make. The ITSM is designed to proactively initiate
relationships that would promote understanding and
appreciation in the organizational and business setting.
While this does not have the scope to influence the whole of
American society, grass-root movements have historically had,
and therefore potentially have great influence in our
culture.
Friedman (2005) closes his book with the following
profound statement:
I cannot tell any other society or culture what
to say to its own children, but I tell you what I say
to my own: The world is being flattened. I didn’t
start it and you can’t stop it, except at a great
cost to human development and your own future. But
we can mange it, for better or for worse. If it is
going to be for better, not for worse, then you and
your generation must not live in fear of either the
terrorists or of tomorrow, of either al-Qaeda or of
Infosys. You can flourish in a flat world, but it
does take the right imagination and the right
motivation. While your lives have been powerfully
shaped by 9/11, the world needs you to be forever the
generation of 11/9 [the fall of the Berlin Wall] – the
generation of strategic optimists, the generation with
more dreams than memories, the generation that wakes
up each morning and not only imagines that things can
be better but also acts on that imagination everyday.
(p. 469)
Huntington proposes a reactive, protectionist approach
proposing the USA should return to its historical cultural
roots. However, Friedman encourages a proactive, creative
approach to dealing with the cultural evolution. The ITSM is
an attempt to bring a proactive and co-creative approach to
the field of multicultural management. The world is changing,
and multicultural management needs to continually evolve to
meet the needs of the global economy. The present research
developed from an observed inadequacy of the primarily
positivistic multicultural management instruments and
methods. These methods identify generalizations, degrees of
cultural differences, sensitivity, or acculturation, but a
general absence exists in practical methods for developing
relationships between individuals from different cultures.
2.2 The Traditional Approach to Multicultural Management
Adding to the problem of the growing global economy is
the insufficiency of traditional multicultural management
literature. Typical research in the Social Sciences is
approached from a quantitative, positivist approach. Grounded
in the physical sciences, these methodologies assume an
objective world which can be studied and measured with
scientific, quantitative methods. They seek to predict and
explain causal relationships between variables. As the name
implies, quantitative research focuses on quantity and is
primarily deductive, utilizing statistical methods. It is
empirical and emphasizes scientific experimental methods.
(Merriam, 1988) While this type of research yields valuable
information, I contend it is not sufficient. The addition
of a qualitative, hermeneutic approach will address some of
the practical elements of building multicultural
relationships, adding to the holistic nature of the
multicultural management field.
Brian Fay, in his book Contemporary Philosophy of
Social Science (1996), emphasizes a multicultural approach to
the philosophy of social science. His theory centres on
approaching the “philosophy of social science in a new way,
one centred on the experience of sharing a world in which
people differ significantly from one another” (Fay, 1996, p.
1). The popular positivistic method, favoured especially in
the West, is one paradigm for gaining knowledge, but Fay
asserts it is not solely sufficient. Fay proposes a new
frame of reference for conceptualizing social science
research called “interactionism” (Fay, 1996, p. 8). Fay
addresses a number of questions throughout his book which are
dualistic, that is “either/ or” on the surface. He finds
that, often, the presumed either/ or can be answered with
“and”. He does not blindly disregard positivistic
research, but acknowledges the usefulness of qualitative and
quantitative approaches. “In a dialectical approach,
differences are not conceived as absolute, and consequently
the relationship between them is not one of utter antagonism.
Indeed, on a dialectical view, alternatives, while genuinely
competing, only appear to be completely “other” to each
other. They are in fact deeply interconnected, and the
confrontation between them reveals how these differences can
be comprehended and transcended” (Fay, 1996, p. 224).
The Interpretive Transcultural Storytelling Method
utilizes hermeneutics, a qualitative methodology and is
consistent with Fay’s dialectical approach. Fay states that
multiculturalism poses an “epistemic problem: if others
live within their own framework and we live within ours, how
can we understand them?” (Fay, 1996, p.4). In such a
paradigm, we are forced to misunderstand each other.
Hermeneutics teaches the researcher to know himself or
herself and to interpret the “other” in light of that
understanding as well as within the context of the
“other”. This is, in essence, a dialectical paradigm.
While empirical research encourages the researcher to block
his or her own prejudices, hermeneutics emphasizes
acknowledgement of those prejudices and the interpretation of
the other in a cyclical fashion.
Whereas existing quantitative multicultural literature
increases an understanding of generalizations, the purpose of
this project is to move toward an applicable method for
enhancing the synergy of multicultural teams. Informed by
hermeneutics and using narrative storytelling, The
Interpretive Transcultural Storytelling Method is intended to
enhance the working relationships of the members of
multicultural teams. The ITSM consists of the following
phases:
1. In-Spection: Building self knowledge
2. Expression: Telling a brief story of an event
instrumental in personal development
3. Interpretation: The listeners attributing
meaning to the story of another, in light of personal
context and that of the teller
4. Clarification: Hermeneutic spiral of
interpretation, questions, clarification
5. Understanding: Reaching mutual understanding of
the story and context
6. Emergence: The identification of new knowledge
and its application
The results will positively impact the individuals
involved, the teams to which they belong, and ultimately the
society at large. Having established the research question
within context of the problems of the global cultural climate
as well as the traditional approaches to multicultural
management, we will now review some of the relevant
literature within the multicultural management arena.
References:
Covey, Stephen R. (1989). The 7 habits of highly effective
people. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Fay, Brian. (1996). Contemporary philosophy of social
science:
A multicultural approach. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell
Publishing.
Geertz, Clifford. (1973) The interpretation of cultures. New
York: Basic Books, Inc.
Hofstede, Geert. (2001). Culture’s consequences:
Comparing
values, behaviours, institutions, and organizations
across nations, 2nd Edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Publications.
Lessem, Ronnie & Palsule, Sudhanshu. (2002). From local
identity to global integrity. Leadership and
Organization Development Journal UK, Volume 23, No. 4,
174-185.
McLeod, John. (2001). Qualitative research in counselling and
psychotherapy. London: Sage Publications.
Palmer, Richard. (1969). Hermeneutics. Evanston:
Northwestern University Press.
Randall, William Lowell. (1995). The stories we are: An
essay
on self-creation. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
Rathbone, June. Components of self. (Online), Found October
2003. University College, London.
http://www.homepages.ucl.ac.uk/~ucjtjur/
Chapter 2
Literature Review: Multicultural Management in Breadth
As identified in the previous chapter, the cultural
climate of the globe is evolving. Consequently,
multicultural management is increasingly relevant in the
global workplace and is concurrently receiving increasing
attention among researchers, authors, and organisational
psychologists. In addition, the 2006 joint convention of
the American Counselling Association and the Canadian
Counselling Association highlighted the theme of
multiculturalism, with the majority of workshops devoted to
that theme. A cursory review of www.amazon.com, an online
world leader in book sales, reveals 173 listings for
“multicultural management”. While the field is not devoid
of literature, the same search for other management topics is
copious. For example, a search for “leadership” resulted
in 18,207 results. While multicultural awareness is
escalating, the literature in multicultural management is not
quite as prolific.
In the initial stages of reviewing multicultural
management literature, I discovered a prevalence of
quantitative material such as the seminal works of
Trompenaars, Hampden-Turner, and Hofstede. In light of the
overwhelmingly quantitative literature available, I have
intentionally sought out more qualitative material.
Endeavouring to provide a comprehensive literature review, I
have identified a spectrum of works that span a continuum
from the under-represented qualitative to the predominant
quantitative. In the present and following chapters, I will
address what I have termed a methodological continuum of
multicultural management literature. Within the present
http://www.amazon.com/
chapter is a review of multicultural management literature in
breadth. The following chapter will address the works of
Trompenaars, Hampden-Turner, Hofstede, and Funakawa more in-
depth. The literature, while not exhaustive, represents a
general overview of the types of literature available for
multicultural managers.
Methodological Continuum of Literature Reviewed in Chapters
2 &3
The qualitative pole begins with the work of Lessem and
Palsule (1997). While their work references some empirical
research, the four worlds model is set in a qualitative
approach. The works of Hicks, Simmons, Vazquez, Harris, and
Elashmawi progressively become more qualitative and
empirical, leading into the seminal works of Trompenaars,
Hampden-Turner, and Hofstede. Funakawa brings us almost
full-circle as I understand his work to be a bridge between
the qualitative and quantitative.
The works Trompenaars, Hampden-Turner, Hofstede, and
Funakawa will be covered more exhaustively in chapter 7
because of their stature in the field of multicultural
management research. These authors are widely recognized as
leaders in the field of multicultural management, and they
contribute to the continuum of approaches. While the work
of Hofstede is thoroughly empirical, the works of Trompenaars
and Hampden-Turner is grounded in empiricism, yet takes on an
almost dialectical nature by incorporating some qualitative
elements. Specifically, they allude often to hermeneutic
principles such as context and reconciliation of opposing
values, which resembles the hermeneutic concept of fusion of
horizons. Funakawa represents the application facet to the
spectrum, and incorporates specific elements of Japanese-
American business relationships. His work is valuable
because, as Lessem and Palsule point out in the four worlds
model, the East is absent from the American cultural
paradigm. We begin the journey through the continuum of
writings with the work of Lessem and Palsule.
Perhaps the most influential book in birthing my desire
to develop the ITSM is Managing in Four Worlds (1997) by
Ronnie Lessem and Sudhanshu Palsule. Lessem is an
accomplished consultant and academic, as well as my Ph.D.
supervisor. Palsule is a talented global consultant hailing
from India and living in England. I initially read this
book in preparation for my personal interview, with Dr.
Lessem, for admission into the Ph.D. programme at
Buckingham. In an attempt to familiarize myself with his
philosophy, I discovered a new paradigm to approaching
multiculturalism. Having been reared in the United States,
the concept of the melting pot embodied my understanding of
how a variety of cultures can co-exist. The four worlds
model challenges the melting pot concept and provides, in my
opinion, a more holistic, equitable, and synergistic
archetype for understanding multicultural organizations,
societies, and even ourselves and others as individuals.
Grounded firmly in context and achieving a fusion of
horizons, the four worlds model exhibits characteristics of
hermeneutic methodology blended with critical theory.
Within the four worlds concept, each culture is viewed
uniquely distinct and offers a valuable contribution to the
whole, such as ingredients in a salad or instruments in an
orchestra. In the melting pot concept each individual and
his or her cultural distinctiveness is melted together,
creating a soup of indistinct flavours. The melting pot
concept encourages individuals to try and fit into the mould
of the norm, while the four worlds concept acknowledges the
value of differences. As in hermeneutics, the context of
the world of the self is examined as well as the world of the
other. Unique traits from different worlds can be
incorporated creating synergy, much like the hermeneutic
fusion of horizons.
Lessem and Palsule present the “global businessphere”
(Lessem & Palsule, 1997, p. 10) in context of their four
worlds model: West, East, North, and South. Drawing from
Carl Jung’s model of sensing, thinking, intuiting, and
feeling, the four worlds model can be observed in “our
personalities and in the kind of societies we build” (Lessem
& Palsule, 1997, p. 6) as well the world’s natural
ecosystems. Lessem and Palsule argue that each of the four
worlds is distinct, and simultaneously incorporates aspects
of the other three. As we will discover later in this
chapter, the work of Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner
identifies characteristics distinct to individual cultures
and simultaneously argue that reconciling these differences
is valuable for an organization or society. For them, an
organization that operates all individualistically, for
example, will miss important contributions that
communitarianism can offer. By recognizing the need for
reconciled differences, Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner infer
that it is quite probable that within an organization
weighing heavily with one characteristic lies, however
dormant, the other characteristics as well.
For Lessem and Palsule, “the four worlds are the
generic principle through which life organizes itself.
Whether it is an organism or an organization, the process of
individuation must include four aspects: identity, entity,
non-entity, and community” (Lessem & Palsule, 1997, p.
12). Following is a brief synopsis of each of the four
worlds as they relate to organizations.
1. West: The First World of Identity
“To be or not to be.” W. Shakespeare, Hamlet
In the West, the USA and England for example, an
organization is built upon individuality and “accumulation-
through-exploitation of resources” (Lessem & Palsule, 1997,
p. 12). Organizations focus upon the accumulation of
physical, financial, and human capital as well as growth,
dominance, and survival. The doctrine of Manifest Destiny
can be readily observed in the philosophy of the West.
2. North: The Second World of Entity
“Cogito ergo sum: I think therefore I am.” Rene
Descartes, Discourse on Method
The North is exemplified by countries such as Norway,
Finland, and Sweden. An organization is focused not as much
on survival and growth as it is maintenance and
consolidation. Conservation of resources through
information and communication technologies is emphasised.
This is done by developing efficient cross-functional
networks that straddle the “physical, financial and human
elements of the company” (Lessem & Palsule, 1997, p. 13).
3. East: The Third World of Non-entity
“Aham Brahmasmi: I am the universe.” The Upanishads
The philosophy of the East, for example China, Japan,
and Taiwan, is the antithesis of the Western individualism.
While the West is focused on setting up boundaries and
differentiating from others, the Eastern paradigm is to
dissolve boundaries and identity in deference to the
discovery of an infinite and global non-entity. (Lessem &
Palsule, 1997) Within the Eastern context,
individuality has little or no meaning. For example, a
Taiwanese M.Sc. student in a course I taught at University of
Buckingham could not comprehend my questions, “What do you
want to do with your life? What are your goals and
desires?” His answers were “I will go back to Taiwan and
takeover the management of my father’s business.” As a
Westerner I was completely appalled at his lack of personal
goals and the pursuit of his dream, not what his family
expected of him. It was through this experience that the
ITSM concept was born. What I considered wrong was simply
different, and both philosophies can be valuable, just as
Lessem and Palsule, as well as Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner
and Funakawa identify. Lessem and Palsule observe early
in Managing the Four Worlds that the East is missing in
American culture, even though many people from the East
reside in the USA.
4. South: The Fourth World of Community
“I am because you are.” Lovemore Mbigi, Ubuntu
Southern community spirit is pronounced in countries
such as South Africa or Mexico. The “organization exists
as part of a larger family or a community to which it is
bound by forces of evolution.” The purpose of the
organization is, therefore, to continually operate through a
communal value-sharing process whereby a dynamic balance is
maintained between the entity and the environment” (Lessem &
Palsule, 1997, p. 14). The Southern management style is
built upon a human-centred concept of the individuals within
an organization and the organization within the community.
Lessem and Palsule weave a compelling argument for the
value in the development of a new approach to business which
will breathe new life into a closed and dying system, built
largely in the American management laboratory. This new
system would incorporate characteristics of all four worlds,
drawing upon useful concepts from each. America is in need
of a restructuring in its management philosophy that will
include elements of the presently non-existent East.
In reading this book for the first time prior to my
Ph.D. journey, I experienced a hermeneutic fusion of
horizons. This fusion has been continually emerging as I
learn more and more how Western I am. I find myself
regularly making statements reflecting my Western nature.
With these statements and attitudes becoming more easily
identifiable, I am able to reconcile them with those from the
other three worlds. As Trompenaars, Hampden-Turner, and
Hofstede have identified cultural characteristics, Lessem and
Palsule have presented a model for integrating the four
worlds which has potential to create a synergistic
environment in which organizations can grow. The ITSM is
built upon this concept and is intended to provide a
practical method for the working-out of such a philosophy
through storytelling and dialogue. The work of Douglas
Hicks in the following review addresses the issue of religion
in context of an organization. As each of the four worlds
have an underlying core of religious or philosophical
beliefs, Hicks offers a beneficial examination of religion in
the workplace.
As the cultural horizons of the globe evolve, religion
will play a profound role in multicultural relationships.
The realm of business will not escape issues arising from
religious practice. While the overwhelming philosophy of the
American corporate culture has been to remain religiously
sterile, many are experiencing a challenge to this
attitude. For example, there have been lectures on the
Torah at Microsoft, Islamic study groups at Intel, and
classes on the Koran at Boeing.
Douglas A. Hicks, Religion and the Workplace:
Pluralism, Spirituality, Leadership (2003), is included in
this review because of his concentration on religious
differences in the workplace. Hicks is Assistant Professor
of Leadership Studies and Religion at the Jepson School of
Leadership Studies, University of Richmond, Virginia. He is
author of several books and articles on the subjects of
religion and leadership and is affiliated with Harvard’s
Pluralism Project. Hicks, an American, follows in the
methodological continuum primarily qualitatively, yet sites
more empirical data than Lessem and Palsule. Hicks
addresses the American work place and the many challenges
that arise from the growing diversity addressed in the
previous chapter on the global cultural climate. As
demonstrated by the September 11, 2001 attack, the ongoing
conflict in Iraq, and the clash of Muslim and Western
civilizations, Hicks’ focus on religious differences is
particularly applicable to contemporary management. Hicks
cites Harvard’s Diana Eck who points out that the religious
landscape has changed dramatically, and that the United
States is “now the world’s most religiously diverse nation,
at least in terms of the number of active traditions and
communities” (Hicks, 2003, p. 12).
Consistent with the American melting pot, religion has
been de-emphasised in the workplace. Employees are
encouraged either through rules or peer pressure to conform
to the norm. In the case of the USA, the norm religion has
traditionally been protestant. As such, those of the Hindu
or Muslim faiths, for instance, do not necessarily fit the
mould. As with Lessem and Palsule, Hicks emphasises the
uniqueness of the diverse religions found within an
organization. Concentrating on religious differences, Hicks
differentiates his work from those that seek to find the
common ground between the various religious belief systems.
Hicks’ theory is in concert with that of the ITSM in
appreciating differences and the use of dialogue to turn
differences from liabilities to assets.
The primary focus of Hicks’ work is on the value added
to organizations by intentionally identifying and discussing
the religious differences employees possess. He articulates
the benefits of encouraging discussion between peers and
clarifies positive outcomes of such discussions. Hicks
presents that even conflicts about religious beliefs can
produce positive outcomes such as the breeding of creativity.
Lessem and Palsule also make a strong case for the creativity
and new life generated when an organization adopts an
orchestra versus melting pot attitude. The reconciliation of
the dimensions presented by Hampden-Turner and Trompenaars
(2000) is similar to what Hicks recommends in his theory.
Hicks’ model is called Respectful Pluralism, which “means
resisting company-sponsored religion and spirituality while
allowing employees to bring their own religions to work”
(Hicks, 2003, p. 2).
Hicks argues that respectful pluralism should operate
in the workplace to encourage citizens and employees to
communicate with each other in a respectful manner. Hicks
states that he does not believe there is a set of universally
shared religious values and morals that can hold a company
together. One must look beyond trying to find common ground
to finding synergy among the diversity. He contends that
employees should be allowed to, or not to, draw upon
religious symbols and philosophy, yet do so in a manner that
demonstrates respect to other employees. Dignity and
equanimity among employees and with the employer is
essential. Therefore the institutional hegemony of one
religion is discouraged. Hicks (2003) states:
In respectful pluralism, the organization should
not be aligned with any explicit religious, spiritual,
or other comprehensive worldview. Rather, in this
moral framework I posit that organizations should
allow for significant employee expression of various
aspects of their identity on an equal basis. When
such a condition exists, we say that diversity- a
descriptive reality reflecting empirical
characteristics of the workforce- has been transformed
into pluralism- a term that reflects a positive
quality of relationships among diverse people. (p.
184)
Hicks addresses the potential conflicts that may arise
from developing pluralism and states that a leader should not
fear conflict; rather it should be utilized to spur on
discussion. “The task of leadership is not to impose one set
of values upon all followers, but to ‘orchestrate’ conflict
in order to achieve a desirable outcome” (Hicks, 2003, p.
195). Although Hicks encourages management to orchestrate
discussions to resolve conflicts and establish respectful
understanding, he does not breech the question of “how” to
do that. The ITSM provides a method to enable that type of
dialogue. As seen in Lessem, Palsule and Hicks, cultural
(including religious) differences are valuable resources for
an organization. The tendency of managers to overlook
differences and find common ground, while possibly easier,
does not result in a learning, dynamic, or human-centred
organization. Next, Transcultural Leadership: Empowering
the Diverse Workforce (1993) by Simmons, Vazquez, and Harris
presents an almost hermeneutic approach to multicultural
management which emphasises understanding differences among
different cultures. While, methodologically, their work
exhibits many hermeneutic characteristics, it moves further
along the methodological continuum. Simmons, Vazquez, and
Harris rely on a greater degree of empirical data in building
their case and also utilize qualitative surveys in their
research.
George Simmons is principal of George Simmons
International, a consulting agency specializing in gender and
cultural issues. Carmen Vazquez is an expert in
organizational development with over fifteen years of
experience. Philip Harris is an international management
consultant. Because of the growing multicultural workplace,
the authors identify potential breakdowns in communication
that could take place and discuss the potential for learning
from those breakdowns. The authors’ present the “Five
C’s” (Simmons, Vazquez, & Harris, 1993, p. 195) as a
compass to assist transcultural leaders. The Five C’s
include 1) Continuous learning, 2) Consistent leadership, 3)
Centeredness in one’s own culture, 4) Commitment to a
vision, and 5) Ceaseless communication.
Simmons, Vazquez, and Harris stress the importance of
context, stating that it “is a key concept in understanding
how people from other cultures work and behave” (Simmons,
Vazquez, & Harris, 1993, p. 43). In chapter 3, language and
its context is addressed. The authors draw a distinction
between the actual behaviours and words and their potential
misinterpretations by the hearer. From a hermeneutic
perspective, this is significant. While the authors do not
acknowledge hermeneutics, the framework from which they
approach communication within context is hermeneutic. For
example, the authors’ state, “To communicate with others,
we must first observe how we talk to ourselves in our own
minds” (Simmons, Vazquez, & Harris, 1993, p.50) This is
congruent with hermeneutics and the premise that in order to
understand others, or the subject, an understanding of
one’s-self is necessary.
However, the authors do not go into a close examination
of how individuals or groups go about discovering context.
While the material presented offers valuable information for
working cross-culturally, it stops short of offering specific
exercises or a model for developing trans-cultural
relationships and communication. The authors are in concert
with Lessem, Palsule, and Hicks in that they do not stress
common ground, but differences. In addition, they stress
the power of dialogue in developing understanding of cultural
differences. Providing vignettes and observances of
interactions between members of American, Japanese, and Arab
organizations, the following book to be reviewed offers
another pseudo-hermeneutic look at multicultural management.
Another work of relevance in the multicultural
management arena is Multicultural Management: New Skills for
Global Success (1993). Farid Elashmawi, Ph.D., is a
consultant specializing in the management of technology
transfer and cross-cultural problems. Philip Harris, Ph.D.,
is a psychologist and scientist, as well as a co-author of
the preceding book. “The text guides management towards
success in dealing with cultural differences, and progress
toward cultural synergy in business” (Elashmawi & Harris,
1993, p. xi). Elashmawi and Harris specifically address
the American, Arab, and Japanese cultures, but they exert
that the principles presented will assist many variations of
cross-cultural interaction. Due to the contemporary
multicultural societies, these cross-cultural interactions
may likely occur within a single national organization. The
authors present a number of vignettes demonstrating cultural
differences that are likely to be encountered in a
workplace. In Chapter 3, very useful and insightful tables
are presented which demonstrate the top values of various
cultures. Some of the top Japanese cultural values include
information, harmony, and honesty. American values begin
with personal life, wealth, and fairness. The Arab top
values are presented as religion, Allah, and the Koran.
(Elashmawi & Harris, 1993)
The differences in core values demonstrate how
differently these cultures view the world and fits squarely
with the four worlds model of Lessem and Palsule. An
understanding of the background of people coming from
different cultures is important, and again, this background
fits in the hermeneutic framework. Although not explicitly
mentioned, context is presented as vital. The authors
discuss “images of culture” (Elashmawi & Harris, 1993, p.
64) which addresses not only how you view the outside
culture, but also how others view your culture, and how you
view your culture. This fits with Randall’s “The Stories
We Are” as he addresses the inside-out, outside-in, and the
inside stories.
The authors discuss the importance of language, not only
the words used, but their context and accompanying non-verbal
behaviour They stress the importance of listening,
watching, and feeling. (Elashmawi & Harris, 1993) In
addition to national and ethnic cultural values, the authors
address the importance of considering corporate values.
They describe how even within one corporation, different
national branches may have differing values. As an example,
the authors chart the top values as surveyed by Apple
employees in America and Singapore. This type of empirical
data brings the authors’ work closer to the quantitative end
of the spectrum. Apple’s Singaporean branch employees
valued teamwork, reserve, long-term gains, analysis, team
rewards, and listeners as some of the top values. The
American branch listed individualism, openness, short-term
gains, zealousness, individual rewards, and talkers. This
is an example of how national culture tends to overwhelm
corporate culture reinforcing the concept of the four
worlds.
The authors of this book present a valuable resource for
working cross-culturally. However, again, a specific model
for achieving the presented goals is not offered.
Information is disseminated, but it is more like a crash
course in cross-cultural awareness than a method of mutually
reaching cross-cultural awareness. This work correlates
with the hermeneutic perspective as it presents the need for
knowledge of self and the other, and the importance of
context. Although this work incorporates elements of
hermeneutic methodology, it is fundamentally couched in the
traditional quantitative methodologies. The surveys and self
tests as well as the manner in which the results are
interpreted represent the over-arching positivistic framework
prevalent in much of the multicultural literature. With
this being stated, the following in-depth reviews reflect the
extreme positivistic and qualitative methodologies utilized
overwhelmingly in the social sciences in general, and
multicultural management in particular.
Following the reviews of Trompenaars, Hampden-Turner,
and Hofstede, Funakawa will round out the final review by
bridging the more qualitative work presented earlier in this
chapter with the quantitative in an attempt to demonstrate a
comprehensive overview of the types of literature available
to multicultural managers.
References:
Fay, Brian. (1996). Contemporary philosophy of social
science.
Oxford, UK: Basil Blackwell.
Lessem, Ronnie & Palsule, Sudhanshu. (1997). Managing in four
worlds: From competition to co-creation. Oxford, UK:
Basil Blackwell.
Elashmawi, Farid & Harris, Philip R. (1993). Multicultural
management: New skills for global success. Houston,
TX: Gulf Publishing
Funakawa, Atsushi. (1997). Transcultural management: A new
approach for global organizations. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Hampden-Turner, Charles & Trompenaars, Fons. (2000).
Building cross-cultural competence. Yale: Yale Press.
Hicks, Douglas A. (2003). Religion and the workplace:
Pluralism, spirituality, leadership. Cambridge, UK:
Cambridge University Press.
Hofstede, Geert. (2001). Culture’s consequences:
Comparing
values, behaviours, institutions, and organizations
across nations, 2nd Edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Publications.
Simons, George F., Vazquez, Carmen, & Harris, Phillip R.
(1993). Transcultural leadership: Empowering the
diverse workforce. Houston, TX: Gulf Publishing.
Trompenaars, Fons & Hampden-Turner, Charles. (1998). Riding
the waves of culture. 2nd Edition. NY: McGraw-Hill.
Chapter 3
Literature Review: Multicultural Management In-depth
To this point in we have examined the research question
and placed it in context of the global cultural condition and
a breadth of multicultural managerial literature. The
following works will be reviewed more thoroughly than the
previous literature because of the stature they hold within
the field of multicultural management. Trompenaars, Hampden-
Turner, and Hofstede are influential figures in the realm of
multicultural management research, and their works grow
progressively more quantitative on the methodological
continuum. Their empirical research is extensive and
provides a solid foundation of generalized appraisals of
cultures. Funakawa has produced a valuable resource for
“how to” work with others in a multicultural organization,
specifically drawing upon the relationships between Japanese
and Americans. While the works of Trompenaars, Hampden-
Turner, and Hofstede are decidedly quantitative, and the ITSM
research is qualitative, the authors offer a wealth of
applicable knowledge. Funakawa’s pragmatic and application
oriented work is, in essence, a bridge between the two
extremes of methodology. Hermeneutics is dialogical, moving
between the part and whole, incorporating both. In concert
with Fay’s concept of the dialectical, hermeneutic
methodology does not simultaneously negate the value of
empirical knowledge. The ITSM, through the use of
hermeneutic methodology, seeks to utilize empirical data in a
manner that will provide insight into the individual contexts
of the participants.
Trompenaars, Hampden-Turner, and Hofstede each accept
the notion that individuals within a culture are unique and
that the generalizations found in their research may not
always be binding. The works of these three, especially
Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner, will be utilized heavily in
the ITSM process for gaining self-knowledge and generating
discussion to flesh out the individual context of each of the
participants. In this way, these works specifically enhance
the hermeneutic process of self-knowledge as well as
providing a foundation for discussion which is an asset to
assist understanding of others. Funakawa, while not
formally hermeneutic in his writing, refers strongly to
context and dialogue as important factors in the development
of productive intercultural relationships, specifically
between Japanese and American partners. The works of
Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (Riding the Waves of Culture
and Building Cross-cultural Competence), Hofstede (Culture’s
Consequence), and Funakawa (Transcultural Management) are
valuable resources and are examined in this chapter.
Fons Trompenaars studied economics at the Free
University in Amsterdam and earned his Ph.D. from the
University of Pennsylvania. He is Dutch and grew up in a
home speaking French as well. Dr. Trompenaars has worked in
a wide range of multicultural careers and is a consultant and
author. Charles Hampden-Turner is based at the University
of Cambridge Judge Institute of Management. He earned his
masters and doctorate from Harvard and is the recipient of
numerous awards and fellowships. Dr.’s Hampden-Turner and
Trompenaars are renowned for their work in the multicultural
arena. For the present project, I will be considering their
works, Riding the Waves of Culture (1998) and Building Cross-
Cultural Competence (2000).
The work of Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner focuses on
the reconciliation of seven dimensions of culture discovered
in their research. Their research began with questioning
whether or not the predominant American techniques and
philosophies of management could be applied in other
cultures. This is reflected in the work of Funakawa who
devotes much of his efforts to determining how American and
Japanese management differs and how to overcome some of these
differences. The authors begin with the premise, “It is our
belief that you can never understand other cultures”
(Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner, 1998, p. 1). They also set
forth as a premise that the understanding of “our own
culture and our own assumptions and expectations about how
people ‘should’ think and act is the basis for success”
(Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner, 1998, p. 2). This
assumption is foundational in hermeneutics in which
interpretation of the “other” begins with an understanding
of the self. While the work of Trompenaars and Hampden-
Turner is quantitative, they incorporate elements of
qualitative, if not hermeneutic, methodology as well. This
brings them further along the methodological continuum, yet
not to the degree of the empiricism of Hofstede.
The work of Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner is relevant
and complimentary to the ITSM research. They emphasize the
human equation, not referring to workers as resources, but as
human beings who are involved in relationships. “Culture
pervades and radiates meanings into every aspect of the
enterprise. Culture patterns the whole field of business
relationships” (Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner, 1998,
p.16). Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner specify that
culture is the “context in which things happen” (1998,
p.8), a concept that Funakawa highlights as well. Context
is resonant with hermeneutic methodology. Trompenaars and
Hampden-Turner also present that the importance of culture is
not necessarily the observable topsoil, but the bedrock and
core which ultimately determines the way a group of “people
understand and interpret the world” (1998, p. 3).
Interpretation is the focus of hermeneutics and therefore a
foundation of the present research of developing an
Interpretive Transcultural Storytelling Method.
Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner state that cultures are
not arbitrary or random. Rather they are mirror images of
other cultures. “Cultures have always been reflections of
the world mirrored in the eyes of members” (Hampden-Turner
and Trompenaars, 2000, p.5).
There are certain questions that all cultures must
answer, and how these questions are answered determines the
way a group of people interprets the world. “Every culture
distinguishes itself from others by the specific solutions it
chooses to certain problems which reveal themselves as
dilemmas” (Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner, 1998, p.8).
Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner categorize these into “three
headings: those which arise from relationships with other
people; those which come from the passage of time; and those
which relate to the environment” (Trompenaars and Hampden-
Turner, 1998, p.8).
The choices each culture has made in answering the
various questions of living are not wrong, they are simply
different. In the fieldwork for the ITSM, I have received
permission from the Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner as well as
the publisher of their material to utilize the questions
developed in their research. Because the ITSM is focused
upon relationships, only the questions from Trompenaars’ and
Hampden-Turner’s first category, “those which arise from
relationships with other people,” will be used,
specifically, only questions one through four.
Many people have fear of entering a different culture,
but once an understanding of other cultures develops, a whole
new world appears. It is towards helping others develop an
understanding that each of the authors covered in this
literature review have devoted their research. To achieve
the ability to accept another’s culture while still living
in your own is essential to a multicultural world. F. Scott
Fitzgerald said, “The test of a first-rate intelligence is
the ability to hold two opposed ideas in the mind at the same
time, and still retain the ability to function” (Hampden-
Turner and Trompenaars, 2000, p.5). In hermeneutics the
observer strives to understand what the observed is saying or
doing, through his or her framework as well as within that of
the other. Brian Fay, in Contemporary Philosophy of Social
Science, (1996) advocates moving from a dualistic perspective
to a dialectic perspective, or from an “either/ or” to
“and”.
Riding the Waves of Culture (Trompenaars & Hampden-
Turner, 1998) has at its core, seven cultural differences.
Building Cross-cultural Competence (Hampden-Turner &
Trompenaars, 2000) only addresses six dimensions, omitting
“Neutral versus Emotional.” These differences are often
interpreted as dialectic in nature, or mutually exclusive. In
both books the authors endorse reconciliation between the
dimensions as a healthy and synergistic alternative, in
accordance with Fay’s dialectical process.
Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (1998) state:
Instead of running the risk of getting stuck by
perceiving cultures as static points on a dual axis
map, we believe that cultures dance from one preferred
end to the opposite and back. In that way we do not
risk one cultural category excluding its opposite, as
has happened in so many similar studies, of which
Hofstede’s five mutually exclusive categories are the
best known. Rather, we believe that one cultural
category seeks to “manage” its opposite and that
value dimensions self-organize in systems to generate
new meanings. Cultures are circles with preferred
arcs joined together. (p. 27)
Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner have hypothesized that
cultures which naturally seek reconciliation between
seemingly opposing cultures have a better chance of being
economically successful. This theory brings the
multicultural communication field from being simply social in
nature, to direct implications upon economic success.
The first five of the seven dimensions deal with
relationships, the sixth deals with time, and the seventh
with the environment. They are as follows:
1. Universalism versus Particularism
2. Communitarianism versus Individualism
3. Neutral versus Emotional
4. Diffuse versus Specific
5. Achievement versus Ascription
6. Attitudes to Time
7. Attitudes to the Environment
The questions the authors used for each category can be
found in Appendix 3in the Fieldwork Packet. Because this
project utilizes only questions from the relationship
category, only those questions are addressed below.
1. Universalism versus Particularism
Succinctly, this can be translated as rules versus
relationships. Universalism asserts sameness and
similarity. It imposes the same rules for everyone in
society regardless of special circumstances. Within
Particularism, special circumstances apply. Relationships,
for instance, can determine the right or wrong course of
action, in contrast to universalism in which the rules are
the rules. The consensus of most leading western,
specifically American, researchers is that as a society
develops and becomes more modern and complex it moves towards
universalism. The societies that are less modern and
complex and more rural tend to be particularists.
Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner do not accept this
assumption. They are advocates of reconciling the
advantages of each of these cultural perspectives.
The results of their research demonstrated that
Americans (Westerners) and Northern Europeans (Northerners)
were overwhelmingly universal in their responses. The
proportions fall to under 75% for Japan and France, while
two-thirds of Venezuelan respondents said they would lie for
the friend. (Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, 1998) In the
four worlds paradigm (Lessem & Palsule, 1997) the West and
North would be almost completely universal, the East
(including France) would be balanced, and the South would be
largely particularists in their responses. The authors
determined that no culture studied was solely one or the
other.
Interestingly, the authors found that predominantly
Protestant cultures were universal and predominantly Catholic
cultures were particularists. An example of how a
protestant culture looks to the law and court system to solve
problems is the higher number of lawyers per capita in the
United States than in Japan. The United States is credited
as the most litigious society in the world.
Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner found that as companies
move to a global market place, they tend to adopt
universalist paradigms. This expresses itself in contracts,
business trip timing, head office role, and job evaluations
and rewards. (Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, 1998) Contracts
within a universalist culture are comprehensive legal
documents that are meant to keep all parties bound to the
same rules, spelling out consequences for breaking those
rules. In a particularist culture, relationships are the
foundations of agreements, and a contract such as this may be
perceived as insulting and rigid. In particularist
cultures, business trips may require more time to form
relationships than what is necessary to simply do business.
In particularist cultures, the relationship with the head
office is different, as well, since gratification and loyalty
depend greatly upon relationships.
For Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner, the “virtuous
cycle” develops as the particularist and the universalist
view points work together. This reconciling of the
seemingly dualistic paradigms can create a dialectic synergy
that has more advantages than either operating
independently. Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner stress that
cross-cultural competency is based, not on whether or not you
are able to grasp the opposite value, but on whether or not
you are able to reconcile the opposing values and make them
work together. Funakawa (1997) addresses a similar issue by
stressing the importance of conversation, or dialogue. He
suggests that reconciliation and understanding of opposing
values can take place by quality conversation that builds
trust and understanding, a concept the ITSM proposes as well.
2. Communitarianism versus Individualism
“Individualism- Communitarianism is a major dilemma
for any business unity or any culture. We cannot even
define individuality without specifying a group or a social
context from which that individual is abstracted and
separated. Similarly any group, corporation, or society is
constituted by its individual members. The group could not
exist but for multiple allegiances” (Hampden-Turner and
Trompenaars, 2000, p.68). Individualism is characterized by
competition, self-reliance, self-interest, personal growth
and fulfilment. Communitarianism is characterized by
cooperation, social concern, altruism, public service and
social legacy. (Hampden-Turner and Trompenaars, 2000)
This dilemma was profoundly manifest in the beginning stages
of the development of the ITSM.
I was teaching a Master’s class at the University of
Buckingham on hermeneutics. While teaching hermeneutics,
which included self-awareness, and interpretation within
context of self and the other, the differences between the
collective and individual cultures surfaced. The students
were asked, “What do you want to do with your life?” And,
“What are your dreams?” The student from the United
States answered the question, and the students from China and
Taiwan did not understand. I initially thought it was a
matter of interpretation or language gap, but we made a
profound discovery. The students from the East did not
understand because the question had no familiar context.
One Taiwanese student ultimately answered, “I am going to
take over my family’s business… that is why I was born.”
His answer was as foreign to us from the West as the question
had been to him. It seemed wrong to us (the Westerners)
that he had no personal goals or dreams. The one French
student was obviously a link between the two worlds as she
understood, to a greater degree, the communitarian value.
As a Licensed Mental Health Counsellor with a Master’s
degree in counselling, I have been trained in multicultural
issues. However, it became quite apparent that having taken
a course on social and cultural foundations had not
adequately prepared me for the differences in collectivistic
and individualistic cultures. The ITSM had its genesis in
the work done in this culturally diverse Master’s class.
Individualism does not negate the use of groups. The
concept of groups or teams is fundamental in the United
States. However, the difference revolves around the types
of groups created. “The quintessential American group is
the voluntary association: a group formed by the free
association and voluntary commitment of like-minded
individuals who choose to work or socialize together”
(Hampden-Turner and Trompenaars, 2000, p.91). These groups
are formed with a motive and they are often characterized as
movements. Held together by common socio-political agendas,
any disagreements among the constituents may lead to splits
or dissolution of the group. In communitarian cultures the
group is considered as a family. Again, relationships are
revered and the good of the collective is seen as paramount
to the good of the individual.
In individualistic cultures, organizations are viewed
as instruments assembled to serve the good of individuals
such as owners, employees, and customers. The organization
is a means to an end. In the communitarian cultures, an
organization is a social context members share, and gives
meaning and purpose. Organizations are “likened to a
family, community, or clan which develops and nurtures its
members and may live longer than they do” (Trompenaars &
Hampden-Turner, 1998, p. 65). In Japan, the concept of an
individual is translated a “person-among-others.”
(Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, 1998, p. 65) The group is
the context in which the person asks how he or she may serve
the others better.
As with the previous values of universalism and
particularism, individualism is often presumed to be a
characteristic of modernizing societies. However, as seen
by the success of Japan, Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea,
and Taiwan, communitarianism cannot be dismissed as the
paradigm of undeveloped cultures.
Within a diverse workplace, the values of an
organization’s employees cannot be assumed to be solely
individualistic. In fact, Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner
encourage reconciling the two opposing views, recognizing the
value of both. As will be seen in each dilemma,
reconciliation is seen by the authors as the preferred value
approach.
3. Neutral versus Emotional
Spokane, Washington, where I presently reside, is home
to a large Russian immigrant population. While visiting the
home of a Russian friend, he answered the phone and began,
what seemed to me, a very heated and angry discussion with
the caller. I sat uncomfortably as he completed the call
and hung up. I inquired about the heated conversation and
my friend explained the caller was a colleague at work and
assured me they had not had a fight, neither was there any
problem between the two. The communication the two had on
the phone was simply Russian in nature, or affective in the
terms of Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner. The dilemma
Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner address presently is that of
demonstrating emotions. During their research, they asked
“participants how they would behave if something upset them
at work. Would they express their feelings openly?”
(Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, 1998, p. 70) The majority
(76%) of Russians said they would openly express their
feelings. This compared to 74% of Japanese who said
they would not express their feelings openly. The USA
participants responded near the mid-range with 43% saying
they would openly express their feelings.
Neutral cultures tend to conceal what is being thought
or felt, often leading to passive-aggressive behaviour.
Maintaining a cool and collected composure is admired, and
strong facial expressions or gesturing is taboo. Affective
cultures reveal thoughts and feelings with transparency and
expressiveness. Heated and animated expressions are
admired, often including gestures and strong facial
expressions.
Differences in demonstrating emotion can be observed in
language and par-language as well. Timing within a
conversation, tone of voice, eye contact, space, and touch,
body language, and other forms of non-verbal communication
are important. In fact, research has demonstrated that 75%
of all communication is non-verbal.
For communication between cultures to be effective, the
communicators should have an understanding of the affective
and neutrality dilemmas that exist. “Overly neutral or
affective (expressive) cultures have problems doing business
with each other. The neutral person is easily accused of
being ice-cold with no heart; the affective person is seen as
out of control and inconsistent. When such cultures meet the
first essential is to recognize the differences, and to
refrain from making any judgments based on emotions or lack
of them” (Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, 1998, p. 78). This
is consistent with hermeneutics, as the individual recognizes
the differences between the cultural styles and interprets
the communication of the other in that light. As Trompenaars
and Hampden-Turner (1998) write, “Emotions that are
expressed without any ‘neutral’ brake easily verge on the
uncontrolled ‘neurotic.’ An overly neutral person may
become an iceman who dies of a heart attack because of
unexpressed emotions” (p. 78).
4. Diffuse versus Specific
“Cultures vary considerably in how specific they are,
that is, how precisely and minutely they define (put an end
to) the constructs they use and to what extent they prefer
diffuse, patterned wholes, put together in configurations or
systems” (Hampden-Turner & Trompenaars, 2000, p. 123) The
results of Trompenaars’ and Hampden-Turner’s research on
this domain demonstrated that generally, the Western and the
Northern cultures were quite specific and that the Eastern
and Southern cultures were more diffuse. Specific oriented
cultures are direct, to the point and purposeful in
relating. They are precise, blunt, transparent, and
definitive. They value principles and morals above
situational factors. Diffuse oriented cultures tend to be
indirect and curious. They are typically more evasive,
ambiguous and tactful. The situation or persons involved may
affect the rules. (Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, 1998) In
a specific culture clear distinctions are drawn between
segments of life. For example, a clear boundary lies
between work and private life. On the other hand, within
diffused cultures, the lines are blurred. A more holistic
approach is adopted where one segment cannot be fully
segregated from the whole.
Reconciling diffuse and specific cultures “is perhaps
the area in which balance is most crucial, from both a
personal and a corporate point of view. The specific
extreme can lead to disruption and the diffuse extreme to a
lack of perspective; a collision between them results in
paralysis. It is the interplay of the two approaches which is
the most fruitful, recognizing that privacy is necessary, but
that complete separation of private life leads to alienation
and superficiality; that business is business, but stable and
deep relationships mean strong affiliations” (Trompenaars &
Hampden-Turner, 1998, p. 99). In the developmental stages
of the ITSM, a colleague from Germany expressed concern of
the appropriateness of addressing personal stories within a
business framework. His view point originated from a
specific culture and his point resonated strongly within
me. Storytelling, I surmise, can be a potent method in
reconciling the specific and diffuse.
Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner describe achievement
oriented cultures as using titles only when they are relevant
to the competence an individual brings to the present task,
respect for hierarchy is based upon their performance, and
the senior managers are of varying ages and gender, having
proven their proficiency in their specific jobs. Ascriptive
cultures use titles extensively to clarify status within an
organization, respect for superiors is given out of
commitment to the organization, and most senior managers are
male, middle-aged, and qualified by their background.
(Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, 1998)
In reconciling ascription and achievement, the authors
state that all cultures ultimately do both. However, they
begin the cycle with different starting points. Whether
achievement or ascription, each eventually leads to the
other. For example, a manager may be given respect
initially based upon his or her position. After he or she
has proven competent, then the status may become based on
achievement, and vice versa.
Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner state that cultural
competence is grounded in self-awareness and other-
awareness. “Genuine self-awareness accepts that we follow
a particular mental cultural program and that members of
other cultures have different programs… The problem is to
learn to go beyond our own model, without being afraid that
our long-held certainties will collapse… Both sameness and
differences tell us who we are: ‘I am like A, but not like
B’” (Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, 1998, p. 201).
Simply knowing a list of cultural rules, such as how to
exchange business cards and whether to shake hands or bow, is
not adequate. There are literally too many rules to
learn. They assert that comprehension of the seven
dimensions of culture will aid in understanding the world-
view from which the rules emerge, and will provide a better
foundation for building relationships. In a discussion
(January 11, 2005) with Peter Brew of the International
Business Leaders Forum, he spoke of the importance of
building relationships: “Business used to be built by
relationships, now it is dominated by deals… it needs to
come back to relationships.”
For Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner, the recurring theme
of reconciliation of supposedly opposing views is the
foundation of successful relationships. Incorporated in the
reconciliation process is mutual respect and mutual empathy.
“It is… differences which make relationships valuable.
This is why we need to reconcile differences, be ourselves
but yet see and understand how the other’s perspectives can
help our own” (Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, 1998, p.
204) Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (1998) believe that,
“businesses will succeed to the extent that [this]
reconciliation occurs…” (p. 187). An advantage of
participating in multicultural organizations is the
opportunity to synthesize the strengths of all cultures while
avoiding the weaknesses. The synergy created by
reconciliation between opposing cultures can be a profound
asset to organizations.
Another pillar in the field of multicultural research is
Geert Hofstede. He has become a leading authority on
multiculturalism. He has served in the military, worked as
a factory hand, and has held various management positions.
He earned his Ph.D. from Groningen University and has served
as professor in a variety of Universities in Europe and in
Hong Kong. Hofstede is also co-founder of Institute for
Research on Intercultural Cooperation (IRIC).
I will specifically be examining his seminal work, the
second edition of Culture’s Consequences (2001), which has
been re-written and revised from the original which was
published over twenty years ago. In the preface, Hofstede
explains this volume is written for social scientists, and in
scientific language. He recommends his book Cultures and
Organization: Software of the Mind (1991) for students and
practitioners.
In the present edition, Hofstede explores differences
among more than fifty modern nations. He argues as people
develop in life, they write “mental programs” adapted in
childhood from their family, and reinforced by schools and
organizations. “These mental programs contain a component
of national culture. They are most clearly expressed in the
different values that predominate among people from different
countries” (p.xix). Compared to the work of Trompenaars
and Hampden-Turner, Hofstede’s is decidedly more empirical
and positivistic in methodology and methods.
The data was gathered from an existing database
“compiled of pen-and-pencil survey results collected within
subsidiaries of one large multinational business organization
(IBM) in seventy-two countries and covering, among others,
many questions about values” (p. xix). This produced more
than 116,000 questionnaires and allowed the respondents to be
matched according to gender, age, and occupation. Later,
more data were collected from outside IBM. Hofstede’s
theoretical reasoning and statistical analysis ultimately
revealed five dimensions on which national cultures differ.
