Feb. 13–Student profile Part A:
Select a student from your classroom or clinical site as the central focus of your study and Language Case Study Project. In no more than 5 pages, describe the student’s home and target language strengths and needs as you may address them in in the Language Case Study Project. Your description should provide a holistic picture of the student and may include quantitative and qualitative idea. Some ideas may include:
· Grades |
· Language inventories |
· Test Scores |
· Interest inventories |
· Formative assessment data |
· Reading levels |
· Summative assessment data |
· Writing levels/ scores |
· Standardized testing data |
· Non-academic data |
This section of the task should not exceed 3 pages.
Feb. 27–Student profile Part B:
Using the same student, adopt a translanguaging lens to evaluate the data you included in Part A and re-evaluate the needs and strengths of the student. Be sure pull from readings from our class to justify your new claims as you jointly evaluate your student bi/multilingual data.
This section of the task should not exceed 3 pages.
Name: Melissa Genao OSSIS: 225356146
Date of Birth: 01/16/2007 Age: 15
Parent: Rosa Martinez Telephone: (646) 250-4985
Address: 350 Gerard Ave. Apt 2N. County: Bronx
Bronx, NY 10451
Interviewer: Wanda Pena, MSW Date Of Report: 02/14/2022
_________________________________________________________________________
This report is part of a comprehensive re-evaluation for additional Special Education Services requested by the parent due to concerns with the student’s academic performance. Upon her mother’s referral, Melissa was referred to the School Based Support Team to determine whether she would qualify for additional support. According to Ms. Martinez, her daughter requires support with all subjects in school. She reportedly has difficulty completing her classwork and homework. Ms. Yudith Martinez, Melissa’s parent, conducted the interview in Spanish. The home language is listed as Spanish in ATS, and she reported feeling comfortable continuing in Spanish.
Melissa is a 15.0-year-old verbal, ambulatory, petite girl of Hispanic descendent with long dark brown eyes and dark brown hair. She was dressed neatly and appropriate. In addition, present at this evaluation was Melissa’s mother, Yudith Martinez. Due to COVID-19 pandemic, this evaluation was conducted via teleconferencing. Melissa presented with a cooperative, and pleasant demeanor. She willingly answered the questions posed to her by this clinician. Melissa’s mother provided the majority of the information obtained for this evaluation. Melissa presented with good receptive and expressive language skills. Melissa’s mother provided the majority of the information obtained for this evaluation. Melissa presented with good receptive and expressive language skills.
Melissa resides in a two-bedroom apartment located in the South Bronx. She has been living there for almost 12 years. Her mother considers the neighborhood to be fairly safe. Melissa has her own bedroom. Also residing there is Melissa’s mother, Yudith Martinez (42). Melissa’s mother is a social worker for a transitional foster care agency. She is pre-diabetic and was diagnosed with hypothyroidism. Melissa has a close relationship with her mother.
Melissa is currently enrolled at DW School and Institute. She has been enrolled at this school for about 7 years. She is in a 12:1:1 special education program. According to her IEP dated 10/12/21, she is classified as having “Other Health impairment” She receives speech therapy (individual and group), occupational therapy (individual and group) and counseling (individual and group). She receives hearing education services and has the use of an FM Unit at school. She also use her hearing aids at home.
Melissa’s school has a proficient level scale to provide students grades. The scale is defined as follows: 0 – Did Not Demonstrate Skill. 1 – Is developing the behavior or skill, 2 – Demonstrates the behavior or skill inconsistently, 3 – Demonstrates the behavior or skill most of the time, 4 – Demonstrates the behavior or skill consistently. 5 – Demonstrated Skill Independently. In addition, Scale: A=Always, U=Usually, S=Sometimes, N=Needs Improvement. These scales are used for all subjects. Melissa’s grades levels are as follows; Counseling (2), Speech, Language and Occupational Therapy (2), English Language Arts (3), Explorations in Mathematics (3), American History (3), Explorations in Sciences (3-4), Technology (4), Gym (4-5), Adaptive skills (5), Movement (A),
During the semester multiple classroom observations was conducted to monitor Melissa’s learning and to provide feedback. It was observed that Melissa works well during class following a checklist of to do things to complete the class. Melissa brings creativity and personal connections into the classroom. She is sometimes willing to participate and engages in class discussion and work though at times she can be seen falling asleep. She works collaboratively with her peers and participates in small group activities. She is able to complete her assignments with little to some support.
Melissa loves spending time with her maternal extended family members. She likes to design dresses. She loves any activities related to arts and crafts. She loves to play with slime. One of Melissa’s strengths is that she is friendly and is very social. She is cooperative. She loves to help others, especially younger children.
Melissa is well behaved at home and at school. However, she is immature for her age. She becomes frustrated when she is not able to keep up with her typically developing peers. She responds by crying. At times, she is resistant to wearing her hearing aids because she does not want to look different from her peers. Melissa is verbal. However, her pronunciation is sometimes unclear due to her hearing impairment. Melissa is friendly and enjoys socializing. Due to her immaturity, she tends to prefer socializing with younger children.
Melissa has some issues concerning hand strength and balance. This is due to the side effects from a brain surgery she underwent in July 2011. Melissa has good sleeping habits. Her bedtime is 10:00 PM on school nights and she wakes up at 6:00 AM on school mornings. She sleeps through the night.
Melissa is a very picky eater and tends to prefer unhealthy foods. She eats three meals per day and snacks in between meals. Her favorite foods are McDonalds, and pizza. Melissa can become itchy if she eats food containing red 45 dye. If she eats, an excessive amount of red 45 dye can trigger an eczema outbreak. However, this has not occurred in over 10 years.
Both of Melissa’s parents are of Hispanic descent. Melissa’s mother was born in the United States but grew up in the Dominican Republic. Melissa’s father, Barbino Genao (42), was born in the Dominican Republic. He resides in Massachusetts. He maintains a positive relationship with Melissa, although they do not have see each other often. Melissa has a 19-year old sister by her father. She lives in Massachusetts and has occasional contact with Melissa.
Melissa is dependent on her mother to meet her needs. Melissa’s mother receives a lot of support from her extended family and friends. She does not receive any funded services or government benefits. Melissa’s mother would like her to receive care management and community habilitation services. She would like Melissa to attend extracurricular activities.
Melissa is verbal and ambulatory. Sometimes, she requires verbal prompting about bathing and brushing her teeth, appropriate clothing. She is independent concerning dressing herself. Melissa is able to tell time with a digital clock. She is not able to tell time with an analog clock. She reads on an early elementary school level. Melissa is dependent about traveling via bus or subway. She understands the function of money. She requires verbal prompting to check for the correct change. Melissa rarely uses the stove and requires supervision when she does so. She can make Ramen Noodles. She is independent with regards to using the microwave oven. She is independent with regards to making a simple snack or a sandwich. Melissa requires verbal prompting with regards to making her bed. She is dependent with regards to washing dishes, cleaning her room and doing her laundry.
page
355
Language Arts, Volume 95, Number 6, July 2018
Laura Ascenzi-Moreno
Translanguaging and Responsive
Assessment Adaptations:
Emergent Bilingual Readers
through the Lens of Possibility
This study examines how teachers adapt formative
reading assessments for emergent bilinguals by
making space for their students’ multilingual
language practices.
On a crisp October morning, Ella (all names
are pseudonyms), an English as a New Language
teacher (ENL) sits with Santiago, one of her fifth-
grade students, and listens to him read. She notes
information about his reading behaviors, miscues,
and comprehension. Like other teachers across the
country, Ella uses formative reading assessments
to gain insight into her students’ reading processes.
For all teachers, piecing together information from
these assessments to make sense of and support a
child’s reading development is a complex task. Yet,
for teachers who work with emergent bilinguals,
understanding how their rich language resources
play into their reading development adds another
layer of challenge that warrants educators’ critical
consideration.
While Ella assesses Santiago in English, she
provides carefully thought- out opportunities for
him to use his home language resources, such as
encouraging him to explain his miscues in Span-
ish. During the assessment, she documents ways
in which the breadth of his language skills may
impact his reading. By making space for students’
home language practices within assessment, Ella,
along with the other teachers in this article, engage
in an important departure from the widespread
monolingual practices that mark how formative
reading assessments are currently administered and
analyzed (Ascenzi- Moreno, 2016; García, John-
son, & Seltzer, 2017). These teachers’ practices
demonstrate an increased awareness of the crucial
role that emergent bilinguals’ home languages play
in their literacy development (Souto- Manning,
2016). Namely, these teachers have adjusted the
reading assessment process to include opportu-
nities for translanguaging, allowing students to
draw upon the full span of their language and social
resources to make meaning of their literacy experi-
ences (García & Wei, 2014).
Emergent bilinguals have the gift of speaking
two or more languages (García, Kleifgen, & Fal-
chi, 2008). Being bilingual offers a variety of bene-
fits, such as the capacity to interact with a range of
people, the ability to connect to different cultures
through language, as well as an understanding and
appreciation of how different languages are struc-
tured and relate to each other (Bialystok, 2007;
Proctor, August, Snow, & Barr, 2010). Bilingual-
ism is an integral part of students’ identities and
should be respected and valued in the classroom
(Souto- Manning, 2016; Zapata & Laman, 2016).
When I refer to emergent bilingual readers, the
Translanguaging and Responsive
Assessment Adaptations
July LA 2018.indd 355 6/18/18 10:45 PM
chartman
Text Box
Copyright © 2018 by the National Council of Teachers of English. All rights reserved.
page
356
Language Arts, Volume 95, Number 6, July 2018
Laura Ascenzi-Moreno | TraNSlaNguagiNg aNd rESPONSivE aSSESSmENT adaPTaTiONS
that incorporate adaptations to align with emergent
bilinguals’ needs.
The Intersection of
Translanguaging, Formative
Reading Assessments,
and Accommodations
To set the stage for this study, I place three distinct
fields of education research alongside each other:
translanguaging and reading, formative reading
assessments, and accommodations.
Translanguaging and Reading
The concept of translanguaging has highlighted
the essential role that emergent bilinguals’ lin-
guistic and social resources have in their learn-
ing and meaning- making in classrooms (García
& Kleyn, 2016). A translanguaging lens provides
teachers with a novel way to understand students’
language practices as dynamic and as socially
constructed (Palmer & Martínez, 2016). Translan-
guaging is defined as “the deployment of a speak-
er’s full linguistic repertoire without regard for
watchful adherence to the socially and politically
(and usually national and state) defined boundaries
of named languages” (Otheguy, García, & Reid,
2015, p. 283). In other words, as emergent bilin-
guals read, write, learn, and communicate, they
draw on diverse linguistic features and resources
from a singular linguistic repertoire. For exam-
ple, an emergent bilingual may listen to a teacher
read a book aloud, but engage in a turn- and- talk
about that text in Spanish. Or she may write a piece
mostly in English, but include dialogue from her
mom’s voice in her home language. These exam-
ples demonstrate that when emergent bilinguals
access their entire pool of resources and are not
limited to using language features from socially
constructed language categories such as “English”
or “Spanish,” they fluidly and creatively participate
in learning.
It is important to note that translanguaging is
a different way of viewing and interpreting bilin-
gual language performances than another preva-
lent theory, code- switching. The concept of code-
switching is based on the premise that emergent
word, “emergent” in the label does not allude to
a specific stage of reading development, but high-
lights that students are in the continual process of
learning language (García et al., 2008). Thus, the
flexible, evolving, and diverse nature of students’
language practices is stressed over static conceptu-
alizations of students’ language abilities and skills
(Brooks, 2017).
The shifts in teachers’ assessment strategies
described in this article, which I refer to as respon-
sive adaptations, take into account students’ lan-
guage practices while they read and talk about what
they have read. These adaptations aid teachers in
constructing an accurate portrait of students’ abili-
ties by viewing their language repertoire as a source
of strength rather than one of deficit. In this article,
I show through a translanguaging lens how teachers
have reimagined the formative assessment process
and, as a result, have brought into focus a multifac-
eted perspective on emergent bilinguals’ journeys
as readers.
First, I present an overview of translanguag-
ing and its intersection with accommodations and
reading assessment research. Next, I introduce the
teachers in the study and their school contexts. I
then describe the types of responsive adaptations
that teachers implemented and highlight how these
provide an important message to students about
the value of their home language as they learn to
read English even as they simultaneously offer
teachers a better means to understand and support
their students as readers. Finally, I outline impli-
cations to support teachers as they seek out ways
to infuse the formative reading assessment pro-
cess with opportunities for translanguaging. It is
my hope that this article assists teachers across a
variety of programs (English as a New Language,
Dual Language Bilingual, English mainstream) to
envision equitable reading assessment practices
Bilingualism is an integral part of students’
identities and should be respected and valued in
the classroom.
July LA 2018.indd 356 6/18/18 10:45 PM
page
357
Language Arts, Volume 95, Number 6, July 2018
Laura Ascenzi-Moreno | TraNSlaNguagiNg aNd rESPONSivE aSSESSmENT adaPTaTiONS
across languages. Thus, when reading is viewed as
a unified process, teachers can support emergent
bilinguals’ reading development by acknowledging
and encouraging them to use their entire linguistic
repertoire as they read. Therefore, a translanguag-
ing lens on reading as a unified process has rami-
fications for how we assess the emergent bilingual
readers in our classroom.
Formative Reading Assessments
In this article, I focus on both informal reading
inventories (IRIs) and running records and refer
to them as formative reading assessments. Both of
these assessments aim to capture students’ contex-
tual reading behaviors and habits. It is well known
that the documentation and observation of students’
efforts and responses during reading offers teach-
ers essential information to shape instruction (Clay,
2000; Fountas & Pinnell, 2000). These assessments
are generally considered powerful, particularly for
emergent bilinguals, because through observation
and documentation, teachers can capture the lan-
guage students use (Gandy, 2013).
Yet, the formative reading assessment process
has most often been a monolingual endeavor across
different programs types (ENL, Dual Language
Bilingual, English mainstream) (Sánchez et al.,
2013; Shohamy, 2011). Even within Dual Lan-
guage Bilingual (DLB) programs, where students
are instructed in two languages, teachers adhere to
administering and analyzing their emergent bilin-
gual readers in English and Spanish, without under-
standing how students fluidly use features from both
to read (Ascenzi- Moreno, 2016). The belief that the
fastest pathway to language acquisition is through
English- only methods (Menken & Solorza, 2015)
seeps into the assessment process. Teachers express
that to be “faithful” to the assessment, they feel
obliged to conduct them monolingually. However,
when teachers limit emergent bilinguals’ reading
performance to one language, they are not able to
detect and respond to the full span of their students’
reading abilities, leading to a partial and inaccurate
assessment of students. In this study, I focus on
the reading passage portions of formative reading
assessments, which include various components
bilinguals “switch” between languages that exist
independently from each other (García et al.,
2017). In contrast, translanguaging emphasizes
that from the emergent bilinguals’ internal per-
spective, they are flexibly selecting features from
their own unique and singular linguistic repertoire.
There are multiple dimensions of translanguaging
pedagogy for students; when emergent bilinguals
use their varied features from their linguistic rep-
ertoire, they are able to access and participate in
learning events. Likewise, opening up opportu-
nities for translanguaging in the classroom sends
an important message to emergent bilinguals that
their multilingual practices and their experiences
are essential to their development as meaning
makers (Zapata & Laman, 2016).
Through a translanguaging lens, reading has
been reenvisioned as a “unified process” (Kabuto,
2017). As a unified process, students draw upon
their entire linguistic repertoire as they learn to read
rather than solely calling forth resources in one
language (Ascenzi- Moreno, 2016; Kabuto, 2017).
In describing reading as a unified process, Kabuto
(2017) writes, “Regardless of syntactic and seman-
tic features and graphic forms that make up writ-
ten language systems, bilingual readers draw upon
a range of linguistic features within a language or
across languages to demonstrate their understand-
ings of written text” (p. 28). In other words, from
a translanguaging perspective, reading “transcends
language borders” (Kabuto, 2017, p. 39) as students
make meaning of written texts through the use of
the full span of their language and social resources.