These dimensions include: power distance, uncertainty
avoidance, individualism, masculinity, and long-term versus
short-term orientation. Some correlation exists between the
work of Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner and that of Hofstede
(Figure 6.4). As in the review of the work of Trompenaars
and Hampden-Turner, we will address specifically the elements
of Hofstede’s work dealing with relationships.
Hofstede begins by identifying three levels of human
mental programming. He presents these three in the form of
a pyramid with universal serving as the base, the next level
is collective, and the top tier is individual. The
universal level of mental programming is shared by virtually
all human beings. It includes biological needs, as well as
a range of expressive behaviours such as laughing and
crying. “The collective level is shared by some, but not
all, other people; it is common to people belonging to a
certain group or category, but different from people
belonging to other groups or categories. The whole area of
subjective human culture belongs to this level” (Hofstede,
2001, p. 2). The individual level of human programming is
unique to each individual, with no two being identical.
This level accounts for the wide range of individual
personalities and behaviours within a given culture.
Hofstede states that these mental programs can be inherited
and / or learned, with the universal being most likely
inherited among all humans.
Hofstede states that values and culture are the key
construct he utilizes to describing mental software.
“Values are held by individuals as well as by collectives;
culture presupposes a collectivity. A value is a broad
tendency to prefer certain states of affairs over others”
(p. 5). Hofstede gives descriptive details of how data on
values was gathered and measured. Again, the empirical data
are presented.
In defining culture, Hofstede presents the definitions
of other scholars, and then presents his own. Culture is
“the collective programming of the mind that distinguishes
the members of one group or category of people from another”
(Hofstede, 2001, p. 9). Hofstede identifies the
manifestations of culture as values, practices, rituals,
heroes, and symbols. (Hofstede, 2001) He emphasises
programming, while Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner emphasise
context. This is an example of the more empirical framework
of Hofstede, and why the work of Trompenaars and Hampden-
Turner is a better fit for the ITSM.
Hofstede (2001) states that information about a
population can be considered scientifically valid only when
it meets the following criteria:
1) It is descriptive and not evaluative (judgmental).
2) It is verifiable from more than one source.
3) It applies, if not to all members of the
population, at least to a statistical majority.
4) It discriminates; that is, it indicates those
characteristics for which this population differs from
others. (p.14)
He asserts that if these criteria have not been met, the
statements are unsupported stereotypes.
At the time of Hofstede’s research, IBM was one of the
world’s largest organizations. The dates the data were
collected ranged between 1967 through 1973 and utilized the
company’s human resources located throughout the world. As
he highlights, there were mixed reviews from scholars and
practitioners alike. Hofstede states that he does not
propose his approach to multicultural research as the only
way, but as one of many. Like Trompenaars and Hampden-
Turner, Hofstede identified different dimensions of
cultures. As might be expected, some of these categories
overlap, but others are unique. Below is a chart
demonstrating the dimensions identified in both works.
Hofstede (2001) states, “The basic issue involved,
which different societies handle differently, is human
inequality. Inequality can occur in areas such as prestige,
wealth, and power; different societies put different weights
on status consistency among theses areas” (p. 79).
Hofstede, like Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner utilized
questions in researching his dimensions. Regarding his first
dimension, he states that power distances are determined, to
a great extent, by society. The degree of power distance is
assigned as the PDI (Power Distance Index). The PDI was
derived by the country’s mean score or percentages on three
survey questions. “These questions dealt with perceptions
of subordinates’ fear of disagreeing with superiors and of
superior’s actual decision making styles, and with the
decision making style that subordinates preferred in their
bosses” (Hofstede, 2001, p. 79). Cultures differed
dramatically in the PDI, as well as did PDI scores across
occupations. The author correlated the PDI scores against
other data, and then translated into the PDN (Power Distance
Norm), as a “value system held by the majority of a
country’s middle class” (Hofstede, 2001, p. 79).
He asserts that generalizations of a country’s or a
society’s PDI is just that, a generalization, and that
exceptions do apply. Hofstede states, “As a one-line
definition of Power Distance as a dimension of national
culture, I propose: ‘The extent to which the less powerful
members of institutions and organizations within a country
expect and accept that power is distributed unequally’”
(Hofstede, 2001, p. 98).
The PDI correlated with a variety of values and
attitudes within Hofstede’s research. Among some of the
Low PDI correlations were “national elites hold relatively
unauthoritarian values, commercial airline pilots hold
relatively unauthoritarian values, authoritarian attitudes in
students a matter of individual personality, freedom more
important than equality, positive attitudes toward older
people, middle age starts at 40, and top leaders are
younger. Correlations among the High PDI results were
“national elites hold relatively authoritarian values,
commercial airline pilots hold relatively authoritarian
values, authoritarian attitudes in students a social norm,
students put value conformity, equality more important than
freedom, authority based on tradition, negative attitude
toward older people, middle age starts before 40, top
leaders are older” (Hofstede, 2001, p. 96).
Although both low and high PDI cultures have
hierarchies, in a low PDI society, these hierarchies are
merely a matter of convenience. In a highPDI society, the
hierarchy is “existential: Superiors are seen as superior
persons” (Hofstede, 2001, p. 97). Hofstede includes a
table (Hofstede, 2001, p.87) that exhibits the PDI for fifty
countries and three regions. With a total mean score of 53,
the United States had a PDI of 40, Great Britain of 35, Iran
and Taiwan both of 58, and Hong Kong of 68. Austria and the
U.S. had the lowest PDI with 40, and Malaysia was highest
with 104.
Hofstede (2001) states, “ It is time now to take a
step back from the data and try to describe the general
societal norm that is behind the low-PDI and high-PDI
syndromes. This is an exercise in induction, which means
that I complete the picture with elements of intuition rather
than on empirical evidence, much like an archaeologist
completes ancient pottery from which shards are missing” (p.
97). The succeeding pages continue in the fashion of
empirical dissemination of data with an element of
interpretation. While this mostly empirical data is
relevant, a hermeneutic approach could have brought a very
human and personal application and understanding to
Hofstede’s intuitive induction. This attests to the
appropriateness of both types of approaches in social science
research.
Uncertainty Avoidance is the second dimension of
national culture found in the data. Hofstede labels the
Uncertainty Avoidance domain as the UAI (Uncertainty
Avoidance Index), and stresses it is not to be confused with
the term risk avoidance. Hofstede (2001) states:
A basic fact of life is that time goes only one way.
We are caught in a present that is just an
infinitesimal borderline between past and future. We
have to live with a future that moves away as we try
to approach it, but onto which we project our hopes
and fears. In other words, we are living with an
uncertainty of which we are conscious. (p. 145)
In order to help societies cope with uncertainty,
humans have developed methods typically stemming from the
domains of “technology, law, and religion” (Hofstede, 2001,
p. 146). “Technology includes all human artefacts; law,
all formal and informal rules that guide social behaviour;
religion, all revealed knowledge of the unknown” (Hofstede,
2001, p. 146). Hofstede asserts that technology helps
mankind defend itself against uncertainties of nature, law to
defend against the uncertainty of the behaviour of others,
and religion to help us accept the uncertainties we cannot
defend ourselves against. Different cultures adapt to these
uncertainties in different ways and incorporate a variety of
methods, which may be considered rational or nonrational,
dependent upon their values. For example, Hofstede (2001)
sites Fromm who suggested that fascism and Nazism “were a
result of a need to escape freedom, a response to the anxiety
that freedom created in societies with a low tolerance for
such anxiety. Freedom implies uncertainty in the behaviour
of oneself and others. Totalitarian ideologies try to avoid
this uncertainty” (Hofstede, 2001, p. 146).
Different national cultures have developed differing
norms for tolerating ambiguity. Tendencies toward
“prejudice, rigidity and dogmatism, intolerance of different
options, traditionalism, superstition, racism, and
ethnocentrism all relate to a norm for tolerance” (Hofstede,
2001, p. 146). Hofstede has labelled these norms the UAI.
Whereas societies use technology, laws, and religion to
help avoid uncertainty, organizations utilize technology,
rules, and rituals. For example, to alleviate human error,
some organizations have replaced employees with computers.
Rules are also implemented to reduce variability within
employee behaviour. Rituals “keep people together… and
appeal to human nature” (Hofstede, 2001, p. 148). These
rituals may take the form of staff meetings, management
training, accounting, and writing and filing memos. Among the
fifty countries represented in Hofstede’s research, the
highest obtained scores were Greece (112), Portugal (104),
and Guatemala (101). The lowest UAI scores were obtained
from Singapore (8), Jamaica (13), and Denmark (23). The
United States scored 46, Great Britain scored 35, and Taiwan
scored 69. The author found a strong positive correlation
between the PDI and UAI scores. Some of the correlations
with a low UAI are lower work stress, lower anxiety level in
the population, more subjective well-being, less hesitation
to change employers, less resistant to change, and acceptance
of foreigners as managers. The converse can be correlated
with a high UAI score. The author statistically relates the
relationship of the UAI scores to the way populations are
influenced with the family, educational systems, and within
organizations. Although Hofstede’s data is interesting and
beneficial in making generalizations, he does not address
practical application such as interpreting the data into
meaning that is immediately applicable to interpersonal
understanding.
This third dimension describes the relationship between
the individual and society. This is reflected in the views
individuals take of themselves in context of their neighbours
and the way people live together, as in extended families or
tribes, for example. These views play a significant role in
the development of values and behaviours. This dimension is
one of the two strongly correlated dimensions between
Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner and Hofstede. Hofstede
refers to this dimension as the Individualism Index (IDV).
“The central element in our mental programming involved in
this case is the self-concept. In Chinese tradition, for
example, the “word for ‘man’ (ren) includes the person’s
intimate societal and cultural environment, which makes that
person’s existence meaningful” (Hofstede, 2001, p. 210).
In the ranking of IDV scores, the United States ranked
highest (91), Australia (90) ranked second, and Great Britain
(89) as third. The lowest IDV scores were from Guatemala
(6), Ecuador (8), and Panama (11). Japan scored 46, Hong
Kong scored 25, and Taiwan scored 17. Unfortunately, China
is not included in the research population. Compared to the
research of Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner, the United States
participants scored only 69% individualist. This is still
the majority, but demonstrates the variances among
populations.
Hofstede (2001) states:
Individualism stands for a society in which the ties
between individuals are loose: Everyone is expected to
look after him/herself and his/her immediate family
only. Collectivism stands for a society in which
people from birth onwards are integrated into strong,
cohesive in-groups, which throughout people’s
lifetime continue to protect them in exchange for
unquestioning loyalty. (p. 225)
In the realm of masculinity and feminism, Trompenaars
and Hampden-Turner had no correlating category. “The duality
of the sexes is a fundamental fact with which different
societies cope in different ways; the issue is what
implications the biological differences between the sexes
should have for the emotional and social roles of the
genders” (Hofstede, 2001, p. 279).
Hofstede’s surveys correlate strongly with other data
demonstrating that, almost universally, women place more
importance on social goals such as relationships and helping
others. The same research demonstrates that men place
importance on ego goals such as career and money. However,
the degree to which respondents answered the survey in favour
of masculine or feminine goals varied between countries.
Hofstede refers to this dimension as the Masculinity Index
(MAS).
The author asserts the only absolute difference between
man and woman is the ability to bear children. Although
generalities stereotypically apply cross-culturally, there
are varying degrees of assumptions which significantly affect
the contextual values and behaviours of each society. A
common trend across societies is to view the male role as
significantly economic and other achievement oriented, while
the female cared for relationships and taking care of people.
(Hofstede, 2001)
Hofstede noted significant differences in gender trends
in his research. For men, advancement, earnings, training,
and up-to-dateness ranked high. While for women the highest
goals were a friendly atmosphere, position security, physical
conditions, manager, and cooperation. (Hofstede, 2001)
Due to the discrepancies in the numbers of women and
men in the various countries and other random factors, this
dimension must be viewed in light of the statistical data the
author presents. The most masculine countries were Japan
(95), Austria (79), and Venezuela (73). The most feminine
were Sweden (5), Norway (8), and the Netherlands (14). The
U.S. scored 62, Great Britain scored 66, and Taiwan 45. The
mean score is 49.
Hofstede (2001) defines a masculine society as one “in
which social gender roles are clearly distinct: Men are
supposed to be assertive, tough, and focused on material
success; women are supposed to be more modest, tender, and
concerned with the quality of life. Femininity stands for a
society in which social gender roles overlap: Both men and
women are supposed to be modest, tender, and concerned with
the quality of life” (p. 297). In Norway and Sweden, the
most feminine countries, “the women scored more masculine
than did the men in the same occupations” (Hofstede, 2001,
p. 285).
The fifth dimension Hofstede identifies stands
independent from his original IBM studies. It was
identified from research involving students from 23 countries
in 1985. The students answered questions to the Chinese
Values Survey (CVS), an instrument developed by M.H. Bond
“in Hong Kong from values suggested by Chinese scholars”
(Hofstede, 2001, p. 351). On the Long-Term Orientation
Index (LTO), the East Asian countries scored the highest,
Western countries lower, and Third World countries the
lowest. The highest ranking countries were China (118),
Hong Kong (96), and Taiwan (87). The lowest were Pakistan
(00), Nigeria (16), and the Philippines (19).
Interestingly, Canada scored fourth from the lowest at 23,
Great Britain at 25, and the U.S. scored 29.
Long-Term orientation emphasizes the future,
perseverance, and thrift, while Short-Term emphasizes the
past, respect for tradition, “preservation of ‘face’
and,” fulfilling social obligations. Among the societal
norms of low LTO are “immediate gratification of needs
expected, traditions are sacrosanct, spending, and analytic
thinking. Some of the norms associated with high LTO are
“deferred gratification of needs accepted, traditions
adaptable to changed circumstances, saving, investing, and
synthetic thinking” (Hofstede, 2001, p. 367).
Regarding his research findings, Hofstede states, “It
shows strong evidence that global solutions to organization
and management do not exist. Not only are organizations
bound by national cultures, so are the theories that have
been developed to explain and direct their functioning;
theories betray the nationalities of their authors, and their
validity may stop at national borders. (if not before)”
(Hofstede, 2001, p. 373).
Hofstede asserts that American management theories do
not necessarily apply across borders. He quotes Robert
Locke who stated the industrialization of the United States
took place because of the historical timeliness and context
more than ingenious management practices. Hofstede states
that he believes articles written for an international market
should include the country and time period in which they were
written. He says that “Ideas and theories about management
and organization are often exported to other countries
without regard for the values context in which these ideas
were developed” (Hofstede, 2001, p. 374).
Hofstede addresses various problems that may arise from
intercultural contact. One of the primary problematic
issues encountered is that of language. Others revolve
around social interaction and etiquette. Hofstede
states, “Intercultural contact does not automatically breed
mutual understanding. Rather, it confirms the groups
involved in their own identities and prejudices” (Hofstede,
2001, p.424). This is where one group makes stereotypes
about others such as “all Chinese look alike”, or “All
Dutch are stingy” (Hofstede, 2001, p. 424). The mental
software individuals have originates in the early years of
childhood and is built upon throughout the lifespan. Mental
programming conditions the minds of individuals so that when
they are thrust into another culture they generally
experience “culture shock.”
Culture shock can have profound impact upon
individuals, and thereby upon organizations that may be
relying upon these individuals for service. “It [culture
shock] can lead to expatriate failure and early return…
Acculturation and the effectiveness of expatriates can be
improved through training in intercultural competence. Such
training can raise individual’s awareness of their own
baggage and provide them with knowledge about intercultural
skills…” (Hofstede, 2001, p. 423). An example Hofstede
(2001) gives of this type of training is to provide an
opportunity for members of the meeting cultures to “meet and
mix as equals” (p. 425). For the first time in his
writing, Hofstede addresses the interpersonal aspects of
intercultural relationships.
Hofstede (2001) states, “A sense of identity provides
the feeling of security from which one can encounter other
cultures with an open mind. The principle for surviving
in a multicultural world is that one does not need to think,
feel, and act like someone else in order to agree with that
person on practical issues and to cooperate” (p. 454).
This statement covertly aligns Hofstede with hermeneutic
philosophy which endorses that an inquirer understands
himself or herself, in context and with presuppositions.
Only in understanding self can understanding others begin.
The work of Hofstede is the most empirical of all the
works reviewed. While valuable in many regards, Hofstede’s
work is geared toward academics. In fact, he has rewritten
this work in a more user friendly version. Other than
generalized examples, Hofstede stops short of giving a clear
model for interacting cross-culturally. The Interpretive
Transcultural Storytelling Method will build upon such
empirical work as Hofstede’s with a hermeneutic- narrative
model of embracing individuals from other cultures based upon
self understanding and interpreting the stories of others in
context of the teller’s culture and that of the interpreter.
Another powerful work in the multicultural arena is
Atsushi Funakawa’s Transcultural Management: A New Approach
for Global Organizations (1997). At the time of writing his
book, Funakawa was a seventeen year veteran of multicultural
corporate work experience. A native of Japan and educated
in an American University, Funakawa brings a rich
understanding of the implications and complications spurred
by multicultural issues. Funakawa is an international
consultant providing global organizational management
seminars to assist corporations in building cultural synergy.
Funakawa, in essence, provides a bridge between the
quantitative and qualitative ends of the spectrum. While
his work is empirically based, his Eastern-ness reveals a
holistic and human orientation which gives it a qualitative
tone. Lessem and Palsule (1997) noted an obvious absence of
the East in the West. In a sense Funakawa represents the
East in the West discussed in their work.
Particularly focusing on East meets West, Funakawa
presents an insightful and practical approach for those who
work cross-culturally. The author organizes his material
into a transcultural management model for “minimizing and
transcending cultural discrepancies” (front cover flap).
Funakawa also offers “five core transcultural competencies
and seven mental disciplines that help business people
transform their mindset- from ethnocentric to geocentric,
from monocultural to multicultural, and eventually to
transcultural” (front cover flap). This book is a valuable
toll for those who work cross-culturally, providing insight
into specific business situations as well as powerful
perspectives on the emerging global economy.
The author’s emphasis of contextual learning and
understanding fits closely with the hermeneutic orientation
to research. Hermeneutics, in its basic form, emphasizes
understanding the context of the researcher as well as the
other. In the realm of cross-cultural management, this
would translate as the individuals on each side of the
cultural gap. Understanding ones’ own context and the
context of the other is valuable when working cross-
culturally. The High Context High Content frameworks
Funakawa presents do just that. In addition, the emphasis
on introducing key Japanese terms plays a significant role in
the understanding of context and prejudgments. Funakawa
never identifies hermeneutics as the framework for his
writing, but he often makes observations consistent with
hermeneutics.
“It is my understanding that the fundamental source of
conflict in this new world will not be primarily ideological
or primarily economic. The great divisions among humankind
and the dominating source of conflict will be cultural”
(Samuel P. Huntington as quoted in Funakawa, 1997, p. 3).
Funakawa introduces the reader to some significant Japanese
words. The first is kacho (section managers), the second is
senpai (more experienced, senior members), and then kohai
(less experienced, junior members). These terms are
valuable in beginning to demonstrate some of the differences
in philosophies of Japan and the west, namely the United
States.
Funakawa begins the chapter with a case study of
Michael, an American employee of a Japanese business located
in the USA. The kacho informed Michael that he would be
hiring a new team member, and wanted Michael to serve as the
senpai to this new kohai. Michael became angry at the
request, believing it not to be a part of his portfolio to
train new recruits. He resigned his position. Michael did
not understand the Japanese corporate culture, although he
spoke Japanese and had lived for a number of years in
Japan. Michael did not recognize the value of overall good
and placing priority on the collective organization over his
own inconvenience.
The author introduces the reader, also, to the Japanese
business model’s three key resources, hito (people), mono
(things, fixed assets), and kane (money). (Funakawa,
1997) Funakawa points out that it is easy to make kane,
and manage mono, across borders, but managing hito is more
difficult. Funakawa also introduces one new term and
another concept which exemplify deeper values. Jishuku,
meaning self-restraint, and the concept of conflict avoidance
are significant values in Japanese culture. If these are
not correctly understood, the tragedy of ignorance, as the
author puts it, will be imminent. Here Funakawa begins to
address practical applications to the Neutral versus
Emotional domain found in the work of Trompenaars and
Hampden-Turner.
Funakawa identifies two components of the clash of
cultures. First are the real-life incidents resulting from
behaviour differences, and the second is that of image.
Images can be very negative in some cultures such as the
image of economic war between Japan and America. Japanese
may interpret this image as a reflection of, for instance,
the bombing of Pearl Harbour. (Funakawa,
1997)
The author makes a profound statement that aligns
closely with hermeneutics and the ITSM research project,
“Mutual awareness, understanding of different mindsets, and
effective cross-cultural communication are essential at an
individual level. If organizations want to create this more
productive cross-cultural working environment, they have to
provide appropriate structural support” (Funakawa, 1997, p.
9). The ITSM is intended to provide the appropriate
structural support to which Funakawa refers. As Hofstede
and Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner have provided the data,
Funakawa is suggesting practical application, and the ITSM is
providing practical application.
Funakawa defines culture as encompassing the
“knowledge, language, values, customs, and material objects
that are passed from generation to generation. Culture
includes a sense of self and space, communication and
language, dress and appearance, food and feeding habits, time
and time consciousness, relationships, values, norms, beliefs
and attitudes, mental process and learning, and work habits
and practices” (Funakawa, 1997, p. 15).
As Hofstede stated, Funakawa also asserts that
variations among populations must be accounted for when
assigning cultural generalities. He addresses the misuse of
stereotypes, which are typically negative, subjective
preconceived notions. He states that a better approach would
be to approach the subject as “descriptions of national
cultures” which are research based and statistically
testable societal norms. Funakawa states that although
there are national descriptions or norms, there are also many
variations among individuals in any society. (Funakawa, 1997,
p. 15)
One of the reasons for including Funakawa in a
literature review alongside empiricists like Trompenaars and
Hampden-Turner and Hofstede, is that he brings an element of
practicality to their statistical data. For example, Funakawa
addresses the need for consultants and trainers to blend the
“soft” Human Resources and the “hard” business segment of
corporate organization. He describes four stages of
globalization. The first is the international ethnocentric
stage which upholds the belief that the “home country
nationals are superior more reliable, and more trustworthy.
The second stage is the multinational polycentric stage
which is to go to the other extreme and assume the local
people know best for subsidiaries. For example, an American
corporation will hire Japanese managers for the Japanese
office. The third stage is the multiregional regiocentric
corporation. This stage is represented by the message,
“Regional insiders know what neighbouring countries want”
(Funakawa, 1997, p. 39). And the fourth stage is the global
geocentric which requires “collaboration between
subsidiaries and headquarters in order to establish universal
standards and permissible local variations, on the basis of
which key decisions are made” (Funakawa, 1997, p. 39). The
final stage is optimum for creating an environment of synergy
and interdependence.
Funakawa outlines five core competencies for
transcultural management. The geocentric mindset is the
first of these competencies. This is an attitude in which
business is approached from a global perspective, not from an
egocentric one. The second is Strategic focus, which
incorporates the Six C’s Model. The six C’s are,
corporation, customer, competitor, community, communication,
and the over-arching culture.
Cross-cultural communication is the third competency
and it incorporates not only language, but the frames of
reference behind the language as well as behaviours and other
non-verbal forms of communication. The fourth competency
listed is culturally sensitive management processes. In
this section the author presents the equation: Actual
productivity = Potential productivity – Losses due to faulty
process. (Funakawa, 1997) Synergy learning systems is the
fifth competency. The author states that, “Synergy in
teams must be learned… [it] is a dynamic process that
involves two often-opposing views that must be brought
together after both parties mutually conclude that they need
to unite their efforts to achieve their goals and create an
integrated solution” (Funakawa, 1997, p. 58).
Funakawa presents seven practical disciplines needed to
work effectively with other cultures. The first discipline
he presents is to observe situations without judgments. The
second is an ability to tolerate ambiguity. Style shifting,
which is the ability to expand personal views, styles, and
thought processes and apply them to situations at hand, is
listed as the third discipline. The fourth is to flip your
perception which entails assuming another person’s point of
view before criticizing it. Reprogramming your question is
the fifth discipline. It proposes the need not to assume a
question from someone of another culture is negative, but to
objectively examine the meaning behind the question.
The sixth discipline is to work interdependently, and
the seventh is to keep mental stability and growth.
Funakawa provides an examination of the importance of
understanding communication and rules of communication in
different cultures. The author introduces the readers to
two new Japanese words, tatemae, the façade of what is
supposed to be said, and honne, reality. “A high context
conversation is one in which most of the information is
already encoded within the person, while very little is coded
in the explicit, transmitted part of the message” (Funakawa,
1997, p. 84). High-context communication is deeply
engrained in Japanese culture. Some Japanese proverbs which
exemplify this are, “silence is golden” and, “still water
runs deep” (Funakawa, 1997, p. 86).
Handling duality and dilemmas is an issue challenging
emerging global organizations. Dualities found in working
cross-culturally between America and Japan include
individualism and collectivism, risk-avoidance and risk-
taking, and vertical and horizontal thinking. Trompenaars
and Hampden-Turner as well as Hofstede address similar
characteristics as well. Finding a “zone of
complimentarity” (Funakawa, 1997, p. 101) helps the
organization achieve balance between dualities and is dynamic
and cooperative. The zone of complimentarity is similar to
Hampden-Turner’s concept of reconciling differences.
Funakawa states, “It is crucial for a cross-cultural team to
share their common understanding of two different values.
Especially when each party sees its own core value as
positive and the value of the other party as negative, it is
important to show that the two values are not isolated but
interrelated” (Funakawa, 1997, p. 103).
Hofstede’s PDI and Trompenaars’ and Hampden-Turner’s
Universalism versus Particularism and Neutral versus
Emotional have strong correlations. What Funakawa suggests
is that dialogue, rather than dictation and disguising of
feelings and thoughts, may be much more beneficial to
relationships. In addition, the notion of Universalism
could be discussed. If two values are discussed and the
relationship between the people involved is one of
understanding, the possibilities to find interrelated and
synergistic conclusions may indeed surface. This is
precisely the focus of the ITSM. In the telling of personal
stories understanding can be reached that will enable
individuals to find a dialectic and synergistic agreement.
Funakawa presents two paradigms developed by Japanese
and Americans to aid in the cross-cultural communication
process. The first is the Knowledge-creating company which
is, according to Japanese scholar Nonaka, “the process of
converting tacit knowledge into explicit knowledge”
(Funakawa, 1997, p. 113). Within the knowledge-creating
company exists four patterns of interaction between tacit and
explicit knowledge. These patterns can be summed up as
socialization (from tacit to tacit), articulation (from tacit
to explicit), combination (from explicit to explicit), and
internalization (from explicit to tacit). Nonaka states
that although Japanese companies are good at developing “the
process of exchanging tacit and explicit knowledge… they are
good at it in their own cultural context” (Funakawa, 1997,
p.116). Bridging the gap between the Japanese and American
contexts is the key to working effectively in a cross-
cultural setting.
Another contribution that has developed to help work
within a dichotomous context is Senge’s (American)
contribution of the Learning Organization. Learning
organizations are “places where people continually expand
their capacity to create the results they truly desire, where
new expansive patterns of thinking are nurtured, where
collective aspiration is set free, and where people are
continually learning how to learn together” (Funakawa, 1997,
p.117). Funakawa states that these paradigms have developed
as frameworks for turning potential obstacles into learning
opportunities. In harmony with the concepts of the
Knowledge –creating company and the Learning Organization,
the ITSM also focuses upon knowledge and learning. However,
the ITSM seeks to intentionally take the organization past
the accumulation of knowledge and learning to emergence, the
application of new knowledge.
Funakawa notes two critical gaps in the U.S. and
Japanese business environment. First is a “gap in the flow
of information”. This gap exists because of the
communication styles of the two cultures. Americans are
outspoken and Japanese more reserved causing an unbalanced
flow of information. The second is closely related as it also
relates to communication. A “cross-cultural communication
gap” specifically between American researchers and Japanese
employees exists because of the American’s perception of a
lack of feedback by the Japanese. Again, this is due to
differences in styles of communication. These gaps have a
strong correlation to Neutral versus Emotional and the PDI.
Funakawa (1997) sites Nancy Adler’s list of key factors
in enabling managers to effectively lead multicultural
groups:
Differences are recognized rather than ignored.
Members are selected for task-related abilities rather
than ethnicity.
There is mutual respect rather than ethnocentrism.
There is equal power rather than cultural dominance.
There is a superordinate goal rather than individual
goals.
External feedback is given to individuals and the
group as a whole. (p. 132)
Funakawa introduces the term gaishi which means foreign
capital. American gaishi experience a number of
challenges. “Different perceptions of the Japanese market
by American headquarters and Japanese operations and poor
communications are the root causes of problems in managing
gaishi in Japan” (Funakawa, 1997, p. 139). Again, Funakawa
addresses the issue of communication as a primary problem
within multicultural settings. The ITSM is focused upon
building healthy communication through storytelling.
Whereas American companies in Japan are called gaishi,
Japanese companies operating in the U.S. are called, nikki
kigyo. American manager working for Japanese companies listed
the top four factors for success as quality of products and
services (32%), quality of managers and employees (14%),
distribution and price (12%), and management ability
(10%). Some of the main complaints Americans working for
Japanese companies listed were in regards to their lack of
communication skills. This can be attributed to a lapse in
cross-cultural communication, since the Japanese managers
described the American employees as having to have everything
spelled out. There is an obvious lack of understanding in
the context and content of communication. The author
identifies three cultural variables that contribute to what
he calls the “leadership gap” (Funakawa, 1997, p.155).
Communication style, management style, and language comprise
these variables.
Although U.S. – Japanese alliances have grown over
recent years, Funakawa quotes a 1994 International Business
article that over half of them fail. He states his belief
that most of these failed relationships stem from an
inability to effectively communicate and operate cross-
culturally. Funakawa lists three specific situations he
terms the “triple culture gap” (Funakawa, 1997, p. 162)
that contribute to the failure of U.S.-Japanese alliances.
The first gap is the national culture referring to, for
example, the individualistic versus collectivistic frames of
reference, as Hofstede, Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner
found. The second gap involves the industry culture which
surfaces when different industries develop alliances. Each
industry has its own protocols and cultural norms. The
third gap is in corporate culture “which reflects the norms,
assumptions, and values about business practices that
corporate members share” (Funakawa, 1997, p. 164). These
culture gaps can be sources of conflict, but when managed
well, can become great resources.
As Funakawa bridges the gap between the quantitative and
the qualitative, he also acknowledges the advantage of
“bridge persons” in multicultural settings. Bridge
persons are those who bridge the gap between cultures.
(Funakawa, 1997) Funakawa, in essence, is a methodological
bridge person. He, in many regards, takes the data
presented by researchers such as Hofstede, Trompenaars and
Hampden-Turner, and applies it in context of Japanese-
American relationships. He acknowledges a gap between
academics and practitioners in the cross-cultural realm.
American managers have a tendency to underestimate national
cultural differences and overestimate universal rights, just
as Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner have found. Funakawa
states that in this regard, European companies are ahead of
American. He attributes the European success to the
implementation of management training based upon the work of
Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner and Hofstede.
Beginning with the more qualitative works of Lessem and
Palsule, Hicks, Simmons, Vazquez, Harris, and Elashmawi, I
have presented a continuum of literature. This continuum
progresses through the more quantitative works of
Trompenaars, Hampden-Turner, and Hofstede. Funakawa, a
Japanese living in America, provides a bridge between the
East and West as well as between qualitative and quantitative
methodologies. While Trompenaars, Hampden-Turner, and
Hofstede have provided varying degrees of solid empirical
data for helping to understand cultures, Funakawa has
provided a more practical interpretation of the application
of knowledge.
In each of the works reviewed, the authors stop short
of bringing this knowledge into the practical realm of
building multicultural relationships. Even Funakawa, while
offering examples of Japanese and American interaction does
not breach the grass-roots level of the small team
environment addressed by the ITSM. Therefore, building upon
the reviewed literature, the ITSM will provide a
complimentary dimension of micro-level multicultural
management application. By placing the ITSM in context of
the global cultural climate in general and multicultural
management specifically, the stage is set to begin examining
the methodological approach to the present research
project.
References:
Fay, Brian. (1996). Contemporary philosophy of social
science.
Oxford, UK: Basil Blackwell.
Lessem, Ronnie & Palsule, Sudhanshu. (1997). Managing in four
worlds: From competition to co-creation. Oxford,
UK: Basil Blackwell.
Elashmawi, Farid & Harris, Philip R. (1993). Multicultural
management: New skills for global success. Houston,
TX: Gulf Publishing
Funakawa, Atsushi. (1997). Transcultural management: A new
approach for global organizations. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Hampden-Turner, Charles & Trompenaars, Fons. (2000).
Building cross-cultural competence. Yale: Yale Press.
Hicks, Douglas A. (2003). Religion and the workplace:
Pluralism, spirituality, leadership. Cambridge, UK:
Cambridge University Press.
Hofstede, Geert. (2001). Culture’s consequences:
Comparing
values, behaviours, institutions, and organizations
across nations, 2nd Edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Publications.
Simons, George F., Vazquez, Carmen, & Harris, Phillip R.
(1993). Transcultural
leadership: Empowering the diverse workforce.
Houston, TX: Gulf Publishing.
Trompenaars, Fons & Hampden-Turner, Charles. (1998). Riding
the waves of culture. 2nd Edition. NY: McGraw-Hill.
Chapter 4
Methodology of Research: Part I
Quantitative vs. Qualitative
Because the multicultural management field is heavily
weighted in the quantitative methodologies, I have posed the
question of how might a method founded in hermeneutics
contribute in a practical manner. The initial stages of
research require the researcher to choose a methodology as
the framework for his or her work. While some use the two
terms interchangeably, I make a distinction between
methodology and method. Methodology refers to the
philosophical framework or paradigm through which I approach
research and method refers to the strategies or methods I
employ to conduct the research.
The methods, then, are chosen in light of the
methodology. In addition, the methodology determines the
writing style of the work. While empirical, classically
scientific writing avoids the use of the first person when
possible, hermeneutics, for instance necessarily requires the
use of the first person. Therefore, the chosen research
methodology impacts the entire project form beginning to end.
This chapter contains elements of the characteristics
of both qualitative and quantitative methodologies, compared
and contrasted, in an effort to present my research in a
back-drop of my methodology of choice, hermeneutics.
I have chosen to utilize hermeneutics for several
reasons. First, hermeneutics is a relatively new
methodology in the social sciences. It was developed as a
methodology for Biblical interpretation and evolved into the
field of literature in general. Recognizing the value of
interpreting a literary work in context of its authorship and
intended audience, as well as the context of the reader, some
social scientists began utilizing hermeneutics as a
methodology for interpreting others. Among those who have
greatly contributed to the field of hermeneutics within the
realm of social sciences are Cushman (1995), Geertz
(1973),Gephart (1999), Maloney (1993), McLeod (2001), Palmer
(1969), Rabinow and Sullivan (1987), Ricoeur (1981), and
Taylor (1994). These contributors will be referenced
throughout this thesis.
Clifford Geertz, The Interpretation of Cultures (1973),
significantly contributed to evolving the field of
hermeneutics into the study of culture. He asserts that
hermeneutics is a viable methodology for cultural study
because of the innate roles interpretation plays in the field
of anthropology. Geertz (1973) reasons that by using
hermeneutics, “we are seeking, in the widened sense of the
term in which it encompasses very much more than talk, to
converse with them, a matter a great deal more difficult, and
not only with strangers, than is commonly recognized… If
speaking for someone else seems to be a mysterious process
that may be because speaking to someone does not seem
mysterious enough. Looked at in this way, the aim [among
others] of anthropology is the enlargement of the universe of
human discourse” (p.13). According to Geertz, cultural
analysis is, “guessing at meanings, assessing the guesses,
and drawing explanatory conclusions from the better guesses”
(1973, p.20). His emphasis on discourse and interpretation
aligns Geertz’s theory closely with the intent of the
Interpretive Transcultural Storytelling Method. The ITSM
emphasises dialogue and interpretation of the dialogue or
story.
Because the nature of a Ph.D. is to produce new and
useful knowledge, using hermeneutics for research of this
nature can contribute to the field of knowledge of this
methodology in the social sciences. Another reason I have
chosen hermeneutics is the emphasis placed upon
interpretation of a text, in this case, another person and
his or her story, the method employed in this research, as a
“text”. Hermeneutics recognizes that understanding
“self” is instrumental to understanding “others”.
Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner, as well as Hofstede,
recognize the importance of understanding our own cultural
framework when entering into a relationship with those from
another culture. Hermeneutics will be discussed in more
detail in the following chapter on methodology.
The quantitative, positivist approach is grounded in
the physical sciences and assumes an objective world which
can be studied and measured with scientific, quantitative
methods. It seeks to predict and explain causal
relationships between variables. As the name implies,
quantitative research focuses on quantity and is primarily
deductive utilizing statistical methods. The methods
utilized in the physical sciences are useful in certain
arenas of the social sciences, however, a number of scholars
have found them to be inadequate when studying social
phenomena. Social scientists with a bias towards the
qualitative approach argue that the positivist, empirical
approach does not allow for the nuances found when studying
living, thinking, evolving human beings who do not live in a
static cultural environment. Robert Gephart (1999)
[University of Alberta] writes:
Positivistic methods strip contexts from
meanings in the process of developing quantified
measures of phenomena. In particular, quantitative
measures often exclude members’ meanings and
interpretations from data which are collected. These
methods impose outsiders’ meanings and
interpretations on data. And they require statistical
samples which often do not represent specific social
groups and which do not allow generalization to or
understanding of individual cases. Finally,
quantitative and positivistic methods tend to exclude
discovery from the domain of scientific inquiry.
Rabinow and Sullivan, Interpretive Social Science: A
Second Look (1987), present an anthology of “papers
exemplary of the interpretive, or hermeneutic, approach to
the study of human society” (p. 2) In addition, Rabinow
and Sullivan (1987) express, “As long as there has been a
social science, the expectation has been that it would turn
from its humanistic infancy to the maturity of hard science,
thereby leaving behind its value, judgment, and individual
insight” (p. 2). The authors argue, along with Weber, that
this dream that is supposedly freeing and liberating is in
essence an iron cage. Rabinow and Sullivan, along with others
such as Geertz and Gephart, have greatly contributed to the
field of hermeneutic methodology in the human sciences.
The quantitative approach to research is empirical and
emphasizes scientific experimental methods. (Merriam, 1988)
Quantitative research also requires an objective researcher
who is unbiased and brings no, or at least minimum,
interpretation to the study. Qualitative research,
specifically hermeneutics, recognizes the inability of the
researcher to remain completely unbiased and by its very
definition is interpretive in nature. Quantitative
researchers posit that the social sciences, like the natural
sciences, can strive for testable theories to explain
phenomena by demonstrating how they are derived from
theoretical assumptions. In this attempt social phenomena
are approached as dependent and independent variables and
examined in a controlled environment. It is concerned with
prediction, control, description, hypothesis testing, and
confirmation. In quantitative research, the data is
generally gathered using structured research instruments,
large samples that are representative of a population, and
the results are presented in such a manner as to enable the
replication of the research. (Merriam, 1988) Some typical
quantitative techniques are observation, experimentation, and
surveys.
Qualitative research is descriptive, holistic, and
concerned with phenomenology and symbolic interaction. It
generally utilizes subjective fieldwork where the researcher
is the primary instrument, often utilizing interviews and
observations. (Merriam, 1988) In qualitative research, such
as hermeneutics, the researcher is expected to recognize his
or her biases and incorporate them into the research.
In contrast to quantitative research, qualitative
attempts to answer “why” more than “how,” and addresses
the meaning behind the behaviour over simply the behaviour.
The overarching goals of qualitative research are achieving
understanding, developing a thick and rich description,
discovery, and hypothesis generation. (Merriam, 1988)
Quantitative and qualitative research designs often
diverge in their settings. Quantitative research often
occurs in a structured, artificial, unfamiliar, and
controlled environment such as a laboratory. Conversely,
qualitative research is often conducted in the natural
environment, unstructured, and familiar to the subjects.
Quantitative research is primarily predetermined while
qualitative is generally flexible, evolving and emerging.
In the fields of social science and psychology,
quantitative research is the traditionally favoured design.
However, some scholars argue that, while quantitative
methodology has its place, qualitative research is more
conducive to the study of humans.
Philip Cushman (1995) argues that the dedication to the
“philosophical frame of reference of the physical world has
helped us develop power to manipulate the physical world in
undreamed of ways. But that same point of reference has a
built-in paradox: By conceiving of a world that is based on
doubt and irrevocably separates ‘inner’ from ‘outer,’
body from mind, science from superstition, the physical
science framework makes it nearly impossible to use
traditional ideas, philosophical thinking, and a sense of
moral understandings that would help us cooperate in using
our newfound power for the betterment of humankind.
The very power that has made it possible for us to develop
our power has made it difficult for us to determine how to
use it wisely” (p. 9).
In addition, philosopher Charles Taylor (1985) [McGill
University, Montreal] writes:
A social science which wishes to fulfil the
empiricist tradition naturally tries to reconstruct
social reality as consisting of brute data alone.
These data are the acts of people (behaviour) as
identified supposedly beyond interpretation either by
physical descriptions or by the descriptions clearly
defined by institutions and practices; secondly, they
include the subjective reality of individual’s
beliefs, attitudes, values, as attested by their
responses to certain forms of words, or in some cases
their overt non-verbal behaviour. What this excludes
is a consideration of social reality as characterized
by inter-subjective and common meanings. (p.40)
Qualitative research “is a process of careful,
rigorous inquiry into aspects of the social world. It
produces formal statements or conceptual frameworks that
provide new ways of understanding that world, and therefore
comprises knowledge that is practically useful for those who
work with issues around learning and adjustment to the
pressure and demands of the social world” (McLeod, 2001,
p.3). McLeod (2001) identifies three areas in which
qualitative research can generate new forms of knowledge. The
first, and most common, is knowledge of the “other”. This
knowledge is generated by research which takes a category of
a person (such as psychotherapy client, hospital patient,
gang member) who is of interest to members of a professional
group, and seeks to describe, analyze and interpret the
world-view, experiences and language of a sample of people
who represent that category. (McLeod, 2001)
The second area of knowledge development is in regards
to knowledge of phenomena. This field is directed at
categories of events that are of interest to a professional
group. The third and least frequently used field is
directed towards reflexive knowing. “Reflexive knowing
occurs when researchers deliberately turn their attention to
their own process of constructing a world with the goal of
saying something fresh and new about that personal (or shared
professional) world… This is research which is intended
to subvert everyday ways of seeing” (McLeod, 2001, p. 5).
Contrary to the flexible characteristics which make
qualitative research a viable option for the psychologist and
social scientist, empirical quantitative research is rigid,
unbiased and reductionistic. This type of research has value,
but when complemented by qualitative approaches presents a
more holistic picture.
Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner as well as Geert
Hofstede have produced seminal works in the field of cross-
cultural studies. Their works present invaluable
information that aids in the building of multi-cultural
competencies. These scholars, as well as the majority of
others in this field, work primarily within the design scheme
of empirical methodology.
Although Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner are rooted in
empirical perspective, they are considerate of a basic
principle in hermeneutics of understanding the self. In the
introduction of Riding the Waves of Culture (1998),
Trompenaars states, “I believe understanding our own culture
and our own assumptions and expectations about how people
‘should’ think and act is the basis for success”
(p.2). This statement eludes to the principle that self
reflection and understanding is necessary before one can have
an understanding of another. This could be perceived as
opposing the empiricist view of researcher as an objective,
unbiased observer. Instead of being bound to a rigid
empirical paradigm, it is apparent in the reading of
Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner, that their perspective is
dialectical in aspects. For example, in the following
comment from Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (1998), the
authors expand the purpose of their research from simply
presenting various cultural competencies, to acknowledging
the importance of understanding the ways people interpret the
world.
There are, indeed, many products and services
becoming common to world markets. What is important
to consider, however, is not what they are and where
they are found physically, but what they mean to the
people in each culture. As we will describe later,
the essence of culture is not what is visible on the
surface. It is the shared ways groups of people
understand and interpret the world. (p. 3)
Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner, in this statement,
refer indirectly to hermeneutics when discussing
understanding and interpretation. Hermeneutics emphasizes
reaching understanding through interpretation. Involved in
interpretation is the cycle of moving between self-
understanding and the attempt to understand the other within
his or her context. In doing so, the interpreter recognizes
the value of static knowledge as well as the dynamic
knowledge that is created through moving back and forth
between the other and the self. While the actual research
conducted by Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner is framed within
the empiricist scheme, the application of the knowledge is
clearly intended, (as in the above quote), to be applicable
within a framework of self-understanding and interpretation.
Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (1998) state:
Peters and Waterman in In Search of Excellence
hit the nail on the head with their critique of “the
rational model” and “paralysis through analysis.
Western analytical thinking (taking phenomena to
pieces) and rationality (reckoning the consequences
before you act) have led to many international
successes in fields of technology. Indeed,
technologies do work by the same international rules
everywhere, even on the moon. Yet the very success
of the universalistic philosophy now threatens to
become a handicap when applied to interactions between
human beings from different cultures. (p. 4)
Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner openly acknowledge the
inadequacies of a rigid framework for knowledge creation.
They (1998) denounce the mindset that “regards emotionally
detached rationality as ‘scientifically” necessary.
Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (1998) state:
The mistake is to assume that technical
rationality should characterize the human element in
the organization. No one is denying the existence of
universally applicable laws with objective
consequences. These are, indeed, culture-free. But
the belief that human cultures in the workplace should
resemble the laws of physics and engineering is a
cultural, not a scientific belief. It is a universal
assumption which does not win universal agreement, or
even come close to doing so. (p. 4)
Therefore, while the research conducted by Trompenaars
and Hampden-Turner is in its core analytical empirical, the
essence of their research is dialectical in nature, valuing
and incorporating both, quantitative and qualitative,
philosophies. Specifically, due to the emphasis Trompenaars
and Hampden-Turner place upon interpretation and self-
understanding, their framework is at least in approximation
to hermeneutics. In essence, Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner
have adopted the Japanese philosophy of, “When in Rome,
understand the behaviour of the Romans, and thus become an
even more complete Japanese” (Trompenaars and Hampden-
Turner, 1998, p. 4).
While recognizing that culture incorporates a variety
of elements such as social class, religion, region, and
gender, and is not necessarily determined by political
boundaries, it is specifically with national culture that
Hofstede concerns himself. “Using nationality as a
criterion is a matter of expediency, because it is immensely
easier to obtain data for nations than for organic
homogeneous societies. Nations as political bodies supply
all kinds of statistics about their populations” (Hofstede,
1997, p. 12).
The generalizations which can be made from such
exercises as the one above are helpful in understanding how
different macro-cultures approach answering the problems to
Hofstede’s specified dilemmas. On a micro scale, however,
Hofstede proposes that individuals may vary greatly. As an
example, I have had extensive training in cultural
foundations as a Licensed Mental Health Counsellor, as well
as having done much reading on multicultural issues for the
present project. When performing my first fieldwork
exercise with a group of Japanese and American participants,
I approached the session with preconceived ideas of what to
expect from the Japanese participants. I assumed, for
example, the Japanese would be highly collectivistic and non-
confrontational as well as have a high degree of respect for
their elders.
While the Japanese participants demonstrated these
traditional characteristics, they also demonstrated elements
of individualism. In addition, they exhibited the freedom to
politely confront and disagree with others, including their
elders. This fusion of cultures has not been statistically
accounted for in Hofstede’s work, but it is in fact a main
focal point in hermeneutics, within which, the experience is
called a “fusion of horizons” (McLeod, 2001, p. 28). This
fusion of cultures had not been addressed in my prior
education, or any of the reading I had done to that point.
In debriefing my experience with an executive staff
member from the institution, we discussed possible reasons
for the fusion of Eastern and Western cultural
characteristics. We discussed how the Japanese media is
profoundly impacted by Western, specifically American, music,
movies, commercials, and television programmes. The continual
exposure to these and other sources of influence may
partially account for the participants’ fusion. In
addition, the participants have lived in the United States
for several months, purposefully attempting to learn American
culture. Another possible influence may have been the
students’ unintentional acquiescence demonstrated by a
desire to answer as an American would be expected to
answer.
In any case, the generalized, statistical information I
had learned about Japanese culture did not account for the
fusion of cultures in each participant, and in each
participant to varying degrees. In addition to the Japanese
participants’ fusion of cultures, the American participants
also exhibited a fusion of cultural traits. Most were
highly collectivistic, and demonstrated a high regard for
authority. This fusion of cultures highlights the
difficulty in stereotyping individuals based on generalized
cultural typologies, demonstrating the need for a method that
will enable individuals to probe into the different layers of
a culture, both micro and macro, on an individual basis, in
contrast to general analysis. The goal of the Interpretive
Transcultural Storytelling Method is to promote
transformation, fusion, and mutual team emergence by
utilizing narrative as a means for exploring the different
layers of micro and macro culture.
Hofstede is considered by many to be the industry
standard, however, his purpose is not to specifically address
actual relationship building between individuals from
different cultures. Within the new global economy, where
media, travel, and multinational organizations are prevalent,
these statistics can be used as a good place to start
interaction, but inadequate as the sole source for
interpersonal relationship building.
While some continue to who hold unswervingly to either
the quantitative or qualitative fields of inquiry, others
recognize the value in both. Because the nature of this
research rests strongly upon contextual awareness,
interpretation, and understanding, I will be utilizing
qualitative hermeneutic methodology. The purpose is two-
fold. The first purpose is to maintain a uniform structure
in approaching the project. The second is to contribute to
the field of hermeneutic research in the arena of the social
sciences. The following chapter will address hermeneutic
methodology more in-depth.
References:
Abbey, Ruth. (2000). Charles Taylor. Princeton: Princeton
University Press.
Blaikie, Norman. (1993). Approaches to social enquiry.
Cambridge: Polity Press
Cushman, Philip. (1995). Constructing the self,
constructing
America: A cultural history of psychotherapy.
Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley publishing Company, Inc.
Dostal, Ricahrd. (2002). The Cambridge companion to
Gadamer.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Dreyfus, Hubert L. (1991). Being-in-the world: A commentary
on
Heideggar’s being and time. Cambridge, MA: MIT
Press.
Gadamer, H. (1976). Philosophical hermeneutics. (D.E. Linge,
Trans). Berkley: University of California Press.
Gadamer, H. (1975). Truth and method (2nd edition). New
York:
Continuum.
Geertz, Clifford. (1973) The interpretation of cultures.
New
York: Basic Books, Inc.
Gephart, Robert. (Summer 1999). Paradigms and research
methods. Academy of Management, Research Methods
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Grondin, J. (1990). Hermeneutics and relativism. In K. Wright
(Ed.) Festivals of interpretation: Essays on Hans-
Georg Gadamer’s Work. New York: State University of
New York Press.
Hampden-Turner, Charles & Trompenaars, Fons. (2000).
Building cross-cultural competence. Yale: Yale Press.
Heiddeger, Martin. (1962) Being and Time. Translated by John
Macquarrie and Edward Robinson. New York: Harper.
Hirsch, E. D., Jr. (1967). Validity in interpretation. New
Haven:
Yale University Press.
Hofstede, Geert. (1997). Cultures and organizations:
Software
of the minds:Intercultural cooperation and its
importance for survival. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Hofstede, Geert. (2001). Culture’s consequences:
Comparing
values, behaviours, institutions, and organizations
across
nations, 2nd Edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Publications.
Koch, T. (1995). Interpretive Approaches in Nursing Research:
The influence of Husserl And Heidegger. Journal of
Advanced Nursing, 21, 827-836
http://www.aom.pace.edu/rmd/1999_RMD_Forum_Paradigms_and_Research_Methods.htm
Laverty, S. M. (2003). Hermeneutic Phenomenology and
Phenomenology: A Comparison
of Historical and methodological considerations.
International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 2(3).
Article 3. Retrieved May 11, 2004 from
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laverty.html
Maloney, M. (1993). Silent strength: A Heideggerian
Hermeneutical analysis of the stories of older women.
Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Georgia State
University, Atlanta. Retrieved April 2, 2004 from
http://www.coe.uga.edu/quig/proceedings/Quig98_Proceed
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McLeod, John. (2001). Qualitative research in counselling
and
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Merriam, S.B. (1988). Case study research in education: A
Qualitative approach. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass
Publishers.
Palmer, Richard. (1969). Hermeneutics. Evanston:
Northwestern University Press.
Rabinow, Paul & Sullivan, William M. (1987). Interpretive
social science: A second look. Berkley and Los
Angeles, CA: University of California Press.
Taylor, Charles. (1994) Multiculturalism. Princeton,
NJ:
Princeton University Press.
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Trompenaars, Fons & Hampden-Turner, Charles. (1998). Riding
the waves of culture.
2nd Edition. NY: McGraw-Hill.
Chapter 5
Methodology of Research: Part II
The previous chapter provided an overview of research
methodologies and a basic presentation of the methodology
chosen for this project. The present chapter is intended to
provide a more comprehensive examination of the relationship
of hermeneutics to the Interpretive Transcultural
Storytelling Method as well as an orientation to hermeneutic
methodology.
The Objective of the Present Research
The selection of a research methodology is equivalent to
selecting the materials for the foundation and construction
of a building. The foundation is laid to establish a solid
base on which to build. The frame and construction
materials determine the shape and the style of the new
construction. Likewise, within a research project, the
methodology not only forms the foundational approach of the
research, but determines framework as well. The
philosophical approach, writing style, and methods of the
research are all affected by the chosen research
methodology.
In building new construction, one of the primary
questions is the use or objective of the new facility. The
same question can be asked when constructing a research
project. The objective of the present research is to
develop a method for bringing about understanding between
cultures, specifically between growing minority cultures and
the predominant white culture in the United States. As the
United States continues to experience dramatic increase among
diverse cultures through immigration and the expanding global
economy, understanding between these cultures, including the
majority white culture, will become more imperative if a
cohesive, synergistic society is to emerge.
This research project approaches the cultural issues
from a religious, spiritual, and philosophical point of
reference. Although many factors are involved in developing
and defining a culture, the religious, spiritual, or
philosophical aspects are often foundational. As
demonstrated by the September 11, 2001 attack on the World
Trade Centres and Pentagon, the resulting invasion of Iraq,
the subsequent uprisings between Iraqi Muslim forces and the
occupying coalition forces, as well as the ongoing Israeli
and Palestinian conflict, religion plays a complicated role
in the world. In the pursuit of understanding, an attempt
will be made to determine how very different cultures may
conjointly and harmoniously exist, and a framework will
emerge of how to lead organizations in a trans-cultural
setting.
The Choice for the Present Research
Based upon the prevalence of quantitative methodology
in the field of multicultural management, I determined to
utilize hermeneutics, a qualitative approach. Evaluation of
various qualitative and quantitative methodologies was made
concerning epistemological and ontological questions.
McLeod (2001) writes:
The process of knowing involves employing a practical
method, which is derived from an epistemology (theory
of knowledge) which is in turn grounded in ontology
(set of assumptions about the nature of life).
Routine decisions made by qualitative researchers, for
example relating to sampling strategies, ways of
collecting data, ways of analyzing data, and selecting
a format for communicating findings can only be
resolved by recourse to underlying epistemological and
ontological principles. (p. 55)
McLeod (2001) identifies three key questions that
reflect the interconnection of methodology, epistemology, and
ontology. These include:
1 The ontological question. “What is the form and
nature of reality and, therefore, what is there that
can be known about it? 2 The epistemological
question. What is the relationship between the
knower and what can be known? 3 The methodological
question. How can the inquirer (would-be knower) go
about finding out whatever he or she believes can be
known? (p. 55)
McLeod continues to say that the positivist scientists have
addressed these questions, but those of the qualitative
approach have not done as well in this regard. He states
that phenomenology and hermeneutics (often used
interchangeably) are the roots of all qualitative research.
(McLeod, 2001, p. 56) McLeod writes:
Ontological hermeneutics is a way of
understanding that views people as existing within
multiple horizons of meaning, as striving to make
sense of their experience, as constituted by their
cultural and historical context, as engaged in
dialogue…. Epistemological hermeneutics is a body of
philosophical writing that has examined the value and
limitations of an interpretive approach to knowledge
creation. For example, the notion of the hermeneutic
circle is an important element of epistemological
hermeneutics. A hermeneutic methodology for social
sciences relies on both ontological and
epistemological hermeneutic principles. (p. 28) …
In hermeneutics, understanding is always from a
perspective, always a matter of interpretation. The
researcher can never be free of the pre-understandings
or ‘prejudices’ that arise from being a member of a
culture and a user of a language. We can never get
beyond our language- all the questions we ask and
words we use to articulate our understandings are
embedded in culture. What we can do in research is
to extend the horizon of our culture-based
understanding, or achieve a fusion of horizons through
allowing ourselves to learn from our immersion in the
‘text’ being studied and thereby permitting the
world expressed by the text to speak to our world.
(p. 56)
The hermeneutic emphasis on interpretation,
understanding, history and context is congruent with the
objectives of this research. The subjective researcher
plays a vital role in hermeneutic research and is viewed as
part of the process of understanding. Since hermeneutics
places an emphasis on the role of the researcher and his or
her emergence in the research process, the writing style
departs from traditional objective, third-person voice
commonly found in other scholarly and scientific
literature. In keeping with the core philosophies of
hermeneutics, this dissertation will be written in the first
person.
Historical Overview of Hermeneutics
The word, hermeneutics, can be traced back to the
Greek, wing-footed messenger-god, Hermes. “Significantly,
Hermes is associated with the function of transmuting what is
beyond human understanding into a form that human
intelligence can grasp. The Greeks credited Hermes with the
discovery of language and writing- the tools which human
understanding employs to grasp meaning and to convey it to
others” (Palmer, 1969, p.13). Hermeneutics simply means
“to interpret”. (Palmer, 1969)
As a methodology, hermeneutics was developed to aid in
the interpretation of Biblical texts. An emphasis is placed
on understanding the language and the context of the writings
under scrutiny. In addition, the prejudices and cultural
context of the examiner is seen as important. Hermeneutics
has evolved from a methodology solely for interpreting
written texts, to include texts in the broad sense, including
art, human relationships, sociology, and psychology. Palmer
(1969) describes the general context of hermeneutic
interpretation as follows:
Consider for a moment the ubiquity of
interpretation, and the generality of the usage of the
word: The scientist calls his analysis of data
‘interpretation’; the literary critic calls his
examination of a work ‘interpretation.’ The
translator of a language is called an ‘interpreter’;
a news commentator ‘interprets’ the news. You
interpret- or misinterpret- the remark of a friend, a
letter from home, or a sign on the street. In fact,
from the time you wake up in the morning to the time
you sink into sleep, you are ‘interpreting.’
Palmer (1969) continues, stating that hermeneutics is
“fundamental to all the humanities- all those
disciplines occupied with the interpretation of the
works of man… it’s principles should be required
fundamental study for all the humanistic discipline”
(Palmer, 1969, p.10).
Hermeneutics, therefore, has transcended the literary
arena and enveloped any field in which the study of humanity
is the focus. Hermeneutics emphasizes interpretation of the
world by a biased, as opposed to an unbiased, observer. The
researcher acknowledges his or her own prejudgments and
interprets the world reflexively, in a way that brings about
new knowledge. This new knowledge is dynamic, not static,
and is understood to be valid within context. “Implicit in
any form of qualitative inquiry is the realization that,
ultimately, we can never really know how the world is
constructed. We can never achieve a complete ‘scientific’
understanding of the human world. The best we can do is to
arrive at truth that makes a difference that opens up new
possibilities for understanding” (McLeod, 2001, p.4).
Understanding is the key concept in this approach.
Some of the Significant Contributors
Historically, hermeneutics has been influenced by a
number of renowned scholars, each having made his own impact
upon the philosophy. Dilthey (1833-1911), Husserl (1859-
1938), Heidegger (1889-1976), and Hans-Georg Gadamer (1900-
2002) are among some of those who have made a significant
contribution to the field hermeneutics. Each of these
individuals, as well as many others, have contributed
consequentially to the literature of hermeneutics, therefore
each will be addressed briefly.
Dilthey distinguished the cultural and social sciences
from the natural sciences on the basis of their objects and
the appropriate means for knowing them. The natural sciences
could be studied by an objective, distant observer. In this
realm causal relationships could be tested. He also
observed that social science involved a different set of
phenomena, such as texts, verbal communication and actions
which could be observed from an insider’s, the
researcher’s, perspective. This observation distinguished
the positivist and phenomenological or hermeneutic approaches
to research. An interpretive or hermeneutic methodology
could more reliably account for these objects by
reconstructing the internal cognitive processes which
motivated and gave meaning to each of them. Richard Palmer
(1969) writes:
It was Dilthey’s aim to develop methods of
gaining ‘objectively valid’ interpretations of
‘expressions of inner life.’ At the same time,
he reacted sharply to the tendency in the humane
studies simply to take on the norms and ways of
thinking of the natural sciences and apply them to the
study of man. (p. 98)
Dilthey also rejected the idealist tradition,
determining that concrete experience and not solely
speculation must be the starting point for a theory of the
social sciences and humanities, or Geistewissenschaften.
(Palmer, 1969) Dilthey held that the subject of
investigation and the investigator can communicate with each
other, and that the methods used in the natural sciences were
unable to accommodate such a methodology. Dilthey taught
that, “Concrete, historical, lived experience must be the
starting and ending point for the Geistewissenschaften.
Life itself is that out of which we must develop our thinking
and toward which we direct our questioning… Behind life
itself our thinking cannot go” (Palmer, 1969, p. 99).
Husserl, a phenomenologist philosopher, as well as a
mathematician, sought a logical method of discovering the
experience of consciousness. He adhered to a concept he
termed bracketing. Bracketing assumes an individual is able
to separate his or her pre-conceived ideas from their lived
experiences. This philosophy is in close conjunction with
that of positivistic experimental research. Phenomenological
hermeneutics also assumes that in order for the object to be
fully interpreted, a mental framework is needed. However,
instead of considering the surrounding historical and
cultural contexts, Husserl argued that the text reflects its
own mental frame. Husserl’s theory focused on addressing the
things themselves, considering objects as complete in
themselves. To interpret a text, according to Husserl, means
to methodically isolate it from all extraneous things
including the subject’s biases and allow it to communicate
its meaning to the subject. “The aim of phenomenology is to
produce an exhaustive description of the phenomena of
everyday experience, thus arriving at an understanding of the
essential structures of the ‘thing itself’, the phenomena”
(McLeod, 2001, p. 38).
Heidegger, a colleague of Husserl, theorized that an
individual cannot be separated from the context in which he
or she lives. Heidegger’s philosophy offered an alternate
world view from Husserl’s belief of a subject-object split.
As a human or Dasien, our meaning is co-created through being
born human and through our life experiences and culture.
Heidegger, unlike Husserl, did not believe it was possible to
bracket our prejudices of the world. However, awareness of
our prejudices or assumptions is important to valid
interpretation. “Heidegger regarded understanding as being
fundamental to human existence and therefore, the task of
ordinary people. He argued that there is no understanding
outside of history; human beings cannot step outside their
social world or historical context in which they live.
Prejudgments shaped by our culture are the only tools we
have.” (Blaikie, 1993, p. 35). Heidegger’s approach can
be defined as a way to “interpret the shared meanings and
practices that we have for our experiences within a context”
(Maloney, 1993, p. 40). “For Heidegger, understanding is
no longer conceived of as a way of knowing but as a mode of
being, as a fundamental characteristic of our ‘being’ in
the world” (Koch, 1995, p. 831).
Heidegger is attributed with the development of the
hermeneutic circle which is a method of building an
interpretation by “moving back and forth between the part
and the whole. This involves gaining a sense of the whole
text, and then using that as a framework for understanding
fragments of the text; carrying out micro-analysis of the
possible meanings of small sections of text, and using these
to challenge or interpret the overall sense of the total
text” (McLeod, 2001,p.26). The hermeneutic circle is an
important concept within the scope of hermeneutics, and will
be addressed later in this chapter.
Hans-Georg Gadamer was another significant contributor
in the realm of hermeneutics. Gadamer understood our pre-
judgments to have a powerful influence in our interpretation
of the world. “For whomever pronounces himself or herself
free of prejudices is all the more blindly exposed to their
power. Prejudices will exercise their underground domination
all the more strongly, and potentially distortingly, when
denied or repressed” (Grondin, 1990, p. 54). The
prejudices of the researcher originate from his or her own
historical background and context. Prejudices are not viewed
as an impediment to knowledge, rather a tool for gaining new
insight. A common principle in psychotherapy is that
individuals interpret the world in light of their own
experiences; this is in congruence with hermeneutic
philosophy. Explicitly understanding the lens through
which the world is viewed becomes a vital part of the
hermeneutic process. The researcher does this by keeping a
research journal, documenting the process of the hermeneutic
circle. Gadamer also proposed the concept of the clearing
and the horizon to be discussed later in this chapter.
Hermeneutics has a long history with many philosophers
and scholars having made profound contributions. The
preceding contributors are only a sampling of the significant
individuals involved in the evolution of the art of
interpretation.
Overview of Hermeneutic Concepts
Hermeneutics was originally developed as a philosophy
for understanding and interpreting texts. As the philosophy
evolved it began to be valued as a paradigm in the social
sciences. In order for hermeneutics to be useful in the
humanities, certain adjustments to the approach were
needed. Cushman (1995) says, “The process of studying
humans is not the same as ‘reading’ persons as ‘texts,’
but more like standing behind them and reading over their
shoulder the cultural text from which they themselves are
reading” (p. 23). Some criticisms of the hermeneutic
approach in social science research are the lack of set
guidelines, theory and methods. Due to the heavy emphasis on
the interpretation of the researcher, validity,
generalizability of the research, is suspect. Charles Taylor
“contends that humans can never be fully or finally
understood: as self-interpretations change, so theories of
human behaviour must alter to accommodate this” (Abbey,
2000, p. 155).
Hermeneutics is a philosophical way of gaining
understanding, and a variety of approaches may be utilized
within this framework. Every author who has contributed to
the literature on hermeneutics adds his or her own
interpretation of how study should be approached. Cushman
(1995) concisely describes the hermeneutic perspective as:
“…a determination to focus on the everyday,
lived context of whatever, or whoever, one is
studying. This approach focuses on situating one’s
object of study in the cultural and historical context
in which it is embedded. People and things exist
only within a certain political and moral context, and
they are not understandable outside of it. Studying
humans by abstracting them from their cultural context
and observing them in a dispassionate, putatively
objective manner in the psychological laboratory is
more akin to removing a fish from water than picking
up a rock from its resting place. Studying people in
a scientistic way renders them lifeless. Individuals
and their context form a dialogical, interpenetrating
unit. By studying one, the researcher inevitably
studies the other. Also, in undertaking a research
project, the researcher brings his or her own cultural
frame of reference into the picture, which continually
and unavoidably frames and shapes the process. (P.
17)
An important aspect of the hermeneutic perspective is
that it is holistic, a departure from the dualism found in
traditional research. The researcher emerges or evolves as
a result of the study, as does the object of the study.
Relationships and interaction between human beings
continually change those human beings. In an attempt to
find understanding, the researcher necessarily becomes a
significant component in the study, both learning of the
other as well as learning of himself or herself.
Understanding
For Heidegger, understanding has its origin in his
concept of a human being’s ongoing encounter with the
world. This involves an individual’s questioning of the
world, questioning of others, and questioning of one’s own
being. Heidegger refers to Dasein as “a ‘human way of
being,’ which he [Heidegger] calls ‘being there’”
(Dreyfus, 1991, p. 14). He argues it is impossible to
separate one’s human consciousness from his or her encounter
with the world. In other words, it is impossible to
separate the subject from object. Further, for Heidegger,
it is understanding which is the ongoing manifestation of
Dasein. He also notes that understanding, like Dasein, is
never static, rather it is continually transformed. Heidegger
posits that understanding is always dependent upon and shaped
by the world that the human being encounters.
For Gadamer, understanding is a social activity, a
“sharing in a common meaning” (Gadamer, 1977, p.292).
Gadamer posits that the human being is always involved in
understanding, and understands by participating in a
conversation with what he or she experiences. To understand
(verstehen) means to grasp something or to see more clearly,
to integrate a meaning into a larger frame of reference.
Interpretation
Hermeneutics itself means to interpret, to bring about
understanding. Gadamer is clear that interpretation is a
special kind of understanding, but he is equally clear that
it is not a tool for understanding. In Truth and Method he
notes, “Interpretation is not a means through which
understanding is achieved; rather, it enters into the content
of what is understood” (Dostal, 2002, p. 398). For Gadamer,
to call interpretation a tool for understanding is to distort
and simplify its much more intimate relationship to
understanding. Gadamer’s avoidance of the term tool reflects
his consistent distrust of methodizing any reading or writing
activity. To make any interpretive activity a tool is to
destroy the conversation which is unique to each reader’s
understanding of a text. Gadamer’s position here is
significant, for it shows how any hermeneutical term for him
is constantly re-seen in the activity of interpre tation.
Gadamer agrees with Heidegger, who says that
interpretation is simply “the working-out of possibilities
projected in understanding” (Dostal, 2002, p. 189).
Interpretation is articulating the meanings of expe rience so
that one can say that interpretation makes understanding more
explicit. It can be seen as the linguistic manifestation of
understanding which is always contextualized, always an
understanding in relationship to something else. Abbey
(2000) discussing Charles Taylor’s position writes:
Taylor has argued that there is a double
hermeneutic at work in the human sciences compared to
the natural sciences. This is due directly to one of
the ontological features he ascribes to persons. As
outlined in Chapter 2, he believes that humans are
self-interpreting beings and any attempt to explain
their attempt must take this into account. This is
necessary for two reasons. Firstly, how humans
understand themselves and their world is an essential
or primary property of their existence, not one that
can be bracketed out in the quest to explain them.
Secondly, because humans’ self-interpretations
influence their actions and behaviour, any account
that excludes this variable can not be adequate. So,
appreciating how the persons under study view their
situation is an essential component of understanding
them. As Taylor puts it, the demand “that we
confront our language of explanation with the self-
understanding of our subjects, is nothing else but the
thesis of hermeneutic theory.” (p.154)
Taylor does not suggest that the social scientist take
these self-interpretations as the final word or as empirical
evidence, but that they must be taken into account whenever
the study of human beings is being conducted. (Abbey, 2000)
Application
Application for Gadamer is what locates the interpreter
and the text within the historical moment, so that
application allows the interpreter to appropriate what he or
she reads into his or her present historical situation.
Because of the temporal nature of application, Gadamer can
conclude that a text must be understood continuously,
concretely, and in a new and different way. (Dostal, 2002)
Horizons
Gadamer maintains that hermeneutic thought merges the
horizons of the past and present, giving it an open horizon.
A horizon can be defined as conscious awareness, underlying
assumptions about the way the world works, a world view, or
an order of things. Hermeneutic consciousness has a horizon
which is in motion and which is continually changing as our
consciousness of the present continually merges with our
consciousness of the past. Cushman (1995) writes:
Martin Heidegger and Hans-Georg Gadamer argued
that it is not possible to exist as a human being
outside of a cultural context. People can exist only
within a cultural framework that is carved out of the
sensory bombardment of potential perceptions and
possible ways of being… The bombardment of
perceptions and possibilities is like a forest, and
the carved out space is like a ‘clearing’ in the
forest. The clearing of a particular culture is
created by the components of its conceptual systems
and transmitted from one individual to the next and
one generation to the next through their communal
traditions of shared understandings and linguistic
distinctions. It is only within the clearing that
people ‘show up’ in certain shapes and with certain
characteristics. The paradox of the clearing is
thought to be caused by its horizontal nature:
Horizons are created by the culture’s particular way
of perceiving… That is, the clearing is both
liberating, because it makes room for certain
possibilities, and limiting, because it closes off
others. Horizons are thought to be perspectival, and
therefore moveable. (p. 21)
True hermeneutic inquiry requires both the researcher
and the object of the study be changed. As the two
interact, a fusion of horizons occurs, in which both emerge
transformed. “The emphasis on fusion of horizons and
arriving at consensus over meaning reflects the dialogical
nature of hermeneutic work” (McLeod, 2001, p. 28).
Dialogical Reasoning
Gadamer stressed the importance of reflection and
conversation in knowing. Conversation assumes mutuality of
question and answer (Gadamer, 1976). Gadamer proposed that
through conversation with one another, understanding, that
can not be predicted nor controlled, will occur. He believed
that true conversation is when people are open, equally
participative, and interested in achieving common
understanding. Gadamer believed conversation to be an
important function in crossing cultural or personal borders,
leading to new discovery and understanding.
Contextualization
Hermeneutics relies heavily upon contextual analysis.
The context of the researcher as well as the object of the
research is important to consider. Developing a mutual
understanding of these contexts aids in the emergence of new
understanding and meaning. Context involves, among other
things, reflecting upon historical and socio-cultural
factors. This is often addressed utilizing the hermeneutic
circle. The individual parts of context are revisited in
context of the whole. “Hermeneutics is all about context,
about placing the topic of inquiry into historical and
cultural perspective” (McLeod, 2001, p. 56). McLeod
(2001) continues:
Hermeneutics can be understood as ‘tradition-
informed’ inquiry, in the sense that questions that
are being investigated are always viewed not only in
their cultural-historical context or tradition of the
researcher. We cannot step outside culture and
history. We can only make sense of action in terms of
the value, virtues and story of the good life that
prevail within our cultural world. Hermeneutics
insists that we accept and embrace these realities,
rather than pretending that we can achieve a knowledge
of human affairs that somehow transcends culture and
history. The way we can achieve useful
understandings of human affairs is to enter fully into
dialogue. (p. 23)
Hermeneutic Spiral
The hermeneutic spiral is considered fundamental to the
interpretation process. This principle suggests that
understanding is achieved through iterations in a dialogical
reflection. The researcher iterates between considering the
interdependent meaning of parts and the whole that they form.
McLeod (2001) states:
Inquiry proceeds by building up an
interpretation, through moving back and forth between
the part and the whole. This involves: gaining a sense
of the meaning of the whole text, and then using that
as a framework for understanding fragments of the
text; carrying out the micro-analysis if the possible
meanings of small sections of text, and using these to
challenge or re-interpret the overall sense of the
text. (p.27)
The hermeneutic spiral is sometimes called the
hermeneutic circle. I have chosen to use the term spiral in
order to diffuse confusion of continually retracing one’s
steps as connoted in the term circle. To maximize the
effectiveness and efficiency of the hermeneutic spiral,
constant alternating between and merging into another world
and linking back to our own is required. The spiral not
only helps one interpret the other, but it also helps in
understanding self. Ricoeur said that we can make sense of
ourselves only in and through our involvement with others.
(Ricoeur, 1981)
Prejudice
Prejudice, defined by Gadamer (1976), is prejudgment.
Prejudices are our preconceived notions of things, emanating
from our past experience and socialization. In the
positivist/empirical and Husserlian views of truth, the way
to eradicate prejudice was to maintain objectivity by
“bracketing” experiences. However, Heidegger and Gadamer
believed this was impossible. To understand another we cannot
shed our past experience, because it is this past experience
that actually facilitates understanding the other. Gadamer
advocated continual striving to explicate our
prejudices. Gadamer (1975) writes:
Long before we understand ourselves in
retrospective reflection, we understand ourselves in
self-evident ways, in the family, society, and state
in which we live. The focus of subjectivity is a
distorting mirror. The self-reflection of the
individual is only a flicker in the closed circuits of
historical life. (p. 245)
Understanding and awareness of our prejudice is vital
in the hermeneutic process for it impacts the whole
hermeneutic process. “Every act of hermeneutic understanding
begins with a pre-understanding, which orients the inquirer
to the text or topic. One of the tasks of the hermeneutic
scholar is to become aware of and reflexively explicate this
pre-understanding in a way that creatively feeds into the
process of understanding itself” (McLeod, 2001, p.23).
Conclusion
Originally uttered by Schleiermacher (1768-1834), and
popularized by Dilthey, the phrase, “there is no
understanding without pre-understanding” is central in
hermeneutic thought. However, when striving to find
understanding, we must be careful not to understand it only
in terms of our own prejudices, or only in terms of the
prejudices of the author and agent. Hermeneutics offers a
rich philosophical starting point from which to begin a study
into human interactions. As in the case of this research,
some have ventured to utilize hermeneutics in studying cross-
cultural relationships. For example, Clifford Geertz has made
great strides in helping hermeneutics evolve from a
predominately historical literary methodology to the cross-
cultural realm.
With the introduction of hermeneutics into the story of
the ITSM project, the next component to the story is an
introduction to a suitable method. The following chapter
introduces narrative storytelling as a logical method to
partner with hermeneutic methodology given its literary
history.
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Chapter 6
Method: Narrative Storytelling
Having established hermeneutics as the methodological
framework of the ITSM project, the natural unfolding of the
storyline reveals the need for the adoption of a research
method. In selecting a method, I relied heavily upon the
historical literary nature of hermeneutics and a M.Sc. course
I taught on hermeneutics at University of Buckingham. The
students were part of a Socio-economic Transformation cohort
which emphasised a team approach in the pursuit of the M.Sc.
degree.
The participants were from China, Taiwan, USA, France,
and England. In the module I addressed the importance of
self knowledge, utilizing the Components of the Self
worksheet as part of the process. In reviewing the
worksheets, the students from the East presented completely
different responses than the Western students. We
investigated this phenomenon and the students illuminated
using personal stories. Throughout the course, personal
stories emerged as a valuable resource for helping others
understand a variety of cultural dynamics.
In the end, the group presented a class project on
which they worked together. The students unanimously agreed
that the module had helped them to better understand each
other and to work more effectively together. Observing the
transformation of this group during a one week course
illuminated the value of a hermeneutic and storytelling
approach in building a synergistic team.
As a follow up to the module, I reflected upon the
elements that had contributed to the transformation of the
M.Sc. group. Among the contributing elements present in the
M.Sc. course were exercises for increasing self knowledge,
personal storytelling, dialogue, an emphasis on
interpretation and fusion of horizons, in context with a
multicultural team of students working towards a common
goal. As demonstrated in their final project and their
comments regarding the more synergistic team work in the
final project, the utilization of hermeneutics and
storytelling dramatically improved the team’s cohesiveness.
This was the birth of the Interpretive Transcultural
Storytelling Method.
Narrative storytelling is utilized in sociology and
psychology, but I have been unable to detect its evolution
into the field of transcultural relationships specifically.
Narrative storytelling in conjunction with hermeneutics
achieves an element of the goal of a Doctorate of Philosophy
by contributing new knowledge to the field of study. Paul
Ricoeur (1981), a significant contributor to hermeneutics
argued that because personal identity is a narrative
identity, we can only make sense of our own lives through our
involvement with others. This chapter expounds on the use of
narrative storytelling and its relationship to hermeneutics
in context of the ITSM.
Narrative Storytelling and Hermeneutics: Method and
Methodology
Narrative storytelling, as a method, and hermeneutics,
as a methodology, provide a rich framework for understanding
self and others. Hermeneutics was developed, and evolved, as
a methodology for studying the Bible and later, literature in
general. It is now being used in the social sciences as a
methodology for gaining understanding between human beings.
As hermeneutics has its foundation in literature, utilizing
narrative storytelling as a method for interpersonal,
multicultural team building is a natural progression. As a
methodology for interpreting literature, hermeneutics has
served as a framework for emphasising the importance of the
reader understanding his or her personal contextual
framework. Only when having attained a clear understanding
of self, (the inside story) can a reader understand the
literary work (the other). In understanding self, the
reader or listener can interpret the other in light of the
differentiating factors as well as those where common ground
exists.
Hermeneutics, as a methodology, purposes to cultivate a
fusion of horizons where distinct individuals can emerge in
new ways of knowing and understanding. Due to the unique
frames of reference of individuals, especially those from
diverse cultures, a completely accurate understanding of
another’s story may be impossible. Denzin (1989) writes:
“A story that is told is never the same story
that is heard. Each teller speaks from a
biographical position that is unique and, in a sense,
unshareable. Each hearer of a story hears from a
similarly unshareable position. But these two
versions of the story merge and run together into a
collective, group version of the story that was told.
Because there are always stories imbedded in stories,
including the told story and the heard story, there
are only multiple versions of shareable and
unshareable personal experiences. (p.72)
Blending the cultures of the listener and the
storyteller is not the object of hermeneutics, rather
facilitating understanding which leads to a fusion where
differences remain, generating new, transforming knowledge
and a co-creative cultural context. Hermeneutics, from
its creation, has been concerned with facilitating the fusion
of horizons between differing cultural contexts, originally
the modern reader and an ancient text. Utilizing
hermeneutics for multicultural integration is consistent with
its original purpose, and using narrative storytelling is a
natural method for the implementation of such.
In social science generally, and specifically within
the present research, the person listening to the story of
another is the “reader”. The storyteller, and his or her
story, is the “literary work”. The use of narrative
storytelling naturally unfolds from hermeneutics as a method
of understanding the other. In clarification, most
scholarly literature classifies storytelling as narrative. In
defining narrative and storytelling, Randall (1995) writes,
“Narrative is the genus of which story is but one species.
Accordingly, while all stories are narratives, not all
narratives are stories” (p. 85). Therefore, as a method, I
have chosen to utilize the term, “narrative storytelling,”
in order to encompass the general and specific uses of the
concept.
William Randall’s seminal work titled, The Stories We
Are: An Essay on Self-Creation, “explores the links between
literature and life and speculates on what may be called
‘the range of storytelling styles’ according to which
people compose their lives, transform the events of their
lives into experiences, and seek coherence amid the diversity
of the inner world of self” (Randall, 1995, p. 0). In
doing so, he draws on a variety of fields including
psychology, psychotherapy, theology, philosophy, feminist
theory, and literary theory. Randall presents that each
of us makes sense of our lives by constructing a story in
which we are the author, narrator, main character, and
reader. The “stories we are,” are the stories of our
lives as we interpret them. Robert Atkinson, professor at
the University of Southern Maine and author of The Life Story
Interview (1998), states, “Historical reconstruction may not
be the primary concern in a life story; what is, is how
people see themselves at this point in their lives and want
others to see them” (Atkinson, 1998, p. 24). This story
can be re-written consciously or subconsciously as the novel
unfolds, and includes categories such as plot, character,
point of view, and style.
Each story contains a beginning, middle, and end.
Randall (1995) quotes Sartre, “We live our lives through our
stories and we understand ourselves, others, and our world in
terms of them” ( p.330). Charles Taylor states, “Thus my
discovering of my own identity doesn’t mean that I work it
out in isolation, but that I negotiate it through dialogue,
partly overt, partly internal, with others” (Taylor, 1994,
p. 34). Therefore, based upon its use within the social
sciences, storytelling is valuable in helping the teller
understand himself or herself, as well as an aid for others
to understand the teller.
Narrative Storytelling within Organizations
In context of the present research, which focuses on
intercultural relationships within organizations, Randall
states, “Unless we hear each other’s side of [that] story,
however, and get the story straight, distrust is likely to
grow, and the relationship itself unroll rather rockily, if
not completely unravel” (Randall, 1995, p. 107). In
developing relationships with others, Randall recognizes the
importance of “getting the story straight,” in other words,
interpreting, clarifying, and understanding while
communicating. Jack Maguire (1998) states, “Sharing real
life stories [in human history] was an essential element in
forging friendships, alliances, families, and communities.
It brought individuals a greater intimacy with each other
and, simultaneously, a stronger sense of self” (p. xiii).
Maguire continues, quoting Jimmy Neil Smith, “We’re all
storytellers. We all live in a network of stories. There
isn’t a stronger connection between people than
storytelling” (Maguire, 1998, p. xiii). Atkinson adds
his conviction, stating, “People telling their own stories
reveal more about their own lives than any other approach
could” (Atkinson, 1998, p. 90).
Although we are living in a time of unprecedented
communication technologies, the very use of such technologies
has deleted an element of personal interaction and has
inhibited the ability to communicate in a meaningful
manner. Maguire (1998) asserts that in light of such
technologies, “the world has grown alarmingly less
personal” (p. xiii). Although it is understood that
storytelling may not be appropriate in all corporate
environments, the premise of the present research is that
storytelling can play a productive role in establishing
relationships among co-workers, specifically those of
different cultural backgrounds. As Peter Brew of the
International Business Leaders Forum stated, “Business used
to be built by relationships, now it is dominated by deals…
it needs to come back to relationships.” (Peter Brew, 1-11-
05). For purposes of the present research, we will be
specifically addressing the usefulness of storytelling to
build relationships within transcultural businesses and
organizations. Storytelling has been shown to have a
profound impact in the workplace. As an example, Maguire
(1998) writes:
Call her Harriet: in the early 1980s, the
harridan of my daylight hours, and an all too
frequently recurring harpy in my nightmares. During
those years, I was scripting video programs for a
large communications company. She was my immediate
supervisor, and her management style was driving me
crazy. At staff meetings she appeared to be
democratic, good-natured, and supportive, but on a
one-to-one basis she proved to be exceptionally
autocratic, abrasive, and undermining.
One of Harriet’s most irritating habits was to
communicate her orders or complaints by
surreptitiously leaving a typewritten memo on the seat
of her intended recipient’s empty chair. My office
was not visible from hers. It was far away, through
a maze of corridors. But many times I would sit down
unwittingly on a fresh Harriet dropping. I couldn’t
help but picture her lurking behind some wall or
cabinet near my door, clutching a newly drafted memo,
ready to pounce the moment I vacated the premises.
Then one afternoon I was in Harriet’s office
reporting on the day’s taping. A discussion of
camera angles somehow prompted her to begin talking
about the first time she thought she might need
eyeglasses. She was in the second grade, she told
me. From her seat at the back of the classroom, she
couldn’t see her teacher’s lips move, and the white
a’s,e’s, and o’s on the black-board all looked the
same. She confessed her problem to her parents, and
the three of them nervously consulted an eye-doctor.
It was a dark, clear night when she rode home in the
back seat of the car after picking up her new
glasses. She stared out the rear window, and for the
first time in her life she saw the stars burning white
in the black sky. (p. 4)
Maguire describes how the simple three or four minute
picture of Harriet’s story “humanized the situation” and
transformed the whole atmosphere surrounding their
relationship (Maguire, 1998, p.4). His perception of her
changed, and therefore, his response to her management style
changed. (Maguire, 1998, p.4) Maguire demonstrates the
power of storytelling within the workplace. This simple
glimpse into the story of a co-worker can “humanize” a
relationship and change the perspective from which
individuals view each other. In considering the above story,
the lack of multicultural issues is apparent. In
researching relevant literature on narrative storytelling and
multicultural team building, I found no correlating
references. In lieu of multicultural equivalency to
Maguire’s Harriet story, I have rewritten the story, based
upon the neutral versus affective dimension of Trompenaars
and Hampden-Turner (1998), as it may conceivably be
experienced in a multicultural workplace.
Call her Hidemi: in the early 1980s, the
harridan of my daylight hours, and an all too
frequently recurring harpy in my nightmares. During
those years, I was scripting video programs for a
large communications company. She was Japanese, and
my immediate supervisor. Her management style was
driving me crazy. At staff meetings she appeared to
be good-natured, and supportive, yet simultaneously
stand-offish and evasive. She never answered my
questions directly and never demonstrated how she
felt. She never showed emotion, and that was foreign
to my way of thinking as a second generation Italian-
American.
One of Harriet’s most irritating habits was to
communicate her orders or complaints by beating around
the bush. She seemed weak and afraid of her
authority as a boss by the way she would rebuke her
employees. For example, instead of just saying,
“This is the third time you were late meeting a
deadline this month, next time you lose the
project.” Hidemi would say, “If you could please
see your way to kindly troubling yourself to try and
have your project on time, I would be most
appreciative.” It drives me crazy that she won’t
just come out with it.
Then one afternoon I was in Hidemi’s office
reporting on the day’s taping. A discussion of
camera angles somehow prompted her to begin talking
about when the company first moved her to the US.
She was thirty years old, she told me. Her immediate
supervisor was an older American gentleman. She
confessed her horror and embarrassment the first time
he yelled at her for making a mistake. She had never
been spoken to like that before. In Japan, her
experience at work had always been respectful and to
demonstrate emotion was highly frowned upon. She was
faced with the choice of becoming like her boss, or
hold closely to her Japanese values. She chose to
hold to her Japanese culture and did not fight back.
Her boss berated her and crushed her spirits. She
considered quitting and moving back to Japan. Soon
after that incident, her supervisor had retired, and
she was promoted to his position. She consciously
chose to conduct herself as a Japanese person, and
even though she has received a few complaints that she
is too abstract, she feels content knowing she has
been true to herself and to her Japanese heritage.
Presumptively, if storytelling has been proven
beneficial in the workplace, within a multicultural workplace
it could be valuable as well. The purpose of the present
research is to develop a method that facilitates the forming,
telling, and hearing of stories which will in turn create a
cohesive transcultural team.
Quoting Donald Polkinghorn, Randall writes,
“Narrative… is the primary form by which human experience
is made meaningful” (Randall, 1995, p. 90). Jungian
psychoanalyst, James Hillman states that patients are in
search of a new story, and that it is the story that needs
doctoring, not the patient. Freudian Analyst, Roy Schafer
posits that “each analysis amounts in the end to retelling a
life in the past and present- and as it may be in the
future. A life is re-authored as it is co-authored”
(Randall, 1995, p. 90). The use of narrative storytelling,
then, is utilized in the field of social sciences as a viable
concept for developing understanding of oneself and others.
Robert Atkinson, researcher author, and university professor,
(1998) states:
Storytelling, in its most common everyday form,
is giving a narrative account of an event, an
experience, or any other happening. We can tell of
these happenings because we know what has happened.
It is this basic knowledge of an event that allows us
to tell about it. What generally happens when we
tell a story from our own life is that we increase our
working knowledge of ourselves because we discover
deeper meaning in our lives through the process of
reflecting and putting the events, experiences, and
feelings that we have lived into oral expression. (p.
1)
Demonstrating the correlation of hermeneutics and
storytelling, Atkinson highlights the importance of
developing self-knowledge, a core value of hermeneutics.
Atkinson continues, stating that the life story interview is
a “qualitative research method for gathering information on
the subjective essence of one person’s life” (Atkinson,
1998, p. 3). “In the process of telling our life stories,
we share important truths, as we see them, and in so doing,
create vital links with those who participate in the
exchange. Telling and listening to life stories is a
powerful experience… The life story, then, is very much an
interdisciplinary approach to understanding not only one life
across time, but how individual lives interact with the
whole” (Atkinson, 1998, p. 3-4).
Validating the use of storytelling in a variety of
disciplines, Atkinson (1998) notes a number of uses:
Psychologists now see the value of personal
narratives in understanding development and
personality (McAdams, 1993; Runyan, 1982).
Anthropologists use the life story, or individual case
study, as the preferred unit of study for their
measures of cultural similarities and variations
(Langness & Frank, 1981; Spradley, 1979).
Sociologists use life stories to understand and define
relationships and group interactions and memberships
(Bertaux. 1981; Linde, 1993). (p. 6)
Consistent with the variety of uses of storytelling,
the present research places it within the context of business
and organizations. David Boje, associate professor of
management at Loyola Marymount University and editor of the
Journal of Organizational Change Management, states, “Think
of an organization as a big conversation. People are
conversing all day long. An organization is an ongoing
storytelling event” (Maguire, 1998, p. 202). Author and
vice-president of Armstrong International, David Armstrong
advocates storytelling as a valuable means to forge
partnerships and teams, and has developed a reputation world-
wide as a leader in storytelling on the corporate
environment. (Armstrong, 2002) Maguire (1998) writes of
another advocate of storytelling in the workplace:
John Ward, a corporate consultant in what he
diplomatically calls ‘creative communication’ rather
than ‘storytelling,’ believes that stories develop a
businessperson’s ‘peripheral vision.’ … Ward’s
theory is that stories set in motion a different way
of thinking that can result in workplace
breakthroughs: ‘Stories can potentially support
thinking beyond the dots by arousing emotions and
awakening the imagination.’ He believes that
storytelling is particularly effective in helping
resolve those problems in a corporation that somehow
relate to communication. (p. 204)
The “workplace breakthroughs” of which Ward speaks
are analogous to the “fusion of horizons” of hermeneutics,
and the use of the term “emergence” I have chosen to
utilize in the ITSM. The breakthrough, fusion of horizons,
or emergence requires the conjoint effort of two or more
participants, synergistically creating new knowledge. This
new knowledge will inherently involve valuable inter-personal
understanding and relationship building, and will
theoretically lead to other productive ends as well, such as
more efficient protocols, co-creation, operating procedures,
and innovative ideas.
Academic and practical anecdotal evidence exists that
supports the use of storytelling as a means of enhancing
corporate communication and camaraderie.
However, an obvious gap exists when translating
storytelling into the specific realms of multicultural
communication. While there is no shortage of literature on
multicultural communication or management, the bulk of the
literature addresses the stereotypical differences.
Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner, as well as Hofstede have
provided valuable works on multicultural competencies, but
the questionnaires and results obtained are not designed for
facilitating emergence between individuals who are a part of
a team. These individuals will most assuredly have varying
levels of acculturation and characteristics that are too
complex for the generalizations such as collectivistic,
universal, or low power distance.
Through storytelling, dialogue can occur which will
promote understanding of self and the other. As
demonstrated in the first fieldwork exercise of the present
research, the students from Japan and the American faculty
members shared certain qualities generally attributed to the
other culture. The Interpretive Transcultural Storytelling
Method will contribute to the field of storytelling as an
organizational device by specifically addressing the
multicultural arena in a manner that will take individuality
into consideration.
Narrative Storytelling as a Research Method
In congruence with hermeneutic methodology, the
narrative method is best described by Atkinson (1998) as
follows:
The position here is that the life story
interview can be approached scientifically, but it is
primarily carried out as an art. Though there is a
structure (a set of question or parts thereof) that
can be used, each interviewer [researcher] will apply
this in his or her own way. Tough theories may come
into play to varying degrees throughout the process,
the interview and the interpretation of it is highly
subjective… Because the life story interview is
primarily an artful endeavour, it should be
interpreted as an art form. The life story interview
has its own standards of reliability and validity,
distinct from quantitative research methods…
Qualitative research (including life story interviews)
can be determined reliable or valid on its own
merits… based primarily upon subjectivity,
flexibility, and inevitable human variables…. A life
story is first and foremost a text to be read,
understood, and interpreted on its own merit and in
its own way. (p. 21)
The texts, the stories of the participants, are interpreted
by other participants and me, the researcher. The evolving
story is that of the individuals, the interpersonal
relationships, and the team to which they belong. The
validity and reliability, as well as the perceived value of
the ITSM is interpreted as well, by the individuals, the
team, and by me, as Atkinson stated, subjectively.
Each ITSM workshop approximately lasts between four to
six hours and is typically done in one or two hour intervals
on consecutive days or weeks. The workshop begins with an
overview of hermeneutic philosophy. This is done in
layman’s terms, avoiding technical detail. Primarily, the
emphasis is placed upon self-knowledge, or personal context,
which dictates the frame of reference from which each
individual views the world in general, and others,
specifically. The participants are then briefed on the
importance of understanding the context, specifically the
cultural context, of the other.
This is analogous to understanding the context of the
literature one is reading. Finally, the hearer interprets
the message, purposefully considering the storyteller’s
context and his or her own context. The ITSM stages in
which this process takes place are Interpretation and
Clarification. The outcome of the interpreted story is
understood to be a culmination of the process resulting in
new knowledge and understanding. This takes place in the
ITSM stages of Understanding and Emergence. This process is
presented by Webb as the X-Y-Z Principle. (Webb, 2001)
While Webb’s terms will not be explicitly utilized in the
ITSM, his concepts present a valuable backdrop for
understanding the hermeneutic process within the ITSM model.
Succinctly, the X-Y-Z Principle as applied to the ITSM
process is as follows, accompanied by examples from the first
field work exercise:
X: The cultural context from which the storyteller,
and therefore the story itself, originates.
Example: Lisa is a twenty-one year old Japanese
woman. She is in the United States for the first
time, and she will be in the USA for four months.
Lisa’s family holds to traditional Japanese values,
of special relevance to her story, is the value
Japanese places upon elders.
Y: The actual text, or message, being conveyed.