For instance, while a student reads Spanish,
she may think about the characters in English and
then compare her thoughts about this text to an
experience she had in Spanish with her family. In
this example, the student participates in the reading
process by accessing memories, skills, and abilities
using her entire linguistic and social repertoire. If
the teacher only allowed the student to think and
participate in reading in one language, such as
English, then her ability to comprehend the text,
connect to it, and express her understanding would
be curtailed. Ideas, strategies, and skills that help
students comprehend text can be used dynamically
July LA 2018.indd 357 6/18/18 10:45 PM
page
358
Language Arts, Volume 95, Number 6, July 2018
Laura Ascenzi-Moreno | TraNSlaNguagiNg aNd rESPONSivE aSSESSmENT adaPTaTiONS
for students’ language practices within assessments
does not exist (González, 2012).
One way the issue of proper assessment of
emergent bilinguals has been addressed is through
studies on accommodations. Accommodations for
emergent bilinguals should be designed to lessen
the linguistic demand of the assessment (Abedi,
2009). Extended time, translations, and bilingual
dictionaries are some of the most common accom-
modations for emergent bilinguals, despite the lack
of evidence that they lessen the linguistic demands
of an assessment (Abedi, Hofstetter, & Lord, 2004).
For accommodations to be effective, Abedi (2009)
maintains that they need to target students’ unique
linguistic profiles. For instance, a student may be
offered extra time on a test, but this accommoda-
tion will not decrease the difficulty the student may
have in comprehending the language of the test
questions. Acosta, Rivera, and Willner (2008) also
report that test accommodations are often too gener-
alized to provide the required support students need
to accurately manifest their skills. The static and
generic nature of accommodations reduces their
effectiveness. Accommodations research, therefore,
provides an incomplete response to the question of
how to ensure that assessments truly measure emer-
gent bilinguals’ skills and knowledge and not sim-
ply their language competencies.
Assessment practices that are flexible, mallea-
ble, and specifically designed with an eye toward
language of the individual hold the potential
(see Table 1 for the components and general format
of reading assessments).
Despite the fact that teachers most often admin-
ister these assessments monolingually, without
making adjustments for emergent bilinguals, the
research body on accommodations has addressed
ways to make assessment practices for emergent
bilinguals more accurate and equitable.
Accommodations
Even if emergent bilinguals are expected to perform
monolingually, they bring their linguistic repertoire
comprised of features from multiple languages
to assessment contexts (Bedore, Pena, García, &
Cortez, 2005). In the following case, an emergent
bilingual counts from one to ten: “one, two, three,
cuatro, cinco, seis, etc.” Through his language
practices, he demonstrates that he knows how to
sequence numbers, yet draws from features of
English and Spanish to do so. Bedore et al. (2005)
caution that within the context of assessment, “sin-
gle language measures ignore the fact that bilingual
children may choose to use different words depend-
ing on the setting, interlocutor, and context” (p.
190). There is agreement among scholars that when
emergent bilinguals are required to answer in only
one language during an assessment, they are placed
at a disadvantage because they use only a portion of
their language abilities (Sánchez et al., 2013; Sho-
hamy, 2011). Teachers may not obtain a true “read-
ing” of their emergent bilinguals’ abilities if a space
Table 1. Components of formative reading assessments, general format, and responsive adaptations
Component General Format: What Is Done? Responsive Adaptations
Introduction to text Teachers provide an introduction to the
text monolingually.
Teachers can make culturally relevant
connections, using English and the home
language, to the text.
Teachers ask the students about their prior
knowledge monolingually.
Teachers can elicit prior knowledge through
English and the home language, or both.
Listening to and documenting
student reading
Teachers listen to and document
student reading for miscues and fluency
monolingually.
Teachers create columns for language and
pronunciation in addition to traditional
miscues.
Retell Teachers ask students to retell the text
monolingually.
Teachers invite students to retell the text in
English and the home language, or both.
Feedback Teachers relate to students their
impressions of their reading and pinpoint
their reading level.
Teachers provide feedback to target both
students’ reading abilities across languages
and emerging language features.
July LA 2018.indd 358 6/18/18 10:45 PM
page
359
Language Arts, Volume 95, Number 6, July 2018
Laura Ascenzi-Moreno | TraNSlaNguagiNg aNd rESPONSivE aSSESSmENT adaPTaTiONS
Ella’s school participated in two years of profes-
sional development on translanguaging pedagogy,
which I provided. Ella was a teacher- leader during
this initiative, sitting on a schoolwide committee
of teachers that consulted on the focus of profes-
sional development. Ella is in her 15th year of
teaching ENL. Her day is divided into co- teaching
with general classroom teachers and “pull- out”
instruction with emergent bilinguals. Ella knows
some Spanish and uses it intentionally with her
students.
Anaïs is a second- grade teacher and Fabienne
is a fifth– grade teacher in the French- English DLB
program at the Channel School, which is in an
urban community. Anaïs has been a teacher at the
school for 8 years and Fabienne is in her second
year of teaching. Both are French- English speak-
ers who learned French as their new language. The
French- English DLB program is a small one, with
two classes per grade level. Its goals are to sup-
port students to be bilingual, biliterate, and bicul-
tural through the teaching of two languages. It is
a highly desired program and has attracted French
expatriates to this neighborhood. Both teachers self-
selected to be part of the research. Although these
teachers were not part of sustained professional
development on translanguaging, they were familiar
with the concept.
I used a case study approach to focus on teach-
ers’ responsive adaptations of formative assess-
ments over the course of one academic year. Admin-
istrators at both schools requested that teachers
implement formative, periodic reading assessments
with their students. Ella used the Developmental
Reading Assessment (DRA) and also conducted
running records using ENL- designated guided
reading books, while the teachers at the Channel
School used the Teachers College Reading and
for accurately assessing emergent bilinguals. A
translanguaging lens on assessment can provide
further assistance in directing teachers on how to
adapt formative assessments for accuracy. Accord-
ing to García et al. (2017), assessments of emergent
bilinguals should be designed to capture students’
general linguistic and language- specific abilities;
that is, teachers can note if students are “using all
the features of his or her language repertoire and/or
using language- specific features” (p. 86).
Responsive adaptations to formative reading
assessments make room for students’ language
practices through opportunities for translanguag-
ing (see Table 1 for examples of responsive adapta-
tions). These adaptations need not be thought of as
a new set of procedures, but rather as flexible ways
of responding to students. Through these adapta-
tions, the relationship that teachers have with their
students via the assessment is paramount; teachers
can respond and be attuned to what they learn about
the child’s reading, including the language fea-
tures they draw upon while they read and respond
to text. In this study, the assessment practices of
three teachers who work with emergent bilinguals
are explored and provide a means to understand
how translanguaging within the formative reading
assessment process leads to both a more accurate
picture of students’ reading abilities and a deeper
understanding of the journey of an emergent bilin-
gual reader.
Context and Methods
This research took place with three teachers at two
public elementary schools. Ella works at the Wil-
low School, which is located in a suburb of a large
city. A banner with the school’s motto: “Dream
and Believe, Learn and Achieve” in four languages
(English, Spanish, Chinese, and Italian) hangs at
the entrance. The school has undergone a demo-
graphic change in the past 10 years. From primar-
ily having English- speaking students, the school
now has a sizable population of Spanish- speaking
students across all grade levels. The majority of
students in the early childhood grades (K– 2) are
now emergent bilinguals hailing from Central and
South America. Because of this demographic shift,
responsive adaptations to formative reading
assessments make room for students’
language practices through opportunities
for translanguaging.
July LA 2018.indd 359 6/18/18 10:45 PM
page
360
Language Arts, Volume 95, Number 6, July 2018
Laura Ascenzi-Moreno | TraNSlaNguagiNg aNd rESPONSivE aSSESSmENT adaPTaTiONS
Assessing Emergent
Bilingual Readers: Striving
for Accuracy and Equity
Essential to teachers’ implementation of responsive
adaptations was their view that emergent bilinguals
are capable and full of resources. In her reflective
memo, Ella writes, “I believe we can assess students
from a strengths- based perspective, valuing their
emerging bilingualism, instead of a deficit perspec-
tive where we only consider what they don’t know
and can’t yet do” (reflective memo, 2017).
In the findings, I highlight the three themes
identified in the data analysis: the documentation
of student miscues, student retells that incorporate
home language, and the provision of feedback to
students. In doing so, I showcase how responsive
adaptations can infuse the entire formative reading
assessment process (see Table 1). All three teachers
are featured in the findings, but more emphasis is
placed on Ella’s work to offer readers an in- depth
description of one teacher’s practice.
Documenting Emergent
Bilinguals’ Miscues: Ella’s
Practice in an ENL Setting
Santiago, a fifth grader and one of Ella’s students,
walked confidently into her room for ENL sup-
port. He smiled and sat down next to her waiting
for instructions. Ella pulled A Giant in the Forest,
a text from the Developmental Reading Assessment
(DRA). Santiago is from Guatemala and has been in
the US for three years. It is his second year at Wil-
low. While Santiago was learning English quickly,
his reading continued to demonstrate miscues (stu-
dents’ deviations from the text they are reading)
that are characteristic of an emergent bilingual who
is learning the intricacies of English grammar and
pronunciation along with the breadth of vocabulary
required of readers in general.
Ella, like many teachers of emergent bilin-
guals, noticed that the type and frequency of her
students’ miscues are impacted by their language
proficiency and cultural knowledge (Kabuto, 2017).
As Santiago read, Ella documented types of stu-
dent miscues she heard (see Figure 1). In addition
Writing Project Running Records in English and
used Trousse d’évaluation en lecture GB + in French
(a French- Canadian reading assessment tool). These
formative assessments were chosen by the adminis-
trations at their schools and were used to provide
information for school report cards, to monitor stu-
dent growth, and to yield data to shape classroom
reading instruction.
During each of the observations, I took notes
on the classroom environment, the teachers’ adap-
tations, and students’ responses. I also took pictures
of teachers’ documentation sheets of each student’s
assessment. When a teacher had availability after
the observation, we would debrief. The goal of these
short discussions was to seek immediate clarifica-
tion about the reasons for adaptations and to glean
more information about individual children. The
additional data from these impromptu conversations
became fieldnotes. I interviewed each teacher once
for an hour and transcribed these conversations.
Ella’s principal asked her to write a reflective memo
about her formative reading assessment work,
which she shared with me; this memo was incorpo-
rated into the body of data collected.
I used open- coding of all the data to identify
patterns within the responsive adaptations teachers
implemented (Charmaz, 2010; Creswell, 2012).
All observational notes, fieldnotes, and transcribed
interviews were coded to capture 1) trends in the
type of responsive adaptations teachers used; 2) the
reasoning behind teachers’ responsively adapted
reading assessments; 3) teachers’ perceptions and
attitudes about the pedagogical importance of the
adaptations. Once the data was coded, I identified
themes. These themes include: the documentation
of student miscues, student retells that incorporate
home language, and the provision of feedback to
students. I then reread the data to identify examples
that would offer readers a window into how respon-
sive adaptations can be enacted in classrooms along
with the possibilities they offer teachers for under-
standing students’ reading development. Through
the examples, I hope to highlight the complexities
in conducting this work. An earlier draft of this arti-
cle was sent to the teachers for comments, and their
feedback was incorporated into this article.
July LA 2018.indd 360 6/18/18 10:45 PM
page
361
Language Arts, Volume 95, Number 6, July 2018
Laura Ascenzi-Moreno | TraNSlaNguagiNg aNd rESPONSivE aSSESSmENT adaPTaTiONS
Figure 1. Ella’s documentation of Santiago’s miscues
July LA 2018.indd 361 6/18/18 10:45 PM
page
362
Language Arts, Volume 95, Number 6, July 2018
Laura Ascenzi-Moreno | TraNSlaNguagiNg aNd rESPONSivE aSSESSmENT adaPTaTiONS
to the three cueing systems— meaning, visual, and
syntactical— that teachers typically use to analyze
miscues (Goodman, 1969), she included one col-
umn for miscues related to pronunciation and one
related to language, such as new vocabulary. This
adaptation allowed her to compile a differentiated
list of miscues that served as a placeholder for fur-
ther exploration and analysis.
By the end of his reading, Ella had documented
some of his miscues, such as “beard” for “bird” and
“failen” for “fallen,” that she wanted to follow- up
on. She asked Santiago to clarify his understand-
ing of these words. When she asked him about the
word he pronounced as “beard,” Santiago pointed
to the picture in the text and said, “pájaro,” which
means bird in English. By checking in with Santi-
ago about his miscue and welcoming his response
in Spanish, Ella, who has a working knowledge of
Spanish, decided his miscue was the result of pro-
nunciation rather than unfamiliar vocabulary or a
visual miscue (attending to the visual information in
the word). Thus, she said to him, “When we say the
name of this creature, we call it a bird” (observation
1/24/2017). She continued to investigate what San-
tiago meant when he said “failen” for “fallen,” and
once again it was a matter of pronunciation.
Her curiosity about his miscues led to clarifi-
cation that has important implications for Ella as
a teacher and Santiago as a reader. Ella’s guiding
principle of viewing Santiago through what he
could do allowed her to gain insight into how his
emerging facility with English impacted his read-
ing, and she used this knowledge to support him.
This is different from a monolingual administration
of a formative reading assessment, in which these
miscues may be marked as errors.
Ella also created a space for dialogue in which
Santiago could use his home language to clarify
his miscues. In asking Santiago questions about
his reading, he learned, albeit implicitly, that his
teacher was interested in him as a reader and not
acting solely as an assessor. In my personal expe-
rience as a teacher and now as a teacher educator,
I have repeatedly heard teachers and students talk
about formative reading assessments as “tests”
and then take up a formal, non- interactive stance
during the assessment. Ella’s informal conversa-
tion with Santiago is a departure from assessment
practices in which the teacher and the student do
not engage in constructive and informative dialogue
that can directly impact practice. By noting Santi-
ago’s language- specific miscues, Ella is taking up
a translanguaging lens in this assessment, which
allows her to isolate the features he needs to develop
in English alongside his capabilities as a reader,
capabilities that transcend language boundaries.
Furthermore, Santiago’s multilingual capabilities
are positioned as a strength, which aids in clarifying
his miscues to his teacher.
Students Retell in their Home
Language: Examples from Ella’s
and Anaïs’s Classrooms
Ella and Anaïs made spaces for students’ language
practices during the retell portion of the assessment
so that students could fully and fluidly demonstrate
their comprehension. I place vignettes from Ella’s
and Anaïs’ classrooms alongside each other to
demonstrate how responsive adaptations are flexi-
ble according to different students and different pro-
grammatic goals.
Yadira is a recently arrived fifth grader to the
Willow School. Originally from Guatemala, she
came to the US in December 2015 and has been at
Willow since. As Yadira’s mother related to Ella,
she did not attend Pre- K in Guatemala, but did have
some schooling experiences. To assess Yadira, Ella
pulled a book called In the Rain to begin a running
record. The text is about two cousins, one from
Vietnam and the other from the United States.
Once Yadira finished reading the text, Ella
said to her, “Quiero que contestes algunas pregun-
tas— en inglés o en español o en una combinación
[I want you to answer some questions— in English
or in Spanish or in a combination]” (observation
10/20/2016). Ella then gave her a sheet with com-
prehension questions in two languages (Figure 2).
Yadira answered the questions in Spanish.
Ella responsively adapted this assessment in
two ways. First, she provided Yadira with a choice
of language(s) in which she could answer, thus
allowing her to use the entirety of her language
July LA 2018.indd 362 6/18/18 10:45 PM
page
363
Language Arts, Volume 95, Number 6, July 2018
Laura Ascenzi-Moreno | TraNSlaNguagiNg aNd rESPONSivE aSSESSmENT adaPTaTiONS
repertoire. Second, she gave Yadira a sheet to write
down her responses; this choice provided Ella with
written documentation of Yadira’s responses, which
she could then analyze with more time or assistance
from a Spanish speaker, if Yadira’s written Spanish
contained elements that Ella did not know.