Example: Although Lisa’s family highly regards the
traditional Japanese cultural values, Lisa could not
tolerate the demands her grandfather placed upon
her. She refused to talk to him, unless absolutely
necessary, for approximately one year. To compound
the stress of this relationship, Lisa lived with her
grandparents during that time.
Z: The interpretation of the story by the hearer, in
light of X, Y, and his or her own context. This
ultimately leads to new knowledge and understanding
between the storyteller and the listener, from the
evolved relationship emerges.
Example: As an American with an understanding of
the value Japanese culture places upon elders, I found
it incongruent that Lisa would consider herself a
traditionally Japanese person, and yet break
communication with her grandfather. My mother and
grandmother had a similar relationship for several
years, yet we lived in different towns, and our
culture is much more independent and
individualistic. In our discussion as a group, Lisa
explained how she never treated her grandfather with
disrespect; she simply did not pursue communication
with him. She said she still “acted”
respectfully. Through following the ITSM process of
Clarification, as a group, we came to a mutual
understanding.
Following the overview of hermeneutic principles, the
participants are given the opportunity to complete the
Components of the Self worksheet as well as the Trompenaars
and Hampden-Turner questions. The purpose of these
exercises is to promote In-Spection, or self-knowledge, as
well as to spur discussion which illuminates cultural
differences.
The participants are encouraged, but not required, to
consider a story that helps others gain insight into their
personal and cultural foundations. As the participants take
turns sharing their stories, the listeners are encouraged to
be aware of a number of processes taking place. The story
tellers are encouraged to begin with a brief overview of
their cultural background, especially illuminating cultural
nuances affecting the story they will be sharing. This allows
the participants to place the story, at least to a small
degree, within a context, fitting with the “X” phase of the
process identified above. As a primary level of
Interpretation, the listeners are then encouraged to listen
to the facts, trying to hear the pure message, congruent with
the “Y” stage.
Next, the listeners are asked to attempt Interpreting
the story in light of the context of the teller, the message,
and their own context. The participants are asked to clarify
what they have interpreted by asking questions and re-stating
certain key elements. The discussion in this phase will
cycle back and forth until a measure of mutual understanding
is achieved. This moving back and forth between the teller
and the hearer is known as the hermeneutic cycle, or
spiral.
In addition, the participants are asked to subjectively
be aware of the different levels at which the stories and
subsequent dialogues rise and fall. This is outlined for
the participants in the handout they each receive, and
includes the general categories of Surface and Depth, and
specifically breaks down into the topsoil, subsoil, bedrock,
and core. Surface includes the topsoil and subsoil, while
Depth incorporates the bedrock and core. (Lessem and Palsule,
2002) The Topsoil, according to Lessem (2002) includes our
personal, instinctive attitudes and behaviours, or
inclinations. Attitudes toward time, the manner in which
business cards are exchanged, and other social and etiquette
phenomena are considered topsoil. As the name implies,
topsoil is a superficial level of communication. Subsoil
takes us deeper into understanding institutional frameworks,
systems, and models, and includes the way individuals and
groups within a society relate, forming a collective
intelligence. Included within Subsoil are economic,
political, and legal systems.
Styles or philosophies of business and management
styles are also included in this level. “At the bedrock
level of culture, we are dealing with the holistic
philosophies and policies, that is the ideologies, that lie
well below the everyday surface, stimulating insight”
(Lessem and Palsule, 2002, p. 175). According to Lessem
(2002), this level incorporates ideological orientations,
philosophies and policies. An example of an ideological
framework is the cultural impact of Confucianism in China.
The Core, then, represents the depth of cultural
understanding and includes “images drawn from the sciences,
the humanities or indeed from the depths of religion,
inclusive of language in its original context, informing our
imagination” (Lessem and Palsule, 2002, p. 175).
The participants are encouraged to enter into dialogue
regarding the stories shared, specifically exploring
differences and similarities between different cultural
nuances. The listeners and the storyteller then agree,
after cycling through the previous stages as often as
necessary, upon a shared understanding and how this new and
information can spawn mutual, synergistic Emergence, for
example, a new way of thinking and behaving.
Utilizing storytelling is an established practice for
building teamwork within organizations. However, the
literature is lacking regarding the use of storytelling
specifically in building teamwork within multicultural
settings. The present research will contribute to the field
of management by examining the use of storytelling for
specifically this cause.
References:
Armstrong, David. (2002). Chief storytelling officer: More
tales
from America’s foremost corporate storyteller.
Three Rivers, MI: Armstrong International.
Atkinson, Robert. (1998). The life story interview.
Thousand
Oaks: Sage Publications.
Brew, Peter. (Jan. 11, 2005). Personal communication,
University of Buckingham.
Denzin, Norman K. (1989). Interpretive biography. Newbury
Park: Sage Publications.
Friedman, Thomas L. (2005). The world is flat: A brief
history of
the twenty-first century. New York: Farrar, Straus
and Giroux.
Lessem, Ronnie, & Palsule, Sudhanshu. (2002). From local
identity to global integrity. Leadership and
Organization Development Journal UK, Volume 23, No. 4,
174-185.
Lessem, Ronnie & Palsule, Sudhanshu. (1997). Managing in
four worlds: From competition to co-creation.
Oxford, UK: Basil Blackwell.
Maguire, Jack. (1998). The power of personal storytelling:
Spinning tales to connect with others. NY: Jeremy P.
Tarcher/ Putnam.
Randall, William. (1995). The stories we are: An essay on
self-
creation. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
Reissman, Catherine K. (1993). Narrative analysis. Newbury
Park: Sage Publications.
Ricoeur, Paul. (1981). Hermeneutics and the human sciences.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Taylor, Charles. (1994) Multiculturalism. Princeton,
NJ:
Princeton University Press.
Webb, William J. (2001). Slaves, women & homosexuals:
Exploring the hermeneutics of cultural analysis.
Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity.
Chapter 7
Contextualization: From Texas to Mexico, Via London
With the ITSM placed in context of literature and
methodology, the stage is set to begin the practice of
hermeneutic research. Before embarking on a journey into
the study of others, it is necessary to begin with a solid
foundation of one’s own perceptions, beliefs, biases,
prejudices, and general culture. The cornerstone of
Socrates’ philosophical teachings was, “Know Thyself”.
The Tao Te Ching proclaims, “He who knows others is wise, He
who knows himself is enlightened”. It is difficult to
study a foreign culture and truly understand that culture.
However, it is equally difficult to step out of one’s
indigenous culture and study it from an objective view
point. Presuppositions must be challenged with a critical
evaluation of veracity and validity. For Socrates, the
beginning of knowledge is doubt. As Will Durant summarizes
Socrates, “There is no real philosophy until the mind turns
around and examines itself” (Durant, 1953, p. 6).
Genuinely examining one’s own religious faith, opinions,
values, and other cherished beliefs requires a willingness to
reject those beliefs if warranted. As well as internal
beliefs, the cultural context must be examined. A critical
evaluation of one’s culture requires the same willingness to
challenge the pillars of that culture.
Hermeneutic methodology requires a researcher and
interpreter to have a sense of self-knowledge prior to
interpreting another’s story. This chapter on Macro-
contextualization is included as part of my personal journey
in gaining self-knowledge. As the primary researcher in
this project, a solid grounding in my personal history as
well as that of my cultural context is necessary. William
Randall, in “The Stories We Are” (1995), addresses the
metaphor of our lives as stories, and the various manners in
which our stories unfold.
This chapter describes the beginning of a purposeful
process of transformational emergence. The present exposure
to literary, cultural, spiritual, political, and ethnographic
frameworks outside of my norm, have propelled me from the
status quo into a new world awaiting discovery. The process
has included, and will continue to include, wrestling with
long held traditional beliefs and pre-judgments in a variety
of arenas, most significantly in the field of spirituality
and religion.
“From Texas to Mexico, via London” is the slogan
printed on the back of a souvenir t-shirt I purchased in a
Tex-Mex restaurant located near Trafalgar Square, in the
heart of historic London, England. Beginning my second
year at the University of Buckingham, I arrived in London a
few days early in order to do some sight-seeing. Leaving my
hotel near Victoria Station early the first morning, I
strolled past the New Scotland Yard, over to Westminster
Abbey, and stood in awe as the early morning sun reflected
off of Big Ben. My journey led me to the National Gallery,
St Martin-in- the-Fields Cathedral, and the fountains of
Trafalgar Square. As I walked past the Canadian Embassy,
something out of place caught my attention. It was a Texas
flag flying outside of a restaurant called the Texas Embassy.
It is located just behind the Canadian Embassy, and a few
blocks from where the historic Texas Embassy stood from 1835
to 1846. I was intrigued and purposed to return that
evening for dinner. I felt an impending sense of guilt for
eating at a restaurant that was so closely related to my own
culture while in a city filled with food from around the
world. After all, I was there to learn and explore. What I
received that evening was more than a meal and a souvenir t-
shirt. What I received that evening I would only discover
about six months later while reflecting on the experience.
“From Texas to Mexico via London” has become a
metaphor chronicling my journey to this point in my
story. Texas has come to represent the historical,
ethnocentric me. London, (more specifically the University
of Buckingham), is representative of the present where I am
in process of evolving. Mexico represents the future and a
Transcultural, world-centric me. In a story, there are a
variety of themes the author may choose to highlight. In my
story, for this context, the theme I have chosen is that of
my world-view.
As the t-shirt implies, Texas is where my personal
journey began. I am a Texan, and proud of my heritage.
During the U.S. presidential campaign of 2000, I had an
opportunity to meet and chat with the future President of the
United States, George W. Bush. He was then the Governor of
Texas and he was on a campaign stop in Washington State,
where I now reside. I greeted him that morning with,
“Hello Mr. Bush, I am a fellow Texan.” Immediately he
stopped, put his arm around me and asked where I was from.
The hundreds of people gathered around him waited impatiently
as we talked about Texas, where my family members live, and
about his recent trip to the area where my grandparents
live.
There is a strong element of American patriotism in the
U.S., but my experience is the patriotism of Texans goes
deeper. There is even a saying that goes, “Don’t ever ask
a man where he is from. If he’s from Texas, he’ll tell you,
if he’s not, you don’t want to embarrass him.” I am
a Texan and an American. I am also white and a Christian
fundamentalist. As such, I have had a very concrete way of
perceiving the world, other cultures and religions. I have
not been ignorant of these prejudices, but they are growing
evermore apparent as I continue to delve deeper into the
philosophies and beliefs of the “other.”
My story begins in the small West-Texas town of
Floydada. Located in the panhandle, Floydada is an
unimpressive community supported by agriculture. It is arid
and flat, with only an occasional oasis of trees, usually
planted strategically as wind blocks. The extent of
multicultural experience afforded me in those early years was
the strong Mexican-American population and to a lesser degree
an African-American population. For the most part each
group stayed to themselves, segregated into sub-
communities.
The Mexican-Americans lived in one area of town, and on
the west side of the railroad tracks was an area populated
mainly by African-Americans we called “Nigger Town”.
During my childhood, this term was as normal sounding to me
as any town’s name. What I realized only as a young adult,
is that this type of labelling created within me the sense of
the “other”. The “other” is someone, or a group of
people, who do not fit in the same mould. This can be because
of language, skin colour, religion, or other factors. The
“other” is different. I learned early on that the
“others”, at that time Mexican-American and African-
Americans, were different. Not only not the same, but not
as good.
In elementary school I had a childhood girlfriend who
happened to be African-American. Although at that age I
certainly had no potential of marrying her, my grandparents
strongly rejected the idea saying, “You will have children
that are zebras”. Prejudice was being programmed into my
logic. Later in my childhood, my Grandfather purchased a
gasoline station. As a boy, I spent many hours helping him
at his gas station, working alongside his only employee,
“Nigger Willie”. This, quite unfortunately, was how I was
introduced to him, and the name by which I addressed him.
Willie was one of only a handful of African-American people
living in our small town. These individuals with dark brown
skin were considered by most whites as dirty, dishonest, and
of sub-normal intelligence. Their place was that of service
to the white man. Although slavery was abolished, the
lingering attitudes prevailed and people of colour were not
allowed to use the same restroom, or drink from the same
water fountain as a Caucasian.
Another non-white group of people with a larger
population in Texas is the Mexican-American. The Mexican-
American population also resided in an area of town
segregated from the majority whites. While not despised to
the extent as the African-Americans, Mexican-Americans were
definitely considered far less than equal. They were the
ones who worked in the fields, lived in migrant houses, and
did all the jobs that were too dirty for, or below, the white
population.
These prejudicial attitudes were not held by my family,
or by me, with any maliciousness or ill-will, they were
simply the undisputed facts, as we knew them. Not until my
adult years did I begin to recognize the influence this early
programming had on my view of the “other”. Geert Hofstede
(2001) calls these types of attitudes Mental Programmes which
can be “inherited (transferred in our genes), or they can be
learned after birth” (p.2). My brain was programmed with
this prejudice which I have now reprogrammed as intolerable.
I was reared in a fundamental, Christian family, a
heritage of which I am fond and appreciate. I grew up going
to church on Sundays and Wednesday evenings, attended
children and youth camps, and even attended fundamental
Christian colleges for my undergraduate education. In our
small West Texas community, when we asked, “What religion
are you,” we meant, “Are you Baptist, Methodist, Church of
Christ, Presbyterian, or Catholic?” Virtually everyone
claimed Christianity as his or her religion, even if they
were not particularly religious people.
My childhood years in Texas profoundly impacted my life
in a number of ways. During those years I learned the
importance of family, that people of colour were in essence,
below the white population, and I learned to identify people
according to their religion. However, the most powerful
events of my childhood were far more tragic. I was the
elder of two sons. When I was six years old, we moved to
another West Texas town called Brownfield. The name was
very fitting, as the area was brown, and all cotton fields.
My father was the manager of a cotton gin, an industry that
takes raw cotton, combs it, and bales it.
I was in the second grade and had been taken by my
mother to the physician for a check-up before school the
sunny morning of October 18, 1973. As we left the doctor’s
office, we heard the screaming sounds of the sirens of
police, fire trucks, and ambulances. Not an uncommon sound
for a city, but in that small West Texas town it was unusual,
and a bit unnerving. Inevitably we would either know or
have some relationship to the person or persons for which the
emergency vehicles responded. I begged my mother to follow
the emergency vehicles so we could see what had happened. She
insisted I needed to get to school. An hour later two of my
mother’s friends came to my classroom door and knocked.
The teacher met them outside and I noticed as they talked
that they would glance at me through the window in the
door. My teacher called me and said I was to be taken home
by the two ladies. I knew something was terribly wrong, and
I remember sitting in silence in the back seat of their car
all the way to my home.
When we arrived I noticed several cars parked in front
of our house. As we entered, I saw our pastor, a policeman,
and some others I did not recognize. My mother sat crying
on the sofa with one of the pastors from our church. As I
approached her, the pastor sat me on his knee and said,
“Kent, your daddy has gone to heaven to be with Jesus.” I
squirmed from his arms, ran down the hallway and dove onto my
parent’s bed, crying. The sirens we had heard that morning
were the emergency vehicles responding to an accident at the
gin where my dad had been electrocuted and fell two stories
to his death.
The impact my father’s death had upon me and my entire
family was intense and the shock waves can be felt to this
day. Resounding questions continue to echo through the
years as I contemplate how things would have been different
if he had not been killed.
Following my father’s death, my mother, brother and I
returned to Floydada to live near my grandparents, and my
mother eventually remarried. My brother and I spent every
weekend at my grandparent’s home. My father had been the
youngest of four children, and the only child to stay in
town, therefore we had an especially close bond. My
grandfather began drinking alcohol in order to help him cope
with the death of his youngest son. Eventually he became an
alcoholic. This caused a great deal of stress and turmoil
in our family. One Friday evening, my mother refused to allow
my brother and me to go to my grandparent’s home, for no
apparent reason.
That evening the phone rang and the Sheriff told my
mother that my granddad had committed suicide by shooting
himself. Suicide has been called the most selfish act a
person can perform. The pain of my family was magnified by
questions like, “What did we do wrong,” or “What could we
have done to prevent this?”
My great-grandfather lived next door to my
grandparents. He was an important figure in my childhood as
well. He lived to be ninety-two years old. Pa lived a
rich and fulfilling life and passed away within a couple of
years of my grandfather’s death. Within a very few years,
all significant male figures were stripped away. This is
with the exception of my new stepfather. It has been said
that when a boy loses his father at a young age, he spends
the rest of his life trying to win his approval. It is my
presumption that when a boy loses all male figures in his
life at a young age, this phenomenon is compounded.
The events of my early childhood no doubt played a
significant role in my choice of occupations. A common
axiom is that counsellors go into counselling because they
need counselling. I propose that a similar truth would be
asserted when considering the professional pastoral ministry
as well. I have continually sought the approval of men who
have been teachers, pastors, Scout leaders, and coaches.
At a young age I felt a desire and a calling to become
a pastor. I have often reflected how my choice to become a
pastor and counsellor, may have been to some degree a result
of needing to feel that others, including God, approved of
me. Insecurity has been a constant theme throughout my
life, and I can even attribute an element of my continuing
education to an attempt to fulfil that insecurity and need
for approval.
My early teen years brought the move of my family from
West Texas to Southern Louisiana. From the comfortable and
familiar to a culture I had only seen in the movies or on
television. In the media, African-Americans were the
gangsters, robbers, murderers, and the violent drug addicts
of society. I distinctly remember driving through the
streets of New Orleans for the first time. As a teenager I
literally sat on the floor of the car out of fear of the
countless African-Americans on the sidewalks. The African-
American population was not limited to the city in general,
but was reflected within the schools as well. I had been
literally thrust from a school of only a handful of African-
Americans, (who had assimilated into the white culture as
much as possible), to a school system where the African-
American population rivalled, if not outnumbered the
Caucasian. Walking the corridors of the school in fear, I
decided the only way to keep “them” from robbing me, or
worse, was to try and make friends. I began hanging around
“them” occasionally at lunch and, at times, specifically
tried to sit near “them” in class. I suppose I was
unconsciously trying to “keep the enemy close”.
As I began to befriend these people of another colour
and culture, I began to realize there were not as many
differences as I had presupposed. My new friends had many
of the same interests, problems, and goals as I. I would
not say I was transformed during that period, but a new light
had begun to dawn on my understanding of the “other”. It
was from that point I began to attribute more of a sense of
equanimity to those of a different colour.
While I was still working on my undergraduate degree,
my mother and stepfather moved to Frankfurt, Germany. I had
travelled to Europe on two previous occasions, but now I had
the opportunity to spend my summers there. The opportunity
to be in another culture for extended periods of time was
another step in my journey of personal evolution. It was in
Europe that I first began to see, on a regular basis, couples
of mixed races. My first responses were sharp, but with
time, I began to pay little attention. I had begun to be
desensitized to inter-racial relationships and this went
against what I had been taught in elementary school by my
grandparents. The children of these couples were not
zebras.
The colour of skin is not the only prejudice that has
plagued my evolution to a more enlightened individual. In
addition, socio-economics, religion, and sexual orientation
have been significant, and quite probably more significant
barriers by which I have found transformation blocked.
These prejudices are less tangible. In general, religion,
sexual orientation, and socio-economic status are not as
readily identifiable as the colour of skin. However,
attitudes toward people in the “other” category within
these domains have surfaced as powerful factors. Religion has
risen as a pronounced factor in differentiating groups of
people, most significantly Christians and Jews from Muslims.
In context of the present research project, I will examine my
personal attitudes and beliefs toward other religious faiths,
or the lack thereof.
In her book, Encountering God: A Spiritual Journey from
Bozeman to Banaras (2003), Diana Eck chronicles her spiritual
journey which in many ways parallels mine. However, we are at
different points in the story. Her book examines her
fundamentalist Christian, Western, beliefs in light of her
experiences with the “other”. From Bozeman, Montana to
Banaras, India is a long journey geographically. However,
as with me, it is a much longer journey spiritually and
emotionally. As she experienced and developed relationships
with the “other”, her own prejudice was revealed and she
was forced to choose to respond. She chose to allow her own
paradigm to evolve rather than rigidly grasp the traditional
views she had held. Speaking of religious beliefs, Eck
(2003) states:
For many people religion is a rigid concept,
somewhat like a stone that is passed form generation
to generation. We don’t add to it, challenge it, or
change it; we just pass it along. But even the most
cursory study of history of religions would undermine
such a view. Religious traditions are far more like
rivers than stones. Like the Ganges or the Gallatin,
they are flowing and changing. Sometimes they dry up
in arid land; sometimes they radically change course
and move out to water new territory. All of us
contribute to the river of our traditions. We don’t
know how much we will change the river or be changed
as we experience its currents. (p. 2)
Rigidity is an appropriate descriptor of my religious
world view. Simply critically examining my view of God and
religious beliefs in writing the present chapter generates a
sense of guilt. I feel as though asking questions and
embarking on the present transformational pursuit is
heresy. I am in constant flux between two dichotomous
voices. One says, “God is big enough for you to ask
questions and to allow you to have an open mind.” The
other cries out, “Stop! You are headed for trouble. You
cannot question your beliefs or open your mind to a new way
of perceiving the ‘other’! You are in danger of loosing
your salvation!” It is therefore out of sheer
discipline and resolve that I heed the voice of the former
and continue in my pursuit.
In 1987 I married Tonya Lynn Lee. She was born in Hood
River, Oregon where she lived until her early teen years when
her family moved to South Texas to be missionaries.
Tonya’s parents hold strongly to fundamentalist Christian
teachings. She went to a Christian high-school and her
father had strict guidelines for watching television and
style of dress. Although Tonya came from a very strict
background, she is decidedly open-minded and extremely
logical. She is very solid in her Christian faith, yet is
open to discussion and debate. Tonya is stable, level, and
remains rational in the most difficult and trying of times.
She is a very strong supporter of my continued education and
my transformational journey. A personal desire for growth
and enlightenment has been her hallmark since we married, and
she has been my partner throughout most of my adult life.
Toni and I married while attending a very fundamentalist
Christian college. Following some unfortunate events
surrounding the administration of the college, I decided not
to complete my degree, and to accept a position as an
associate pastor in Gallup, New Mexico.
Gallup is in the heart of the Navajo Indian
Reservation. I was thrilled because my great-grandfather
had been one-half Comanche Indian and lived for a number of
years on the Navajo Reservation. Throughout my childhood I
had longed to be an Indian and now I had the opportunity to
learn from the culture and serve a people I had for so long
admired. My enthusiasm was not necessarily reciprocated by
all Native Americans I met. I found that I was considered
the outsider and because of my skin colour I was cast into
the category of the white-man. The white man who took their
land, destroyed their culture, and broke the promises they
made. This was very disheartening to me. However, my eyes
were opened a little more to the pains of stereotyping people
because of an attribute they may have in common with someone
else.
This time I was the “other.” I was approached
outside of stores and on the streets by Native Americans who
propositioned me for money, since I was white and I took all
they had. My experience as a white person in Indian country
is not unique, but it serves two purposes in my story.
First, I experienced the pain of wanting to be accepted and,
at least by some, was kept on the outside. Secondly, I
learned not to stereotype all Native Americans as having
prejudice because of my experience with a few. I had equal
numbers of positive and enriching experiences on the
reservation. I was invited into homes and I made some very
dear friends.
While living in New Mexico, I experienced the
devastation one nation can cause to another. The Navajo
language is a dying language and the culture has been infused
with so much from the outside that it has been almost lost.
The most painful truth I have experienced in my exposure to
the American Indian saga is that its cultural devastation was
done at the hands of supposed Christians, and in the name of
Christianity. The early settlers and pioneers came with
missionaries in order to civilize a pagan and barbaric
society. They took the children and placed them in
missionary schools, cutting their hair, clothing them in
European dress, and forbidding them to speak their language
or practice their customs.
Within a generation the ancient cultures became almost
extinct. This brings a great amount of sorrow to me. I
identify strongly with the American Indian because of my
great-grandfather. I am pained even more to know that this
conquering was done in the name of the religion I profess.
My wife and I moved from New Mexico to Florida, and then
to Washington State. These moves exposed us to a broad
assortment of American sub-cultures, yet I still had very
little contact with those of other religious faiths. In
moving to Seattle I became acquainted with my brother-in-law,
who is from Iran. He is Muslim. Our first meeting I felt
intimidated because all I knew of Muslims was what I had seen
on television. I assumed Muslims hated Christians and Jews,
and I believed their religion bred terrorism. My
prejudgments were revealed as erroneous once I developed
relationships with Siamac, his family, and his Iranian
friends. Although I enjoyed a level of friendship with my
Muslim acquaintances, I nevertheless possessed a degree of an
attitude of “otherness” towards them.
Following the tragic events of September 11, 2001, I
recognized a familiar prejudice arise within me. For me,
along with many in our nation, the anti-Muslim sentiment
seemed to swell feverishly as the media and various Christian
leaders began focusing on the evils of Islam. There has
been a steady outcry from many Christian fundamentalists and
to some extent the secular media as well, about the impending
onslaught of Muslims. In recent days I have heard, on
several occasions, how the purpose of Islam is to annihilate
Christianity, especially in the United States. This view
and message has become a rallying cry of some Christians
against a common enemy. Virtually all Muslims were placed
into the same category as the hijackers of the American
Airlines jets and Osama Bin Laden.
The 9-11 attacks birthed a new dragon against which we
as a nation and especially as Christians could join forces to
fight. There was an immediate call to unity and nationalism
that seemed to be what our nation needed. This common foe
brought a country with many different philosophies and
political agendas together. Many believed the phenomenon of
unity would have a positive effect on our national psyche.
I found myself in alliance with those who viewed all of Islam
as a common enemy. Concurrently, I found myself asking how
I could perceive all Muslims with this view and at the same
time love my brother-in-law and his family. If all Muslims
were out to destroy Christianity, and in the process me,
would not my brother-in-law be a part of the scheme?
The recognition of these dichotomous views was
instrumental in the early stages of my journey reaching the
symbolic London in my story. Approaching London required a
willingness to examine my world view, and a willingness to
evolve. The pivotal point of arriving in London was my
matriculation into the University of Buckingham. I had
originally been drawn to the University because of a great
admiration and connection with Dr. Lessem. However, upon
arrival to the campus and meeting my fellow colleagues and
the various professors, I realized a greater purpose than
simply attaining a Doctor of Philosophy. The trans-cultural
context of the University is unlike any I have ever
experienced. My first hour on campus I met a student from
Afghanistan, a professor from India and one from Iraq, and a
minister in the government of Bangladesh. The students in
the program in which I am enrolled are from Bulgaria, Jordan,
China, and the United Kingdom. In a very real sense, my
experience at the University of Buckingham has been a
personal renaissance. The difficult task of de-
constructing, and re-constructing my perspectives is
presently being addressed in the “London” phase of my
journey.
At this point I have been forced to look as objectively
as possible at the foundational document of my religious
faith, the Bible. The Bible is literally the supposed basis
for all my beliefs and world view. Several years ago I
began to understand, to a small degree, that even though a
belief is taught as Biblical, it may in fact be in error.
As a young person, I was taught, in one particular setting,
that black people were that colour because God cursed them.
It is easy to comprehend how white Christians could justify
slavery and devaluation of blacks in light of this erroneous
doctrine. Another example of how some have used the Bible
and Christianity in a manner I find completely inconsistent
with my world view is the Crusades. Charles Kimball, in his
book, When Religion Becomes Evil (2002), gives many examples
of how the name of God has been invoked to conduct atrocities
upon mankind. He not only addresses these acts in the name
of Christianity, but also Islam and other religions. The
beginning examination of my personal beliefs and views
required the conquering of an extremely defensive attitude.
I have only on rare occasion been willing to confront the
doctrines I have been taught. However, it is an imperative
in the course of my transformation.
As I stated earlier, this type of questioning comes
with an element of guilt. The presence of this guilt has
become an intriguing subject throughout this chapter. I
have spent a significant amount of time examining why I
should feel guilty about questioning my religious and
spiritual foundations. I have found that some of the guilt
is imposed from teachers in my past who demanded blind faith
and taught to simply believe, do not question. This, in
reality, is erroneous since I truly believe a faith that
cannot withstand questioning cannot stand. This illuminates
the difference between my feelings and my knowing.
I have discovered it is important to examine why I feel
what I feel, and ask whether that feeling is logical,
rational, or even Biblical. Dr. Albert Ellis (1973)
developed Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy which deals
directly with the conflicts between feelings and rational
thoughts. As a Counselling Psychologist I have studied this
theory in-depth, yet I am still finding areas of unconscious
irrational thinking. Another origin of my guilt is
fear. This is not something I readily or easily admit, yet
it is undeniable.
Fear can be dangerous. In speaking of man’s
relationship to animals, but equally applicable to other
human beings, Native American Salish Chief Dan George (1974)
said, “If you talk to the animals they will talk with you
and you will know each other. If you do not talk to them,
you will not know them and what you do not know, you will
fear. What one fears, one destroys” (p. 25). Fear
underpins my sense of guilt because I know if I question my
beliefs, I have the potential of finding answers that may
conflict with those beliefs. If that were so, my entire
life course would be interrupted. While I am intellectually
and emotionally confident in my spiritual foundations, I
understand the dramatic impact this journey will have on
life. If fear, based on ignorance, is the beginning of
conflict, then relationships and understanding of the
“other” can bring harmony.
The present pages in the story of my life are of a
journey to Mexico. Not necessarily in a physical sense, but
in a psychological, emotional, and spiritual sense. I am a
pastor and a counsellor. My sphere of influence includes a
congregation of approximately two-hundred, a weekly
television program with a potential audience of approximately
one-million, counselling clients, and organizational
consulting clients as well. As such, I have opportunity for
influencing, potentially, a significant population. My
desire is to make a significant impact not only in my
immediate circles, but literally in the world. In writing
this chapter, I have come to the realization that I can begin
here and now.
While I still hold strongly to my Christian beliefs, I
have begun a transformation. This transformation includes
seeing the “other” not as an impersonal enemy agenda, but
an individual. A Muslim, who is a classmate, a brother-in-
law, or a neighbour, is much less of an enemy than some
abstract agenda. In reflecting upon the “other” in light
of New Testament Scripture, I considered the attitudes and
actions of the founder of Christianity, Jesus. In Luke
6:27-39 of the New Testament, Jesus taught, “love your
enemies, do good to those who hate you, bless those who curse
you, pray for those who mistreat you”.
This teaching does not fit with the message of angry
outcries against those who are Muslim. Jesus’ message was
one of love, not anger, except when dealing with leaders of
his own Jewish faith who were hypocritical. In Luke 20:45-
47, Jesus spoke harshly against the hypocritical religious
leaders.
It is when looking through a new and evolved lens, that
I see Jesus himself spent most of his time with the
“other”. He sought out relationships with those who were
different like the woman at the well in John 4, and Zaccheus,
a tax collector in Luke 19.
In the story of “me,” I have found the necessity of
re-visiting the foundations of all I believe and what I
consider truth. This investigation is simultaneously
confusing, enlightening, anxiety-producing, and exciting.
While considering my hermeneutical framework, I am making an
effort to interpret the words and actions of Jesus with
renewed understanding. I am sifting through preconceptions
and previous teachings and searching for truth and meaning.
Postscript
“From Texas to Mexico via London.” Texas represents
the opening chapters in my story where I spent many years
with a dualistic, ego-centric, religio-centric world-view.
Somewhat ironically, Mexico is not all that far from where I
grew up. In fact, it is estimated that in this century
Texas and California will be majority Mexican-American.
However, in my story, Mexico represents the “other”: the
Muslim, Mexican-American, African-American, Jordanian,
African, Chinese, Taiwanese and the French. Mexico
symbolizes people from different religious convictions,
cultures, and languages who are human beings. These human
beings are not all that different from me. They are not an
enemy to be feared, they are souls to be revered. London,
specifically the University of Buckingham, is far from home,
and it has been a long journey to this point in my story.
It is London that represents the present point in my story.
It is the place of transition, awakening, and evolution. I
do not believe I have yet reached Mexico, but I am on the
journey, and I am eagerly anticipating the next chapter in
the story of my life.
The story of the ITSM began with a M.Sc. course I
taught on hermeneutics at the University of Buckingham early
in my Ph.D. work. Resulting from the discussions in this
class, I changed the direction of my research and ultimately
developed the concept of the Interpretive Transcultural
Storytelling Method. The following chapter chronicles the
genesis of the ITSM.
References:
Bible. The New International Version, (1984). Grand
Rapids,
MI: Zondervan Publishing House.
Eck, Diana L. (2003). Encountering God: A Spiritual
Journey
from Bozeman to Banaras. Boston: Beacon Press.
Ellis A., & Sagarin E., (Ed.). (1973). Humanistic
Psychotherapy:
The Rational-Emotive Approach. New York : Julian
Press.
George, Chief Dan (1974). My Heart Soars. Surrey, B.C:
Hancock House Publishers, Ltd.
Hofstede, Geert. (2001). Culture’s consequences:
Comparing
values, behaviours, institutions, and organizations
across nations, 2nd Edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Publications.
Kimball, Charles. (2002). When Religion Becomes Evil. San
Francisco: Harper San Francisco.
Randall, William Lowell. (1995). The Stories We Are: An
Essay
on Self-Creation. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
Chapter 8
Genesis of the ITSM
Having now provided methodological, method, literary,
and researcher context of the ITSM, the present chapter
provides a historical context of its development. The
Interpretive Transcultural Storytelling Method is the result
of an evolution of my Ph.D. work. Originally, the direction
of my research was centred on leadership. This topic would
be evaluated in light of great religious leaders of the
world’s most significant religions. As I began the research
and writing, I was encouraged by my supervisors to refine the
very broad topic.
The direction then modulated to how studying these
religious leaders and their teachings may bring world
peace. Again, this topic was extremely broad and needed to
be narrowed and refined, but a new direction was evasive.
Following is an orientation to the genesis and evolution of
the ITSM. The names of the participants have been used with
their prior consent. Frank and Jeff, however, adopted
Western names while at Buckingham so those are the names by
which they will be referred.
The University of Buckingham M.Sc. Module
In October 2004, I had the opportunity to teach a four
day module on hermeneutics for the Masters of Science
programme in Socio-economic Transformation. The programme
is directed by Dr. Ronnie Lessem in the School of Business at
the University of Buckingham. Participating in the module
were two Taiwanese men, a Chinese woman, a French woman, an
American woman, and Dr. Lessem.
This M.Sc. programme is conceptually unique as it is
developed to function, in essence, as a group M.Sc. The
students were expected to complete many of the assignments as
a group project, rather than individually. Throughout the
programme, which began in January of 2004, the students
experienced a number of challenges in working together.
Some of the challenges may have stemmed from personality
differences, but culture played a profound role. This
became even more apparent in the course of this module.
I began the module with an overview of the history,
ontology, and epistemology of hermeneutics. A core concept
of hermeneutics is that of a prejudiced researcher. In the
more experimental and positivistic methodologies, the
researcher strives for objectivity. Hermeneutics recognizes
that this is difficult at best. The methodology
incorporates the researcher’s biases into the research.
The key is for the researcher to recognize those biases.
“Every act of hermeneutic understanding begins with a pre-
understanding, which orients the inquirer to the text or
topic.
One of the tasks of the hermeneutic scholar is to
become aware of and reflexively explicate this pre-
understanding in a way that creatively feeds into the process
of understanding itself” (McLeod, 2001, p.23).
Hermeneutics was originally developed as a methodology for
Biblical interpretation, and later for researching
literature. It is presently evolving as a methodological
choice within the social sciences. During the module, we
attempted to understand ourselves and others by considering
the “self-as-a-story”. Each person was to consider his or
her own story. This would help engage self-understanding, a
basic premise in hermeneutics.
The group participated in exercises to help the
participants understand themselves. First, I asked them,
“What are your dreams, or your goals in life?” Jan, an
American, and Ludivine, a French woman, had no difficulty
answering the question. However, Frank and Jeff, Taiwanese
men, and Ying, a Chinese woman, could not answer the
question. They did not understand the question. Jeff
expressed that his plan was to return to Taiwan to take over
his family business. I asked if that was what he “wanted
to do.” He replied, “That is what I am expected to
do.” I again asked if that was his dream. He said that
he was born to take over his family’s business.
After much discussion, the participants and I realized
that the question was not an appropriate question for these
students. The Easterner’s “individual” dreams were
enveloped in the context of their families and societies. The
Westerners found the lack of personal dreams appalling.
They argued that the Chinese and Taiwanese students had been
deprived, that it was wrong these individuals could not be
individuals.
The following exercise was the Components of the Self
worksheet. The participants were asked to rate each item’s
significance pertaining to the composition of their personal
identities. Each person, including Dr. Lessem and myself,
completed the worksheet. When the group began to reveal
the items rated as having the most influence, a significant
distinction arose between the Westerners and the
Easterners. The individuals from the West scored highest,
the items relating to personal, individual factors.
However, those from the East scored the societal, cultural,
and familial factors higher. Among the three highest rated
factors, no correlation between the East and West was
revealed.
The Spectral Management Type Inventory (SMTI) (Lessem,
1993) was administered to each of the participants. This
inventory correlates the individual’s personality to colour
spectrums which in turn identify typologies of management
styles. The SMTI was used to aid the emergence of self-
understanding, as well as a platform for discussion. The
students had taken the inventory previously and some had
changed to one degree or another. The following discussion
allowed colleagues to give input to, and ask questions of,
each other regarding the results of the inventory. This
process, again, provided a valuable tool for investigating
the self and building understanding of each of the
participants.
The significance of the exercises in this module was
the discussion which aided understanding of self and others,
not the revelation of quantitative results. Each
participant in the module had previously been keenly aware of
the differences between the East and West, and the impact
those differences potentially could have upon their team
efforts. However, during this dialogue, the concrete
revelation of those differences illuminated the root of a
variety of issues the students had encountered during the
several months they had been working on team assignments.
The next segment of the module involved narrative or
storytelling. Each participant was asked to share a
personal story that would help the others understand more
about them. No participant was obligated to share, and each
was encouraged to share only to the level they felt
comfortable. Their story could be told using pictures,
diagrams, written or it could be told orally. Each
participant had a unique way of telling their story. For
example, Ludivine used diagrams, Ying used pictures and
metaphors, and Jan, Frank, and Jeff told their stories
orally. Each story gave a transparent and intimate window
into the lives of each person, allowing a greater
understanding of each individual.
Frank, one of the Taiwanese men, told of an experience
he had in school. His instructor hit him on the hand with a
ruler, bad enough to leave a permanent scar, for not
performing adequately in his studies. He told how he
reported this to his father. His father, instead of being
his advocate to the instructor, gave the instructor
permission to continue this type of punishment if Frank did
not do his best. During the story and in previous
discussions, Frank referred to his father as the emperor of
his family. The Westerners expressed how this comparison
seemed “cold” and “un-fatherly”. Their concept of a
father had different connotations. That this was a cultural
issue was apparent when the other Taiwanese and the Chinese
students readily identified with the analogy. The Eastern
students also understood the drive Frank’s father placed
upon him to excel in school.
The woman from China, Ying, told of how she was
expected to excel in her academics as well, and how
disappointed her mother had been on an occasion when she had
not done her best. Ying told how she studied so much after
that experience, that she ruined her eyes and now has to wear
glasses as a result. All three of the Eastern students told
of how they studied and went to school up to fourteen hours
each day, and how demanding their parent’s expectations were
for them to excel. The Western students had a very difficult
time understanding the pressure these students had been
under. Some expressed how they felt this pressure cruel and
unwarranted, but the Easterners accepted it as part of life.
I was in awe of the transparency with which the students
shared their thoughts and feelings. The differences of the
frames of reference each person had, was illuminating.
Although each of the participants had knowledge of cultural
differences, the personal stories gave life to those
differences, enhancing the students’ interpersonal as well
as multicultural understanding.
The final project for the module was a group paper
which shared the personal stories of each student and the
story of the evolution of the group as a whole. Each story
was written incorporating each student’s unique stylistic
elements such as diagrams and metaphors, yet was cohesive and
demonstrated the team’s ability to work corporately while
maintaining individuality. The paper required the students
to reflect critically upon the development of their team and
to work on a project which demonstrated their ability to
function as a cohesive team. Within the story of the M.Sc.
group, each individual surfaced in context of the group. This
project ultimately demonstrated an Eastern paradigm that
individuals have meaning within the context of the
collective.
Final Project of the Module
The student’s project represented a synthesis of their
understanding and development, both individually and
corporately over the year and throughout the module. As the
project began, the students spoke of the lessons learned from
being stretched, comparing these lessons to suffering. In
the opening lines the paper draws on Buddhist philosophy.
This immediately sets the cooperative, collectivistic timbre
of the project, being actually typed by Jan, the American,
but representing the group’s diverse philosophical
paradigms.
Within the project, the students were remarkably adept
at examining the thoughts and feelings of each individual,
yet retaining the story of the group as an evolving entity.
“It wasn’t until this day in October [following the module]
as we sat reflecting upon our stories, that we learned just
how varied and deep our emotions actually ran. We have now
formed a close friendship and partnership and have become co-
creators in a way that was never imaginable to us on that
first day”. In this statement the students summarize their
initial, individual feelings of the joint Master’s
programme. Each student entered the programme with different
anticipations and concerns.
The group evolved from strangers to friends, partners,
and co-creators. Within the empirical methodological
framework, this statement by the group is immeasurable and
improvable. There are no graphs, surveys, nor any other
quantitative instruments which positively identify how much
their partnership evolved, or the ultimate quality or
efficiency of their cooperative co-creativeness. It is in
matters like this that hermeneutics is differentiated from
empirical methodologies. Hermeneutics is not designed to
quantify the results, rather to gain new understanding. In
this case, the new understanding is within the realm of a
group of people who have, over a period of time, grown in
knowledge of themselves and each other to become a
cooperative team. Regardless of the lack of quantifiable
results of whether or not the group actually performed
better, the members of the group expressed their belief that
real, meaningful growth had been accomplished: “In the
end, we feel strong, happy, and excited to begin our next
phase of our lives separately, but together”.
Following the introduction, the students identified the
initial thoughts each had when the programme began. Jeff,
along with most of the others, was not thrilled with the idea
of a programme that incorporated group work as a central
theme. “Jeff was angry and felt a panic rise within him.
He did not foresee that he would have any valid role within
our group and frankly, he had no desire to develop such a
role”. Frank was also unhappy with the emphasis group
work was to play within the context of the programme. Both
Jeff and Frank desired to simply get a “normal” Master’s
degree. Jan was excited about the programme, but apprehensive
about how she would be accepted as a forty year old. She
also felt she would be more productive working solo.
Ludivine entered the programme anticipating the community
that would develop within the group, and Ying wanted to make
everyone happy. The reactions of each person toward working
in a group setting resulted from both cultural and individual
historical roots.
Jeff and Frank were at Buckingham to receive a Western
Master’s degree so they could go back to Taiwan and fulfil
their obligations to the family businesses, and both were
also fulfilling the wills of their fathers. Jeff and Frank,
within their contexts, were two men with an agenda to
accomplish. The group emphasis simply added to the
complexity of achieving their goals. Without understanding
the context within which both of these gentlemen were
grounded, an unwarranted assumption could have been made
regarding their interest, motivation, or cooperativeness.
For Jan, the excitement of the programme was clouded by
a bit of apprehension of her age and her ability to work
efficiently in a group. She could have been viewed as
resistant or stand-offish. Ludivine is culturally rooted in
a very social society. Community and relationships are
important to her. Ying’s desire to please others is rooted
from an experience she had as a child when she disappointed
her mother by not doing her best in school. She vowed to
never disappoint her mother again, and she realizes that this
vow affects present relationships as well. Context is vital
in hermeneutics.
Understanding the cultural and historical roots of
others is necessary in interpreting their behaviours and
words. A clear and contextual self-understanding is also
important in the process of discovering new understanding.
Aristotle said that all knowledge is birthed from previously
existing knowledge. Through writing their individual and
corporate stories, the M.Sc. group was forced to reckon with
self-knowledge and its impact upon understanding the others
within the group.
The first project for the M.Sc. programme was a group
assignment. Jan, the most individualistic of the group,
immediately began to observe the cultural and language
barriers that were being transcended by the common goal and
cooperativeness of the group. During their first
assignment, the group recognized their co-creative
synergy.
The story of the M.Sc. group progresses to a day when
Dr. Lessem posed a question to the group. The students had
a difficult time understanding the question, so each one
averted their eyes. After a time of silence, Ludivine
stepped out and attempted to answer. Utilizing a white
board and markers, at Dr. Lessem’s request, Ludivine began
drawing charts and diagrams. “The lines, structures, and
shapes came to her brain as she visualized what was going
on. For the first time, she felt that she was able to
express what she was seeing in her mind”. Ludivine had
found her voice, a very personal and effective form of
communication. When she shared this experience with her
father, he told her he had recognized this gift in her even
when she was young. This self-discovery proved to be a
valuable asset in the continuing work of the M.Sc. group as a
whole, but also provided valuable self-insight for
Ludivine. This discovery is valuable because she now
recognizes her visual nature and that diagrams are a viable
and effective way for her to be understood and for her to
understand others.
Ying’s experience in identifying her personal
preference for communication was equally as profound.
Having studied for four previous years in a traditional
Western environment, “her imaginal world had crashed with
the rational, conceptual world”. Ying’s father trained
her in traditional Chinese philosophies and the relation of
man to nature. By using metaphors, Ying discovered she
could communicate her thoughts more effectively.
Frank is an artist. He had attended art school as a
young person, but his art gradually gave way to other
studies. During the M.Sc. programme, Frank re-discovered
his talent and passion for communicating through pictures.
The group described this ability as Frank producing “a
snapshot in time. He puts the spoken words from the group
into pictures”.
The identification of the communication preferences of
these individuals is valuable hermeneutically because it
helps them to contextualize their own communication styles
and to interpret the communication of others with this
knowledge. The hermeneutic axiom that there can be no
knowledge without self-knowledge, applies equally to areas of
styles or preferred methods of communicating. Throughout
the final project, the group utilized the various preferred
forms of communicating by including many graphs, metaphors,
and pictures into the story of their corporate
transformation. The variety of these styles within the
group was recognized and the attitude was adopted that each
person had a particular role to play and a particular gift to
offer the group as whole.
As the story unfolds, the paper tells of Jeff’s
victory in winning a contract with a Dutch company and then
the crushing blows of insecurities. He relied heavily upon
the support and encouragement of the group and realized that
even if his insecurities were justified, the opportunity gave
him a chance to prove himself. Jeff realized that through
the cooperative efforts of the group, “he was doing
something important for his father and his family as well”.
Frank, initially sceptical of the group emphasis in the
programme eventually found meaning and fulfilment in the
process of the group work. “Through this joint venture he
felt he was doing something important for his father and his
family as well”. The hermeneutic implications of this
statement are profound. Originally, Frank’s context of the
M.Sc. programme was strictly pragmatic. He desired to get
his degree and move on. He gradually began to believe in
the group process, and in fact, the process became as
meaningful as the outcome. Frank said, “To me the
unforgettable experience was not the result; it was the
process of us producing the presentation.”
Throughout the programme he began to find himself in
the context of a group, in essence a new family, or at a
minimum a new team. This cooperative programme introduced
Frank to another paradigm; one in which he was part of group
other than his family, his family’s business, and even that
of the Taiwanese people as a whole. Frank had entered into
a group of people who eventually evolved into a team with a
vision to have a synergistic impact upon society. Frank’s
experience is common across the sum of the M.Sc.
participants. Each came within a particular context and
focused on a particular purpose.
The group, in essence, created their own cultural
context, one rooted in the cultures of each participant and
simultaneously transcending those cultures. An example of
the group’s evolving culture maintaining the roots of
individual culture is the repeated use of Chinese philosophy
within the group’s final project. For example, the paper
begins with a quote from Buddhism. In this new culture, new
roles were developed by each participant, and new ways of
communicating evolved.
The communication purposefully emerged as the students
recognized the innate gifts and styles of each individual.
Within each project, the students relied upon each of these
styles and roles to surface in a co-creating manner. The
final project for this module is an example of the
incorporation of the different communication specialties each
student possessed. Within the context of this particular
group, creating new knowledge was emphasized, for example,
the students created a new model of multicultural group
development, the UAACT: Understanding, Acceptance,
Appreciate, Co-create, and finally Terminate.