Yadira’s responses provided Ella with multiple
levels of meaning that otherwise would have been
obscured if Yadira was asked to perform exclu-
sively in English. First, her responses demonstrated
her comprehension. Additionally, the teacher that
can read Spanish or is able to seek assistance from
a Spanish speaker to analyze the responses would
flag certain aspects of Yadira’s
response. In the second question,
Yadira writes “i” for the Span-
ish word “y” (and) and writes “lo
resolver” (it solve) instead of “la
resolución” (the resolution). While
these errors will not be discussed at
length, they do signal that Yadira’s
Spanish language writing skills are
not commensurate to what is con-
sidered fifth- grade writing in Span-
ish. These noticings are important
in compiling a profile of Yadira’s
holistic literacy skills and what sup-
ports she may need.
When Ella opened the oppor-
tunity for Yadira to communicate
what she understood about the text
using the entirety of her language
practices, she focused on the stu-
dent’s comprehension, regardless
of the language it was expressed
in, thus positioning Yadira’s read-
ing as a unified process as concep-
tualized through a translanguaging
perspective. Yet, it is clear from
the writing sample that Yadira has
some struggles in writing in her
home language. This information is
important to the teacher in contem-
plating how to support her overall
development as a reader. The Wil-
low School serves emergent bilin-
guals through an ENL program and does not have
a bilingual program. Despite not having a bilingual
program, teachers have acquired home language
resources consisting of bilingual and Spanish lan-
guage books (Palmer & Martínez, 2016).
In another classroom, Anaïs read with Clover,
a student of American and French heritage who
speaks English at home. It was a “French day” for
the second- grade students at the Channel School—
meaning all instruction was provided in French and
students were expected to do their work in that lan-
guage. Clover has been a student in the French DLB
program since Kindergarten. The text Anaïs chose
Figure 2. Yadira’s written response to a text [Here is a translation of her
responses:
1. The problem was that it was raining.
2. The resolution is that Hai and his cousin put on an umbrella, boots, a hat,
a sweater for the rain.
3. The story ends with Hai and his cousin going out to get wet and playing
in the rain.]
July LA 2018.indd 363 6/18/18 10:45 PM
page
364
Language Arts, Volume 95, Number 6, July 2018
Laura Ascenzi-Moreno | TraNSlaNguagiNg aNd rESPONSivE aSSESSmENT adaPTaTiONS
in French are both important. If Anaïs conducted
this assessment monolingually, then Clover would
be allowed to express her understanding of the read-
ing exclusively in French. As a result, Anaïs would
have a partial view of what Clover could do, and
Clover would receive the message that her French
language abilities trump the importance of commu-
nicating her understanding of the text.
The contrast between how Ella and Anaïs
worked with Yadira and Clover exemplifies that
translanguaging during retell may look different
for each student, depending upon their unique lan-
guage history and the goals that teachers shape for
students— goals that are determined by what the
teacher knows about the student as well as each pro-
gram’s language objectives (Brooks, 2017). When
teachers made the space for the students’ entire
linguistic repertoire within the students’ retell-
ing of text, they gleaned information about their
students’ reading that would not have been possi-
ble if they stuck to a monolingual implementation
of the assessment. More than merely permitting
their students to alternate features from their lan-
guages, teachers reframed students’ expression of
their comprehension as part of a unified process in
which students’ entire linguistic repertoire could be
drawn upon, rather than restricting students to only
a portion of their linguistic resources. As a result,
students are encouraged to forge their identities as
multilingual readers.
The Provision of Feedback to Students
In this final section, I use two anecdotes to explore
how teachers responsively adapted feedback they
provided to students, thus linking what teach-
ers learned about their students from the reading
assessments to their students’ future reading prac-
tices. Communicating what teachers learn about the
student through the assessment to him/her is critical
to ensure that students use information from forma-
tive reading assessments to direct their own learn-
ing (Mahoney, 2017). As Afflerbach (2016) writes,
“We want to use assessment that helps shift students
from an outward orientation, where the dependence
is on the teacher for assessment feedback, to one
that looks inward” (p. 417).
for the French running record is called En Retard
a l’Ecole (Late to School), a selection from the for-
mative reading assessment kit in French that the
school uses.
Once Clover completed the reading, Anaïs
asked her in French, “Now can you tell me the
story?” Clover quickly asked if she could do her
retell in English. Anaïs suggested that she would
like Clover to try it in French, but if she didn’t know
a word in French, she could say it in English. Clover
then recounted the story of a brother and a sister,
Anne and Felix, who can’t find their clothes as they
get ready for school. She retold that even though
they were late, their father wanted them to eat their
breakfast before going to school. In the end, the
father takes them to school by car (and they are not
late!). While Clover told her story mostly in French,
there were some words sprinkled in English such as
“drive” (conduire in French).
After the reading assessment, Anaïs commu-
nicated to me her rationale for encouraging Clo-
ver to retell the story in French. She explained
that Clover, though hailing from a predominantly
English- speaking home, speaks some French with
her mother. Anaïs encouraged her to speak French
during the retell to reach expressive goals set forth
by the DLB program (interview, 11/14/2016). While
Anaïs makes this decision, she leaves space for the
student to use features from her linguistic repertoire
during the retell. As Clover inserted some English
words into her French retell, it allowed her to fluidly
relate her understanding of the book. It also provided
Anaïs with information about the type of vocabulary
that Clover may need support in acquiring.
Anaïs’s example highlights that teachers can
open up active spaces for students’ home language
while ensuring that they meet specific language
goals related to the program they are in (Allard,
2017). Through Clover’s retelling, Anaïs was able
to determine that she could recount the story, but
needed more support with unfamiliar vocabulary.
Clover also received the message that her teacher
wanted to hear her summary of the book, even if it
contained English words. From this, Clover learned
that her thinking about the book (using her entire
linguistic repertoire) and her language development
July LA 2018.indd 364 6/18/18 10:45 PM
page
365
Language Arts, Volume 95, Number 6, July 2018
Laura Ascenzi-Moreno | TraNSlaNguagiNg aNd rESPONSivE aSSESSmENT adaPTaTiONS
Like Clover in the previous section, it was appar-
ent that he still needed to build specific vocabulary
to retell entirely in French. In Robert’s case, when
talking about the character’s emotions, he used
words in English: “annoyed” and “surprised.” Thus,
Fabienne knows that he may be missing this type of
vocabulary as he reads, and this gap may impact his
independent reading.
His retelling using some English provided Fabi-
enne with important information about his language
development that impacts his choices as a reader.
Fabienne’s feedback to Robert takes into account
that as someone learning French, he should evaluate
the language in French books to find the right fit.
Therefore, Fabienne suggested that he select books
within bands of levels rather than books pegged to
one level. Fabienne noted, “As opposed to direct-
ing students to one level . . . I usually tell them to
read a little above and a little bit below” (interview,
12/09/2016). Her decision to advise her emergent
bilinguals to choose books within bands stems from
her belief that students will have “flexibility and it
gives them more balance” as emergent bilingual
readers (interview, 12/09/2016).
By seeing Robert through his language prac-
tices, Fabienne was able to provide feedback that
supports him as a reader while acknowledging that
he is still acquiring features of French. Like Affler-
bach (2016), she views students as having an active
role within the assessment process, and as such,
they need to be given opportunities to select books
based on their identities as emergent bilingual
readers. Both Ella and Fabienne created opportu-
nities for students to use home language practices
throughout the reading assessment. Because they
learned about their students as emergent bilingual
readers, they gained a deeper understanding of how
to provide feedback that simultaneously supports
their reading as a unified process and the acquisition
of features of the language they are learning.
Discussion and Implications
For Ella, Anaïs, and Fabienne, the purpose of the
formative reading assessment was not solely a tech-
nical one (i.e., following a script to obtain a reading
level or gather data), but was primarily a pedagogical
In the first example, I return to Ella and Yad-
ira. After Yadira finished her written responses to
In the Rain, as described in the section above, Ella
debriefed with her. Ella decided to provide this
feedback in Spanish to ensure that Yadira under-
stood her. She asked Yadira, “¿Sabes que correg-
iste a ti mismo lo que leíste? Hablamos de algunas
palabras que eran difíciles. Vamos a trabajar más
en algunas palabras. (You know that you cor-
rected yourself as you read? We are going to talk
about some of the words that were difficult. We are
going to work more on some words.) (observation,
10/20/2016).
Through this feedback, Ella did two things:
1) she affirmed Yadira’s use of self- corrections, typ-
ically considered an important reading skill; 2) she
identified some of the new English vocabulary in
the text for Yadira to pay attention to. Ella’s feed-
back demonstrates the intentional ways in which
she targets Yadira’s reading behaviors as well as
specific goals for her language development in
English. Through this move, Ella avoids an unbal-
anced focus on emergent bilinguals’ language-
based errors (Brown, 2013). Rather, she has a twin
focus on reading as a unified process and language-
specific vocabulary.
In making the choice to provide feedback in
Spanish, Ella sends the powerful message to Yad-
ira that talking about reading can happen in any
language. By providing feedback to Yadira about
both her reading and language development, Ella
supports her as a reader and as an emergent bilin-
gual. In contrast, if she only focused on Yadira’s
language- based miscues or lack of vocabulary, the
implicit message to Yadira would be that only her
language development in English was important,
thus leaving her growth as a reader by the wayside.
The second example features Robert in Fabi-
enne’s fifth- grade DLB classroom. Robert speaks
English at home and is learning French. He’s been
in the program since Kindergarten. As Robert read
La Leçon de Planche à Neige (The Snowboard Les-
son), Fabienne took notes. His reading of the French
text was slow and steady. When she asked him to
retell the story, he was able to express his under-
standing of the book orally using mostly French.
July LA 2018.indd 365 6/18/18 10:45 PM
page
366
Language Arts, Volume 95, Number 6, July 2018
Laura Ascenzi-Moreno | TraNSlaNguagiNg aNd rESPONSivE aSSESSmENT adaPTaTiONS
students to express their comprehension of text
using their entire linguistic repertoire during vari-
ous parts of the assessment, as the teachers did in
this study. Teachers may decide to open up translan-
guaging spaces when they ask students about their
prior knowledge, during retells, or while providing
feedback to students about their reading. Encourag-
ing student translanguaging is seamless when the
teacher knows the language the child speaks. How-
ever, as Ella demonstrated, teachers can also ask
students to write during the retell and then analyze
the language with the assistance of a person who
knows the language or through translation software
such as Google Translate.
The findings also highlight the importance of
identifying areas of strength and growth for both
students’ language- specific skills and reading skills.
As Ella demonstrated, once she analyzed her stu-
dents’ reading performances, she could tease out,
through analysis of miscues and retelling, which
student errors were the result of needing to acquire
language- specific knowledge (vocabulary, gram-
mar, and language structures in a particular lan-
guage) versus which areas indicated areas of need
related to reading (making inferences, activating
prior knowledge, expressing comprehension).
In addition to the implications above, the fol-
lowing questions may provide teachers with entry
points for reflection about their reading assessment
practices and beliefs: “What are my students’ lan-
guage resources? How do my students use these
while reading? Which responsive adaptations from
the article can I incorporate into my formative read-
ing assessments and why? What do I learn about my
students’ reading and language practices through
these adaptations? What can I do to support my stu-
dents’ reading and/or language development as a
result of what I learn about them?”
Collaborative Discussions about
Formative Reading Practices
Emergent bilingual reading development happens
over time and requires a sustained and cohesive
approach across classrooms. Although the role of
the individual teacher is vital, the process of teach-
ers coming together to explore these issues and to
endeavor rooted in a robust understanding of stu-
dents’ unique language practices. For these teach-
ers, assessment was a way to connect to students
and to understand their developing reading skills
alongside their acquisition of features of their new
language.
Reimagining the formative assessment pro-
cesses through a translanguaging frame is an issue
of educational equity. As Ella writes in her reflec-
tive memo, “A one size fits all practice for assess-
ing reading does not create a level playing field for
emergent bilingual students” (6/19/2017). When
teachers incorporated their formative reading
assessment practices to include students’ language
practices, they used “the lens of promise,” focused
on what students can do (Mahoney, 2017, p.8).
Next, I highlight ways that teachers can open
up spaces for translanguaging in their current read-
ing assessment practices as well as how schools can
adopt classroom assessment policies that support
emergent bilinguals’ reading development. This
section is divided into two parts, emphasizing that
changes in both classroom practices and schoolwide
assessment policy are necessary to catalyze, support,
and sustain shifts in the ways teachers administer
formative reading assessments to ensure they are
accurately assessing emergent bilinguals’ reading.
Teacher as Agent within the
Reading Assessment Process
A translanguaging perspective on formative reading
assessment asks educators to take an active role in
understanding their emergent bilinguals and their
language practices. The findings demonstrate how
teachers can learn more deeply from reading assess-
ments when they approach them through the lens
of what their emergent bilinguals can do. Teachers
can exercise this asset- based lens by encouraging
When teachers incorporated their formative
reading assessment practices to include students’
language practices, they used “the lens of
promise,” focused on what students can do.
July LA 2018.indd 366 6/18/18 10:45 PM
page
367
Language Arts, Volume 95, Number 6, July 2018
Laura Ascenzi-Moreno | TraNSlaNguagiNg aNd rESPONSivE aSSESSmENT adaPTaTiONS
agree on common understandings is fundamen-
tal to the development of a purposeful language
policy as it affects formative assessment practices
(Allard, 2017). Thus, collaborative discussion about
how educators think of and implement formative
reading assessments for emergent bilinguals is key
to the creation of shared values and practices that
impact students over the span of their development
as emergent bilingual readers.
School faculty can collaboratively discuss the
following questions with the goal of impacting
assessment policy schoolwide: “What are the stu-
dents’ language resources at the school? What are
some responsive adaptations that can be adopted
across a grade or schoolwide? What reading and
language- based supports can we (or do we want to)
offer our emergent bilinguals schoolwide?”
Conclusion
The assessment community has long maintained
that evaluations developed for monolingual English
speakers but administered to emergent bilinguals
may not accurately measure what they intend
to (AERA, 2014). Likewise, the Standards for
the Assessment of Reading and Writing, issued
by the International Reading Association (IRA)
and the National Council of Teachers of English
(NCTE, 2009) argue for the use of home language
in assessments. It is clear that both the assessment
and literacy communities stand united in favor of
assessments that do not put emergent bilinguals at
a disadvantage for their multilingual abilities. Yet
formative reading assessment practices, as they
are implemented in classrooms, are often a static
and monolingual process (Ascenzi- Moreno, 2016;
Mahoney, 2017). In this study, teachers’ respon-
sive adaptations that allowed for students’ language
practices uncovered each child’s unique profile as a
reader and as a user of language.
The responsive adaptations implemented by
Ella, Anaïs, and Fabienne were rooted in a robust
conceptualization of bilingualism that recognizes
that students’ language practices are fundamental
to their reading (Palmer & Martínez, 2016). Rather
than being an undisciplined process of chang-
ing scripts or procedures for these assessments,
teachers’ use of adaptations suggest a deep under-
standing of reading as a unified process that is much
more than demonstrating features of named lan-
guages (i.e., English, Spanish, or French) (Otheguy
et al., 2015). Yet, teachers also acknowledged the
importance of specific language features required to
read in a given language.
When the teachers listened carefully to and
observed Santiago, Yadira, Clover, and Robert, they
gained insight into how these students develop read-
ing skills and express their comprehension through
their language practices. The adaptations teachers
implemented signaled a shift in teachers’ ideologies
from viewing reading development solely through
a monolingual lens to one in which reading exists
and can be supported through students’ diverse lan-
guage practices. These findings also have implica-
tions for teacher educators. As a teacher educator
who works with new and practicing teachers in hon-
ing their craft, the findings from this study spur me
to focus my efforts on:
1. aiding teachers to identify the language
resources students bring to the classroom by
asking students and their families about their
home language practices;
2. forging a plan for implementing responsive
adaptations by selecting one or two responsive
adaptations that teachers will try out;
3. examining the data they collect about their
students once they make a responsive adaptation
and reflecting on what they have learned about
students’ reading and language through it.