In concluding the final paper, the students expressed a
desire to continue the work they had begun in the M.Sc.
programme. This mindset is bipolar to that of most of the
students at the beginning of the programme. They
transformed into a team with a new culture, and a vision to
co-creatively impact the world, not just earn a degree.
Synthesis and Implications
Resulting from the dialogue during this module, a new
understanding of each member of the team emerged. This
understanding, or knowledge, was of the others in the group,
the group as a whole, and the individuals of themselves.
Each student expressed how valuable this module would have
been at the beginning of their team M.Sc. rather than near
the end. The consensus was that such a module would have
enhanced their efficiency in working corporately.
Following the module, Dr. Lessem and I discussed what
had transpired. We agreed a new direction for my research
had been revealed. While multicultural literature and
research abounds, an apparent gap exists in the present
material and the application in building multicultural
teams. I then decided to dedicate my research to the
practice of developing understanding among teams,
specifically, multicultural teams. Since hermeneutics was
developed for the purpose of Biblical interpretation, evolved
to incorporate all literature, and is presently evolving to
the social sciences, storytelling surfaced as a natural
method.
The purpose of my research evolved to the utilization
of storytelling/ narrative and hermeneutic principles to
assist teams in building relationships which will transcend
culture and increase the efficiency with which they work. The
following chapter will provide a brief review of the
inception, revision, and application of the Interpretive
Transcultural Storytelling Method.
References:
McLeod, John. (2001). Qualitative research in counselling and
psychotherapy. London: Sage Publications.
Chapter 9
ITSM: Conception, Revision and Application
As stated in the previous chapter, the direction of my
Ph.D. research has evolved from my initial direction on
leadership. Throughout the fieldwork process, the ITSM has
also undergone substantial revisions in function and form.
The title of the method has been modified from the
Interpretive Transcultural Method (ITM) to the Interpretive
Transcultural Storytelling Method (ITSM). In the beginning,
the stages or steps were primary, and the method of
storytelling was secondary. Eventually, I recognized the
influence of my positivistic foundations in the linear,
objective nature the model originally took. Throughout the
fieldwork exercises, the autobiographical storytelling proved
to be the significant contribution, while the communication
model became the support framework of the storytelling.
Therefore, Storytelling was added to the title.
Storytelling began merely as a vehicle in which to
conduct the ITSM model: In-Spection, Expression,
Interpretation, Clarification, Understanding, and Emergence.
In addition, each stage of the model has sub-stages of
topsoil, subsoil, bedrock, and core. As the fieldwork
progressed the model became difficult to track because of its
subjective and cyclical nature. In addition, each workshop
consisted of several individuals and the identification of
where each individual was in the process became impossible to
identify. In short, it did not work. While participants
consistently praised the value of the communication model,
the actual storytelling process exhibited the most
substantial benefit to the teams. Therefore, throughout the
fieldwork chapters, the evolution of the storytelling process
to the primary role within the research will be detected,
with the secondary emphasis being placed upon the
communication model.
In practice, the participants are encouraged to become
aware of where they are in the stages and topography of
communication model at all times. Participants are asked to
enter into dialogue with the storyteller. This dialogical
process will bring the participants through the stages of the
ITSM.
In summation, storytelling has risen to the primary
focus of the research and the communication model has become
an embedded framework for making the stories more meaningful
to the team. In this chapter, I will address the conception
of the ITM, which later became the ITSM, its revision, and
its application. Elements from the actual fieldwork
exercises will be incorporated in this chapter.
The ITSM is grounded in autobiographical storytelling
and is built on a framework which, in its essence, encourages
the hermeneutic process through: In-Spection, Expression,
(Reception), Interpretation, Clarification, Understanding,
and Emergence. The levels of communication in the model
were primarily developed conceptually from a review of the
developmental stages of the M.Sc. module, psychology,
hermeneutics, and from the work of William Randall (1995).
Following is an analysis of each stage of the ITSM.
1. In-Spection
The initial stage of In-Spection emphasises
introspection and self-knowledge. As a counselling
psychologist, I was trained to be aware of my prejudice and
my biases. Within hermeneutics, self-knowledge is primary
to interpretation. The interpreter is to be aware of his or
her preconceived ideas and to take those into account when
trying to gain understanding. “Every act of hermeneutic
understanding begins with a pre-understanding, which orients
the inquirer to the text or topic.
One of the tasks of the hermeneutic scholar is to
become aware of and reflexively explicate this pre-
understanding in a way that creatively feeds into the process
of understanding itself” (McLeod, 2001, p.23). In addition
to a philosophical, psychological, and hermeneutic
foundation, In-Spection is built upon the work of Randall’s,
The Stories We Are (1995). Randall presents four levels of
reflecting upon our lives as stories: existence, experience,
expression, and impression (p. 48).
Existence and experience rely upon introspection, or as
I have termed it, In-Spection. I have chosen to use the
term In-Spection to accentuate the concept of inspecting
inwardly. Clearly, Randall sees the value of self reflection
in the process of telling one’s story. In the ITSM, I have
incorporated self-knowledge as a foundation for properly
interpreting the story of another as well. Within the
process of the ITSM, individuals both tell their stories and
hear stories from their colleagues. In-Spection, as it
relates to telling your story is best reflected in Randall’s
existence and experience.
Randall refers to existence as the actual historical
facts, or “what actually happened in the past” (Randall,
1995, p. 48). Randall states, “In general, the whole story
of my life is the uninterpreted, unevaluated, unavailable
totality of all the minutiae of my particular existence in
time and space- in so far as that can be separated from the
existence of everything else- as it might be inscribed in
utter detail on some cosmic recording device, whether a
colossal computer or the mind of Glover’s ‘objective
God.’ In ‘objective’ terms, it is the outside story”
(Randall, 1995, p. 49).
Understanding one’s life solely through facts is
relevant in understanding one’s own story, but
hermeneutically can only be relevant to a small degree. If
an individual can never truly block his or her own
prejudgments, then seeking understanding by examining only
the facts has limited value. Regardless of how one might try,
he or she will always interpret those facts in light of
bias. Randall understands that we are an accumulation of
all of our previous experiences. He quotes Tennyson who
said, “I am a part of all that I have met” (Randall, 1995,
p. 49). Existence is highly correlated to the stage of
Reception, which appeared originally in the ITSM. As the
ITSM has evolved, the concept of Reception has been omitted
as it is fundamentally inconsistent with hermeneutic theory.
The concept of Reception within the ITSM was built upon
hearing the factual content of the story of another person
without any preconceived ideas or interpretations. Having
been trained in empirical and positivistic methodologies in
my Master’s and undergraduate education, I have continually
fought the temptation to revert. A positivistic empirical
methodology would encourage an objective observer blocking
out personal bias and hearing a story’s factual content
alone.
However, hermeneutics teaches it is impossible to block
out one’s preconceptions. The idea that a person is able to
hear a story and not filter it through his or her experience
is contrary to hermeneutic methodology. (McLeod, 2001) The
argument that objective events happen is inarguable, however,
whether an individual is able to contemplate those events
without simultaneously interpreting them is debatable.
Existence, then, whether it relates to the facts of one’s
personal history or another’s story being told, has some
value, but only within context.
Randall’s concept of experience is strongly correlated
to hermeneutic thought. Experience is the actual
interpretation of one’s existence. In essence, experience
makes meaning out of existence. Randall quotes psychologist
Robert Kegan who states experience is “that most human of
‘regions’ between an event and a reaction to it- the place
where the event is privately composed, made sense of, the
place where it actually becomes an event for that person”
(Randall, 1995, p. 50). For Randall, then, and for the
process of the ITSM, existence is the event, and experience
is the attribution of meaning to the event. Within this
context existence and experience can be seen as harmonious to
hermeneutics.
Ron, a Native American participant in the Family
Counselling Centre (FCC) fieldwork modules exhibited the
relationship of existence and experience:
He told of how, as a child, he was called nigger,
savage, and a variety of other derogatory names.
This added to his reaction against his heritage. He
was ashamed to be a Native American and tried to adopt
the look and culture of his adopted family.
Throughout his childhood and early adulthood, he
maintained limited contact with his biological family,
so he has always had an occasional reminder of his
true ethnicity and cultural heritage. Ron shared
that only in his mid thirties did he begin to explore
his heritage.
Ron’s existence was the hazing of children. He was
called names and persecuted because he was a Native
American. Ron’s experience, or interpretation of the
facts, was that he should be ashamed of his heritage and that
he should try and remove himself from any association with
his biological family and their culture. Only in his mid-
thirties did Ron begin to re-interpret, or assign new
meaning, to his existence and call into question his previous
experience.
Within the ITSM, I have chosen to utilize a Components
of the Self worksheet (Appendix 3, in the Fieldwork Packet)
and some of the questions utilized in the research conducted
by multicultural experts, Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner
(Appendix 3, in the Fieldwork Packet). The Components of
the Self worksheet has been adapted from the work of Dr.
Judith Rathbone of University College London. The
Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner questions are from their
research.
The work of Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner focuses on
the reconciliation of, specifically, seven dimensions of
culture discovered in their research. Their research began
with questioning whether or not the predominate American
techniques and philosophies of management could be applied in
other cultures. The authors begin with the premise, “It is
our belief that you can never understand other cultures”
(Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner, 1998, p. 1). They also set
forth as a premise that the understanding of “our own
culture and our own assumptions and expectations about how
people ‘should’ think and act is the basis for success”
(Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner, 1998, p. 2). This
assumption is foundational in hermeneutics in which
interpretation of the “other” begins with an understanding
of the self.
2. Expression
Following In-Spection, Expression is the actual telling
of a personal, autobiographical story. One of Randall’s
four levels of storytelling, Expression is the “Inside-Out
Story” (Randall, 1995, p. 54). Randall (1995) cites
Kaufman:
“If the first level is the outside story, the
totality of my existence, and the second is the inside
story, the totality of my experience, then the third
level is the level of each individual version of my
inside story that I convey to other, what I choose to
call the inside-out story. It is ‘my life’ in the
sense of what I present or project to the world. It
is my ‘life-story’ as I communicate it to others.
(p. 54)
Through storytelling, the teller’s interpretation of
his own experiences is transformed. “Just as the events of
my life are changed in the experiencing, then, so the
experiences of my life are changed in the expressing”
(Randall, 1995, p. 55). So, as storytelling has been
elicited as the mechanism for emergence of new, synergistic
knowledge for a multicultural group, it is also a personally
transformative mechanism for the storyteller.
Expression is encouraged, but not required of all
participants within a workshop. The level of intimacy and
the length of the participants’ stories are at their
discretion. Each person is requested to share a story
lasting approximately five to ten minutes which will give the
listeners a window into an event that has contributed to
their personal development. Randall (1995) states:
To qualify as a story… at least three things are
required: first, a storyteller, which means a person
by whom it is authored and a point of view (and thus a
voice) through which it is narrated; second, a
character or set of characters…; and third, a plot,
which means the framework that lays out whatever these
characters do, the actions in which they engage, and
the situations and conflicts with which they must
cope. (p. 86)
As an example, in Lisa’s story (MFWI Fieldwork
Chapter), we find all of the qualifications Randall sets
forth. As the storyteller, it is Lisa’s voice we hear and
her interpretations that are presented. The list of
characters includes Lisa, her grandfather, her sisters, her
mother, and, to a lesser degree, her father. The plot, or
story line, is Lisa’s struggle to cope with the perpetual
pressure her grandfather placed upon her to be the smartest
and the best example to her siblings. Within the plot is a
mixture of family dynamics including her parents divorce,
relationships between Lisa and her sisters, and Lisa’s
relationships with her mother and grandfather. In telling
her story, Lisa addressed some cultural implications such as
the emphasis of respecting elders in the Japanese culture.
When Lisa was asked by one of the listeners to elaborate on
how the value of respect affected her relationship to her
grandfather, Lisa said that even when she did not speak to
him, she was always respectful in his presence.
3. Interpretation
In hearing the story of another, the listener is
invited into a personal world and given a glimpse of a
variety of elements including the teller’s culture, belief
system, core values, significant developmental events, and
others. Since hermeneutically listening to another’s story
is reflexive, the listener is encouraged to continually move
between what he or she is hearing and his or her own
experiences. The hermeneutic process requires active self-
reflection while simultaneously trying to hear the story in
the context in which is being told. Understanding that the
teller of a story comes from a different paradigm, the
listener is challenged to find common and contrasting
meanings of the teller’s story.
In the ITSM workshop, the participants are asked to
listen hermeneutically, which incorporates reflexively moving
back and forth between the teller’s context, as the listener
understands it, and his or her own context. Throughout the
story, the listeners are also encouraged to make notes of the
topography of the expression and to cultural distinctions as
well.
4. Clarification
The Clarification phase is a dialogue between the
listeners and the storyteller. In this phase questions may
be asked and statements made which will enable the listeners
to have a better understanding of the context of the story
and clarification of aspects they did not understand. In
addition, the listeners are able to share similar or
contrasting personal experiences. In the Clarification
process, the participants are free to discuss cultural
factors as well. For example, in Lisa’s story, it was
during the Clarification phase that a listener asked Lisa to
address the Japanese value of respecting the elders and how
Lisa reconciled that value with not speaking to her
grandfather. Also in this stage, Lisa was asked about the
emphasis her grandfather placed on her being the “best”.
Discussion revolved around the drive for success within the
whole of Japanese society and how that compares to the
culture of the United States.
This stage in the ITSM correlates to the level of
Randall’s (1995) Impression: The outside-in story.
Impression is, “‘my life’ in the sense of what is made of
me by others. It is my ‘life-story’ in the sense of what is
told of me by others” (p. 56). Randall compares the
outside-in story to a biography. During the Clarification
phase, the participants are encouraged to tell the story they
have heard in their own words and through their
experiences. As these biographies are told, the original
storyteller makes clarifications as needed. In considering
the value of storytelling in relationships, Randall (1995)
states:
In this case, she may read a story into an event in my
life that bears little or no relation to the story I
read into it myself. It may be a story based on
ignorance or gossip or prejudice; or a story that is
largely her own, a projection of her own memories and
expectations, ‘storyotypes’ and biases: a
variation on a particular version of- or episode in-
the story of her life rather than mine. …Indeed,
variations in stories constitute one of the commonest
sources of conflict in human affairs on all levels,
from individuals in intimate relationship to entire
societies. Every side in every conflict is telling a
different story. (p.107)
Of special attention in this stage is the focus of the
ITSM in assisting team members to communicate and understand
each other more effectively, not to resolve specific
disagreements. The assumption is that development of
communication techniques through the storytelling process
will provide a framework in which to work through
disagreements, or variations of a story, within
organizations. Clarification is a cyclical dialogue which
moves back and forth between self understanding,
understanding of the context of the storyteller, and the
story itself.
5. Understanding
As Clarification cycles back and forth, a mutual
Understanding, or Verstehen, is ultimately, and ideally,
achieved. This Understanding is based upon the listeners
and the storyteller wrestling with contextual factors such as
cultural, personal, and ideological. Within the context of
hermeneutics rests an assumption that a pure and complete
understanding of the story of another cannot truly be
achieved. However, what is strived for is the best possible
understanding.
In revisiting Lisa’s story, the statement is made that
she did not speak to her grandfather for over a year. An
American listener heard this in context of his own
experience. His mother and grandmother were estranged for
about three years. During that time there was literally no
communication. When this was shared with the group, Lisa
replied that she did communicate to a degree. The Japanese
value of respecting elders was important to her. Instead of
rudely ignoring direct questions or being impolite, Lisa
meant that she simply did not go out of her way to have
conversations, or to place herself in situations where she
would have contact with him more than necessary. The
American and Lisa wrestled through the contextual pre-
understandings to the point at which they agreed a mutual
understanding had been achieved. Understanding results in
the identification of new knowledge.
6. Emergence
Storytelling is utilized in the ITSM because of its
transformative nature. Not only is the teller transformed
through storytelling, but so are the listeners. Hearing
someone else’s story helps the listeners understand the
teller better, and the group transforms through the
dialogical, hermeneutic spiral process. New understanding
surfaces throughout the ITSM process and the final stage is
the intentional identification of new knowledge which will
enable the team to work more cooperatively and
synergistically. In this phase the questions of “So
what?” and “Who cares?” are addressed. We ask, “What
cultural differences have emerged?” and “How can we
maximize these differences within our team’s context?”
The new knowledge and understanding that has been developed
from the dialogues revolving around each of the
participants’ stories results in a transformational
emergence of the organization, individuals, and ultimately
society. Emergence is synonymous with the concept of
“fusion of horizons” in hermeneutics. Fusion of horizons,
in essence, is the bringing together of different frames of
reference to a place where all parties have a picture of the
same view, or where each person is looking at the same
horizon. The aim of Emergence is not to diminish
differences, specifically in our case, cultural
differences. Rather, the goal is to assist each participant
in gaining an understanding of the various differences and,
as a team, identifying how those differences may in fact be
assets instead of liabilities. Emergence is an intentional
identification of new knowledge and ways in which application
of knew knowledge can be capitalized.
In the Mukogawa Fort Wright Institute fieldwork
exercise in which Lisa participated, one of the factors that
Emerged stemmed from Lisa’s story. Dealing with conflict
in Japanese culture, as demonstrated by Lisa and her
grandfather, is sometimes very different from dealing with
conflict in the United States, as demonstrated by the
American’s mother and grandmother. With Lisa as the model,
the Japanese manner is to be courteous and respectful, while
the American’s example was to totally ignore the other.
This fusion of horizons led to a discussion of how this new
knowledge would influence the group. As a team the
individuals agreed that an intentional adoption of a more
Japanese practice would be beneficial to building a
synergistic team environment. In essence, a new corporate
culture emerged from this new understanding. Emergence is
consequently the application of new knowledge.
Conclusion
The communication between colleagues can be enhanced
through exercises in autobiographical storytelling. In
hearing the expression of others, individuals can gain
insight into the behaviours, communication styles, and
cultural factors that have contributed to the manner in which
he or she interacts with the world. This insight can be
valuable in the development of interpersonal relationships,
such as within a business setting. Utilizing the
Interpretive Transcultural Storytelling Method, teams can
intentionally move through a framework which in essence
guides them through a hermeneutic process for finding
understanding, and ultimately the Emergence of new knowledge
and its application.
Incorporated in the ITSM process is an emphasis on
fleshing out cultural differences rather than ignoring them
in deference to a common ground approach. Culturally
distinct characteristics, as identified by authors such as
Lessem, Palsule, Trompenaars, Hampden-Turner, and Hofstede
can provide rich soil in which to grow a synergistic and
well-rounded team.
The following chapter provides an introduction to the
field work exercises of the ITSM. Within the chapter is an
overview of the fieldwork cases and the format in which each
will be written. Continuing in the hermeneutic and
storytelling framework, the fieldwork chapters will be
written as a story with a beginning, middle, and end.
References:
McLeod, John. (2001). Qualitative research in counselling
and
psychotherapy. London: Sage Publications.
Randall, William. (1995). The stories we are: An essay on
self-
creation. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
Trompenaars, Fons & Hampden-Turner, Charles. (1998). Riding
the waves of culture. 2nd Edition. NY: McGraw-Hill.
Chapter 10
Fieldwork: An Introduction
The fieldwork exercises provided a rich context for the
development of the ITSM. Having begun the fieldwork with a
model on which I had worked many long hours, I initially
found myself resisting revising the ITSM. However, in the
workshop with the Private Investigation Firm (PIF), I
realized I was stubbornly trying to force the framework to
take precedence over the storytelling. Changing the
emphasis to storytelling and the secondary emphasis to
framework was more of a paradigm shift for me than it was for
the teams with which I was working. In the sessions, the
storytelling naturally surfaced as primary.
Therefore, I found it necessary to modify my
paradigm. This was the major revision to the ITSM.
However, throughout the process, several other revisions were
made as well. The following chapters chronicling the course
of the fieldwork exercises will illuminate the evolution of
the ITSM as well as demonstrate the practice of the ITSM in
context of actual organizations.
Each of the fieldwork chapters are written in a
consistent format mirroring the storytelling model:
Beginning, Middle, and End (see Figure: 12:1). Although
each fieldwork exercise is unique, the sub-headings in the
figure below provide a general framework for each case
study. This chapter will describe in more detail how the
fieldwork sessions unfolded, but the following chapters on
each case will provide the unique character of each of the
participating organizations.
Each fieldwork workshop is unique because of the
variety of participating organizations. The number of
participants and the length and number of sessions vary with
each exercise. However, the approach remains the same with
each organization.
The Beginning of each workshop launches with my
personal introduction and an overview of the ITSM. The
Informed Consent form is then reviewed, and each person is
given the freedom to choose whether or not to participate.
After the participants have signed the Informed Consent form,
we begin with an introduction to hermeneutics. Included in
the discussion of hermeneutics are key concepts such as:
� Dasein: being in the world, the necessity of self-
knowledge and context
� Interpretation: in context of the listener and
storyteller
� Hermeneutic Cycle/ Spiral: the nature of gaining
understanding through cycling between personal context
and that of the storyteller
� Verstehen: understanding
� Fusion of horizons: mutual understanding
Also covered in the first meeting is an overview of the
communication model presented in the ITSM, including cultural
topography. The participants are encouraged to be mindful of
the various stages and the topography throughout the
sessions. Within each chapter, the ITSM stage and
topography is charted by identifying different levels within
the dialogue in brackets. For example: [Expression: Depth/
Subsoil] These boxes are subjectively placed, based upon my
interpretation of the process. They are intended to be an
example of how the participants are encouraged to be aware of
the various stages and topography throughout the workshop.
To assist in gaining self-knowledge, and an awareness of
dasein (being in the world), the participants are asked to
complete the Components of the Self worksheet and the
Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner questions prior to the next
session.
The second and subsequent sessions (the Middle)
correlate to the hermeneutic processes of interpretation, the
hermeneutic spiral, and Verstehen (understanding), and fusion
of horizons (mutual understanding). During the second
session, the participants review the Components of the Self
worksheet and the Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner questions.
We discuss any significant differences in the Components of
the Self worksheet and the Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner
questions between the participants within the workshop.
Particular consideration is given to differences that
may have a cultural underpinning in order to purposefully
identify cultural distinctions and address how those
distinctions affect the team. In addition, attention is
given to the differences between the answers the participants
give and those of the respondents in the Trompenaars and
Hampden-Turner research. If significant differences exist
between the results of the predominant culture of the present
group and those of the Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner
respondents, we discuss the possible reasons for those
differences.
During the Middle sessions the concept of
autobiographical storytelling is also introduced. We
discuss the framework of stories having a beginning, middle,
and an end. In addition, we discuss Randall’s (1997)
concepts of:
� Existence: The Outside Story
� Experience: The Inside Story
� Expression: The Inside-Out Story
� Impression: The Outside-In Story
Considering the above components, the participants are asked
to tell an autobiographical story (between five and ten
minutes) of an event or situation that has influenced their
personal development. The participants are assured that the
topographical level of intimacy at which they share, and
their participation is at their discretion. The following
sessions involve the telling of stories and subsequent
dialogue. Often the dialogue spurs the story of another
person in the group who has experienced something that
compares or contrasts to the storyteller’s experience.
Attention is continually given to items of possible cultural
relevance. When suspected, the facilitator or another
member of the group will interrupt and explore the statement
for cultural relevance and how it affects the group.
Instead of de-emphasising differences and maximizing
similarities, which is a common practice in multicultural
work, the ITSM intentionally emphasises differences.
In the final session (the End), the participants are
asked to discuss the new knowledge and understanding that has
been discovered. This correlates to verstehen and the
fusion of horizons principles of hermeneutics. Mutual
understanding has been achieved and the question now is,
“What do we do with what we have learned?” We identify
the cultural distinctions and ask how we can maximize these
distinctions to make them an asset instead of a liability.
Within the conclusion of each Fieldwork Chapter is an
evaluation of the ITSM and consequent revisions to be made in
following workshops. The continuum of fieldwork exercises
represents the evolution of the ITSM. The following case
study chapters are in chronological order.
References:
McLeod, John. (2001). Qualitative research in counselling
and
psychotherapy. London: Sage Publications.
Randall, William. (1995). The stories we are: An essay on
self-
creation. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
Chapter 11
Field Work Project 1: Mukogawa Fort Wright Institute
Beginning
Setting the Scene
The Pilot exercise of the ITSM took place at Mukogawa
Fort Wright Institute (MFWI). It was established in 1990 in
Spokane, WA as a branch campus of Mukogawa Women’s University
(MWU) in Japan. Japanese students typically attend MFWI for
fourteen weeks during the Fall or Spring semester. The
program is built upon a foundation of total immersion in
American culture and the English language.
Introduction of the Cast of Characters
Because of the present research emphasis on
transcultural communication and team building, Mukogawa
provided a rich context in which to begin the field work.
The participants included five Japanese students and two
American faculty members. Hanna, Lori, Nina, Lisa, and Maya
were selected at random from a larger group of Japanese
student volunteers. Sara and Kirk were the participating
Americans. The names of all participants have been replaced
with fictitious names for confidentiality. The sessions
lasted for one hour on three consecutive days, and took place
on the MFWI campus. Imposed upon the notes of the session
below are text boxes which correlate the discussion with the
various ITSM stages. The identification of the stages is
strictly subjective due to the qualitative nature of this
research. The cyclical nature of hermeneutic understanding
is demonstrated by the moving back and forth between the
various stages and depths.
Session 1
The first session began with personal introductions and
a brief overview of the Interpretive Transcultural
Storytelling Method (ITSM). The students found it very
difficult to understand much of what I said due to their
limited ability to communicate in English. Their
willingness and commitment were tremendous assets in light of
this communication deficit. Session One revolved primarily
around the first step in the Interpretive Transcultural
Storytelling Method, In-Spection, (knowing yourself).
Following introductions, we discussed different ways of
studying culture, and the desire of each student to fully
engage the American experience while they were in Spokane.
I explained to the participants that the method employed in
the ITSM is specifically oriented to help people become
better acquainted with one another, increase the ability to
communicate and thereby build a functioning team. I also
discussed the theory that an increased awareness and
understanding of self and the other, including cultural
contexts, would emerge.
During the first session we discussed the importance of
self knowledge before attempting to understand another. The
discussion of self knowledge included addressing topics such
as the collectivist tendencies of traditional Japanese
culture compared to the individualist tendencies of
traditional American culture. The students had participated
in cross-cultural courses before coming to the USA so they
were very aware of the stereotypical differences between the
two cultures. The American faculty had also been educated
on cross-cultural issues.
I distributed a packet of handouts to the participants
which included a brief overview of the ITSM, the Components
of the Self worksheet (A.4), and the first three questions
used by Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (1998). Only three
questions were chosen due to the limited amount of time.
The purpose of this research is not to replicate or validate
the findings of Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner, rather, to
build upon their work by utilizing some of their material to
generate understanding.
The participants were briefed on the handouts and asked
to complete the Components of the Self worksheet as well as
answer the three questions before the next session. Several
questions were raised regarding both assignments regarding
meanings of certain words, again highlighting the language
barrier. After consulting a Japanese-English dictionary and
with help from other students the questions were answered and
the participants were dismissed.
Debriefing of Session One
Following the session, I met briefly with the American
faculty who had orchestrated the on-site fieldwork. We
discussed the positive feedback from the students and the
excitement and eagerness with which they participated in this
session. The overall assessment was that the session had
been a positive and educational interaction. The first
session was predominately educational with some
interaction. My anticipation was that it would be more
interactive with some education. Factors that contributed
to the more didactic nature of the session were the language
barrier and the generally new concepts introduced. Often I
would notice a blank stare on the faces of some or all of the
students. I would ask, “Do you understand?” and the
answer would be a shy and almost embarrassed, “No…
sorry.” I soon became aware that using clichés such as,
“Know what pushes your buttons,” should be avoided.
I did not cover as much material as I had anticipated
during the first session. Much time was devoted to explaining
concepts that most people with a better grasp of English
would understand. I came to the conclusion that in future
field work, the time allotted for the ITSM would necessarily
need to factor in English proficiency.
During the first session I observed some interesting
anomalies. The students did not have difficulty understanding
the concept of self. I compared their level of
understanding to that of the Taiwanese and Chinese students
at the University of Buckingham during the genesis of the
ITSM. The latter had much difficulty understanding the
concept of self. Multicultural literature highly correlates
the Asian communities in regards to collectivism. Even the
research of Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner found the Japanese
to be highly collectivistic, so the readily understood self
concept caused me to take note.
Another phenomenon I experienced that conflicted with
my knowledge of Japanese culture was the ease with which the
young, female, Japanese students interacted with the adult
American faculty and me. The students freely disagreed when
wrong assumptions were made and they also looked the
Americans squarely in the eyes when addressing them.
Multicultural literature generally says directness is not a
characteristic of the Japanese culture, nor is making eye
contact with elders, especially within academic settings.
It should be noted that these students have only been in the
USA for four months and none of them have been to the USA
previous to this visit. Therefore, these apparent
discrepancies cannot be attributed to the students’ having
become Americanized.
Middle
The second session began with much anticipation. The
participants arrived energetic and anxious to begin
discussion. Each retrieved the Components of the Self
worksheet and the handout with the three questions. We
began with a quick review of the previous session and asked
if there were any questions or comments from the previous
time together. Having none, we began with the Components of
the Self worksheet. Immediately I observed a marked
difference in the Taiwanese and Chinese students’ answers
(of Buckingham) and those of the present participants.
There was little contrast between the answers of the American
and Japanese responses.
The most highly ranked components included My
Aspirations, My Body, My Education, My Will-power, My Family,
My Skills, and My Experiences. We discussed the “Western”
nature of their answers, pointing out that “my family” was
the only component that did not directly imply a tendency
towards individualism, and that there was virtually no
difference in their answers and those of the Americans.
[Expression: Surface/ Topsoil] The participants seemed to
be surprised at this assessment. We discussed the influence
of their three months in the USA. I asked, “If you had
done the worksheet a year ago, would the answers have been
different?” The consensus was possibly, but not
probably. I also asked the American faculty, “How much
influence has working constantly with Japanese students had
upon your answers?” [Understanding: Depth/ Subsoil] The
consensus was that there had been potential influence, but
there was no way of making the determination of how
much.
We concluded that the participants had been mutually
influenced, to varying degrees, but that the Japanese
students had a strong tendency toward individualism compared
to the anticipated results. The discussion proved
enlightening as it revealed much about each participant to
the others as well as highlighting the commonalities shared
between the presumed very different cultures. Each
individual also expressed benefit from the insight they
developed of themselves, not having consciously realized how
fused their culture had become.
We moved, then, to the three questions derived from the
work of Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (1998). The
questions incorporated in this exercise are included in
Appendix 3 in the Fieldwork Packets.. The results collected
by the research of Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (1998) are
compared to those found in the present research in the box
following each question. The participants were not aware of
the Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner results prior to answering
the questions. [In-Spection: Depth/ Subsoil]
Results for question 1. Universalism versus Particularism
Results for question 2. Communitarian versus
Individualism
Results for question 3. Neutral versus Emotional
The results of the three questions demonstrated
differences between the respondents of Trompenaars and
Hampden-Turner (1998) and the present participants. In
regards to Universalism and Particularism, both the Japanese
and American participants equally (50%) said the driver has
some right to expect him or her to lie, but almost
unanimously agreed they would not testify under oath. Both,
the American and the Japanese participants were less
Universal than Trompenaars’ research.
Communitarianism versus Individualism also highlighted
differences in the present participants and previous ones.
The Americans demonstrated a 100%, high individualistic
tendency, and the Japanese scored closely to the previous
Trompenaars research as much higher in collectivism. The
Japanese answers to this question demonstrated a much more
traditional view of Japanese collectivism than did the
Components of the Self sheet. [Interpretation: Depth/
Topsoil] This may be indicative of the dual forces at work
in their evolving cultural fusion. If so, it appears the
Japanese are experiencing a greater influence from the west,
than the Americans are experiencing from the east.
The question reflecting the Neutral versus Emotional
tendencies demonstrated the Americans scored closely to the
American respondents in the Trompenaars research, while the
Japanese scored significantly lower than the previous
Japanese respondents. The MFWI Japanese participants are much
more likely to show emotion. The answers, once again,
demonstrate the potential influence of globalization in the
Japanese greater than in the Americans.
[Clarification: Depth/ Subsoil] We discussed the
differences between the answers of the Trompenaars and
Hampden-Turner research and those of the MFWI participants.
Some of the questions that arose were, “Why do some of the
answers on the previous research differ so dramatically from
your responses?” “Is there is a greater western influence
on the Japanese participants, than the eastern influence on
American participants? Why do you suppose that is?” The
students and faculty agreed that the younger Japanese
generation, generally, is becoming more westernized, although
they are not consciously aware of it. The Americans,
because of their connection with multiculturalism have in
some ways experienced a fusion of horizons, although not as
dramatically. The discussion of each individual’s answers
provided a rich context for discourse and the group equally
considered the exercise a valuable experience.
The conclusion of the session included a summary of what
we had done so far and what we had learned about each
other. A volunteer was requested to write a story about an
event in his or her life that has impacted who he or she has
become. Lisa volunteered, and her story follows in Session
Three.
Debriefing of Session Two
The combination of the Components of the Self worksheet
and the Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner questions provided
insightful material for discussion. Both illuminated
aspects that individuals found helpful in understanding
themselves in context of their culture. The Japanese
participants discovered how their paradigm had evolved to
become more Western, without abandoning their rich culture.
The Americans were able to observe how individualistic they
were, and yet at the same time had also integrated some
eastern cultural tendencies. The weak English vocabulary of
the Japanese students proved to be the fundamental challenge.
However, part of the team building that took place during the
session could be attributed to the group, as a whole, working
together to meet the challenge.
End
Final Session
The final session incorporated the actual model of the
Interpretive Transcultural Storytelling Method. Ideally
this would have begun in Session Two. However, due to the
language barrier, the primary stage of “In-Spection”
required more time. The group assembled one final
time.
[Interpretation: Depth/ Topsoil] I observed how
the interaction was much more fluid, relaxed, and comfortable
than the first session. After insuring each participant had
a Working Model (Appendix 2), I began with an overview of the
ITSM. We discussed the first step of In-Spection and its
importance. Then we addressed the following components:
Expression, or telling your story, Reception, the hearing of
another’s story, Interpretation, the act of attributing
meaning to another’s story, Clarification, clarifying what
has been heard, Understanding, mutual agreement of
understanding and new knowledge, and finally Emergence, the
application new knowledge. As the participants listened to
Lisa’s story, they were instructed to do so in context of
the ITSM stages. In addition to the Working Model, I
described the different levels of depth in conversation:
Surface and Depth, and Topsoil, Subsoil, Bedrock, and Core
(Lessem & Palsule, 2002). I explained that, often,
communication begins and remains in the surface levels. Our
goal was to move purposefully into the deeper levels.
We then invited Lisa to read her story. The group
listened intently as she began to read in broken English.
The following is a transcript of the story she wrote and
shared with the group. [[Expression: Depth/ Subsoil]
My Life Looks Like a Roller Coaster
I have two younger sisters. My grandfather (on
my father’s side) is very strict toward only me, and
is very kind toward sisters. He always said to me
since I was kindergarten, “You must act smart,
because you’re oldest! You’re specimen of
sisters.” When my sisters and I scrambled food or
something, I had to endure. I hated my grandpa so I
didn’t want to talk with him. When I was 15 years
old, my parents divorced. My sisters and I stayed
with my mother, but we are living with my grandpa on
my father’s side. He always says, “You must do
your father’s role.” So I exploded in anger toward
him. I didn’t talk with him about 1 ½ year at
all! Now, his and my relationship is not so good.
But my mother always supported me when I fought
grandpa.
[Interpretation: Topsoil/ Subsoil] Following Lisa’s
sharing, I was perplexed by the disdain she had for her
grandfather and my perceptions of the Japanese culture being
a culture that placed high value on respecting elders.
[Clarification: Depth/ Subsoil] When I asked her about
this, Lisa did not understand so the group conferred in
Japanese. She eventually understood the question and
replied that her anger was strong and although there were
times she spoke harshly to him, generally she acted
respectfully. Lisa described this as a “surface” respect,
with the “depth” of her feelings being hatred. This was
more congruent with my perception of Japanese culture, and
demonstrated a fusion of western and Japanese culture within
her.
Lisa’s touching story evoked the empathy of virtually
everyone in the
group.
[Clarification: Depth/ Subsoil] I asked the group how
Lisa’s story may have been different in the USA. Before
the participants began to respond, I reminded them to be
aware of the ITSM model, as well as the levels of depth, and
to consider in what stage they were operating. Due to the
transparency and personal disclosure in Lisa’s story, the
group immediately moved to the deeper levels of subsoil and
bedrock, and at times even to the core.
[Expression: Depth/ Subsoil] Sara, an American
faculty, shared the story of her relationship with her
grandmother. She told how she was unkind and controlling.
Sara said that her grandmother probably needed to be on
medication, but refused any kind of help. Sara said her
mother always told her to be polite, respectful, and to
always pretend that she liked her, even when her grandmother
was unkind. When she became an adult, Sara “could not
take it anymore.” She eventually told her grandmother her
feelings. The relationship was severely impaired at that
point. When her grandmother grew sick and close to death,
Sara went to her and told her that she wished her well and
that she did not harbour bitterness any longer. Reflecting
upon her experience, she introspectively asked the question,
“How do you respect someone that maybe does not deserve
respect?” That was the question she struggled with for
years. [Expression: Depth/ Core] Others in the group
responded with affirmations, demonstrating they, too, had
struggled with the same type of question.
[Clarification: Depth/ Subsoil] I drew a correlation
with question three from an earlier session, “In a meeting
you feel very insulted because your business counterpart
tells you that your proposal is insane. What is your
response?” Sara and Lisa, although one American and one
Japanese, answered the question the same [Expression: Depth/
Subsoil] and both expressed the same position that even
unrespectable people, especially elders or authorities,
should be shown respect, even if the respect is not heart-
felt. [Understanding: Depth/ Bedrock] The group’s discussion
revealed that this value is fairly common across the cultural
divide.
In addition to the correlation between stories and
question number three, I also asked the group to give
feedback as to what level, topsoil, subsoil, bedrock, or
core, the stories had been. The consensus was that both
stories had been primarily subsoil and bedrock, occasionally
moving into core when experiences were related with deep
emotion and transparency. I encouraged the discussion to
continue and Nina promptly spoke up.
[Expression: Depth/ Bedrock] Nina said that she had an
experience similar to that of Lisa and Sara. Her parents
got divorced and her mother got remarried. She and her
step-father did not have a good relationship, nor did she and
her step-brother. Although she did not like her step-
father, she showed him respect. She also told, with great
transparency, of the pain of having a step-father and step-
brother with whom she did not get along, and the hurt she
felt by the lack of kindness shown by each. [Expression:
Depth/ Bedrock ] Her story moved between bedrock and core
levels, and the group listened intently and with compassion
as she shared. [Expression: Depth/ Bedrock]
Kirk shared from his experience with his step-father
and the difficult relationship he and his brother had with
him. He told of how his father had been killed in an
accident and his mother had remarried. Kirk shared how he
did not treat his step-father with respect until he became an
adult. When he began treating his step-father with respect,
their relationship changed and now they are close.
[Interpretation: Depth/ Bedrock] The other participants were
attentive and receptive to what Kirk was sharing. A
discussion about demonstrating respect followed.
[Understanding: Depth/ Bedrock]
Becoming increasingly apparent as the session
continued, was the common ground the participants shared.
All had similar experiences with someone, usually an elder or
some other authority figure, where the topic of respect had
been an issue. The expression and clarification of these
situations had revealed common ground, built intimacy within
the group, and addressed the significant issue of mutual
respect. Based upon a final discussion, the group emerged
with a new understanding of the Japanese and American
cultures, more self-awareness, and an understanding of the
importance of respecting others. [Understanding: Depth/
Subsoil] The group agreed that the intimacy and
understanding that was mutually developed would have a
beneficial impact upon their ability to work together in a
team setting.
Debriefing of Session Three
The story Lisa shared, and subsequently each of the
participants shared, transcended culture. They were the
stories of human beings, not Americans or Japanese. On a
very basic and fundamental level, the group achieved an
emergence of understanding and awareness. [Emergence]
Regardless of age, gender, or culture, we all came to the
agreement that there are fundamental similarities, and that
an understanding of these similarities combined with our
differences can enrich our personal experience as well as
build a sense of cohesiveness among the group.
Although the full ITSM model was not addressed until the
final session, the results were powerful. The sense when we
dismissed the final session was that we were saying goodbye
to dear friends, not fellow participants in a research
project. Upon debriefing each participant, the consensus
was that the experience had been a very positive one. I do,
however, understand that Japanese culture would prohibit
saying otherwise.
Conclusion
The three day module provided a valuable foundation for
the beginning of the field work stage of the ITSM. Having
entered into the first session with a speculation of how the
sessions would actually evolve, I immediately realized the
language barrier was an obstacle I had not fully taken into
consideration. I was aware that Japanese was the first
language of the students. However, my assumption was they
would be more proficient in English. This challenge became
apparent during the introduction as I had to speak slowly and
define many of the terms I used. The students helped each
other understand, and often referred to the Japanese/ English
dictionary. In retrospect, I have learned the importance of
allotting extra time for groups in which English is not the
primary language, as well as the benefit of having a
proficient interpreter available. As in working with any
group, value lies in “knowing your audience.” In future
modules, advance orientation of the participants’ cultural
and linguistic context will be beneficial.
In addition to the language challenge, I discovered a
great difficulty in participating and leading the sessions
while taking comprehensive notes. On the third day I
recorded the session. This allowed me freedom to take notes
only when necessary and to devote more attention to the group
process. The addition of a clause referring to tape
recording sessions will be added to the informed consent form
from this point forward. For the present project, verbal
consent was given on the recording.
While this project is geared specifically toward working
in multicultural settings, understanding and emergence was
not limited only to the multicultural relationships. The
relationships between the Americans were enhanced, as well as
the relationships between the Japanese students. According
to an interview during the final session, each individual
gained new knowledge of the others in the group, regardless
of culture, as well as new knowledge of themselves. Each
participant stated they felt this experience would allow them
to better cooperate within a team setting. The limitation
of this information is that it cannot be validated. Since the
students were in the final weeks of their time in the USA, an
opportunity to have a follow-up session was not possible.
If MFWI is to be utilized in the future, a module with
students in the beginning of the semester would be more
conducive. In addition, a group of students and faculty who
would work on a joint project would allow for more reliable
feedback in regards to the contribution of the ITSM in a team
setting.
In a follow-up interview with the Academic Director of
the University, a number of issues were discussed. In
regards to the inferred “Westernization” of the students,
Dr. Landa suggested that the Japanese students may have
answered the questions in light of their extensive multi-
cultural training. He stated the purpose of the students
participating in the exchange program is to become immersed
in American culture. Therefore, they may have answered,
either consciously or not, the way they thought an American
would answer. We also discussed the very real possibility
and probability that some in the younger Japanese population
may in fact be experiencing a form of cultural fusion.
However, the Japanese system as a whole will probably
not experience that fusion to the same degree in the near
future. This research is not predicated on determining
cultural styles, rather upon helping people to learn to
communicate and function effectively as a team. Therefore,
regardless of the reasons behind the answers of the
questions, discussions resulted that were conducive to
building understanding and exposing commonalities and
differences between the participants.
The three sessions with the students and faculty of
Mukogawa Fort Wright Institute began with a nervous
anticipation. This was the first instalment of putting into
practice the model developed to increase effectiveness in
communication, specifically between people of different
cultures. The consensus of the participants was that this
exercise was a valuable lesson in building a cohesive group
with emerging and synergistic energy. In addition, the
participants expressed that they found value in the
communication training as well as self and cultural
awareness.
The work within this group in particular, provided a
unique picture of a possible emerging culture of fusion among
the younger generations in which globalization is a genuine
reality. The question as to why the differences between the
Taiwanese and Chinese students of the University of
Buckingham and the Japanese students of MFWI were so vivid,
especially in regards to the concept of the self and
collectivism versus individualism, may be answered based upon
the level of Japanese and Chinese/ Taiwanese openness to
western influence in media, advertising, or globalization in
general.
My assertion is that as globalization continues to
increase, a fusion of cultures will emerge. This fusion is
most likely taking place unconsciously and will probably
become more evident in the younger generations who grow up in
a global environment. This reconciliation of cultures is
precisely, either consciously or unconsciously, what
Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner propose to achieve in their
work on multicultural competence.
Globalization, it appears, may in fact create
continually evolving and emerging cultures. If this
assumption is valid, a more dynamic method for communicating
cross-culturally may be in order. A method such as the
Interpretive Transcultural Storytelling Method may be a
valuable addition to the traditional multicultural
literature.
References:
Lessem, Ronnie, & Palsule, Sudhanshu. (2002). From local
identity to global integrity. Leadership and
Organization Development Journal UK, Volume 23, No. 4,
174-185.
Trompenaars, Fons & Hampden-Turner, Charles. (1998). Riding
the Waves of Culture. 2nd Edition. NY: McGraw-Hill.
Chapter 12
Field Work Project 2: Private Investigation Firm
Beginning
Setting the Scene
The organization participating in the second fieldwork
project was a private investigation firm. The company
investigates a variety of criminal and civil cases for
attorneys and private clients. The firm has recently
flourished by performing comprehensive background checks for
nationwide companies as well as facilities like nuclear power
plants. Instead of the actual company name, I will refer to
the Private Investigation Firm or “PIF”, to insure
confidentiality. In addition, the names of the participants
will be fictitious.
Introduction of the Cast of Characters
During the four sessions, I worked with eight managers
and lead investigators. These individuals are all American
citizens who speak fluent English. On the surface the
participants’ cultural backgrounds seemed homogenous,
however, upon exploration we discovered that cultural
diversity indeed exists. Judy is Romanian, Glenda is part
American Indian, and Bruce is from the deep Southern USA.
Tracy has a Ph.D. in Anthropology, and has spent years in
England at University of Cambridge, Northern Africa, and
Egypt. The others are Caucasians from the USA with mixed
European heritages.
PIF has existed for twenty-three years and employs
approximately twenty-five individuals. For the past three
years the organization has experienced unprecedented growth,
both in business and in the number of employees. This has
dramatically changed the culture of the company and in the
process created a number of issues for its leadership. The
culture of PIF has traditionally been family oriented which
incorporates flexible scheduling, and close interpersonal
relationships.
However, as the company has grown, the leadership is
finding it increasingly difficult to create a new culture
which incorporates the founder’s value of relationships and
the spirit of family, and simultaneously provides structure
and criteria for assessing job performance. I was asked to
work with the managers and lead investigators to help develop
communication and understanding among a team of talented
individuals, yet who approach their jobs from different
perspectives.
As the sessions progressed, it became apparent that
many of these perspectives are culturally based. We
conducted the ITSM in five sessions, each lasting between one
and one and a half hours, over a three month span. The
three month span was due to the increasing work load of the
firm and did not appear to be a detriment in the ITSM
process.
Session One
I began the first session by asking the participants to
express their assessment of the firm’s current morale and to
address some of the matters they think should be addressed.
The overwhelming responses were conflicts in relationships,
deficiencies in interpersonal communication, and the “need
to be on the same page.” In addition to the tension caused
by poor communication was the rapid pace with which work must
be done because of the increase in business. I passed out the
ITSM packets, and gave a brief overview of the ITSM’s
intended purpose of creating understanding and a synergistic
team, specifically within multicultural settings. I also
stated that no individual would be required to participate or
even attend the sessions, and then proceeded to review the
Informed Consent form.
The group as a whole listened eagerly and replied
positively to the process. However, Tracy and Angie had
reservations. Tracy, who holds a Ph.D. in Anthropology,
began with very academic questions about my research. Her
research orientation had been quantitative and empirical, so
she was concerned with my sample size, reliability and
validity, what my hypothesis is, and how I would test it. I
had not anticipated those types of questions during the
session, and the others responded nonverbally by leaning back
in their chairs and rolling their eyes with looks of
frustration. I explained to Tracy that I appreciated her
questions and that the ITSM research was being conducted from
a qualitative, hermeneutic approach, utilizing narrative
storytelling method. I followed up with an acknowledgement
that the others may not be interested in this topic, (to
which everyone agreed) and that I would be happy to discuss
her questions following the meeting if she would like. I
also offered to give her a copy of my methodology and method
chapters. She did stay for several minutes following the
session and was content with the representation of my
research approach, stating it is a different type of research
method than that in which she had been trained.