The work of rethinking and making adaptations
of formative reading assessments does not follow
a set formula, but can emerge from teachers’ dis-
ciplined explorations of who their students are and
how the formative assessment process could best
document the full range of emergent bilinguals’
abilities. For teachers who do not speak the lan-
guage of their students, this work is not unattain-
able, but can be facilitated with a combination of
creative solutions (such as asking students to write
or audio- record their responses) and the assistance
of colleagues, parents, and community members
who speak the languages of the students. The role
July LA 2018.indd 367 6/18/18 10:45 PM
page
368
Language Arts, Volume 95, Number 6, July 2018
Laura Ascenzi-Moreno | TraNSlaNguagiNg aNd rESPONSivE aSSESSmENT adaPTaTiONS
of technology (e.g., Google Translate) holds enor-
mous potential in assisting teachers’ work with stu-
dents who speak home languages they do not speak
(Vogel, Ascenzi- Moreno, & García, 2018).
A translanguaging approach to assessments
through responsive adaptations offers teachers
an opportunity to construct an accurate portrait of
emergent bilinguals’ skills and abilities in reading.
When teachers value and enable translanguaging
within this assessment context, students learn that
their language resources are important to their read-
ing in general, thus allowing them to construct their
identities as emergent bilingual readers. Taking up
the practice of responsive adaptations facilitates
teacher learning about their emergent bilinguals in
multifaceted ways and positions students as actors
in their development as emergent bilingual readers.
Acknowledgements
Support for this project was provided by a PSC- CUNY
Award, jointly funded by The Professional Staff Congress
and The City University of New York as well as through
the Faculty Fellowship Publication Program sponsored
by the Office of the Dean for Recruitment and Diversity
of The City University of New York. I would like to also
thank Sara Vogel, Kate Seltzer, and members of the Faculty
Fellowship Publication Program who provided invaluable
feedback on earlier versions of this article.
References
Abedi, J. (2009). Examining the impact of language factors
as a construct irrelevant source across ELL/non- ELL
subgroups. Unpublished manuscript, AERA Annual
Conference.
Abedi, J., Hofstetter, C., & Lord, C. (2004). Assessment
accommodations for English language learners:
Implications for policy- based empirical research.
Review of Educational Research, 74, 1– 28.
Acosta, B., Rivera, C., & Willner, L. S. (2008). Best practices
in state assessment policies for accommodating English
language learners: A Delphi study. Arlington, VA: The
George Washington University Center for Equity and
Excellence in Education. Retrieved from https://files
.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED539759
Afflerbach, P. (2016). Reading assessment: Looking ahead.
The Reading Teacher, 69, 413– 419.
Allard, E. (2017). Re- examining teacher translanguaging:
An ecological perspective. Bilingual Research
Journal, 40, 116– 130.
American Educational Research Association (AERA),
American Psychological Association (APA), &
National Council on Measurement in Education
(NCME). (2014). The standards for educational and
psychological testing. Washington, DC: American
Educational Research Association.
Ascenzi- Moreno, L. (2016). An exploration of elementary
teachers’ views of informal reading inventories in dual
language bilingual programs. Literacy Research and
Instruction, 55, 285– 308.
Bedore, L., Pena, E., García, M., & Cortez, C. (2005).
Conceptual versus monolingual scoring: When does
it make a difference? Language, Speech, and Hearing
Services in Schools, 36, 188– 200.
Bialystok, E. (2007). Acquisition of literacy in bilingual
children: A framework for research. Language
Learning, 57, 45– 47.
Brooks, M. D. (2017). “How and when did you learn your
languages?” Bilingual students’ linguistic experiences
and literacy instruction. Journal of Adolescent and
Adult Literacy, 60, 383– 393.
Brown, S. (2013). An analysis of the discourse and
actions of reading conferences with English learners:
A situated perspective. Literacy Research and
Instruction, 52, 130– 149.
Charmaz, K. (2010). Grounded theory: Objectivist and
constructivist methods. In W. Luttrell (Ed.), Qualitative
educational research: Readings in reflexive methodology
and transformative practice (pp. 183– 207). London,
United Kingdom: Taylor & Francis Publishers.
Clay, M. (2000). Running records for classroom teachers.
Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Creswell, J. W. (2012). Qualitative inquiry and research
design: Choosing among five approaches. Thousand
Oaks, CA: SAGE.
Fountas, I., & Pinnell, G. S. (2000). Guiding readers and
writers: Teaching comprehension, genre, and content
literacy. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Gandy, S. E. (2013). Informal reading inventories and ELL
students. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 29, 271– 287.
García, O., Johnson, S. I., & Seltzer, K. (2017). The
translanguaging classroom: Leveraging student
bilingualism for learning. Philadelphia, PA: Caslon.
García, O., Kleifgen, J. A., & Falchi, L. (2008, January).
From English language learners to emergent bilinguals.
A Research Initiative of the Campaign for Educational
Equity. Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext
/ED524002
García, O., & Kleyn, T. (2016). Translanguaging with
multilingual students: Learning from classroom
moments. London, United Kingdom: Routledge.
July LA 2018.indd 368 6/18/18 10:45 PM
page
369
Language Arts, Volume 95, Number 6, July 2018
Laura Ascenzi-Moreno | TraNSlaNguagiNg aNd rESPONSivE aSSESSmENT adaPTaTiONS
Palmer, D., & Martínez, R. (2016). Developing biliteracy:
What do teachers really need to know about language?
Language Arts, 93, 379– 385.
Proctor, C. P., August, D., Snow, C., & Barr, C. (2010). The
interdependence continuum: A perspective on the nature
of Spanish- English bilingual reading comprehension.
Bilingual Research Journal, 33(5), 5– 20.
Sánchez, S., Rodríguez, B. J., Soto- Huerta, M., Castro,
F., Guerra, N., & Bustos, B. (2013). A case for
multidimensional bilingual assessment. Language
Assessment Quarterly, 10, 160– 177.
Shohamy, E. (2011). Assessing multilingual competencies:
Adopting construct valid assessment policies. Modern
Language Journal, 95, 418– 442.
Souto- Manning, M. (2016). Honoring and building on
the rich literacy practices of young bilingual and
multilingual learners. The Reading Teacher, 70,
263– 271.
Vogel, S., Ascenzi- Moreno, L., & García, O. (2018). An
expanded view of translanguaging: Leveraging the
dynamic interactions between a young multilingual
writer and machine translation software. In J. Choi &
S. Ollerhead (Eds.), Plurilingualism in teaching and
learning: Complexities across contexts (pp. 89– 106).
London, United Kingdom: Routledge.
Zapata, A., & Laman, T. T. (2016). “I write to show how
beautiful my languages are”: Translingual writing
instruction in English- dominant classrooms. Language
Arts, 93, 366– 378.
García, O., & Wei, L. (2014). Translanguaging: Language,
bilingualism, and education. London, United Kingdom:
Palgrave Macmillan Pivot.
González, V. (2012). Assessment of bilingual/multilingual
pre- K– Grade 12 students: A critical discussion of past,
present, and future issues. Theory into Practice, 51,
290– 296.
Goodman. K. (1969). Analysis of oral reading miscues:
Applied psycholinguistics. Reading Research Quarterly,
5, 9– 30.
International Reading Association (IRA) & the National
Council of Teachers of English (NCTE). (2009).
Standards for the assessment of reading and writing.
Retrieved from http://www.ncte.org/standards
/assessmentstandards
Kabuto, B. (2017). A socio- psycholinguistic perspective on
biliteracy: The use of miscue analysis as a culturally
relevant assessment tool. Reading Horizons, 56, 25– 44.
Mahoney, K. (2017). The assessment of emergent bilinguals:
Supporting English language learners. Bristol, United
Kingdom: Multilingual Matters.
Menken, K., & Solorza, C. (2015). Principals as linchpins
in bilingual education: The need for prepared school
leaders. International Journal of Bilingual Education
and Bilingualism, 18, 676– 697.
Otheguy, R., García, O., & Reid, W. (2015). Clarifying
translanguaging and deconstructing named languages:
A perspective from linguistics. Applied Linguistics
Review, 6, 281– 307.
Laura Ascenzi- Moreno is an assistant professor in the Childhood, Bilingual, and Special Education
Department at Brooklyn College’s School of Education in Brooklyn, New York. She can be contacted
at lascenzimoreno@brooklyn.cuny.edu.