Following Tracy’s queries, Angie said that she was not
interested in knowing everyone’s stories. She suggested to
Sandra, the president, that she bring in a “Leadership
Consultant” to teach on leadership instead of learning
“that Brent’s dog or cat got ran over when he was seven
years old.” She continued, stating, “Business is business,
and I don’t care whether or not your children are sick, or
that your cat or dog died… when you are at work, you do your
job.” This was immediately met with an angry rebuttal from
a manager who has been with the company for years. Brent
rose up from his chair, planted both hands on the table and
leaned forward toward Angie. He stated, “If you don’t
care about my family, or me as a person, I certainly will not
be likely to go out of my way to help you at work!” At
that point the room erupted in an obvious philosophical
(cultural) war. Tracy and Angie were aligned against Sandra
(the president and founder), Brent, and Bob, while the others
sat quietly in discomfort. I waited for an opportunity to
interject.
The pandemonium subsided and I said that everyone, as I
had stated earlier, was free to participate only to the level
he or she desired. I continued by addressing the issue at
the root of the argument. The culture of the organization
was evolving. Sandra had built the business on the paradigm
that employees were like family. This stemmed from her rural
American routes where “neighbours helped neighbours, and
everyone knew everyone else’s business,” Sandra said.
Translating her rural philosophy to the business
incorporates, for example, flexibility in scheduling, sharing
personally, and spending time together outside of business
hours. Viewing colleagues as family, as well as sensitivity
to each person’s immediate family has been the understood
corporate culture of PIF. However, as new employees have
come into the company, other views and practices have begun
changing that culture. For example, Angie’s cultural
background is urban, having lived most of her life in the
city where people keep to themselves and stay out of other
people’s business. Presently, the lack of cooperation and
community is the result of this culture in flux.
The rest of the session revolved around Angie,
occasionally joined by Tracy, questioning my qualifications
and the relevance of my research to their “all white” (with
the exception of Glenda) company. I shared with them that
culture did not necessarily imply race, although that may
very well be part. We discussed, as a group, the various
backgrounds of each individual and how within the United
States, different regions enjoy different cultural values.
For example, the Southern USA and rural areas tend to have a
slower pace and to be very relationship and family oriented.
This topic is covered in Chapter 7 Contextualization: Macro-
contextualization I.
Ten minutes after the session was scheduled to
conclude, Sandra interrupted the inquisition and said that we
needed to wrap up the meeting. I agreed and summarized the
session, emphasising my appreciation for the freedom with
which each person shared their thoughts and reminding them of
their freedom to participate or not participate in future
sessions. I also asked those who wished to participate to
answer the questions (Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner) as well
as complete the Components of the Self worksheet.
Following the session, I spoke with Tracy about her
concerns about the research protocol, and then debriefed with
Sandra and her assistant, Bob. They were both apologetic
and frustrated about the manner in which Tracy and especially
Angie conducted themselves. Sandra and Bob assured me that
they felt the ITSM showed great promise for their business
and that it was precisely what they needed. We then scheduled
the next session. As I left the office I felt as though I
had been through an hour and ten minutes of gruelling
interrogation.
As we discovered in this first session, some of the
managers who are relatively new to PIF did not share the
opinion that a business should incorporate any elements of
the employees’ personal lives. This was sure to be a
challenge in future meetings, and bringing personal lives
into the workplace is sure to be a concern for others in
other organizations.
Middle
Session Two
The second session began with much less tension than
the prior had ended. I had wondered whether or not Angie
and Tracy would choose to participate in the subsequent
meetings, and they were both in attendance. Tracy appeared
to be congenial and interested in my discourse on
interpretation and the importance of self-knowledge
(hermeneutics). She asked pertinent questions and took
notes. However, Angie sat quietly, legs crossed, holding
her notebook in front of her, and rarely looking up from her
writing or doodling. Her nonverbal body language said she
was there under protest and did not wish to participate to
any degree. With the exception of a couple of interjections
throughout the balance of the session, Angie remained silent
and closed off to the group. [In-Spection: Surface Topsoil
& Subsoil]
We then discussed the Components of the Self
worksheet. While some initially expressed concern over the
relevance of the worksheet, as we entered into the discussion
they began to understand how each individual valued different
components, and how these differences may relate to
understanding themselves and others. Judy stated that the
act of breaking the self down into components helped her to
identify those components that were most meaningful to
her. No one component surfaced as overwhelmingly highest
or lowest. However, the components with the greatest range
of difference were: My Gender (9-1), My Aesthetic Sense (9-
1), My Conscience (9-1), My Education (9-1), and My Current
Relationships (9-1). Within this session, the Components of
the Self worksheet proved to be a good discussion starter,
but of little value in exposing cultural differences as it
did in the Buckingham M.Sc. class that was the genesis of the
ITSM. This may be attributed to the lack of severely
distinct cultures.
Within the PIF group, each individual is primarily
influenced by the general American culture, and secondarily
influenced by their individual sub-cultures. We allowed
each individual the opportunity to share which components he
or she felt most and least influenced their self-
composition. [Expression: Depth/ Subsoil] Each person
shared, including Angie and Terry, and the discussion led the
group beyond the topsoil into the subsoil, and occasionally
bedrock, as some shared their aspirations, memories, and
childhood experiences. The Components of the Self worksheet
may, then, be more valuable in defining differences when
cultural extremes exist, however, it still holds value in
assisting the participants in self reflection, or In-
Spection.
Following the Components of the Self worksheet, we then
moved to the Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner questions.
Because of time restraints, we chose to discuss only the
first four questions, the same questions discussed in the
first field work exercise with Mukogawa. The questions
provided a great deal of insight and energized the
discussion, at times developing into heated debate.
Results for question 1. Universalism versus Particularism
Results for question 2. Communitarianism versus
Individualism
Results for question 3. Neutral versus Emotional
Results for question 4. Diffuse versus Specific
While the purpose of the preceding questions is not to
statistically compare and contrast the findings of
Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner, the results do provide a
framework for invigorating discussion. In remaining
congruent to their law enforcement and legal context, the
entire group answered the first question that they would not
testify to a lower figure, even though they were not quite as
unanimous in stating that the individual had no right to ask
for the false testimony. The first question, although
everyone agreed, provided a rich discussion regarding the
universalism of law. Some could not understand why it would
even be a question, as it is obvious that “right is right,
and wrong is wrong.” However, others understood the
dilemma as it pertained to different relationships and
different possible results of the accident. In the end, all
agreed to falsely testify is wrong.
The second question was the most pertinent to this
particular group. Exactly one half of the participants
answered as communitarians and one half as individualists.
This split regularly emerged as a source of discussion
throughout each of our meetings, and it represented the
turmoil caused by the evolution of the culture of the
workplace. While PIF had been highly collectivistic in its
early years, and while the president highly desires it to
remain that way, as the organization has grown, individuals
have joined the team who have much more of an individualistic
perspective. The ensuing discussion regarding
communitarianism and individualism surfaced the sharp divide
among philosophies. As the discussion settled, and the
participants began to find common ground, Angie was the only
person holding firmly to her solely individualistic
perspective.
Question 3, Neutral versus Emotional, demonstrated that
the team of PIF were less likely to show emotion than the US
respondents in the original research. Most agreed that to
react in meeting would be less beneficial than speaking to
the offender in private. However, Angie and Bob were
willing to show emotion when offended, and they demonstrated
that several times throughout our sessions, mostly towards
one another. Question 4, Diffuse versus Specific, did not
provide much discussion. However, the discrepancies
demonstrated by the answers of Question 2 (Communitarianism
versus Individualism) were highlighted once again. Being
closely related to Question 2, Question 4 revealed the
tension of a corporate culture in flux.
The Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner questions stimulated
discussion which helped the participants talk through and
wrestle with their personal views as well as learn the views
of others. In addition, the discussion helped to lay a
framework for the evolving corporate culture and to highlight
areas of tension, like individualism versus
communitarianism. The lively dialogue accompanying each
question suggested that the interaction was having a positive
effect in building community.
Following the discussion of the questions, I discussed
narrative storytelling with the participants. I explained
that the main purpose in the previous exercises was to help
each person to understand more about themselves and to
reflect upon their stories. I asked each person to consider
a biographical story that has had an impact in shaping the
person they have become. This would be a brief story,
approximately ten to fifteen minutes in length, that might
help others know and understand them better. I assured the
participants they had no obligation to participate, and if
they chose to participate, they were free to share as little
as they felt comfortable in sharing. I encouraged each to
make notes of their stories on the sheet provided in the ITSM
packet. After answering questions and thanking them for
their participation, the session was adjourned.
Session Three
Session three began with a brief discussion of the
termination of Angie’s employment. The discussion was
tense as Tracy was obviously unhappy with the recent
events. She did not feel that Angie was treated fairly
until Sandra described the events that led up to the
termination. Following her explanation, everyone seemed
satisfied and we moved ahead with the ITSM.
I reviewed each of the stages of the ITSM with the
group, explaining what each stage represented and how the
process is cyclical. I also introduced the concept of depth
topography: topsoil, subsoil, bedrock, and core. I
encouraged each person to be aware of each stage as well as
the levels of depth.
Brent was the first to volunteer to
tell his story which lasted for approximately seven
minutes. He told of his previous job as a minister in a
church. [Expression: Depth/ Subsoil] He, his wife, and
his young son lived in an apartment in the church, making it
difficult to separate work life from personal life. He
shared how the living arrangements had a negative impact on
his family and then he concluded his story. My internal
reaction was that the story was short, very much on the
surface, and did not reveal much about Brent. However,
almost immediately Glenda indicated that she would like to
speak. [In-Spection: Depth/ Subsoil] She interpreted Brent’s
story in context of her knowledge of his background, but also
in light of her own context. She had been a pastor’s child
and immediately identified with the impact, both positive and
negative, that being in the ministry could have upon a
family.
[Expression: Depth/ Subsoil] She began to share her
own story as a child whose father spent countless nights away
from home caring for someone in the church. Whether
counselling, visiting the sick, or helping families in times
of grief, she recounted how her own family often came after
the others in her father’s church. Judy observed the
similarities in Glenda’s and Brent’s stories.
[Clarification: Depth/ Subsoil] She asked Brent how the
events of his story had affected his view of the relationship
between work and family. Her insight in addressing this point
was impressive. [Expression: Depth/ Subsoil] Brent replied
with a robust, “I now put my family first. I learned that
my role is that of protector for my family… I see myself
like a knight who goes off to battle (work) to protect and
provide for my family… work is just a means to an end- not
the end in itself.” I asked, “Is that philosophy
culturally based?”
[Expression: Depth/ Bedrock]
Tracy said that she did not think it was the typical
American cultural philosophy, but that it could be culturally
related to Brent’s religious convictions and his family of
origin. Brent agreed that family was important religiously
and that family was primary in his home when he was a
child. [Expression: Depth/ Subsoil] Judy said that family
is important to her Romanian roots as well. However, she
stated that often, family time was “sacrificed in order to
put food on the table and a roof over their heads.”
Glenda, (Native American heritage), spoke of the importance
of family as she began to share her story. Below is an
excerpt from Glenda’s story, used with permission and names
changed for anonymity. [Expression: Depth/ Subsoil]
On August 30th, 2001 I received a phone call
from my mom. She told me that the Coast Guard had
called her and informed her that they had found my
dad’s boat. At first we thought that maybe someone
had taken it and then left it to drift. Within that
hour we were informed that my dad and three nephews
were lost at sea.
The majority of our family gathered at my mom’s house
waiting for news. My sister and brother-in-law lived
in Odessa, WA and both of their son’s were with their
grandpa. My brother and sister-in-law’s oldest son
was the third grandchild with his grandpa.
Normally more of the family would have gone on this
yearly fishing trip, but my daughter was going to be
married on September 1st, so it was only the four of
them. My dad was scheduled to officiate the wedding
ceremony.
On August 31st the majority of the family left to fly
to Lapush using the funds that were being donated.
The Coast Guard took the family to St. James Island
where my dad’s boat had been found and let them walk
around, as well as showing them where the boat had
been found upside down at high tide level.
…The bodies of my nephews were all found, but as of
this day my dad’s body has never been recovered.
All of this occurred just days before the bombing of
the World Trade Center.
The following spring the president of the company that
I was employed for offered me a position at the main
office just outside of Portland. He told me that
they were going to be closing the regional office
where I was working. He made me an offer that was
hard to turn down as I would be getting more than a
$5.00 per hour raise and they would assist in my
husband finding work.
I originally told him that I would like to try this,
as they offered to fly me back and forth during the
week to see if I would like it. After two days of
not sleeping well I decided that the Lord was saying
that I needed to stay where I was, even though I would
be without a job shortly. I felt guided to stay in
the area where I would be close to my mom and two of
my three kids, as well as most of my siblings.
A lot of things happened in my life prior to August
28th, 2001, including many learning experiences and
stumbling blocks, but after this date my family has a
higher priority. I have been blessed with my son
choosing to follow his grandpa’s footsteps into the
ministry. As you know, all things work together for
the good of those who trust the Lord! He also led
Sandra to contact me and offer me a position in her
company and now I believe that I am at a job where I
belong.
Following Glenda’s story, and the drying of eyes from
tears, the group began to discuss how the concept of family
affects the PIF business. [Expression: Depth/ Subsoil] Bob
said that he felt the PIF is a family, and that is how the
business was founded. [Expression: Depth/ Bedrock] However,
Tracy quickly replied that, although she is close to many in
PIF, she certainly did not equate them to her family. Most
of the room seemed to agree with her assessment. Tracy
reiterated the need to balance family and business, and sited
a recent work picnic. She shared how she felt “looked down
upon” because she had not attended. She preferred to spend
that Saturday with her husband and twin babies. Tracy felt
that is was unfair that she should be expected to attend a
work function on her day off. She agreed that teamwork is
important to the PIF, but that her workmates are not her
family. Bruce stated that the discussion was part of an
unfolding story of the culture of
PIF.
[Clarification: Depth/ Core] He asked, “Where do we
draw the line between work and home?” While, in the
past, PIF employees spent much of their time off together,
not all of the present employees desire to do so.
[Emergence] Tracy suggested that each individual would
ultimately need to have the freedom to choose when to
participate in work “get-togethers” and when to spend time
with family. “The differences in stages of life among the
team members”, she said, “has an impact on the level of
outside activities they can be involved in.” Tracy had
made a powerful point. [Expression: Depth/ Bedrock] Sandra
acknowledged that her children are now adults, and that her
employees are in essence, her immediate family. She said
that she understood those with small children are at a
different stage of life and that their children are
priorities.
[Clarification: Depth/ Bedrock] Recognizing that our
time was almost gone, I asked the group, “What new
understanding and/or knowledge emerged from the discussion
today?”
[Understanding: Depth/ Subsoil] Bob said that Brent
and Gay’s stories had been insightful, but perhaps more
important than hearing their stories was the discussion the
stories
elicited.
[Clarification: Depth/ Bedrock] I asked him to explain.
[Expression: Depth/ Core] Bob stated that the differences
of viewpoints of the work team and family have a major impact
on the culture of the company. He stated that while lack of
participation in employee parties had been frowned upon, the
new insight of life stages and priorities had helped him
understand why certain individuals did not regularly
participate. What had been viewed as a lack of employee team
spirit was now understood differently. Each person verbally
agreed with Bob’s assessment, and each added comments
regarding the new understanding they had each received.
Bruce stated that he felt it is possible to have a family
style workplace and have boundaries. He said that the team
needs to allow for individual preferences and that the family
concept allows for differences in levels of participation.
The consensus was that the discussion of the day had been a
benefit in the purposeful evolution of the corporate culture
of PIF. The group appeared to have a positive and up-beat
demeanour as we dismissed.
End
Session 4
The final session began with an exploration of whether
or not the previous session had an impact on the workplace
during the interim between our sessions. Tracy said that
she felt others now have a better understanding of her desire
to be with her family than they had before the last
session. On one occasion she had needed to go home early to
take care of her children. Instead of feeling like she was
letting the team down, she said that she felt comfortable
knowing that everyone knows where her priorities lie, and
why. Brent said that he felt like the communication in the
office had been better because of the relationships that had
been further developed during the previous sessions. Sandra
expressed how utilizing the ITSM process had helped her to
communicate with Judy during a conversation that seemed “to
be getting nowhere.” They referred back to expression,
reception, clarification and eventually reached an
understanding. Others said that they had remembered to use
the process or parts of the process during certain
conversations with fellow employees and some with clients.
I asked if anyone would like to share their story, and
immediately Sandra volunteered. Sandra, as the president
and founder of PIF plays a significant role in determining
the culture as well as the atmosphere of the workplace.
[Expression: Depth/ Core] Sandra began describing a
painful experience that took place about five years prior.
She had hired a middle-aged woman who had professional
qualifications, yet struggled with depression. Because of
Sandra’s history as one who “is always responsible for
those around her,” she felt obligated to not only overlook
this woman’s professional short-comings, but to invest in
her personally and emotionally. As a child, Sandra’s
mother held her responsible for everything that happened to
her little brothers, and for everything her little brothers
did. This feeling of responsibility for others remained
with Sandra throughout her life, and now into her business.
After several attempts, the woman finally succeeded in
committing suicide. Sandra’s husband found the body when
she did not report for work. Sandra felt responsible. She
had intervened and rescued her employee on three previous
attempts, and this time she failed. To compound the guilt,
the woman left a suicide note blaming Sandra for driving her
to the point of suicide. Sandra has struggled with this
incident for the past five years. While she knows that she
cannot accept responsibility for another’s actions, she
still feels guilty.
Sandra’s story was moving and very emotional. Most
of the participants in the workshop had no knowledge of the
events Sandra had described. For a moment the room was
silent. Eventually Tracy offered her condolences about the
suicide and assured Sandra that she could not prevent
someone, who was determined, from committing suicide. Sandra
graciously accepted Tracy’s statement. [Clarification:
Depth/ Core] Tracy asked if Sandra’s history of “being
responsible for all those around her,” and whether her
former employee’s suicide may be significant factors in why
Sandra has a tendency to micromanage her employees.
Sandra’s micromanagement has been a contentious issue on
numerous occasions at PIF.
Judy said that she could now see why Sandra would
micromanage after hearing her story. [Expression: Depth/
Subsoil] She proceeded to express that she had felt
Sandra’s micromanagement style was a sign that she did not
trust her employees and that she thought they were
incompetent to do their jobs. Others agreed with Judy’s
assessment. [This is a representation of the hermeneutic
spiral. The conversation is cycling back and forth from
Sandra’s specific story, to its effects on the whole
group.] [Understanding: Depth/ Subsoil] Sandra agreed
that her micromanagement tendencies very well may be a
reflection of her lifelong feelings that she is responsible
for the actions of those around her, and that after the
suicide, those feelings were compounded.
[Expression: Depth/ Subsoil] Sandra continued,
speaking of her internal battles of when to step in and
micromanage and when to allow an employee to work out
problems on his or her own. She said she understands that
an employee needs to be allowed to try to solve problems and
work out situations without interruption. However, she also
knows the delicate nature of their business, and that a
mistake could cost PIF a client’s business.
[Interpretation & Clarification: Depth/
Subsoil] Judy suggested that the management team should
work together to discuss solutions that would incorporate
each of the managers being available for accountability and
checks-and-balances. She then suggested that Sandra seems
to have a difficult time differentiating the “friendship/
family philosophy from business.” She suggested that
Sandra and the management team jointly produce a set of
expectations by which general job performance can by
gauged. The group agreed that a common understanding of
expectations would be valuable in addressing some of the
issues PIF is presently facing because of the
growth.
[Understanding: Depth/ Subsoil] Sandra acknowledged
that PIF culture needs to intentionally evolve. Presently,
the lack of structure and the “we’re all one big happy
family” philosophy is causing confusion and dissension.
[Understanding:: Depth/ Subsoil] Bruce expressed his
desire to keep the “close-knit feel,” but he agreed that
changes in structure needed to be made.
I asked the group, “What new knowledge or
understanding have our sessions produced?” [Emergence]
Judy expressed that the chart outlining the ITSM process had
been helpful in her understanding of how to communicate with
others. Several verbal agreements followed her statement.
“Another interesting insight has been hearing each other’s
stories. Although we didn’t get to hear everyone’s, the
stories and the following discussions were very eye-
opening,” said Glenda. Bruce expressed how the consensus
that “we can have a family oriented workplace and
simultaneously have different boundaries and preferences is
valuable.”
Summarizing our final session I addressed the evolving
corporate culture of PIF. This evolution is inevitable and
the managers expressed the desire to make it intentional.
Creating a set of expectations and guidelines for gauging
work performance will decrease stress and confusion, as well
as potentially decrease Sandra’s tendency to micromanage.
The Managers mutually agreed that they like the idea of
perpetuating a flexible yet structured family friendly
culture at PIF.
Noting that we were out of time, I thanked the group
for their participation and dismissed them. Following the
session, the group lingered and talked among themselves while
Sandra expressed her desire to have a follow up session in
following months to evaluate the evolution of PIF culture and
possibly allow an opportunity for those who were not able to
tell their stories.
Conclusion
Although the PIF participants seemed overwhelmingly
Anglo-American, obvious cultural differences emerged
throughout the sessions. Differences in life stages,
individual preferences, and cultural views of the workplace
were a source of contention among PIF managers. Developing
an understanding of different definitions of family and a
family oriented work culture proved to be a valuable result
of the ITSM.
The ITSM, according to the participants, was valuable
in identifying stages of the communication process.
According to Judy, referring to the process during
discussions outside of the sessions proved valuable. She
said she was able to identify the point within a discussion
in which the communication was breaking down.
Overall, the Components of Self worksheet and the
Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner questions proved to be of some
value in aiding the process of self-knowledge accumulation
and identifying cultural differences within the group. It
may be important to utilize these as means to an end rather
than the end.
Although not every participant was able to tell his or
her story, the stories shared initiated rich discussion and
insight. While in the In-Spection stage, the participants
gained further self-knowledge. In telling the stories, the
participants helped others understand more about them and
their context. However, perhaps as significant as the story
was the resulting discussion. One participant said, “The
stories are a catalyst for discussion and emergence.” This
is in congruence with the MFWI workshop as well. The
stories are not only valuable in themselves, but also in the
discussion that follows as participants go through the ITSM
stages cycling back and forth between the teller’s story,
their own interpretation and story, and the story of the
group as a whole.
During this workshop, I realized the vital role the
facilitator plays. My knowledge of counselling psychology
and group dynamics was invaluable many times throughout the
sessions. Understanding the different stages of group
development, identifying common, divergent, or recurring
themes, and the ability to field the myriad of complex
emotions telling stories and having intense discussions can
produce are some of the skills a facilitator will need. For
replication of the ITSM a rigorous training for facilitators
will be necessary.
The PIF workshops proved valuable in the development of
the ITSM. Gaining a sense of the amount of time needed for
each story was one of the primary revelations. Each
participant told their story within seven to fifteen
minutes. However, the resulting discussion which includes
the ITSM stages can take as much as forty-five minutes.
This means that getting to the story telling earlier in the
workshops may be necessary. Less discussion and time spent
on the Components of Self and questions may be required.
Another possibility, as we did with PIF, is to have only a
limited number of participants tell their stories.
The Topography was not used but a couple of times within
conversation by the participants, but it helped in my
evaluation of the discussion as well as in the writing up to
determine how deep the participants were willing to go in
self-disclosure. The level to which participants within MFW
and PIF have been willing to disclose has been notably
bedrock and core levels.
Rural versus urban, southern versus northern, and
western versus eastern can reveal distinct cultural
differences. While PIF participants included a Native
American and a Romanian, the most significant differences
surfaced among the geographic regions from which participants
came and whether they were reared in the country or city.
Differences were revealed during the ITSM, but the stories
and discussions created an atmosphere in which the
participants could emerge with knowledge that transcended
those differences.
References:
Lessem, Ronnie & Palsule, Sudhanshu. (1997). Managing in
Four Worlds: From Competition to Co-creation.
Oxford, UK: Basil Blackwell.
Chapter 13
Field Work Project 3: Family Counselling Centre
Beginning
Setting the Scene
Family Counselling Centre is a fledgling organization
within its first months of operation. The centre offers
services to families and individuals, including children,
teenagers, and adults. FCC, as a firm, is still in the
early stages of development, and the participants expressed a
level of frustration with fellow employees. The fundamental
source of frustration was difficulty in communicating due to
a variety possibilities, including, personality styles,
cultural backgrounds, and personal histories. Each of the
participants appeared willing and eager to work through the
ITSM, motivated by the desire to learn to communicate better
and build a more cohesive team.
The FCC workshop was divided into two sessions, one
week apart. The first session spanned six hours. The
discussions were suspended for a one hour lunch break. The
second session lasted for two hours. Although this schedule
was different from previous one hour sessions, it proved to
be of equal value and in many ways superior to the more
elongated time frames of previous workshops. In the present
workshop, the flow from one phase to the next was more fluid,
the time was utilized better because of the lack of review,
and important dialogues were not interrupted due to the
ending of the hour. In the present workshop, the outline
used in previous workshops was adhered to less stringently,
allowing us to work conceptually rather than linearly. This
allowed for a more intentional and productive use of the
hermeneutic cycle since previous discussions and statements
were more contextually recent and relevant.
Introduction of the Cast of Characters
The FCC group consisted of Tom, a twenty-five year old
Caucasian of German and Italian heritage, Ron, a thirty-six
year old who is Native American, but was adopted as a child
by second generation Norwegians, and Rene of German and
Native American ancestry. Doug, a fifty year old Caucasian
and Wayne, a forty year old Caucasian with a mix of Native
American heritage were also participants.
Session One
The first session began with welcoming, expressing
gratitude for the group’s participation, and an overview of
the purpose and general process of the ITSM. I reviewed the
Informed Consent form and invited questions or comments. I
asked the participants for their evaluation of the present
group dynamics and overall workplace morale. It was here
that the participants expressed their assessment that
communication was an issue. Tom said that he had a
difficult time communicating with Wayne, specifically,
because Wayne had a tendency to “beat around the bush.”
When I asked him to explain, Tom said that often when he asks
Wayne for his opinion or other input, Wayne gives a long
drawn out example or story for an answer. Tom said that he
usually walks away saying, “What in the world did he just
say?” This is very frustrating to Tom who is “black or
white, yes or no… very definitive and direct” in what he
says. Tom said that Wayne is “always gray and indirect in
his communication.” Wayne agreed that the two seem to be
“on different wave lengths.”
Internally, I registered that this difference in style
possibly has a cultural foundation. Another frustration,
Rene noted, was that Ron “sometimes seems to be too
lackadaisical in his work.” She said that he performs
well, but does not appear to give more than required to his
job. Rene made note of Ron’s consistently late, or “just on
time” arrivals at work, his slow pace at work, and his lack
of participation in many of the extracurricular activities.
I made a mental note of Ron’s dark skin and black
hair. Assuming he was not of Northern European descent, I
assumed he was Mexican or Native American. If so, his view
of time could also be a cultural distinction. Making notes in
my notebook, I asked if there were any other topics of
relevance. After a moment of silence, we continued the
discussion by addressing the participants’ cultural
backgrounds.
I asked the participants to share their cultural
history. Stating this could include subjects such as
national, religious, racial, ethnic, socio-economic, and
regional background. Tom began by stating that he “does
not have a cultural background.” He said that he is
“American and White… pretty much a mixture of a bunch of
different cultures.” I assured him that this in itself is
a culture and that it has probably had a profound impact on
shaping the person he has become. I probed deeper, and Tom
said that his father is third generation Italian and his
mother second generation German. I made another note in my
journal that the German and Italian roots may reflect on
Tom’s directness.
Rene stated that she is generally Northern European,
but that her great-grandmother was Native American. She
said that her Native American heritage had probably not
affected her culturally since she had not been close to her
great-grandmother. She suspects that her personality style
has been shaped more by her Northern European heritage
because she is very orderly, not spontaneous, and does not
show emotion too readily.
Doug said that he is “a mutt… just a plain old WASP,
White Anglo-Saxon Protestant.” Ron stated that he had been
born on the Indian Reservation and that his father had
deserted his family. He and his brother were adopted by a
White Norwegian family. His adopted family celebrated, and
still celebrate, every Norwegian festival and holiday, and
Christmas is celebrated in Norwegian style as well. I
mentally noted the apparent extreme dissonance between
Norwegian and Native American cultures, and wondered how this
had affected Ron’s development. Wayne shared that he, too
was a “WASP, but also 1/16 Native American.” He said that
he had always desired to be more Native American and that he
had always strongly identified with Native American
culture. He said that although he considered himself a
Christian, he also found some Native American philosophy and
religious beliefs comforting.
I introduced the Components of the Self worksheet and
allowed approximately ten minutes during the session for its
completion. [In-Spection: Surface/ Topsoil] Upon
completion, Doug said that he felt the worksheet helped him
better understand himself by forcing contemplation of each
area. We discussed each of the participant’s answers and
found some components common to all and some unique to
individuals.
The most significant factors common to all five
participants were, My Family and My Spirituality. Four out
of the five participants chose My Conscience and My Religious
Beliefs as significant. One of the distinct differences
was My Gender. Wayne scored gender as one of least
significant factors (1), while Rene scored it as one of the
most significant (9). Culturally, Wayne and Rene are of
similar backgrounds, an obvious difference is gender.
Gender has not visibly surfaced as an extreme differentiating
factor in any of the previous workshops, so I noted it, and
we continued.
Interestingly, each participant marked My Nationality
and My Culture as unimportant (1). I inquired as to the
reason each individual would believe nationality and culture
to be insignificant. While each participant expressed
appreciation for the USA, none felt being American had a
profound influence in making up the self. In addition, when
queried about the low scores on culture, the respondents
expressed that they simply did not identify themselves as
having a culture. Ron, a Native American, spoke of the
dissonance between his heredity and his environment.
[Expression: Depth/ Subsoil] As a Native American growing
up in a Norwegian-American home, he felt like an
“outsider.” “I felt left out at the Norwegian
celebrations. I never fit in, and my brother and I were
always outsiders,” Ron said. In addition, Ron’s exposure
to Native American culture was limited.
None of the participants listed My Relationship to
Society as a significant component. [Interpretation: Depth/
Subsoil] I knew from previous experience and research that
this is a major component in traditional Native American
society. [Clarification: Depth/ Subsoil] I questioned Ron,
and the others who claimed a degree of Native American
influence, on this topic. Ron, again, emphasised that he
had little exposure to the Native American culture. The
other participants agreed that this component had little
significance due to the primary culture in which they were
reared.
As several of the participants have a strong Christian
foundation, the role of religion played a significant role in
defining self. However, this religious correlation does not
prescribe that each person holds identical interpretations.
For example, in the Components of the Self worksheet, Wayne
identified My Relationship to Nature as a top component (9),
while Doug and Tom said it didn’t have any role whatsoever
(1). Wayne expressed that his view is based upon his
religious conviction. Doug and Tom agreed that religion is
significant in the identification of components, as well.
All three share the same belief system, but its influence
differs with each.
The Components of the Self worksheet provided a rich
platform for discussion. Ron asked questions such as, “Why
are certain factors important to me?, and why are other
factors important to others?” During a time of discussion,
the group agreed that childhood experiences were very
significant in personal development. [In-Spection: Depth/
Subsoil] Ron, Tom, and Wayne changed My Childhood
Experiences to number nine, very significant. Originally
each had this factor listed, but relatively insignificant.
Following the Components of the Self worksheet, we
began with the discussion of the Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner
questions. In the interest of time and consistency between
the previous workshops and the present, we covered
Universalism versus Particularism, Communitarianism versus
Individualism, Neutral versus Emotional, and Diffuse versus
Specific. The participants did not have the questions in
advance, so I read the questions aloud as they followed along
in their packets. After reading each question I allowed two
to three minutes for reflecting and answering. We then
discussed each. The questions provided the back-drop for
intense and reflective discussion. Trompenaars and Hampden-
Turner did not include Native Americans in their research, so
the dialogue was enlightening. [In-Spection & Expression:
Depth/ Subsoil]
Results for question 1. Universalism versus Particularism
Results for question 2. Communitarianism versus
Individualism
Results for question 3. Neutral versus Emotional
Results for question 4. Diffuse versus Specific
Contrary to the 87.5% in the previous PIF workshop, the
first question received only 40% who said the pedestrian had
no right to expect him to testify. The discussion revolving
around this question made apparent that these individuals are
in the helping profession versus law enforcement, as PIF.
FCC participants discussed the reasons a friend might have
the right to expect one to falsely testify on his behalf.
Difficult to ascertain, was whether the participants were
more open to this possibility because of cultural or
professional reasons. As helping professionals, the
participants are ethically committed to their clients and to
the ethics of unconditional positive regard and being non-
judgmental. Their professional practices may have
influenced their responses. Regardless of whether the
participants felt the person in the question had the right to
ask, they unanimously agreed that they would not falsely
testify. The difference between this group and PIF is that
more than half could at least understand how the individual
could ask for his friend to lie, even if they believed it was
wrong.
Ron stated that had he grown up on the reservation his
view would have been much more particularistic. He stated
that the Native American culture valued loyalty to friendship
and family and that loyalty would have probably taken
precedence over the law. As he was reared by Norwegians,
this cultural trait was pre-empted by universalism.
The second question, Communitarianism versus
Individualism, spurred a lively discussion. Initially,
three out of the five participants favoured
communitarianism. However, the clause, “even if it
obstructs individual freedom and development,” forced them
to unanimously choose individualism. The group struggled
with answering individualistically because they highly value
the communitarian principles. However, they do not value
those principles as they infringe upon the rights of
individuals. Ron and Wayne again addressed the differences
among Native American society. They discussed how in the
distant past, Native American culture was highly
communitarian. However, as Native American culture was
influenced by the intrusion of the European settlers, it
mutated. Today, while still more communitarian than the
overall American culture, it has generally grown much more
individualistic.
Question number three, Neutral versus Emotional,
demonstrated that three out of the five would not show
emotion during a meeting. The general consensus was that
demonstrating emotion would be less beneficial than handling
the situation privately with the individual. The FCC
answers correlated highly with the Trompenaars and Hampden-
Turner findings and the PIF answers as well. However, Tom
answered that he would show emotion “so that my counterpart
gets the message. I believe the clarity of my message will
allow me to control even greater emotional upset in the
future.” I asked Tom if his father and mother had
demonstrated that freedom of emotion while growing up. He
said they had been emotionally demonstrative, and his
understanding is that it is in sync with the Italian and
German cultures. After some discussion, we concluded that
Tom’s willingness to express himself probably had cultural
foundations.
The fourth question, Diffuse versus Specific,
demonstrated an interesting discrepancy between this group
and the results of Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner. FCC
participants answered that they unanimously view “a company
as a group of people working together. They have social
relations with other people and with the organization. The
functioning is dependent on these relations (B).” This is
highly contrasted to 90% of the USA respondents in the
Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner research who answered A. In
the previous PIF workshop, 50% of the participants answered
B. The FCC group correlates much higher with the diffuse
countries like Mexico, South America, Japan, France, and
Catholic Europe. I asked the group to what they might
attribute the difference from the findings of USA
respondents, and the correlation with the results of Asia and
South America. The group discussed the possibilities and
concluded that the heavy Native American influence was a
significant factor. In addition, their roles as helping
professionals probably has an influence on their very
holistic views, identifying more with the whole person across
settings and valuing social relationships with co-workers.
After a brief break, I reviewed the concept of
autobiographical storytelling. Each person had been briefed
on storytelling prior to the workshop and came prepared with
a story to tell. Ron began the session. [Expression: Depth/
Subsoil] He told of how his mother had become pregnant at
the age of fifteen. While he was still a toddler, his
father divorced his mother and they had very little
contact. His mother eventually placed Ron and his brother
up for adoption. It was at this point he and his brother
were adopted. Ron’s adopted parents are Norwegian and very
ingrained in the Norwegian culture. Ron expressed how he
and his brother felt very out of place during the many
traditional Norwegian holidays. [Expression: Depth/ Subsoil]
He spoke of sitting in the corner and observing, never
feeling connected to the family during the times of
celebration. Ron shared how he did not blame his adopted
family. Rather, he blamed his father for abandoning him.
He decided at a young age to never be like his father. In
many respects this included identifying with his Native
American heritage. Although this reaction against his
father drove him to all but disowning and forgetting his
heritage, the children at school were not so inclined.
[Expression: Depth/ Bedrock] He told of how, as a child, he
was called nigger, savage, and a variety of other derogatory
names. This added to his reaction against his heritage.
He was ashamed to be a Native American and tried to adopt the
look and culture of his adopted family.
Throughout his childhood and early adulthood, he
maintained limited contact with his biological family, so he
has always had an occasional reminder of his true ethnicity
and cultural heritage. Ron shared that only in his mid
thirties did he begin to explore his heritage. He now has
children of his own, and he has vowed to be the “father he
never had.” He expressed how his family is the priority of
his life. He is very careful that work and outside
activities never detract from time with his children and
wife.
Ron now recognizes the value and richness of his Native
American heritage and he desires to re-connect with that
culture. His desire is for his children to have a sense of
roots and heritage. While Ron said he does not envision
adopting the Native American culture, he does expect that he
and his family will explore and gain knowledge of that
culture. He said, “I feel, in many ways, that I have come
– or am coming- full circle.”
Following Ron’s story the group sat silently.
[Interpretation] The looks on their faces demonstrated that
his story had been very moving and had caused introspection.
After a moment, [In-Spection/ Expression: Depth/ Subsoil]
Wayne said it was somewhat ironic that he has spent most of
his life trying to find an identity with the little Native
American heritage he has, and Ron has spent most of his life
trying to disassociate with it.
Wayne shared that once he had contacted the tribe from
which his family had come. He had inquired about becoming
enrolled in that tribe. He was told that his ancestry would
have to be traced back to someone in the tribe who had been
given land by the government. The tribal representative
told him that this would be a difficult task because during
that time, Native Americans were heavily discriminated
against. Most Native Americans simply relinquished their
land in order to dissociate with the tribe. They would then
claim to be Mexican. [Expression & Clarification: Surface/
Subsoil] Wayne noted while that was in the mid 1700s,
apparently not much had changed. He and the others seemed
to be very surprised that racism and prejudice against Native
Americans is still practiced. Ron assured them that it does
still exist.
Doug told Ron that he appreciates his commitment to
family. [Expression: Surface/ Topsoil] He said, “It is
refreshing to hear someone say family comes first. That’s
not normal today.” Tom agreed. . [In-Spection/
Clarification: Depth/ Subsoil] Rene asked Ron if his
family’s priority could negatively impact his job
performance. Ron sated that he does not believe so.
[Clarification: Depth/ Bedrock] Doug asked Rene if she was
stating that Ron’s performance is hindered by the commitment
to his family, or if she was asking. Rene responded that
she was asking, but that she could see how that type of
commitment might affect job performance at times. Rene said
that she is very committed to her family, but that she also
understands she gets paid to do a job. She stated there
must be a balance between the two.
Rene volunteered to present her story. . [In-
Spection: Depth/ Topsoil] She began with childhood memories
of cutting her “blonde curls off one side of her head” the
day before Easter. Easter was an important holiday in her
family of origin, and they always dressed up in their finest
new clothes to go to church. Appearance was very important
to Rene’s mother, and she was quite distraught when she saw
Rene’s hair cut. This memory was significant to Rene
because she was always told she should look her best. In
addition to appearances, her father would tell her, “If you
are going to do something, do it right.” Rene’s heritage
is mostly German and to a small degree Native American.
[In-Spection: Depth/ Bedrock] She reflects that it is the
German culture that had the most significant impact. The
will to succeed was also instilled at a young age. Rene
summarized that appearance, excellence, and success were
recurring themes in her childhood. She said, “Whatever I
did, I had to do right the first time… even if I had never
done it before. This is probably where my caution and
contemplation began. If I was going to do something, I
better have all my ducks in a row before I ever started…
Spontaneity is something I find hard to enter into, and I
probably miss a lot of unexpected pleasures because I feel
compelled to be the responsible one.” Wayne, who is very
spontaneous, chuckled and said, “Wow! That’s where that
comes from!” [Expression: Depth/ Bedrock] Rene
continued:
Probably the most defining experience, and most
difficult to discuss in a cold factual manner, has
been the journey thus far with MS (Muscular
Sclerosis). Knowing what I know now, I realize I
have been dealing with varying symptoms for the past
nine years. Unfortunately, during all those years I
didn’t have a doctor who knew enough about it to
recognize the seriousness of the symptoms I kept
complaining about. [Expression: Depth/ Core] MS has
demanded a slow giving up of the things that have been
an expression of who I am: being able to go out on a
beautiful spring day and just take off walking for the
sheer joy of movement; sitting down at the piano to
play something I hear in my head; tackling a home
decorating project by myself because I want to express
something creatively; shopping for clothes that
express who I am as a woman. What it has given me in
return is muscle fatigue and weakness, irreversible
nerve damage, a feeling of not knowing how to express
my feminine nature in a body that feels like the
Hunchback of Notre Dame, and a feeling of sometimes
being a burden instead of being the one to ‘do’ for
everyone else. I’ve had to learn to quietly mourn
each loss as it comes, and then gently put it away and
not go there again.
Rene continued her story by addressing how the traits
of success and excellence have been important factors in her
challenge of facing MS. She attributed her perseverance and
will to “make the best of her situation” to her parents and
her faith in God. She also spoke of how the emphasis on
appearance has been difficult for her to overcome. Her
disease has greatly affected the manner in which she moves,
what she wears, and what she does. As she rested from her
narrative, the group sat visually stunned in silence. [In-
Spection: Depth/ bedrock] Doug broke the silence with, “What
do you say after a story like that? I appreciate how
transparent you have been.” [Expression: Depth/ Bedrock]
Wayne shared that he used to think Rene was just slow, maybe
even lazy. At times he said he felt annoyed that she would
not do certain tasks, or that she did them so slowly. He
said that he now has a completely different perspective of
Rene, and how this disease has virtually robbed her. Tom
said that he would be willing to help her anytime she needed,
and the rest of the group joined him in his offer. Ron,
Tom, and Doug agreed to help Rene whenever possible,
especially with the more physical tasks.
I thanked Rene for her story and asked for someone else
to share theirs. Tom volunteered. [Expression: Surface/
topsoil] He began telling about his father who now lives in
Panama. He said that his father had been physically and
verbally abusive to his mother, his brother, and to him. In
addition to being abusive, his drive to make money kept him
away from his family much of the time. Tom said that his
father and mother had divorced when he was nine years old.
Because of his parent’s divorce and his father’s absence a
great deal of the time, Tom had very little positive male
reinforcement. This has impacted Tom throughout his life.
He said that he has always had an inferiority complex, and
that he has never felt comfortable speaking to adults,
especially men.
Tom said that he finds it very difficult to show his
feelings, demonstrate affection, and have intimate
relationships. [Expression: Surface/ Subsoil] He said that
as he was writing his story, he realized he shared many
characteristics with father. As he said this, he looked
down at his paper with an introspective expression.
[Interpretation: Depth/ Bedrock] This acknowledgment seemed
to make Tom uncomfortable, even troubled.
After a moment of silence, Rene asked, [Clarification:
Depth/ Bedrock] “How does this affect you, and how do you
see yourself responding to this new awareness?” [In-
Spection: Depth/ Bedrock] Tom sat quietly in thought. After
a moment he said, [Expression: Depth/ Bedrock] “I have
spent my life trying not to be like my dad… seeing myself in
this way makes me want to change. I want to take a new
direction.” I realized we were moving towards a
counselling atmosphere, rather than team building which was
the objective. Again I noted that a facilitator of the ITSM
will need to have a strong foundation in group dynamics as
well as specific training in ITSM facilitation. In an
attempt to reframe the discussion, I asked Tom, “How does
this awareness affect you here at work, for example, your
relationship to your colleagues?”
Tom looked up, and the atmosphere lifted and returned
to one more appropriate for a business setting.
[Clarification: Depth/ Bedrock & Core] Tom acknowledged that
he has a tendency to be task oriented, not relational. This
made him feel like an outsider many times, because the other
members of the firm are very relationship oriented. He said
that he had always felt insecure, and at times terrified of
Wayne and Doug, since they are several years his seniors.
He also recognized that because of this, he rarely expressed
his feelings to them, unless it was in a rare, explosive and
inappropriate manner. Tom stated that he has a “hot
temper,” and that he would work on expressing himself in a
healthy and productive way. Tom continued, stating that
because Wayne and Doug were older than he, he often looked to
them for approval.
Wayne said that he understands how Tom feels. He said
that his father had died when he was seven years old. Wayne
said that he heard a psychologist on television say one time,
“When a boy loses his dad at a young age, he spends the rest
of his life seeking to win his approval.” It was at this
point that Wayne realized he had been doing just that for
most of his life. [Clarification & Understanding: Depth/
Bedrock] Wayne and Tom continued to dialogue about the impact
the loss of a father can have on a boy, and the man he
becomes. [Emergence] They agreed to work together on
finding healthy ways to express themselves.
Recognizing that the time for the first session was
almost exhausted, I began to conclude the day by asking if
there were any elements of cultural significance to either
Ron’s, Rene’s or Tom’s stories. Beginning with Ron’s
story, the group agreed that many cultural factors had
significance. [Understanding: Depth/ Bedrock] “Ron, a
Native American, being adopted and reared by a Norwegian
family has had a tremendous cultural impact upon Ron”, Rene
stated. Wayne said, “He is almost like a man without a
country.” Doug mentioned how the effect of prejudice has
surely had an influence on Ron and his perception of others,
especially Whites.
Turning the discussion towards Rene, Ron said that he
respects her for her perseverance and her good attitude.
[Clarification: Depth/ Bedrock] He wondered whether or not
she was demonstrating a very western, maybe Northern European
concept of individualism. He said that she seems determined
to “make it on her own.” Rene acquiesced that she does
have a very strong sense of, “I am going to make it on my
own.” The group briefly discussed the nobleness of this
attitude, as well its liabilities. [Emergence] The
consensus was that Rene can “let her guard down, and rely on
her team at work for help when she needs it.” The group
unanimously concurred that the collectivist philosophy would
suit their organization, especially when considering matters
of health or family.
I then asked how culture might be a factor for Tom and
Wayne in dealing with the loss of their fathers.
[Expression: Depth/ Subsoil] Wayne said he is sure that if
he had grown up in a traditional Native American family, the
extended family would care for him. For example, his uncles
or grandfather would have filled the role of father figure.
Ron expressed that in more traditional tribes, in earlier
times, or in some families this may be true, however, in his
case that did not happen. Wayne agreed that the fabric of
the traditional Native American culture is compromised.
Regretfully, I noted that our time had expired. I thanked
the group for their participation, said we would get to the
rest of the stories next session, and dismissed them.
Middle
Session 2
The second session began with a brief review of the ITSM
process, including the topographical outline, to ameliorate
the participants’ awareness of the stage and depth of
dialogue. [Expression: Surface/ Topsoil] As Doug began
his narrative, he expressed reservations because his story
was “pretty basic and simple, compared to everyone
else’s.” He said that he had grown up in a typical
middle-class, White, Christian, American home. His father
and mother had a good marriage until his father died a few
years ago. He stated that his life has been very normal,
and that his greatest obstacle has been fear of failure.
Because of this fear, Doug did not go to college until late
in his adult years. Upon completion of his undergraduate
work, he entered a Master’s programme. He withdrew from
the programme in the final stages of his internship and
worked as a custodian for several years. With constant
prodding by a friend to finish his Master’s, Doug ultimately
re-matriculated and not only completed the original Master’s
degree, but began a second in counselling. [Understanding:
Depth/ Bedrock] Doug’s religious convictions have been a
significant factor in his life. These convictions are in no
small way, a factor in his pursuit of a Master’s degree in
counselling. His passion is to work with married couples
because his conviction is that marriages are “under attack
of the enemy (the devil).” While Doug’s religion plays a
seminal role in his purpose for pursuing counselling, he
assured the group that his convictions will not have a
significant impact on his counselling
practice.
[Clarifiaction: Depth/ Bedrock]
In light of hermeneutics, and the principle of the non-
objective observer, I asked Doug if he really expected to
disengage his religious convictions during counselling.
Following discussion with the whole team, he came to the
conclusion that hermeneutic principles could prove valuable
in training as a counsellor. [Expression: Depth/
Bedrock] Doug stated that he was unsure as to whether he
would be able to block his personal convictions. He said he
thinks there is value in having a clear understanding of what
his convictions truly are and how they may impact his
counselling. [[Clarification: Depth/ Bedrock] As discussion
of Doug’s story continued, Rene asked if his fear of failure
could be related to culture influences. [Expression: Depth/
Bedrock]
After reflection, Doug stated he thought may be a
possibility resulting from the cultural drive for individual
success. [Clarification: Depth/ Bedrock] I asked if the
group thought this “drive for individual success” may be
culturally distinct or if it is universal. [Understanding:
Depth/ Bedrock] Ultimately, the discussion settled that a
universal drive to success exists, but the individualistic
nature and high value placed on personal success is probably
a more Western paradigm. After allowing for more questions
or comments, I asked if we should move on to the next
story. Wayne said that he was the only one who had not told
his story. He said he had received a phone call that
morning that one of his grandparents was about to pass away
and that he would prefer to not tell his story. I assured
him he was under no obligation, and that he had transparently
contributed a great deal to the prior discussions. The
group expressed their sympathy and graciously allowed Wayne a
moment to continue processing this new information before we
continued.
End
In concluding the final session with FCC, I asked the
group to discuss what new knowledge or understanding had
surfaced in our time together. Rene said that she had
appreciated hearing the stories of her co-workers. She said
that she feels she can relate to them better since she knows
more about their history. Tom expressed how his new self-
knowledge and the ITSM skills help him better communicate
with others, especially with Wayne. Ron stated that his
“In-Spection had been a powerful experience.” He said he
was beginning to understand that, even though he was reared
by Norwegians, his foundational culture is Native American.
Discussion continued on the asset self-knowledge. The group
agreed that this was a powerful new insight. In addition to
self-knowledge, Doug said that the stories shared had been
“powerful tools in helping to humanize” his co-workers. I
asked him to clarify his statement. He said that his co-
workers had been “simply people who had jobs in the same
office. Now they had a human side… I feel more connected
to them.”
I asked the group to concisely state the core of the
newly acquired knowledge and what impact that knowledge could
have upon the organization. [Emergence] After a period
of discussion, the group read the following statement:
“Understanding ourselves helps us to understand others
better. Understanding others better, helps us have a more
cohesive and productive team.” We discussed how the group
could continue to practice the ITSM skills set, and how they
could practice telling their stories as a normal part of
their organizational culture. Each of the participants
desired to continue working together on communication and
Doug asked if I could return in six months for a review and
follow-up session. I agreed, and thanked each for his or
her participation. We then dismissed.
Conclusion
The FCC workshop provided a great platform for
practicing the ITSM. The participants were actively engaged
in the entire process, and everyone, except for Wayne, shared
his or her stories. Wayne abstained from telling his story
due to personal reasons, yet he transparently shared and
interacted in the discussions throughout the workshop. The
In-Spection phase seemed to have profound impact upon the
group. It appeared to me that this group responded to
looking inward at their personal stories more profoundly than
the previous ones. Specifically, Ron and Tom encountered
intense revelations during the In-Spection stage.
The Components of the Self worksheet revealed some
valuable information into the differences among the group, as
well as helping the participants in evaluating the components
in respect to personal importance. One of the valuable
insights the worksheet gave, was the differences in the value
of nature to people from, supposedly, the same religious
convictions. The Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner questions
also introduced valuable insights and productive dialogue.
On Universalism versus Particularism, forty percent of the
respondents answered that they could understand why the
offender could expect his friend to lie, but one hundred
percent said they would not lie. Communitarianism versus
Individualism, produced a vigorous discussion. Initially,
most of the participants favoured communitarianism, however,
after some discussion they changed their answers to fit
closely with individualism. This was due to the phrase,
“even if it obstructs individual freedom and
development.” As a group, FCC participants highly value
communitarian principles, as long as they do not infringe
upon the rights of individuals.
Regarding Neutral versus Emotional, FCC participants
generally agreed demonstrating emotion would be less
beneficial than handling the situation privately with the
individual. Tom answered that he would show emotion “so
that my counterpart gets the message. I believe the clarity
of my message will allow me to control even greater emotional
upset in the future.” Tom ultimately said that he believed
his answer reflected a degree of his German & Italian
cultural heritage.
The fourth question, Diffuse versus Specific, marked a
divergence from the results of Trompenaars and Hampden-
Turner. The FCC team unanimously viewed “a company as a
group of people working together. They have social
relations with other people and with the organization. The
functioning is dependent on these relations (B).” The FCC
group correlates much higher with the diffuse countries,
likely due to the strong Native American influence and their
roles as holistic helping professionals. As in previous
sessions, the Components of the Self worksheet and the
questions produced lively discussion. Almost unique to this
session, the cultural differences were highlighted and
explored.
In previous sessions, the tendency has been to
highlight cultural similarities and de-emphasise the
differences. However, one of the goals of the ITSM is to
assist groups with cultural differences not become
homogenous, rather to identify differences and dialogue about
them. The Mukogawa group, for example, focused mainly on
the similarities found between the Japanese students and the
American faculty.
The student’s story of not talking to her grandfather
for a year was met with similar stories from virtually all
the participants. The group acknowledged many similarities
between the students and faculty, contrary to the vast
divergence of traditional Eastern and Western cultures.
Within the PIF group, culture was somewhat de-emphasised as
well, in favour of common ground. In the FCC workshop,
cultural differences were not de-emphasised. As the
sessions commenced, I intentionally listened for possible
cultural nuances. At times, investigation into those
possibilities returned void. In many instances, though, the
query developed into a valuable dialogue.
During the Components of the Self as well as the
questions, culture was discussed and as participants told
their stories, often cultural distinctions surfaced. For
example, I asked Doug if his fear of failure could have a
cultural foundation. In actuality, I did not expect much
insight or discussion from this question. I asked almost as
a routine. The discourse revolving around the probe
ultimately revealed that the group believes a cultural bias
towards individual success does exist in the West.
Throughout the FCC workshop, cultural distinctions were
explored. Instead of the tendency to disassociate from
those who are different, the team actually drew closer in
intimacy. According to the feedback from the participants,
the goal of developing understanding and fostering emergence
appears to have been met. In this session I gained new
insight into asking probing questions about clues that might
possibly reveal cultural distinctions.
Many statements that can be taken as, simply
personality styles, for instance, may ultimately unfold into
attitudes, values, or behaviours with a cultural
foundation. Asking simple questions like, “Is that
statement culturally based?” can quickly be dismissed, but
when probed deeper may very well reveal a cultural bias.
Uncovering cultural dimensions can be revealing and
productive both to the individual as well as the group. In
understanding personal components that have cultural
relevance, an individual may be more equipped to make changes
to behaviours or attitudes if necessary. In addition, this
same knowledge shared with the group may help team members
have a better understanding and appreciation for that same
person. To this point in the fieldwork, the ITSM has been
utilized to help teams find common ground as well as identify
cultural distinctions. Both have been valuable in building
an environment where understanding and ultimately emergence
can occur.
In the final session with FCC, I asked the group to
produce a concise statement of what new knowledge had been
gained and how emergence has occurred. This exercise
produced a powerful statement the management has posted in
their staff meeting room. This statement has given the team
a reminder and a goal for future reference. I will
incorporate this exercise into the ITSM process.
The format of the FCC workshop proved to be beneficial
in the continuity of dialogue and thought. It also provided
for a more spiral or circular movement in the discussion,
enhancing the hermeneutic spiral concept. Although each
workshop format is negotiated with the organization, this
type may be more conducive than the previous styles of one
hour, once a week, for several weeks.
The FCC participants expressed favourable responses to
the ITSM and we have scheduled a follow-up session in six
months. In conclusion, the FCC workshop has been valuable
in developing the ITSM. For example, asking probing
questions to identify cultural distinctions. The addition
of the final exercise of concisely defining the Emergence
should be valuable in future workshops as well.
Chapter 14
Fieldwork Project 5: Investment Group
Beginning
Setting the Scene
The Investment Group is a team of five individuals who
invest in residential and commercial real estate in the
greater Seattle area. For approximately six years the
Investment Group (IG) has bought and sold properties
resulting in significant profit. The group has no team
leader, resulting in each individual having equal input.
Some primary sources of conflict revolve around the
equanimity of the members. For example, all invest the same
amount, but some members may work on improving a property
while others do not. This leaves the workers feeling
somewhat cheated. Another dilemma is when some members insist
on selling and the others do not. Other frustrations relate
to poor communication and possible cultural differences.
The workshop consisted of one four hour session with two
short breaks. This worked well because the flow of dialogue
was uninterrupted, allowing for more productive use of time.
As in the FCC fieldwork, this workshop was fluid and
dialogues were not cut short because of time constraints.
Introduction of the Cast of Characters
The Investment Group consists of three Iranian and two
American partners. Hormoz, moved to the United States from
Iran in his mid-twenties. He is a successful software
developer in addition to his participation in the IG. Hamid
immigrated to the United States approximately twenty years
ago from Iran. Siamak, also an immigrant from Iran moved to
the United States several years ago to attend university. He
and Hamid are also co-owners of two grocery stores. Joe,
born in the United States, is a nurse. James is also from
the United States and works for a computer security company.
Session
The session began with a welcome and introductions
followed by an overview of the informed consent form and a
brief introduction to the ITSM. Immediately Hormoz asked,
“There are many books on communication, what makes you think
yours is better?” I immediately felt defensive because of
his tone and his blunt question. Before responding I managed
to practice hermeneutic interpretation. In a matter of
seconds I placed his tone and style of question in context of
other Persian and Arab men I have known. Hormoz had asked
his question consistently with my experience and I realized
he was not being rude or accusatory, simply curious. I
explained to him the hermeneutic and application process of
the ITSM and he appeared satisfied.
Each person in the group recognized culture and
communication as issues which have adversely affected the
group’s functioning in the past. Although the participants
had a degree of understanding of the other’s culture, most
saw significant room for improvement. The participants also
believed their communication had been, at times, negatively
affected by cultural differences. Although all participants
presently live in the United States, the Iranians have a well
established sub-culture in the Seattle area. Families join
together and celebrate Iranian holidays, and they were
presently preparing for the Iranian New Year celebration.
The Iranians in the group travel to Iran almost yearly and
still have many family members residing in Iran. They have
adopted an element of Americanization, but hold to many
traditional Iranian customs, language, holidays, and food.
Beginning the ITSM, I provided an overview of the
purpose and method of the model. I then presented the
hermeneutic principals foundational to the ITSM process. Each
participant appeared to grasp each concept and eager to
continue the process.
[Ins-Spection: Surface/ Topsoil] I asked the
participants to take a moment and complete the Components of
the Self worksheet. When everyone had finished, I asked
them to begin sharing the top components identified. The
most significant components had strong correlations between
the Iranian participants. For example, My Pleasures, My
Family, My Relationship to Nature, and My Successes were all
rated as eight or nine. The American participants scored
the same components as having only medium value. For the
Iranians, My Culture was scored nine, seven, and nine.
However, the Americans scored My Culture five and three.
The dialogue following the Components of the Self worksheet
appeared to be most valuable when the participants looked at
the scores of the others. Often making statements like, “I
knew you would answer that way!” and, “Why did you answer
so low on this one… I thought it would be higher?” The
Components of the Self worksheet sparked compelling dialogue
and appeared to be somewhat valuable as an In-Spection
tool.
Following the Components of the Self worksheet, we took
a short break to allow time for answering the Trompenaars and
Hampden-Turner questions. [In-Spection: Surface/ Topsoil]
As in the previous groups, we answered only questions one
through four. When each had answered the questions we
proceeded with exploring the answers. The results are as
follows.
Results for question 1. Universalism versus Particularism
Results for question 2. Communitarianism versus
Individualism
Results for question 3. Neutral versus Emotional
Results for question 4. Diffuse versus Specific
None of the answers were unanimous, and none of them
were highly correlated between members of the same cultural
backgrounds. Therefore, the revelation of stereotypical
cultural responses did not emerge. The exercise had value,
however, as an In-Spection tool as it was apparent in the
discussion that each participant had wrestled intimately with
his answers. The discussion of the answers provided insight
into the other participants as well. Of significance among
the answers, in regard to culture, was question 1.
Compared to the results found by Trompenaars and Hampden-
Turner, the Americans in this project were not Universalists
in their responses. Both Americans said they would testify
that the friend was going the speed limit.
Two out of the three Iranians said they would not
testify. Interestingly, the Iranian who said the friend had
no right to ask him to testify responded that he would
testify to the lower number. His reasoning was that his
friend did not have a right to expect him to lie, but that he
would in order to help his friend. This was the first such
answer I had observed in any workshop I have performed. While
the Iranians, in particular, expressed their opinions
candidly and with fervour, the discussions revolving around
the answers to the questions was not as heated as in some of
the previous workshops. I gave the participants an
introduction to storytelling and allowed time during a break
to identify a brief story that would help other members of
the team understand them and their culture better.
Middle
Upon reconvening, I invited a volunteer to begin.
Siamak quickly volunteered. [Expression: Surface/
Subsoil] He began by telling of his childhood in Iran.
(Siamak had scored Childhood Memories a nine on the
Components of the Self worksheet.) He vividly remembers
walking through the streets of his Iranian village as a child
with his grandfather. They came upon a camel. As he stood
their staring at this giant animal, Siamak remembers the
camel standing two stories tall. He said he remembers the
feeling of awe as he stood looking at this huge animal.
As he grew older, Siamak said he came upon many camels,
but none could validate his memory of a camel that stood two
stories tall. He said that this experience taught him the
significance of perspective. The camel was not two stories
tall, Siamak was simply a small child. He shared that we
all have perceptions that colour the way we view the world,
and sometimes those perceptions cannot be validated. As
Siamak concluded his brief story, I sat in awe at the
remarkable picture he had painted of a land so foreign to me
as to have camels in the streets.
I was also enthralled by his wonderful example of the
concept of prejudice that is such an integral component of
hermeneutics. [Clarification] Joe asked, “What was a
camel doing in the street?” This was an interesting question
because it did not actually clarify the meaning of Siamak’s
story, but illuminated the diverse cultural context of the
group. The question was never answered. Dialogue continued
on the subject of perception and how it impacts our view of
the world. I emphasised the importance of perception or
prejudice in hermeneutic interpretation. [Clarification/
In-Spection] I asked for other examples of how our
perceptions influence our interaction with others.
[Expression: Depth/ Subsoil] James spoke of how his
religious background influenced his view of Muslims and
others who are not Christian.
He said he grew up believing people who are not
Christian are bad people. From his adult experience with
people other than Christians, he has learned this paradigm is
erroneous. [Expression: Surface/ Topsoil] Hormoz spoke of
how perception of age is a prejudice he deals with as he gets
older. He said he was recently talking to someone about an
older person he had met. The person he was speaking of was
forty years old and Hormoz is fifty-one. James said, “I
have something that is on a totally different subject…
something that has affected me greatly…but not really a
cultural prejudice.”
[Expression: Depth/ Bedrock] James said, “When I was a
toddler, the first memory I have is being at my
grandmother’s and my dad had a seizure and broke his back.
He spent many years recovering. My mom had to get a job.
She was someone who had, years ago, received a scholarship to
medical school and turned it down to get married and have
kids. So she got a job as a teacher, never living up to her
full potential. As I was growing up, I got the message that
I should never be dependent on anyone… because you never
know when you are going to have to take care of not only
yourself, but someone around you. Those who know me know
that I don’t depend on anyone… I am pretty self-
reliant. When it comes to seeing how you discriminate
against others… when I see people who aren’t self-reliant,
who don’t support themselves, I don’t have a lot of respect
for them. I question their value… what are they
contributing?” [Expression: Depth/ Bedrock]
Siamak referred back to the Components of the self
worksheet component of “Childhood Experiences.” He said,
“That is why I marked it as a nine… because those childhood
experiences really impact the way you look at things… it’s
almost like you don’t have a choice.” [Clarification:
Depth/ Bedrock] James interrupted quickly, “But you do have
a choice…” Siamak spoke over James and said, “For me it
was the camel thing, and years later when I realized the
camel wasn’t really that big, the impact of it subsided… we
can become aware of those experiences and how they affect us
so that we can react, maybe, a little bit different… to
truly see what we are seeing.” [Clarification: Depth/
Bedrock]
Joe asked James if he thought this was a “good thing
to have happen [to him] as a child.” [Expression: Depth/
Bedrock] James said, “In some ways it was very good because
it drove me to be a successful person… and in many ways it
was bad. I won’t let people help me… I won’t reach
out, and maybe for that reason I am not as successful as I
could be… because I won’t let anybody support me.”
[Clarification: Depth/ Bedrock] James replied, “But… you
are able to see both sides of it, and some people cannot.”
[Interpretation/ Clarification: Depth/ Bedrock] Hormoz broke
in and said, “On the Childhood Experiences, I put a
three… I think they may be important, but where is the
balance? Ok, you know that this happened to you as a child,
but at what point do you say… ok, I will lean on you… let
you help me. You know, learn from it and not get stuck in
it?”
[Interpretation] I began looking for signs of cultural
differences in the discourse. James, an American, had
expressed that due to childhood experiences, he was very
self-reliant. This is a trait closely related to
individualism, a strong American characteristic.
[Clarification: Depth/ Bedrock] Hormoz is from Iran, and
although each of the Iranians scored somewhat
individualistically on the Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner
questions, I inquired if there were cultural differences
involved. [Expression: Depth/ Bedrock] Siamak said that
Iranian custom is to care for the family. If a father dies
or is injured, the oldest son cares for the family. If the
son is unable because of age or for some other reason, the
duty is passed to another person. Perhaps an uncle,
brother, or father-in-law will take the responsibility of
care.
Siamak said that when he moved to the United States, he
sent money home to his brother, sister, mother, and father to
help care for them. Eventually all of his immediate family
moved to the United States and Siamak provided housing, jobs,
and other necessities for them. He did this without
expecting anything in return. [Clarification: Depth/
Bedrock] I compared this to James’ story of self-reliance
and asked, “How might James’ situation be different had he
been Iranian?” Hamid spoke out for the first time. As he
began, he was quickly moved to tears. He stopped speaking
and said someone else should go. Hormoz insisted that he
should feel free to speak. After a moment of silence, Hamid
began to share his story.
[Expression: Depth/ Bedrock] Hamid said when he was
twenty-one years old, his father died. “At that point I
was expected to begin caring for my family. Although I am not
the oldest son, my brother was unable to care for them
financially.” Hamid accepted this responsibility and has
been taking care of them, especially financially, for over
thirty years. When he moved to the United States and became
successful in his business, he felt even more obligated to
care for them. He said that by now his father would have
naturally been too old to provide financially for his family,
and his siblings would have begun to care for themselves and
share the responsibility of caring for his mother. However,
since he had been successful, his family continued to rely
upon his money being sent back to Iran monthly. This was a
very emotional subject for Hamid and he had tears in his eyes
the entire time. He said that his story demonstrates how
Iranian culture differs from James’. [Expression: Depth/
Bedrock] Joe said that there should be a balance somewhere
between these two extremes. Hormoz replied, “In general,
we do not learn… or we do not want learn, to capitalize on
our experiences to find a balance. We Iranians are a people
of extremes… we love extremely, and we hate extremely… it
is hard, especially for us to find this balance!” Hormoz
said he would like to tell the story he had chosen to share.
[Expression: Surface/ Bedrock] Hormoz began. “I am
going to give you a short story. The first time in my life
someone told me about women’s rights, I could not understand
it because I am not from a family that understands women’s
rights or man’s rights. After I learned about women’s
rights, I began to stand up for it.” Hormoz expressed how
difficult this was in Iran. “When I tried to talk to my
aunt about women’s rights… to tell her she has rights not
to have to cook or do things she did not want to do. She
had a very hard time understanding what I was talking about…
she did not understand, and many other people did not
understand. So any way, I came to the United States and got
the shock of my life… in Iran women were not educated and
did not have opportunities like here… so I came here, and
went to Bellevue Community College.
At that time I was very vocal, so I started talking
about women’s rights… and I had all of these papers I was
distributing. This girl came in the middle of the school
and started arguing with me about how wrong I am. I was so
shocked that I went home and told my sister what happened.
I said that I can understand why a man would argue with me,
but I don’t understand why a woman would argue with me. She
was like twenty-one years old and she was telling me that a
man has to be like this, and a woman has to be like that…
and I just froze. I never thought I would hear that in this
country.
From then on, I decided that I could shout what I
believe, or I can start from their level… to see where they
are… so I can understand where they are coming from instead
of telling them what I think they need. So I realized that
we are all living together, and everybody has their own way
of thinking. We are a community and we need each other, but
like James was saying, we also need to be able to take care
of ourselves. So maybe there are some people who do not
agree with us… if we come to their level and try and
understand them, maybe we will have a better society… where
we can rely on each other and still take care of
ourselves.” [Interpretation]
Hormoz had inadvertently illuminated some significant
hermeneutic concepts. He spoke of his own prejudice
(advocate for women’s rights] and the importance of
understanding the context of the other person [“coming to
their level”]. In addition, the understanding achieved by
understanding himself and the context of the other is
congruent with a hermeneutic fusion of horizons.
[Expression] Hamid said that all of the stories, “even
though they are different, fit together with common
themes.” [Clarification] I asked, “What have you
identified as a common theme?” [Understanding] His
response was finding balance between self-reliance and
interdependence, and that our experiences influence how we
view the world. At this point the hour was late and the
participants were visibly becoming weary. I recognized
Hamid’s statement to be a natural segue to the emergence
phase.
End
I acknowledged the late hour and suggested we begin the
final stage of the evening. I asked the group, “What new
knowledge has emerged throughout this workshop?” Joe
replied that having an opportunity to hear the stories of the
other members had helped him “have a better understanding of
why they may act the way they do.” James said that
understanding the importance of each person’s world-view had
been valuable. Siamak said that the theme of
interdependence had “stuck out as important” to him. I
asked the group to compose a statement that would reflect a
practical application of this new knowledge. James to the
initiative to write down the comments, and eventually the
statement had reached consensus. [Emergence] “We can work
better together by working as an interdependent team.”
I expressed my appreciation for each person’s
participation in the workshop. Each person appeared to have
a favourable response to the session, and each expressed how
valuable it had been to have a different level and style of
conversation.
Conclusion
I took a moment to reflect on the workshop and make
notes. I continued to marvel at the simple story of a two-
story camel in the streets of Siamak’s home town. Siamak
had painted such a vivid and practical picture of how our
perceptions culminate from our experiences. The stark
contrast between James’ response to his father’s death, and
the experience Hamid had following his father’s death
resonated deeply. Hormoz had discovered the value of trying
to understand the context of another person, or as he had
stated it, “getting to their level.” He recognized that in
order to communicate effectively, individual’s need to
strive to understand the other before trying to be understood
by them. In the midst of the turmoil and the stand-off
between the Iranian government and those of the USA and
Britain, this final workshop provided me with an element of
hope that storytelling can positively impact relationships.
The following chapter will provide a summary of the fieldwork
exercises.
Chapter 15
Fieldwork Project 4: Pharmaceutical Manufacturer
Beginning
Setting the Scene
The Pharmaceutical Manufacturer (PM) is a subsidiary of
one of the largest multinational pharmaceutical manufacturers
in the world. Locally, the PM employs over five-hundred
individuals making it one of the largest employers in the
Inland North-western United States. In addition to being one
of the largest employers, the PM is also one of the area’s
largest employers of multicultural individuals.
The organization has a high level of security so
detailed information about the company’s operations is
restricted. Generally, the organization consists of
management, research scientists, manufacturers, and ancillary
personnel such as maintenance and security. Quality of
communication between and within each job category is
imperative.
Barriers to communication consist of the stereotypical
personality style differences between the different types of
employees as well as different cultural backgrounds. The
purpose of the present exercise is to enhance “inter” and
“intra” departmental communication. The ITSM workshop
consisted of three sessions lasting for approximately one
hour and thirty minutes each.
Introduction of the Cast of Characters
The PM workshop included four participants. David is
American. His mother is Japanese and his father is African
American. Lynda is of Portuguese descent and was born and
reared in Hawaii. She has lived on the U.S. mainland for
about fifteen years. Rudramurty is Indian and has lived in
the United States since 2003. Majid is from Pakistan and
moved to the United States in 1990. The group was assembled
by the human resource director because they work together
daily and they represent the multicultural/ multinational
character of the organization. I was told there are no
present problems, but the desire is the ITSM will enhance
communication and the cohesiveness of the team.
Session 1
The first session began with a brief explanation of the
ITSM project and its intended purpose. Each participant
made personal introductions and shared briefly about their
cultural background. Rudramurty introduced himself as an
Indian from a middle income family. He said he has lived in
the USA since 2003. He came to the USA to pursue his
master’s degree. He is married and travels to India often
to his parents and siblings. Rudramurty said that he is a
Hindu and follows idol worship. However, the closest temple
is in Seattle so he does not go to the temple very often.
Majid said he came with his family to the United States in
1990.
None of them spoke English, and yet he immediately
began to work in a fast food restaurant. He said that he
was grateful for the opportunities in the USA. Within two
years he and his siblings could speak English. He graduated
from high school and attended college and graduate school.
Majid said he is Muslim and that his religion has a
significant role in his life. Lynda followed Majid. She
said that she was of Portuguese descent and is Hawaiian.
She spoke of the difference in Hawaiian culture and the
culture of the continental USA. Specifically, Lynda shared
how the “pace of life is significantly slower in Hawaii.”
She said she is Catholic, but does not practice her
religion.
David said that he is American, and that his mother is
Japanese and his father is African American. He shared how
difficult it is to live in Spokane where so few people of
colour reside. In addition, he told of how he has serious
concerns about travelling to nearby Northern Idaho because of
the large population of white supremists. He said that this
group had chased his father off a lake where he was fishing.
David said that his wife is “Caucasian with blonde hair, and
that really makes those guys mad… it’s like I stole one of
their women or something.”
David shared that his grandfather had been a Baptist
minister and that he had grown up in a Baptist church.
However, once he went away to college, he began exploring his
mother’s Buddhist philosophy and presently adheres to
elements of both religious expressions.
Following the introductions I began with an overview of
hermeneutics. The participants all have advanced degrees
and they quickly grasped the methodological principles. The
concept of Prejudice sparked dialogue regarding how each
person in the group has come from very different
backgrounds. I introduced the Components of the Self
worksheet and the Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner questions.
I explained how the purpose of In-Spection is to reflect upon
these prejudices and to help each person to have a better
understanding of self. In closing the first session, I
expressed my gratitude for each person’s participation and
asked them to complete the worksheet and questions for the
following day.
Middle
Session Two
We began the second session discussing the Components of
the Self worksheet. Interestingly, none of the ratings were
significantly different. Each person rated My Memories, My
Childhood Experiences, My Conscience, My previous Emotional
Attachments, and My Culture as a seven or higher. My
Relationship to nature was rated eight or nine by everyone
except Lynda who rated it five. The only components rated
one or two were My Socio-economic Class, My Regrets, My
Heroes, My Habits, and My Differences from Other People.
The discussion revolving around the Components of the Self
worksheet revealed that each person had not initially
expected the exercise to yield much insight. However, the
participants unanimously agreed that the worksheet helped set
in motion the process of In-Spection. Following the
Components of the Self worksheet we began discussing the
answers to the Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner questions,
numbers one through four. The results are as follows.
Results for question 1. Universalism versus
Particularism
Results for question 2. Communitarianism versus
Individualism
Results for question 3. Neutral versus Emotional
Results for question 4. Diffuse versus Specific
The PM participants answered the same on each of the
four questions. The only exception was Rudramurty, an
Indian. He answered primarily the same as the other
participants on questions one, two, and four, but included
“and” or “both.” [Clarification: Depth/ Subsoil] When
questioned by Lynda, he could not give an explanation.
[Interpretation/ Clarification] I asked him if his answers
might be related to his Indian frame of reference. [In-
Spection/ Expression] Rudramurty thought for a moment and
said he would suspect his answers do reflect his Indian
mindset. [Expression: Depth/ Bedrock & Core] Rudramurty
continued reflecting on the nature of Indian philosophy as
incorporating the “both”/and” concept.
The PM participants each answered highly Universal on
question number one. [Clarification: Depth/ Subsoil] I
asked if the answers were reflective of their culture of
origin or of the adoption of American cultural norms.
[Expression] Lynda said she was “brought up to know right
from wrong”, and Majid concurred. Rudramurty said that his
family had taught the importance of honesty, but there may be
exceptions to any rule. It was the groups conclusion that
their tendencies toward Universalism were based primarily
upon their training and that their training reflected their
culture of origin. David agreed that his family had taught
him to be truthful in all situations.
Question number two revealed a unanimously high degree
of Communitarianism in the PM group. David has a Japanese
mother. Lynda said that Hawaii is very populated by
Japanese and Pacific Islanders and their since of community
permeates the Hawaiian culture. The group is greatly
influenced by Eastern and Middle Eastern culture, therefore
contributing to the high degree of Communitarianism.
[Expression] David shared of a situation where a competing
drug manufacturer had recently decided not to produce a
certain drug because it would not make them enough money.
The group began to discuss the nature of individualism and
its relationship to capitalism. They said that, while
capitalism has some good qualities, it generally produces a
greedy, self-centred approach to business. The PM group
agreed society would be better if each person would care for
his or her fellow man.
The third question revealed the majority of
participants preferred to express themselves in order to
“allow me to control even greater emotional upset in the
future.” [Expression] Lynda said she usually behaves in
accordance to answer two, but that often she would like to
act like numbers three or four. Majid stressed if his
business partner used such a strong word as “insane” that
he would definitely act like number three. The whole group
ultimately agreed that number three would probably be the
best course of action in most situations.
Question four sparked much discussion. While David
and Majid answered “B”, Majid recognized that “A” is
important as well. [Expression] Rudramurty agreed that both
are important and should be the norm. [Expression] David
said that having a Japanese mother strongly influenced his
“B” answer. David said he operated according to answer
“B” when he owned a business in the past. He stated that
he his employees were like family. All agreed that both
ways of approaching business have value, but that capitalism
has strongly influenced the general acceptance of the
philosophy found in answer “A.” [Expression] Majid said,
“It’s all profit driven now!”
He revisited the earlier example of the competing drug
company that chose not to develop a drug because of market.
Rudramurty said that some people “achieve success by putting
their foot on somebody’s head… this reflects the nature of
answer ‘A’.” [Expression] David said that there is a
large salary gap between most senior managers and the
workers. He believes this reflects the managers’
philosophy of answer “A.” [Expression/ Clarification]
Lynda said, “So the people who own and run the companies are
‘A’s” and the people who work for the companies are
‘B’s’… See what I have always found very interesting is
that companies are nothing more than collections of
individuals… and if each of us as individuals are ‘B’s,’
how come all of a sudden the companies are ‘A’s?”
[Expression] Majid said that companies that have at least
an element of “B” will probably have more sustainability
because the workers will have more loyalty. Lynda said, “I
think the people who would answer ‘A’ would say that if the
workers are performing their duties, then the company would
be sustainable.”
Following the discussion of each of the questions, I
reviewed the elements of storytelling. I asked each person to
prepare a story to share with the group for the following
meeting.
End
Session Three
As we gathered for the final meeting, I asked for a
volunteer to share his or her story. David began.
[Expression: Surface/ Subsoil] He said that his father, an
African American, had been in the Air Force and that his
family had moved often. However, they lived for the greater
part of his childhood in Spokane. Since Spokane has such a
small non-white population, David said that he “grew up
white.” He shared of his recent experience of applying for
another position within the company. The position was in
Atlanta, Georgia. He had already passed the pre-interview
phases and was flown to Atlanta for a personal interview.
[Expression: Depth/ Subsoil] When he arrived, he was greeted
warmly, but he said he sensed they were surprised that he was
“black.”
Later, he met with a (white) real estate agent who
drove him around to look at houses. David said that she kept
trying to steer him towards houses in the part of town where
the African American community resided. Ultimately he decided
not to accept the position. [Expression: Depth: Subsoil/
Bedrock] He said that while he has been the victim of racism,
he has also experienced racial prejudice against African
Americans. He said that when he visits cities with large
African American populations, he stays “away from the black
part of town.”
David also spoke of how he often feels divided in his
world-view. He said that often he would view the world
through a Japanese lense, as reflected in many of his answers
to the In-Spection tools. He also has a strong desire to
contribute to society he credits to his mother’s influence.
[Expression: Depth/ Subsoil] Lynda shared that she
understands feeling split in her world-view. She said, for
example, that her parents are Portuguese and they wanted her
to date and ultimately marry “her own kind.” However,
Hawaii is a very tolerant and accepting culture. Many
marriages are culturally mixed. She said it was sometimes
difficult to live in a Portuguese home in the Hawaiian
culture because of the dissimilarities. [Expression: Depth/
Subsoil]
David said he understands the mixed marriage dilemma.
His father had also encouraged him to marry an African
American. I noted how his father’s wishes were not
congruent with his marriage to a Japanese woman. David’s
father told him to expect a variety of difficulties if
married outside of his race. David ultimately married a
Caucasian woman with blonde hair and blue eyes. This has
been a source of racism in a variety of settings throughout
marriage.
Rudramurty volunteered to tell his story. [Expression:
Surface/ Subsoil] He began by sharing how his family moved
often and that they were not wealthy. Rudramurty began to
speak of his religious experience. He said India has many
different sects of Hinduism and religious expression. Some
Hindus are vegetarian and some are not. Within his family,
his mother is vegetarian, but she will cook meat for others
in the family. [Expression: Depth/ Subsoil] Majid
interjected and said that Rudramurty’s mother must be
“pretty open minded.” He shared how his Indian friend
is a vegetarian and “he does not even want you to eat meat
around him.”
Rudramurty then began to tell of the different classes
of people in India. He said that the caste system was
outlawed, but in essence is still practiced in some cases.
He said that many times people will ask, “What class are you
from?” At that point you are not obligated to tell unless
you want. Rudramurty’s family are from the working class
community. He described the different classes as follows.
Working Class/ Dalits/ Scheduled and Backward Class-
Approximately 70%
Business Class/ Vaishyas/ Forward Class
Political & Fighting Class (the protectors)/
Kshatriyas/ Forward Class
Brahmins/ Knowledge Base/ Religious
Rudramurty’s description was quite insightful for me. I
had heard of the different classes in India, but had never
had it set forth as he had. Rudramurty said the
constitution recognizes three classes, the business and
Political/ Fighting as one class. He said that in the more
progressive and modern cities, the class system is virtually
obsolete, yet in the smaller communities it is still fairly
prevalent. [Clarification] I asked him if the class system
affects him in any way. Rudramurty replied, “No… it is
really a perfect way. It is a very good formula. I
respect the way the categories are laid out, like Brahmins,
Kshatriya, Vaishya, and the Dalits… that is the perfect
classification I would say. Any society, any village, needs
somebody who teaches, somebody who takes care of things,
somebody who does business, somebody who produces things. How
much emphasis you place on the classes… that’s what
matters. Just because someone is in that lower category, do
you really have to treat him differently? That’s where the
line has to be drawn. But, the categories are very good…
to have the right compilation of society.”
[Understanding] I said, “I guess in some ways every
society has this same type of class system?” Rudramurty
said, “Yes, it is just that in India it has been
formalized.”
While the story Rudramurty told was not deeply
personal, it opened a door into the Indian society that the
Westerners in the group had not been able to look through
before. This understanding of Indian culture was
illuminating to me, personally. I had always assumed that
the caste system was a form of bondage, and in many ways it
appears that it has been and may be in some cases. However,
one thing I realized is that most societies operate on this
level to some degree. The group discussed how even their
own organization had its own informal class system. Because
of the shortness of time, I asked if someone else would like
to volunteer to share their story. Majid said he would be
next.
[Expression: Depth/ Subsoil] Majid was sixteen when he
came to the USA. “My father’s name was selected in the
lottery, and since all of us children were all under twenty-
one, we got to come with him. I originally wanted to go to
England to play cricket for the national team. I am glad I
didn’t pursue that goal because I could not have made it.
Since I have been here, I noticed my mother’s focus has
always been education. Here brother and uncle were educated
as a lawyer and doctor. My father was not into education…
his family had land… farmers. My parents are two totally
different people… sometimes I wonder how they are still
together. Every time education comes up, my father’s
family would say, ‘Why don’t they just go to work like you
did?’
My father never interfered with our education… but, he
never told us to go and get an education, either. My
childhood was always focused on education. My mother was
not educated because the women in Pakistan were not usually
able to go to university. Her main thing was that we
needed an education in case they were not there tomorrow… we
would be on our feet. When we came to the USA, I got a
part-time job at a fast food restaurant after about two
weeks. That’s where I learned English… in six months. I
wanted to go to medical school, but I needed to provide for
my brothers and sisters so I cut it short and got an
engineering degree. Although I had just learned English, I
did ok… sometimes I was up until three in the morning to do
my homework. When we moved here, my cousins had already
lived here for a while, so we moved in with them for a few
months. When I would be up late studying and doing
homework, they would make fun of me, like, ‘Look at Majid,
he thinks he’s going to Harvard or something.’ That made
me mad, so I would turn off the light and wait until they
were gone and get up again and study some more. I thought,
‘I am going to show them!’ So I guess part of the reason
I did well in school was that initial burst of anger that
made me want to succeed. After a year and a half I got
accepted to Georgia tech, which was number two or three in
the nation in engineering. I didn’t go there because it
was too far from my family, and we had just moved to the USA
so it was too much change for me. I chose to go to New
Jersey Institute of Technology and started my Master’s which
I haven’t completed, yet. Although the Pakistani culture
is different from this culture,
I appreciate that I can be thrown out there and have
the opportunity to succeed. In Pakistan, I was babysat…
people take care of you and tell you what you need. One
thing I don’t like about this country is that I became very
individualistic… it became all about me. All of my siblings
are successful and educated… but they are very
individualistic. Our family is not as close as it were.
We became successful, but lost part of our culture… what is
important to us. So now we make an effort to see each other
more. I travel to New Jersey very often to see my family.
With a little bit of effort, we can bring everything back.
Life is constantly evolving… we have lost some of our
traditions, but all in all everything has worked out very
good for us. When we need each other, when someone is hurt,
we are all there.” [Expression/ Interpretation: Depth/
Bedrock]
Lynda spoke of the class system in India. She suggested
that Majid and his siblings had crossed the invisible
barriers between the classes, but at a cost. The cost was
the loss of some traditions and other cultural elements.
Majid said that she was correct. [Expression: Depth/
Subsoil] “We used to go to parties with other Pakistanis who
were educated, and we would feel very intimidated because our
family was not educated. But the cost is… now that we have
crossed those barriers, we no longer have time to go to the
parties to associate with those people! In our culture we
have something like the caste system… one of the first
questions people ask is, ‘What does your father do?’ In
the states many Pakistanis care about what you do or who you
are. But in Pakistan it is still the old way.”
[Expression: Depth/ Subsoil] Rudramurty said that this was
actually a valid question. He said that in order to know
someone, you need to know their background. Rudramurty
said, “I don’t know how it is in Pakistan, now, but in
India, arranged marriages are still common. My marriage was
arranged. The way we get into this arrangement is they will
look for someone with a similar background and then ask
questions about a couple of generations back. What types of
people are in this person’s background? What types of
health issues? What did their ancestors do?”
[Clarification/ Understanding: Depth/ Subsoil]
I said this sounds similar to the concept of context in
hermeneutics and the ITSM. Rudramurty said, “Yes, if you
know someone’s context, you can know them better.”
[Clarification: Depth/ Subsoil] Lynda asked Majid, “Are
arranged marriages common in Pakistan?” Majid replied that
they are, but his was nota traditionally arranged marriage.
He said that his family strongly encouraged him to marry his
“own kind, just like David and Lynda. My sister signed me up
on an internet site that helps Muslims all over the world
meet other Muslims. I met my wife on the internet, and then
I had to go to Pakistan to meet her in person. There, I met
her family.”
I thought how amazingly ancient tradition had been
assisted in this modern day by technology. Majid and
Rudramurty agreed that the parents sometimes give the
children the choice in the arranged marriage process. We
continued to discuss the concept of arranged marriages and
the pros and cons of both arranged and choice marriages.
Majid yielded the floor to Lynda. She said,
[Expression: Depth/ Topsoil & Subsoil] “Growing up in
Hawaii certainly shaped my perspective. Hawaii isn’t
perfect, but I am grateful for the underlying philosophy of
tolerance. Hawaii is a small little rock and people accept
other people. Not that everything goes, but the assumption
that other people want to be accepted. I have come to the
realization that this concept is ingrained in my
perspective. I treat people like I want to be treated… I
want to be accepted, and I think they do also. Underneath
all of our differences, we are all the same. I went back to
Hawaii recently and I was stuck by how cohesive the people
are… we are very collectivistic in Hawaii. I miss that. I
was also reminded of how openly affectionate the people are…
hugging and kissing all the time. That is something I had
to be careful with when I came to the mainland…”
[Clarification: Depth/ Subsoil]
Rudramurty asked about demonstrating affection and
friendship with the opposite gender. He said, “In India,
you are not supposed to be friends with the opposite sex
because it always leads somewhere.” He noted how the US
culture is different from his own in this regard. Dating is
another issue Indians face when moving to the USA. Since
arranged marriages are still common in India, dating is not
accepted. Rudramurty said that the Indians have a saying,
“Eating a hamburger does not make you an American… if you
are a true American, you can let your daughter go on a date
and sleep peacefully at home.”
The time allotted for the session had been exhausted
and we moved to the Emergence stage of the ITSM workshop.
I asked the group to identify some of the themes that had
arisen throughout the workshop. [Emergence] Lynda noted the
theme of “differences, and how differences can be
integrated. You evolve, but like Majid, you can come full
circle back to your foundation.” The different classes
indentified in the Indian society were also discussed. It
was suggested that the different classes work together to
perform the functions of society. The Emergent statement
for the PM group was, “Within differences lies the basis of
working together.” This statement reflects the
collectivistic nature of the group and the wide variety of
cultural experiences represented.
Conclusion
The Pharmaceutical Manufacturing firm provided an
extremely rich context for the final case study of the
ITSM. With participants from India, Hawaii, USA, and
Pakistan, the cultural variance was vast. While none of the
stories were deeply personal, the cultural insight proved to
be valuable. Again, as in the other cases, the concept of
differences and the contribution they could make arose as an
important theme throughout the workshop. This is probably
due to the emphasis placed upon identifying differences
rather than common ground in the ITSM model.
I asked the participants to share their reflections on
the ITSM workshop. Each expressed that it had been an
enjoyable experience, and that it had helped them better know
their workmates and their cultural backgrounds. They also
shared that the In-Spection was beneficial for examining some
of their own prejudice. Some concern was raised over how well
the ITSM might work in an environment where the participants
did not know each other well. Majid said he thought they
may not be as open to telling their stories if they had
little previous contact. I agreed that it may be a factor
to consider. Rudramurty said he thought the ITSM would be
difficult with a larger group. I believe he is correct and
that is why I have intentionally kept each case below eight
participants. In conclusion, the ITSM workshop achieved the
goals of team building, enhancing group communication, and
building synergistic relationships within the context of
differences. The management and human resource director
have expressed favourable views of the ITSM process as well.
The following chapter will provide a summary of all of the
case studies performed throughout the ITSM research.
Chapter 16
Summary of Fieldwork
Beginning
Setting the Scene
The three fieldwork exercises spanned the course of
fourteen months, and with each exercise I gained insight in
the development of the ITSM. The workshops took place in
organizations based in Spokane and Seattle, Washington, and
each organization was represented by varying degrees of
multiculturalism. Although the methodology of the ITSM is
hermeneutics, which is cyclical in nature, I initially found
myself unconsciously operating in the linear positivistic and
quantitative mindset of my previous graduate training.
Although I understood the cyclical nature of hermeneutics, I
began my work with organizations from a linear frame of
reference. Storytelling was simply the means to practice
the ITSM model of Inspection, Reception, Interpretation,
Clarification, Understanding, and Emergence.
As the fieldwork progressed, I became keenly aware of
the stifling effect being bound by a linear frame of
reference had upon dialogue. Although the model proved
beneficial in aiding the communication process, the
storytelling process proved to be the highlight of each
workshop. One of the first adjustments made to the ITSM was
to place the emphasis on the storytelling and to encourage
participants to be aware of the movement from one stage to
the next. Therefore, the original name of the Interpretive
Transcultural Method (ITM) was changed to Interpretive
Transcultural Storytelling Method (ITSM) to emphasise the
role of storytelling. Although the model was subjugated
somewhat by the storytelling, it continues to remain a vital
part of the method.
The model stages were especially valuable in dialogue
when communication would break down. The participants could
discuss at which stage the communication broke down and why.
While the model provides a road map by which to track
dialogue, it is concurrently fluid and cyclical. Rather
than a linear model, the ITSM process moved through the
stages and then cycled back through the stages as the
dialogue intensified in its topographical depth. Also, as
in hermeneutic methodology, the dialogues in the fieldwork
exercises moved back and forth between the part and the
whole. With this new cyclical frame of reference, the ITSM
began to work more cohesively.
Another significant revision in the initial ITSM model
is the use of the topography model adapted from Lessem and
Palsule (1997). Originally, the participants were to track
the topography of a story or conversation by making notes.
The participants found it impossible to constantly analyze
and track the topographical levels and simultaneously remain
an active participant in the dialogue. However, as with the
stages of the ITSM, the topographical levels proved to be of
benefit as the participants were encouraged to simply be
aware of the topography of the stories and the dialogue.
The topographical levels were valuable in the
reflective follow-up discussion in the final two workshops.
In the PIF, FCC, and IG workshops we noted that,
consistently, if one person moved to a deeper level in his or
her story, the group as a whole would gravitate to the deeper
levels. However, this gravitation was not linear, but
cyclical, meaning that it did not remain at the deeper levels
indefinitely.
The dialogues cycled between the topsoil, subsoil,
bedrock, and core very naturally. Being a work environment
and not a counselling group, if the story or dialogue reached
a level that was too intimate for comfort, someone would
share something that would begin the cycle back to a more
comfortable level. I observed that the stories and dialogue
often began at the topsoil or subsoil levels, gravitated down
to the bedrock level, and briefly moved into the core.
After a period of core level discussion or storying,
the discussion would move very naturally back up to the less
intense levels. Each individual had different topographical
levels at which he or she felt comfortable sharing. The PM
group did not often venture into the deeply personal realms
of bedrock or core, but the dialogue was still extremely
valuable in identifying cultural differences. Each group
seemed to have a corporate comfort level for the depth of
dialogue in which they generally moved. In my initial frame
of reference, I hypothesised that the most productive
discussion would take place at the core level. However, I
found that the subsoil and bedrock levels are valuable as
well. The natural fluidity of dialogue cycled back and
forth between the topographical levels with very little
intervention from me.
Therefore, the method stages and the topographical
levels continue as significant concepts in the ITSM process,
but operate more as scaffolding upon which storytelling and
dialogue are draped. The revision of the ITSM is also
addressed in Chapter 9, ITSM: Conception, Revision and
Application.
Introduction of the Cast of Characters
Mukogawa Fort Wright Institute (MFWI) was the pilot
project of the ITSM fieldwork. MFWI is a branch campus of a
Japanese women’s university. During the three session
fieldwork pilot, I worked with five Japanese students and two
American faculty members. The sessions lasted for one hour
on three consecutive days, and took place on the MFWI
campus. The next workshop was in partnership with a private
investigation firm. The company investigates a variety of
criminal and civil cases for attorneys and private clients.
During the four sessions, I worked with eight managers and
lead investigators. The third fieldwork exercise was
conducted with a counselling firm, fictitiously known as
Family Counselling Centre (FCC) for confidentiality.
As a relatively young organization, FCC has experienced
the growing pains of building new relationships and
identifying roles. The FCC participants included a Caucasian
of German and Italian heritage, a Native American, who was
adopted as a child by second generation Norwegians, a lady
with German and Native American ancestry, a Caucasian, and a
Caucasian with a percentage of Native American ancestry.