Translanguaging and Responsive Assessment
Adaptations: Emergent Bilingual Readers
through the Lens of Possibility
This article highlights accommodations and adaptations
to assessments for bilingual students. Here are some
resources from ReadWriteThink.org that can be used or
adapted:
Let’s Read It Again: Comprehension Strategies
for English-Language Learners
Help Spanish-speaking English-language learners
unlock the mysteries of their additional language
by using a bilingual book to recognize unfamiliar
words and construct meaning from the text.
http://bit.ly/1QNZnEp
Nature Reflections: Interactive Language
Practice for English-Language Learners
Students whose first language is not English reflect
on nature through readings, a visit to a green area,
and bookmaking using the writing process and peer
feedback.
http://bit.ly/1m8SXEr
Crossing Boundaries through Bilingual,
Spoken Word Poetry
Students explore the idea of “crossing boundaries”
through bilingual, spoken word poetry, culminating
in a poetry slam at school or in the community.
http://bit.ly/1IaibMR
Lisa Storm Fink
I N T O T H E C L A S S R O O M
July LA 2018.indd 369 6/18/18 10:45 PM
Feb. 13–Student profile Part A:
Select a student from your classroom or clinical site as the central focus of your study and Language Case Study Project. In no more than 5 pages, describe the student’s home and target language strengths and needs as you may address them in in the Language Case Study Project. Your description should provide a holistic picture of the student and may include quantitative and qualitative idea. Some ideas may include:
· Grades |
· Language inventories |
· Test Scores |
· Interest inventories |
· Formative assessment data |
· Reading levels |
· Summative assessment data |
· Writing levels/ scores |
· Standardized testing data |
· Non-academic data |
This section of the task should not exceed 3 pages.
Feb. 27–Student profile Part B:
Using the same student, adopt a translanguaging lens to evaluate the data you included in Part A and re-evaluate the needs and strengths of the student. Be sure pull from readings from our class to justify your new claims as you jointly evaluate your student bi/multilingual data.
This section of the task should not exceed 3 pages.
This report is part of a comprehensive re-evaluation for additional Special Education Services requested by the parent due to concerns with the student’s academic performance. Upon her mother’s referral, Melissa was referred to the School Based Support Team to determine whether she would qualify for additional support. According to Ms. Martinez, her daughter requires support with all subjects in school. She reportedly has difficulty completing her classwork and homework. Ms. Yudith Martinez, Melissa’s parent, conducted the interview in Spanish. The home language is listed as Spanish in ATS, and she reported feeling comfortable continuing in Spanish. Comment by Anel Suriel: When? What supports is she asking for? Comment by Anel Suriel: Only one space per APA 7
Melissa is a 15.0-year-old verbal, ambulatory, petite girl of Hispanic descendent with long dark brown eyes and dark brown hair. She was dressed neatly and appropriate. In addition, present at this evaluation was Melissa’s mother, Yudith Martinez. Due to COVID-19 pandemic, this evaluation was conducted via teleconferencing. Melissa presented with a cooperative, and pleasant demeanor. She willingly answered the questions posed to her by this clinician. Melissa’s mother provided the majority of the information obtained for this evaluation. Melissa presented with good receptive and expressive language skills. Melissa’s mother provided the majority of the information obtained for this evaluation. Melissa presented with good receptive and expressive language skills. Comment by Anel Suriel: Do you think this impacts the intake?
Melissa resides in a two-bedroom apartment located in the South Bronx. She has been living there for almost 12 years. Her mother considers the neighborhood to be fairly safe. Melissa has her own bedroom. Also residing there is Melissa’s mother, Yudith Martinez (42). Melissa’s mother is a social worker for a transitional foster care agency. She is pre-diabetic and was diagnosed with hypothyroidism. Melissa has a close relationship with her mother. Comment by Anel Suriel: Do you think this helps her advocate for her daughter?
Melissa is currently enrolled at Cooke School and Institute. She has been enrolled at this school for about 7 years. She is in a 12:1:1 special education program. According to her IEP dated 10/12/21, she is classified as having “Other Health impairment” She receives speech therapy (individual and group), occupational therapy (individual and group) and counseling (individual and group). She receives hearing education services and has the use of an FM Unit at school. She also use her hearing aids at home.
Melissa’s school has a proficient level scale to provide students grades. The scale is defined as follows: 0 – Did Not Demonstrate Skill. 1 – Is developing the behavior or skill, 2 – Demonstrates the behavior or skill inconsistently, 3 – Demonstrates the behavior or skill most of the time, 4 – Demonstrates the behavior or skill consistently. 5 – Demonstrated Skill Independently. In addition, Scale: A=Always, U=Usually, S=Sometimes, N=Needs Improvement. These scales are used for all subjects. Melissa’s grades levels are as follows; Counseling (2), Speech, Language and Occupational Therapy (2), English Language Arts (3), Explorations in Mathematics (3), American History (3), Explorations in Sciences (3-4), Technology (4), Gym (4-5), Adaptive skills (5), Movement (A), Comment by Anel Suriel: Seems like she is doing well academically for the most part. Why does mom say she is struggling?
During the semester multiple classroom observations was conducted to monitor Melissa’s learning and to provide feedback. It was observed that Melissa works well during class following a checklist of to do things to complete the class. Melissa brings creativity and personal connections into the classroom. She is sometimes willing to participate and engages in class discussion and work though at times she can be seen falling asleep. She works collaboratively with her peers and participates in small group activities. She is able to complete her assignments with little to some support. Comment by Anel Suriel: My previous comment applies here as well.
Melissa loves spending time with her maternal extended family members. She likes to design dresses. She loves any activities related to arts and crafts. She loves to play with slime. One of Melissa’s strengths is that she is friendly and is very social. She is cooperative. She loves to help others, especially younger children. Comment by Anel Suriel: This is welcomed info. Has it been incorporated into her IEP as she transitions to adulthood?
Melissa is well behaved at home and at school. However, she is immature for her age. She becomes frustrated when she is not able to keep up with her typically developing peers. She responds by crying. At times, she is resistant to wearing her hearing aids because she does not want to look different from her peers. Melissa is verbal. However, her pronunciation is sometimes unclear due to her hearing impairment. Melissa is friendly and enjoys socializing. Due to her immaturity, she tends to prefer socializing with younger children.
Melissa has some issues concerning hand strength and balance. This is due to the side effects from a brain surgery she underwent in July 2011. Melissa has good sleeping habits. Her bedtime is 10:00 PM on school nights and she wakes up at 6:00 AM on school mornings. She sleeps through the night.
Melissa is a very picky eater and tends to prefer unhealthy foods. She eats three meals per day and snacks in between meals. Her favorite foods are McDonalds, and pizza. Melissa can become itchy if she eats food containing red 45 dye. If she eats, an excessive amount of red 45 dye can trigger an eczema outbreak. However, this has not occurred in over 10 years.
Melissa’s mother reported that her pregnancy was uneventful for the majority of time. However, she developed preeclampsia during the delivery. Melissa was delivered via natural childbirth, during the 38th week of gestation, at New York Presbyterian Hospital, Allen Pavilion. She weighed 7.2 pounds. Melissa began crawling when she was 4 months old, sat up on her own when she was 6 months old. Melissa began talkitve when she was about 6 months old. She began walking when she was 13 months old. She was fully toilet trained when she was about 3 ½ years old. Melissa was first evaluated when she was 26 months old and was diagnosed with developmental delays. She received early intervention services until she was 3 years old. After this, she stayed home under the supervision of her maternal grandmother and did not attend daycare and/or preschool. When Melissa was 4.5 years old, she was diagnosed with a malignant brain tumor. More details will be provided in the Medical section of this evaluation. Melissa attended the Immaculate Conception School in the Bronx for kindergarten. She received speech therapy, occupational therapy and SETSS. She remained at this school until she was completed the second grade (which she repeated, due to academic difficulties). She has been attending her present school since the third grade. Melissa was diagnosed with mild high frequency damage of both ears (because of chemotherapy) when she was almost 5 years old. Comment by Anel Suriel: Might not be really needed at this point. However, I notice that you haven’t address her languaging abilities and needs—nor academic needs really other than her grades. Comment by Anel Suriel: She is a survivor! So many challenges so young…!
Both of