The Fourth exercise was conducted with a real estate
Investment Group (IG) in Seattle, WA. The IG has
experienced cultural and communication oriented conflicts in
some of their investment dealings. The group consisted of
three Iranians and two Americans. The final case study was
performed with a multinational Pharmaceutical Manufacturer
(PM) in Spokane, WA. The PM is a large organization and
employs a very multicultural staff. The employees work
inter-departmentally and intra-departmentally. Quality
communication and good working relationships are essential.
The group included an Indian, a Hawaiian, an American with an
African American father and a Japanese mother, and a
Pakistani.
Initial Sessions
Each of the fieldwork exercises began with an
introduction to the ITSM and an overview of the ITSM packet
consisting of an informed consent form, an overview of the
ITSM model, a Components of the Self worksheet, the questions
used from the work of Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner, and an
introduction to hermeneutics and storytelling. In the
initial MFWI pilot exercise, I immediately met with the
challenges of the language barrier. Most of the
participants were exchange students from Japan and not
proficient in English. Each student brought an electronic
interpreter to the session and began using them from the very
beginning.
Introductions were even difficult as their names were
very difficult for me to pronounce. As I began the
introduction, we immediately met a virtual brick wall. The
participants tried to help each other understand what I was
saying, which was very distracting. When I began discussing
hermeneutics, I had to present a very entry level description
and refrained from the use of the word hermeneutics.
Although the dialogue was slow and difficult, the
participants responded with smiles and seemed eager to
continue the process in the second session. The first
session, then, took much longer than anticipated, throwing
the next two off of schedule.
For the other groups, language was not an issue.
However, I discovered that other issues can and will arise in
the initial session. While the workshops with MFWI, FCC, IG
and the PM were approached positively by all participants,
some in the PIF group were not so willing to accept the
notion of storytelling in a work setting. In addition, my
credentials and the relevance of the ITSM were challenged by
the same dissenters. Two PIF participants, Tracy and Angie,
expressed a concern about the appropriateness of sharing
personal stories in the work setting. I explained the
research and the rationale behind the concept. Tracy
eventually conceded to participate, but Angie remained fairly
hostile to the concept. Angie also began an assault on my
credentials as a consultant. She suggested the organization
bring in someone who is qualified for Total Quality
management training or something similar.
I found it difficult to not take her innuendos of my
lack of qualifications personally. I presented my
qualifications in more detail, including my twenty years of
management experience, my graduate degree in counselling, and
my experience in working with other organizations, in
addition to the research that went into the preparation for
the ITSM. I met the futility of trying to convince someone
of something they did not wish to accept. Nothing convinced
her that I could offer anything of value, and I realized she
had come into the workshop predisposed to a negative
attitude. In the end, Angie was let go from her position
shortly after the second session because of unethical
business practices.
The initial sessions with two of the three
organizations demonstrates the necessity for the facilitator
of the ITSM to have training in group dynamics as well as
maintain an element of flexibility. This will be addressed
to a greater degree in Chapter 18: Conclusions and
Recommendations for Further Research.
The first session is valuable not only for introducing
the ITSM, but for setting the stage for the entire
workshop. The participants must, at a minimum, agree to
participate in discussion, and ideally accept the notion that
telling a personal story is appropriate for a work setting.
I realized in the PIF discussion of this matter that settings
exist in which a model of this nature may not be accepted as
appropriate. However, based on the reactions of the
majority of participants in the ITSM fieldwork, the concept
can equally be embraced, especially within organizations
where interpersonal relationships and communication are
valued.
In addition to assigning the Components of the Self
worksheet and the Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner questions, I
asked the participants to identify a story of an event in
their lives that could help the group know them better and
that would give the group a glimpse into their cultural
context. In each of the groups, I introduced the concept of
personal storytelling and invited members to begin preparing
a brief story to share with the group in succeeding
sessions. For the FCC and IG groups, we took a break to
provide time for these projects.
Middle
The second sessions proved to be valuable times of self
examination and discussion. The Components of the Self
worksheet provided a platform for evaluating those
characteristics deemed important in the make up of
individuals. Interestingly, there was little correlation
between the Taiwanese and Chinese from the Buckingham M.Sc.
programme and the Japanese students from MFWI. As well,
there was little contrast between the responses of the
American and Japanese participants. The most highly ranked
components included My Aspirations, My Body, My Education, My
Will-power, My Family, My Skills, and My Experiences.
In each group we reviewed the components each person
had chosen as the most and least important. In doing this,
an opportunity arose for a breadth of discussion, including
why some components were more important to some people than
others. During this discussion we addressed possible
cultural factors which may affect an individual’s
choice. As can be seen in the above figure, there is
little correlation between any of the groups. Whether or
not the components have any cultural relevance is
inconclusive due to, among other reasons, the small sample
size. The Components of the Self worksheet fulfilled its key
purpose within the ITSM of provoking Inspection. Of similar
value for Inspection and spurring discussion are the
questions used from the work of Trompenaars and Hampden-
Turner.
Compared to the Components of the Self worksheet, the
Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner questions revealed a more
uniform response pattern between all participants in the
fieldwork. Since all but the Japanese students permanently
reside in the USA, this is not perhaps much of a surprise.
However, I was surprised by the degree to which the Japanese
students answered more consistently with the West than with
the results of Japanese respondents in Trompenaars’ and
Hampden-Turner’s research.
My initial approach the MFWI workshop was with the
attitude that the Japanese students would be grounded in
traditional Japanese culture as I understood it from the
literature and research as well as my experience with the
Taiwanese and Chinese students in the Buckingham M.Sc.
programme. However, I realized that these students did not
fit the stereotype presented in the literature I had read.
This experience highlights the need for an individual
approach to working multiculturally. While the research of
others such as Trompenaars, Hampden-Turner, and Hofstede is
valuable in a broad and generic sense, the ITSM offers an
avenue for working on understanding between specific
individuals within an organization.
End
The subsequent sessions within each of the fieldwork
exercises focused on storytelling and interpretation
utilizing the ITSM model. For each of the workshops this
exercise offered depth of insight and stimulated dialogue.
During the first workshop, my focus somewhat naturally
drifted toward finding common ground between cultures. As
the workshops continued with PIF, FCC, IG, and the PM, I
realised true Emergence relied upon the synergistic working
through of differences. As in the first story of the PIF
group, some were initially topsoil and as demonstrated by
stories, such as Glenda’s, some were bedrock to core.
Brent’s was the initial story in the PIF group. His story
was at the topsoil level and very brief. However, the
following discussion allowed the story to expand in depth and
spurred a deep conversation about the cultural implications
of the prioritization of family and work life. The theme of
family versus work remained constant in the PIF workshop, and
as Glenda followed with her very personal and bedrock/ core
story, the theme continued.
In each workshop the group experienced a setting of the
stage with the first story. As the meetings continued, the
ensuing dialogue and stories reflected, to some degree, the
original theme. For MFWI the theme was on demonstrating
respect to others, even if the feelings do correlate. For
PIF the theme was the constant battle of reconciling family
and work life, and the discussion of the PIF team as a family
in itself. For the FCC, IG, and PM groups, the theme
focused on identifying differences and building effective
relationships that reflected the strengths of those
relationships. Identifying a recurrent theme early in the
ITSM process is an effective tool for the facilitator to
obtain. In retrospect, regardless of the stories told, the
groups naturally gravitated to discussion around themes that
correlated with relevant issues for their respective
organizations. Therefore, a case can be made that the ITSM
not only can increase the synergy within a team, but can
address relevant issues within an organization
simultaneously.
As the final sessions began, each group moved strongly
towards Understanding and eventually Emergence. In the
final workshops, I found asking the group questions like,
“What new knowledge or understanding has surfaced in our
time together?” more intentionally identified areas where
new knowledge and Understanding had been achieved. In the
FCC group, some of the answers were being able to relate to
co-workers better by knowing more about their history, and
how knowing more about one’s self amplifies one’s ability
to know others.
One member expressed how the storytelling had helped
him to “humanize” his fellow workers. In clarifying this
he stated, that his co-workers had been “simply people who
had jobs in the same office. Now they have a human side… I
feel more connected to them.” In moving to the application
of this new knowledge, the Emergence stage, I asked the group
to formally state the core of the newly acquired knowledge
and what impact that knowledge could have upon the
organization. They replied, “Understanding ourselves helps
us to understand others better. Understanding others
better, helps us have a more cohesive and productive
team.”
Conclusion
As the ITSM workshop consecutively progressed, the depth
of insight achieved and the level of Understand and Emergence
reached progressed respectively. While the pilot MFWI
workshop provided an opportunity to broadly re-evaluate the
focus and paradigm of the ITSM, the following workshops
provided opportunity for more intrinsic and practical
evaluation and revisions. Upon evaluating the MFWI
workshop, I revised my paradigm to be less linear and more
cyclically focused on the storytelling and dialogue, using
the ITSM model as the scaffolding to provide form and
structure. In addition, I reframed my focus from
discovering cultural common ground to identifying cultural
variations.
Within the subsequent workshops refinement of the ITSM
became more particular. Attention to diversity continued to
intensify with each session and in each workshop. While my
frame of reference has traditionally been to find strength in
commonalities, I discovered that discovering and working
through areas of difference can be an asset to a team. In
each of the workshops the participants expressed the value of
the ITSM model as an aid to communication. In addition,
with the exception of Angie who was terminated from PIF, the
participants unanimously agreed that sharing their stories
and hearing the stories of others had been a positive
experience and had contributed to strengthening their work
relationships.
A major contribution of summarizing all five workshops
is the emergence of the concept of the theme. While I
generally observed and commented on the recurrent themes of
each workshop, I have found this to be valuable for future
practice. I followed up with the leaders from all five
organizations two different times and asked three questions:
1. Have you noticed any negative results from the
ITSM workshop?
2. Have you noticed any positive results from the
ITSM workshop?
3. Do the any participants continue to practice any
of the skills learned from the ITSM workshop?
The leaders from all organizations noted no negative
effects of the workshop. An administrator from MFWI could
not comment on long term effects because the students
returned to Japan within a few months after the workshop was
completed. However, he did share that he suspected the
workshop had been of value for the students and faculty in
understanding the need to not stereotype individuals based on
cultural norms. The president of PIF shared that she and
other participants, had used the model to work through
conflicts and breakdowns in communication. She also said that
she believed the storytelling has been valuable in helping
her employees understand each other better by knowing each
other’s stories.
A participant from FCC utilized the ITSM model during a
communication session for a marriage seminar he taught. The
leader of FCC said that his co-workers communicate more
clearly after identifying different personality styles and
hearing “the stories behind the person.” He said that
taking time to bring the human element into the work setting
had been valuable for building cohesion among the team.
In conclusion, the ITSM fieldwork has been a productive
experience. Having utilized the workshops to grow through
my own preconceived concepts, such as linear thinking and
quantitative reasoning, I have discovered a deep value in
cyclical thinking and qualitative research. Initially, I
also found it difficult to critically address the original
model I had produced. Eventually I realized that refinement
was inevitable and necessary to the practice of research and
the development of the ITSM. The ITSM has been a valuable
resource for the organizations participating in the
fieldwork, and I anticipate the use of such a model in the
greater scheme of society.
In recent years we have observed New York’s 9-11-01
terrorist attack, the war in Iraq, a war between Israel and
Lebanon, and the threat of war between Iran and the West.
On a BBC television news programme (August 10, 2006), a
Muslim scholar was interviewed regarding the foiled Muslim
terrorist attacks using liquid weapons on airliners from the
UK to the USA. The scholar took exception to the phrase
Muslim terrorist. He said that the terrorists’ views did
not represent those of the typical Muslim. He stated that
the difference was in the “interpretation of the Koran.”
Poor interpretation serves as causes of conflict between
members of organizations, religions, cultures, and nations.
Perhaps the ITSM, addressing multicultural management
as a microcosm of the larger society, will be an instrument
to assist interpretation so that conflict can be avoided or
worked through in a constructive manner. The following
chapter will address the implications of hermeneutics and
storytelling in the multicultural management arena.
References:
Hampden-Turner, Charles & Trompenaars, Fons. (2000).
Building cross-cultural competence. Yale: Yale Press.
Lessem, Ronnie & Palsule, Sudhanshu. (1997). Managing in four
worlds: From competition to co-creation. Oxford,
UK: Basil Blackwell.
Maslow, A.H. (1970) Motivation and personality, 2nd Edition.
New York: Harper and Row.
Trompenaars, Fons & Hampden-Turner, Charles. (1998). Riding
the waves of culture. 2nd Edition. NY: McGraw-Hill.
Chapter 17
Implications of Hermeneutic Methodology and
Narrative Method in Transcultural Management
With the fieldwork cases and their summary completed, we
now turn to the implications hermeneutics and narrative
storytelling can have in the arena of multicultural
management. In this chapter we will begin with a brief
review of relevant multicultural management literature,
examine the implications of hermeneutic methodology, and then
introduce storytelling to the plot. In this research,
storytelling does not stand alone as a method, rather, it is
considered in the context of being grounded in hermeneutics
(see Appendix 2).
As discussed in the literature review chapters,
multicultural management is represented by a variety of
works. However, these works typically address the topic in
a generalised manner. Research such as Trompenaars,
Hampden-Turner, and Hofstede is based on large sample sizes
with participants from around the world. The information
they present is very valuable for addressing general cultural
nuances, but do not address the micro-scale of individual
relationships among multicultural organizations. Although
these authors do acknowledge exceptions apply, their research
is geared towards providing a breadth of empirically
generalised data spanning many different cultures. In
addressing the multicultural management arena, I have
utilized elements from these research projects, such as the
questions used by Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner. In this
manner, I have adopted a dialectical approach to social
science research based on the philosophy of Brian Fay
(1996).
As much of the research on multicultural management is
grounded in Western and Northern cultures (Lessem & Palsule,
1997), it is positivistic and qualitative in nature. This
type of research is best suited for answering such questions
as cause and effect. In contrast, hermeneutics is founded
on contextual interpretation which leads to understanding.
Quantitative methodology is based in the physical sciences
and assumes an objective world which can be studied and
measured with scientific, quantitative methods.
As the name implies, quantitative research focuses on
quantity and is primarily deductive utilizing statistical
methods. While quantitative research is valuable in the
natural sciences, some scholars believe it to be inadequate
for the social sciences. The empirical approach does not
allow for the nuances found when studying living, thinking,
evolving human beings who do not live in a static cultural
environment. The knowledge gleaned from more empirical
research can be valuable as a foundation, but particular
relationships within organizations require a more
individualized approach. Hermeneutic methodology provides a
natural fit for practicing this type of approach.
As discussed in the chapter on methodology,
hermeneutics means to interpret. Inevitably, when
individuals communicate, there will be misinterpretation.
As demonstrated by the violence based on different
interpretations of the Koran between Sunni and Shia Muslims
in Iraq and the different interpretations of the Bible by
Protestant and Catholic Christians in Ireland, interpretation
can play a seminal role in relationships.
While misinterpretations within organizations may not
result in this type of violent bloodshed, the resulting
conflict can be harmful. It is my contention that simply
knowing the stereotypes presented by the majority of
multicultural management material is not adequate. For
example, in the MFWI fieldwork, I approached the Japanese
students with the paradigm that they would exhibit a high
degree of communitarianism and that they would not easily
grasp the concept of individualism. This was based, not
only upon my experience with Taiwanese and Chinese students,
but upon the literature I had researched such as Trompenaars,
Hampden-Turner, Hofstede, and Funakawa. For instance, the
research of Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner found
approximately 70% of Japanese respondents answered with a
high degree of communitarianism. (Trompenaars & Hampden-
Turner, 1998) Only through the In-Spection phase of the
ITSM was that belief challenged. Having placed the MFWI
students in their individual contexts versus their
stereotyped context I was better equipped to interpret their
actions, their comments, and their stories more
effectively. Following is an overview of some fundamental
hermeneutic concepts and how they apply in a multicultural
management setting.
Understanding
Understanding, for Heidegger, has its origin in his
concept of a person’s ongoing encounter with the world. He
argues it is impossible to separate one’s human
consciousness from his or her encounter with the world. In
other words, it is impossible to separate the subject from
object. For Gadamer, understanding is a social activity, a
“sharing in a common meaning” (Gadamer, 1977, p.292).
Gadamer presents that individuals are always on the quest for
understanding and that understanding comes from a dialogical
process. To understand (verstehen) means to grasp something
or to see more clearly, to integrate a meaning into a larger
frame of reference.
In context of multicultural management, understanding
is a powerful concept. Understanding places two or more
individuals in a dynamic relationship in which understanding
is developed and integrated into a larger frame of
reference. This concept is the underpinning concept of the
Understanding and Emergence phases of the ITSM. Within the
ITSM, I have differentiated between Understanding and the
application of Understanding which I have called Emergence.
Emergence is differentiated in order to intentionally focus
on the application of new knowledge.
Understanding and Emergence can be observed in the FCC
workshop. Throughout this final fieldwork exercise, the
group moved through the phases of the ITSM and came to a
realization of new knowledge. The participants expressed
how they had learned about themselves as well as their
colleagues through the ITSM process. They shared of how
telling their stories had been a valuable exercise in this
process. The Understanding of one another, because of the
new knowledge of each person’s story, had helped to bring
cohesiveness to the team. When asked to state how they
could apply this new Understanding, the group presented this
Emergence statement, “Understanding ourselves helps us to
understand others better. Understanding others better,
helps us have a more cohesive and productive team. We will
endeavour to incorporate the skills we have learned in this
workshop into the cultural fabric of this organization.”
Interpretation
As stated above, hermeneutics means to interpret.
Gadamer resisted the oversimplification of the concept of
interpretation as simply a tool to aid Understanding. For
him, interpretation was not a tool, but a part of the
whole. He strongly resisted turning hermeneutics into a
step by step method to reach an end. The inclination of
methodizing hermeneutics is exactly what I struggled with in
the initial phases of the fieldwork. Having re-framed my
reference to more of a spiral or cycle, I was better equipped
to grasp the concept of interpretation being more of an
ingredient than a step.
Gadamer’s approach was to utilize the concepts within
hermeneutics as a holistic and cyclical philosophy, believing
that making them tools would destroy the interpretation
dialogue. (Dostal, 2002) Viewing Interpretation as a
conversation is a reason behind its placement in the ITSM.
Following In-Spection and Expression, Interpretation then
moves to Clarification which cycles back to the first two
phases. This dialogical process provides an environment
that encourages conversation, in our case between
multicultural colleagues, which can serve as an ingredient in
the acquisition of Understanding and Emergence.
An example of how Interpretation can impact
relationships within an organization can be observed in the
FCC workshop. Following Rene’s story of having to cope
with MS, Wayne expressed how he has previously interpreted
her slow movement and lack of energy as laziness or apathy.
Following her personal story, he realized her disease was
much more advanced than he had previously recognized.
Hearing the personal turmoil this disease had caused Rene
gave Wayne a new perspective and allowed him to interpret
Rene’s actions and words in a new context. In
relationships within any organization, the ability to
correctly interpret the actions and words of others can
improve communication and teamwork.
Horizons
A horizon is a world view, or paradigm. In context of
the present research, hermeneutic methodology attempts to
fuse the horizons of the listener and the storyteller. In
hermeneutics, this is a fluid concept in which a person’s
horizons continually change as he or she incorporates the
horizons of the other. Cushman (1995) writes:
Martin Heidegger and Hans-Georg Gadamer argued
that it is not possible to exist as a human being
outside of a cultural context. People can exist only
within a cultural framework that is carved out of the
sensory bombardment of potential perceptions and
possible ways of being… The bombardment of
perceptions and possibilities is like a forest, and
the carved out space is like a ‘clearing’ in the
forest. The clearing of a particular culture is
created by the components of its conceptual systems
and transmitted from one individual to the next and
one generation to the next through their communal
traditions of shared understandings and linguistic
distinctions. It is only within the clearing that
people ‘show up’ in certain shapes and with certain
characteristics. The paradox of the clearing is
thought to be caused by its horizontal nature:
Horizons are created by the culture’s particular way
of perceiving… That is, the clearing is both
liberating, because it makes room for certain
possibilities, and limiting, because it closes off
others. Horizons are thought to be perspectival, and
therefore moveable. (p. 21)
In hermeneutic inquiry both the listener and the
storyteller are changed as they dialogue back and forth,
moving between horizons, until they are fused. As people
within a team interact, a fusion of horizons occurs, in which
all emerge transformed. Not only will the multicultural
team emerge, the organization as a whole will potentially
have a positive impact. In the MFWI fieldwork, I and the
other Americans listened to Lisa’s story through
individualistic American ears. As I heard her tell of not
speaking to her grandfather for a year, I interpreted that
through the context of my own experiences, or horizons. Her
story did not sound congruent with Japanese culture to me.
My horizon was based upon the severing of relationships
when the types of feelings and behaviours Lisa expressed were
encountered. In Lisa’s horizon, not speaking to her
grandfather for a year meant that she still lived with him,
still acted respectfully, and still communicated as needed.
When these two very different horizons merged, an
Understanding was reached of how each culture viewed Lisa’s
story. The Emergent knowledge was that even though one may
not care for another person, they can still act respectfully
to that person.
Dialogical Reasoning
Each of the key concepts within hermeneutics flows back
and forth between the others, therefore many have similar
nuances. Dialogical reasoning is related to interpretation.
Gadamer stressed the importance of reflection and
conversation in knowing. Conversation assumes mutuality of
question and answer (Gadamer, 1976), similar to the
Expression, Interpretation, and Clarification phases of the
ITSM. Gadamer proposed that through conversation with one
another, understanding, that can not be predicted nor
controlled, will occur. He believed that true conversation is
when people are open, equally participative, and interested
in achieving common understanding. Gadamer believed
conversation to be an important function in crossing cultural
or personal borders, leading to new discovery and
understanding. In the multicultural management arena, this
concept has powerful implications. As the ITSM brings a
group of multicultural team members together, the purpose is
to engage in dialogical reasoning which is an important
ingredient in achieving Understanding and Emergence. The
direction of the dialogue in ITSM sessions is not
predetermined or controlled. The purpose is to provide an
environment where participants can equally engage one another
in dialogue intended to bring about new understanding and
knowledge which will have a constructive impact upon the
organization.
Among the valuable conversations in the PIF fieldwork
was the topic of Sandra’s tendency to micro-manage her
staff. In her story, Sandra shared how she had been
expected to care for her brothers when she was a child. In
addition, she had an employee who had committed suicide.
The resulting dialogue revolved around the unfair
expectations of Sandra’s childhood and her guilt of not
being able to prevent her former employee from committing
suicide.
The group came to an Understanding, through the
dialogue, moving back and forth from Expression to
Interpretation to Clarification, that Sandra most likely
micromanages based upon her childhood experience and feeling
as though she was responsible for the death of an employee.
The Emergence arose from the mutual Understanding, and a
commitment between them to work on relieving this unfair
burden on Sandra, thus relieving the stress on the team from
being micromanaged.
Contextualization
Hermeneutics emphasises contextualization, and in the
ITSM, the contexts of the listeners and the speakers are
important. Developing a mutual understanding of these
contexts (or fusion of horizons) aids in the emergence of new
understanding and meaning. Context involves, among other
things, reflecting upon historical and socio-cultural
factors. This is often addressed utilizing the hermeneutic
spiral. The individual parts of context are revisited in
context of the whole. “Hermeneutics is all about context,
about placing the topic of inquiry into historical and
cultural perspective” (McLeod, 2001, p. 56). McLeod
(2001) continues, “Hermeneutics insists that we accept and
embrace these realities, rather than pretending that we can
achieve a knowledge of human affairs that somehow transcends
culture and history. The way we can achieve useful
understandings of human affairs is to enter fully into
dialogue” (p. 23).
Within the ITSM, context is stressed from beginning with
discovering self-context in the In-Spection phase, to
striving to understand the context of the other in the
Expression or storytelling phase. In this research project,
I devoted a great amount of effort to my personal In-Spection
or contextualization. As demonstrated in the relevant
chapters, I researched my context on a macro level as well as
a micro scale. Understanding my personal prejudices,
values, history, culture, and religion, for instance, is
primary to any understanding of others that I may attempt.
For that reason the Components of the Self worksheet and the
Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner questions are utilized at the
beginning of the ITSM.
In the discussion of these exercises the individuals
become better equipped to place their colleagues in context
as well. As individuals share their stories, the ITSM
encourages the Clarification of Interpretations in order to
facilitate better understanding of contexts.
Hermeneutic Spiral
The hermeneutic circle is a fundamental concept in the
interpretation process. This principle suggests that
understanding is achieved through iterations in a dialogical
reflection. The researcher iterates between interdependent
meaning of parts and the whole that they form. “Inquiry
proceeds by building up an interpretation, through moving
back and forth between the part and the whole. This involves:
gaining a sense of the meaning of the whole text, and then
using that as a framework for understanding fragments of the
text; carrying out the micro-analysis if the possible
meanings of small sections of text, and using these to
challenge or re-interpret the overall sense of the text”
(McLeod, 2001, p.27).
Transcultural teams can find this practice valuable
when practiced intentionally, as in the ITSM. As an
individual listens to another, he or she can practice moving
back and forth between his or her own context and that of the
speaker. This exercise helps the participants to engage in
an iterative dialogue which has the potential for the
listener and the speaker to experience a fusion of horizons.
This concept could be considered similar to the expression,
“walking in someone else’s shoes.” The listener attempts
to alternate back and forth between their own shoes as well
as walk in the shoes of the speaker. It is trying to
understand where the other person is coming from, without
forgetting where you are.
The practical use of the hermeneutic spiral within
multicultural management is the adoption of a non-linear
frame of reference. This may be difficult for some
Westerners and Northerners to adopt. I found this concept
difficult, especially in the beginning of the fieldwork.
For team members to adopt this concept may require a constant
reminder. I found through the fieldwork that typically
cycling around also helps the dialogue to cycle down into
deeper topography. As the dialogue cycles back and forth,
the Interpretations and Clarifications can produce
transformative knowledge and understanding. The PIF team
experienced this as the dialogue throughout the workshop
continually resurfaced the themes of family and work, and
work as family. In the end, the team accepted the
premises that one’s family comes first, and that the
relationships within PIF are akin to an extended family.
This produced a more cohesive corporate culture for PIF.
Prejudice
“Every act of hermeneutic understanding begins with a
pre-understanding, which orients the inquirer to the text or
topic. One of the tasks of the hermeneutic scholar is to
become aware of and reflexively explicate this pre-
understanding in a way that creatively feeds into the process
of understanding itself” (McLeod, 2001, p.23). Prejudice,
defined by Gadamer (1976), is prejudgment. Prejudices are our
preconceived notions of things, emanating from our past
experience and socialization. Empirical research attempts to
eradicate prejudice and obtain objectivity by bracketing.
However, in hermeneutics this is considered impossible. To
understand another we cannot shed our past experience,
because it is this past experience that actually facilitates
understanding the other. A common axiom in psychology is that
we interpret the present in light of the past. For team
members in any multicultural organization, understanding
one’s prejudice is a valuable resource.
Gadamer (1975) advocated continual striving to
illuminate our prejudices. By identifying our prejudices we
are better equipped to work with others. Not until I wrote
my personal contextualization for this research project did I
realize the prejudice towards people of colour that had been
ingrained in my psyche. Prejudice can be racial, religious,
gender oriented, or affected by any number of other factors.
When members of an organization are aware of their
predisposed attitudes, they will be better equipped to
challenge those attitudes as necessary. While hermeneutics
does not have a set of tools or a detailed guide, it
possesses interrelated concepts which provide a fluid, yet
rigorous philosophical framework.
Hermeneutics has been criticized by some because of its
lack of carefully delineated steps. As a research
methodology hermeneutics is somewhat ambiguous as to methods,
but it is nevertheless a valuable framework when working with
people. When juxtaposed to the overwhelmingly empirical
methodological research, hermeneutics is a methodology of
interpretation for achieving understanding.
Having been initially developed for interpreting the
Bible, then literature, hermeneutics is now being utilized in
the social sciences. The field of multicultural management
is a natural progression for the use of hermeneutic
methodology. As people from various cultural contexts are
thrust together in the global economy, the generalized
empirical data of Trompenaars, Hampden-Turner, Hofstede, and
others provides valuable resources. However, it is through
personal interaction with people from other cultures that
hermeneutics can be utilized to bring about understanding and
synergistic emergence. Since hermeneutics was originally
developed for interpreting literature, the use of
storytelling is a natural method for utilizing hermeneutics
in the social science field.
Since the terms narrative and storytelling are used in
a variety of forms, for a variety of purposes, and in a
variety of disciplines, it is important to define them in
this context. The terms narrative and storytelling are
often used interchangeably, but there is a distinction.
Academic literature often classifies storytelling as
narrative.
In defining narrative and storytelling, Randall (1995)
writes, “Narrative is the genus of which story is but one
species. Accordingly, while all stories are narratives, not
all narratives are stories” (p. 85). The narratives
discussed in this project are specifically stories. For the
ITSM and for the implications of narrative in multicultural
management, the type of narrative used is autobiographical in
nature. In the ITSM fieldwork, the stories told were
relatively brief (approximately 10-15 minutes) snapshots of
events in the lives of individuals that had some influence on
their personal development. These stories provided a
glimpse into the life of the teller and consequently into
their cultural context. Utilizing storytelling proved
valuable in the context of the fieldwork exercises.
Therefore, I propose that storytelling may profit teams in
many multicultural organizations.
I have met with some opposition to the concept of using
personal stories in a work environment. Some colleagues as
well as some participants in the fieldwork have expressed
that the workplace is no place to introduce personal life.
These individuals strongly support maintaining a line of
demarcation between business and personal lives. This is a
philosophy that may be incongruent with the concept of the
ITSM. Therefore, I am not suggesting that the ITSM,
specifically, nor hermeneutics and storytelling, generally,
will be appropriate for all multicultural management
settings. I do suggest, however, there are organizations
that value the synergistic emergence the ITSM can produce.
In the ITSM fieldwork, participants were free to share or not
to share their stories. In addition, the depth at which
they shared their personal story was their choice.
In the fieldwork projects the storytelling process was
preceded by an introduction to hermeneutics. The ITSM is a
model of blending hermeneutics with storytelling in order to
intentionally provide a platform for Emergence. In this
capacity the ITSM succeeded. Far from simply telling a
personal story to allow someone to know you better, the ITSM
is purposeful in identifying ways the story and resulting
dialogue can positively impact the organization.
It is my contention that storytelling is a powerful
method and that hermeneutics is a natural methodology on
which to build synergistic relationships in a multicultural
workplace. “In the process of telling our life stories, we
share important truths, as we see them, and in so doing,
create vital links with those who participate in the
exchange. Telling and listening to life stories is a
powerful experience… The life story, then, is very much an
interdisciplinary approach to understanding not only one life
across time, but how individual lives interact with the
whole” (Atkinson, 1998, p. 3-4). William Randall (1995)
suggests that people make sense of their lives by
constructing a story in which they are the author, narrator,
main character, and reader. The “stories we are,” are the
stories of our lives as we interpret them. In the process
of In-Specting the storyteller is forced to re-examine an
event in his or her life. In doing so, he or she is
simultaneously re-interpreting that event. As one re-
interprets an event, he or she assigns new meaning to that
event. The expression of that event allows another forum
for new meaning to arise, both internally and in the group
setting. Therefore, the value of storytelling is not just
for the listeners, it is also a transformative event for the
teller. Randall (1995) quotes Sartre, “We live our lives
through our stories and we understand ourselves, others, and
our world in terms of them” ( p.330).
In context of the present research, which focuses on
intercultural relationships within organizations, Randall
states, “Unless we hear each other’s side of [that] story,
however, and get the story straight, distrust is likely to
grow, and the relationship itself unroll rather rockily, if
not completely unravel” (Randall, 1995, p. 107). In
developing relationships with others, Randall recognizes the
importance of “getting the story straight,” in other words,
interpreting, clarifying, and understanding while
communicating. Jack Maguire (1998) states, “Sharing real
life stories [in human history] was an essential element in
forging friendships, alliances, families, and communities.
It brought individuals a greater intimacy with each other
and, simultaneously, a stronger sense of self” (p. xiii).
Maguire continues, quoting Jimmy Neil Smith, “We’re all
storytellers. We all live in a network of stories. There
isn’t a stronger connection between people than
storytelling” (Maguire, 1998, p. xiii).
Within an organizational setting, storytelling and
hermeneutics can assist in building stronger connections.
Atkinson adds his conviction, stating, “People telling their
own stories reveal more about their own lives than any other
approach could” (Atkinson, 1998, p. 90). Transcultural
management literature does not emphasise the value of people
telling their own stories.
In much of modern multicultural management theory, the
emphasis is on understanding generalities and customs. For
example, is the culture communitarian or individualist or
should you kiss, bow, or shake hands? Funakawa has taken the
field into the practical realms of doing business,
specifically between Japanese and Americans, but does not
broach building the relationships between multicultural
colleagues. Lessem and Palsule have presented a humanistic
approach which builds upon the enriching nature of
incorporating the strengths of all four worlds.
According to Lessem and Palsule (1997), the South and
East are underrepresented among modern management theories.
In context of the four worlds (Lessem & Palsule, 1997), the
use of storytelling and hermeneutics is consistent with the
Southern and Eastern thought.
A National Public Radio news story on August 18, 2006
reported on the relationships China is developing with India
and Africa. The reporter stated that these relationships
are changing the face of industry and the seat of economic
power. In addition, on the same day, the Charlie Rhoads
Show on the Public Broadcasting System interviewed Christian
leader, Dr. Rick Warren. Dr. Warren stated that the growth of
Christianity is not taking place in the United States or
Europe, but in China and in Africa.
Others are observing a shift in the focus of the global
community from the West and North, to the East and South.
Western management theory must evolve with this natural
migration by incorporating a holistic four world’s
approach. Therefore, utilizing hermeneutics and
storytelling will richly contribute to the Western/ Northern
qualitative and empirical management theory by the addition
of a humanistic and holistic approach.
As demonstrated in the fieldwork workshops, the ITSM,
by using hermeneutics and storytelling, can provide an
enriching resource for developing community among
transcultural teams on a variety of levels such as:
� Enhancing communication through Expression,
Interpretation, Clarification, and Understanding
� Discovery of self context through In-Spection
� Discovery of the context of others
� Helping team members understand each other by
storytelling
� Incorporating a humanistic and holistic element to the
work place
� Knowledge creation
� Providing a platform for Emergent transformation
� Creating a synergistic application to which the unique
characteristics of each employee and his or her culture
can contribute
Having performed the bulk of this research project in the
midst of the post 9-11 tragedy, the war in Iraq, and the
Israeli and Lebanese war, I have continually been reminded
how hermeneutics can be a valuable resource for enhancing
understanding between cultures. With the Middle East’s
interpretation of the West, and the West’s interpretation
of, specifically, Muslims, I am convinced that a new approach
to reconciliation must be practiced.
It is my contention that the principles found in
hermeneutic methodology can not only be transformative for
multicultural management applications, but also on a grander
scale of global peace building. The following chapter
addresses the final conclusions from this research and
recommendations for further research which includes the
adaptation of the ITSM to the larger scale of global peace
interventions.
References:
Abbey, Ruth. (2000). Charles Taylor. Princeton: Princeton
University Press.
Blaikie, Norman. (1993). Approaches to social enquiry.
Cambridge: Polity Press
Blaikie, Norman. (2000). Designing social research.
Cambridge:
Polity Press
Cushman, Philip. (1995). Constructing the self,
constructing
America: A cultural History of Psychotherapy.
Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Comp. Inc.
Dostal, Richard. (2002). The Cambridge companion to
Gadamer.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Dreyfus, Hubert L. (1991). Being-in-the world: A commentary
on
Heideggar’s being and time. Cambridge, MA: MIT
Press.
Fay, Brian. (1996). Contemporary philosophy of social
science.
Oxford, UK: Basil Blackwell.
Funakawa, Atsushi. (1997). Transcultural management: A new
approach for global organizations. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Gadamer, H. (1976). Philosophical hermeneutics. (D.E. Linge,
Trans). Berkley: University of California Press.
Gadamer, H. (1975). Truth and method (2nd edition). New
York:
Continuum.
Heiddeger, Martin. (1962) Being and Time. Translated by John
Macquarrie and Edward Robinson. New York: Harper.
Lessem, Ronnie & Palsule, Sudhanshu. (1997). Managing in four
worlds: From competition to co-creation. Oxford,
UK: Basil Blackwell.
McLeod, John. (2001). Qualitative research in counselling
and
psychotherapy. London: Sage Publications.
Chapter 18
Conclusions and Recommendations for Future Research
As demonstrated in the previous chapter, hermeneutic
methodology and storytelling method significantly contribute
to the contemporary multicultural management theory. By
adding a humanistic and holistic approach, the ITSM
integrates elements of the East and South to the traditional
Western and Northern theory. By approaching multicultural
management from a dialectical approach, the ITSM adds to the
contributions of empirical scholars like Trompenaars,
Hampden-Turner, and Hofstede. As the East and South become
more significant in the global arena, management theory will
need to be more intentionally adapted to the paradigm of
these two worlds. The ITSM is but a step in that
direction. In this chapter I will offer my conclusions from
the ITSM research and make recommendations for future
research.
As qualitative research, this project is not concerned
with empirically determining the statistical effectiveness of
the ITSM within multicultural organizations. Although some
elements of empiricism were utilized, such as the questions
of Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner, the goal of the ITSM
research was to produce a framework for utilizing
hermeneutics and storytelling in multicultural
organizations. As such, the fieldwork was approached
descriptively rather than statistically. The conclusions
made regarding the ITSM research are based upon my
participation and observation as well as feedback from the
participants and managers of the organizations where the
fieldwork was conducted.
Arguments, from some colleagues and two participants,
against the concept of using personal storytelling in the
workplace have validity for some organizations. In
corporate cultures where personal life and work life are
encouraged to remain distinct, the ITSM may not be
appropriate. In organizations of this nature, the empirical
works of Trompenaars, Hampden-Turner, and Hofstede and the
more practical work of theorists like Funakawa may prove more
appropriate. However, as discovered by the organizations
participating in the fieldwork, there are corporate cultures
that embrace a more holistic work place paradigm.
In the fieldwork exercises, I encountered no negative
feedback following the workshops, and the follow up comments
months later remained positive. During the PIF workshop two
participants initially argued that the ITSM was not
appropriate because of the inclusion of personal storytelling
in the work place. Although some of the resulting
discussion between the participants rose to a heated level,
the end result was positive as individuals were given
opportunity to practice communication in a manner that did
not typically happen in their office. One of the dissenters
was eventually terminated for unrelated reasons, and the
other became an advocate of the ITSM process.
With exception of MFWI, the participating organizations
are based in the United States. I would recommend that
future research include organizations based in each of the
four worlds. This would allow observations of how the
national culture of the company affects the culture of the
company, and thereby affects the application of the ITSM.
For example, I would suppose that a Northern company would be
less open to sharing personal stories than a Southern
company.
As the ITSM is further refined and developed, other
tools for gaining self knowledge may be deemed more
beneficial. For example Mitchell Hammer and Milton Bennett
have developed the Intercultural Development Inventory (IDI)
which may prove valuable as a means for gaining self
awareness. In addition, the IDI may prove a valuable tool
for pre-test post-test evaluation of the effectiveness of the
Interpretive Transcultural Storytelling method.
The purpose of this research was to develop the ITSM
model. Future research should test it. Continuing
research of the ITSM should include quantitative analysis of
the effectiveness of the ITSM, both long term and short
term. Questions should be asked such as:
1. Do participants continue practicing the tools
learned in the ITSM workshop?
2. Does participating in the ITSM have an effect on
employee turnover?
3. Does participating in the ITSM effect employee
morale or job satisfaction?
4. Does participating in the ITSM assist in conflict
resolution?
5. Does participation in the ITSM have a significant
impact on the cultural literacy and competency of the
participants?
6. Does the apparent synergistic emergence of the
participating teams have long term effects?
These and other questions may prove beneficial in follow-up
studies of the ITSM.
In future research, more emphasis can be placed upon
the utilization of the actual model and the topographical
levels. In the present research I ultimately utilized these
as scaffolding under the drapery of storytelling. While
this was effective, I believe it can be fine-tuned to better
support the storytelling. Perhaps a graph or chart could be
developed for participants to easily graph the phases and
levels of the dialogue.
While Emergence is the final stage and the goal of the
ITSM, it should be more intentionally derived. Future
research should incorporate more emphasis on the practice of
Emergence. As the M.Sc. group had a final group project,
perhaps the implementation of a similar group project could
add substance to the concept of Emergence. This may hold
value, as well, for Northern and Western cultures as it could
provide more substantive, and possibly quantifiable, results
of the ITSM workshop.
In addition, a facilitator’s guide or training material
should be developed. Because of my education as a Licensed
Mental Health Counsellor, I have had extensive training in
group dynamics and therapeutic interviewing. These skills
equipped me to be aware of the various stages of group
development, dynamics, and intervention. I am also equipped
to ask probing questions and to identify recurring themes.
Some of the stories told reach core levels, and can surface
significant emotional trauma. For example, Glenda (PIF)
sharing about her father’s death, Sandra (PIF) sharing about
her childhood, and Rene (FCC) sharing about her MS. I
believe it is unethical to simply release a facilitator with
the ITSM packet without some training in these aspects.
Therefore, future research necessitates a facilitator’s
manual.
My conclusion is that the ITSM is a valuable platform
for building community among multicultural members of a
team. However, the ITSM needs continued refinement and
deserves further research. While not quantitatively
defensible, qualitatively the ITSM has had positive feedback
and has provided an enriched and synergistic atmosphere among
participating organizations. In addition to organizations,
I propose that the ITSM may have possible applications in the
political and religious arena. The proposal of such a
possible use of the ITSM has its genesis in my original
research topics. Until the final stages of the ITSM
research I considered my original proposals as unrelated.
Now, at the conclusion, I am finding I have come almost full
circle.
As I reflect upon the years I have been pursuing this
Ph.D., I observe an evolution of topics I set out to
research. My initial research proposal was to consider
Biblical leaders and what made them effective at leading. I
was encouraged to incorporate leaders from a variety of
religious belief systems, and gladly accepted. In the
earliest meetings with our Ph.D. cohort and my advisors, my
topic evolved to finding common ground between religious
world views in order to produce a peace building theory. In
light of the September 11, 2001 tragedy and the Iraq war,
this was a gripping evolution. However, I soon realized this
topic was very broad and daunting. I found it difficult to
grasp, yet continued to study and read.
In my second year I began focusing on adopting a
methodology. I chose hermeneutics and began producing
chapters on hermeneutic methodology. In the midst of my
hermeneutic research, Dr. Lessem invited me to teach a module
on it at the University of Buckingham. The participants in
this module were French, Chinese, American, British, and
Taiwanese. The hermeneutic process provided a significant
contribution to the cohesion of this very eclectic team of
students. During the final days of this module Dr. Lessem
and I discussed a potential evolution of my research
project. By the end of our meeting, I had decided to work
towards the synthesis of hermeneutics and storytelling into a
multicultural management approach.
I have often reflected on the total disparity between
my original proposal of studying religious leaders, the
intermediate proposal of common ground peace building, and
the Interpretive Transcultural Storytelling Method. I
eventually accepted that changing topics was part of the
Ph.D. process, leaving the previous topics behind. As I
began to reach the finality of the ITSM research, however, I
realized how close I had come to full circle. As the
conflicts in the Middle East continue to rage, I have
realized that the same ITSM process that provides a platform
for achieving Understanding and Emergence within
organizations may have a similar potential in political and
religious factions. If hermeneutic concepts can help people
within organizations find a fusion of horizons, then perhaps
they can be of value on a macro scale (see Appendix 2).
I propose that further research of the application of
the ITSM in political and religious realms may be valuable.
Shia and Sunnis continue to kill each other in Iraq, Israel
and Lebanon are at war, Iran and Syria continue to threaten
the West, and rumblings of North Korean nuclear weapons make
up our global nightly news. In such a technologically and
socially advanced world, conflicts and killing should be
minimized. I contend that a model such as the ITSM process
may be an asset in some fashion for developing a more
peaceful world built upon the synergistic application of
differences.
The ITSM process is intentional in the pursuit of
transformational Emergence. Two or more very different world
views In-Spect, Express, Interpret, Clarify, reach
Understanding, and ultimately apply this new knowledge in
Emergence. In our world of clashing perspectives,
specifically the West and the middle-East, such a process may
be of significant value in building peace. Although my
original peace building topic was focused on finding common
ground, the ITSM is focused on the identification of
differences. Upon identifying differences, the ITSM then
moves toward the synergistic relationship of those
differences. I would propose that further research into the
use of the ITSM in the realm of peace building is
warranted. Therefore, not only has the ITSM potential for
assisting multicultural organizations in the pursuit of
synergistic emergence, there may also be application globally
in the political-religious arena.
As the ITSM has evolved, so have I. My world view has
been challenged and modified as I have explored my own story
and stories and world views of others. Having begun the
research process from a very Western perspective, I have
become much more in step with the four worlds. My personal
transformation is congruent with hermeneutic methodology.
Within hermeneutics, the researcher is an active participant
who approaches the research project with an understanding of
his or her prejudices. The researcher is therefore a part
of the research project, not an unbiased observer. Having
participated in the fieldwork exercises, my world view has
been modified significantly, and I can attest that shared
empathy and trust increases when personal stories are shared
and intentionally heard. The ITSM is like scaffolding over
which storytelling and hermeneutics is draped. This process
contributes to the cohesion of the team, and results in a co-
creative milieu.
Through the ITSM, the process of In-Spection assists an
individual in developing self knowledge. Knowing self is
primary to knowing others. As In-Spection occurs, the
inside story, the outside-in story, and the inside-out
culminates into Expression. As one expresses his or her
story, he or she is changed in the process. In addition,
the opportunity is given to the listeners to hear a story of
a situation that has impacted the development of the teller.
The story also gives a glimpse into the cultural context of
the teller. As the listeners Interpret the story, they
subsequently Clarify their interpretations. Throughout the
conversation, Understanding is achieved which illuminates new
knowledge. The group then considers the new knowledge and
its application as they mutually and synergistically
experience a transformative Emergence.
The ITSM provides an added spectrum of theory to
multicultural management. By dialectically approaching
multicultural management, all four worlds can be addressed.
My contention is that the empirical work of Trompenaars,
Hampden-Turner, and Hofstede is invaluable and
insufficient. As Funakawa, Lessem, Palsule and others have
contributed to the more pragmatic and holistic literature,
the ITSM provides an application for the humanistic and
holistic approach.
As the global economy is dynamic, focal points are
continually shifting. As the East and South continue
emerging into the global economy, management theory must be
inclusive of those world views. Utilizing hermeneutics and
storytelling, the Interpretive Transcultural Storytelling
Method adds elements of the East and South to the traditional
multicultural management literature. The following and
final chapter provides a hypothetical case for the use of the
ITSM in further research involving a culturally diverse group
within a socio-political venue.
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Building
Chapter 1: Introduction to the Method7
Chapter 2: Literature Review II: 20
Chapter 3: Literature Review III: 36
Chapter 4: Methodology Part I76
Chapter 5: Methodology Part II91
Chapter 6: Method: Narrative 112
Chapter 7: Contextualization: 132
Chapter 8: Genesis of the ITSM: 151
Chapter 9: ITSM: Conception, Revision164
Chapter 10: Fieldwork: An Introduction179
Chapter 11: Fieldwork Project 1: 185
Chapter 12: Fieldwork Project 2: Private 203
Chapter 13: Fieldwork Project 3: Family 226
Chapter 14: Fieldwork Project 4: 250
Chapter 15: Fieldwork Project 5: 262
Chapter 16: Summary of Fieldwork278
Chapter 17: Implications of Hermeneutic 291
Chapter 18: Conclusions and 309
Chapter 1
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
Chapter 4
Chapter 5
Chapter 6
Chapter 7
Chapter 8
Chapter 9
Chapter 10
Chapter 11
Chapter 12
Chapter 13
Chapter 14
Chapter 15
Chapter 16
Chapter 17
Chapter 18
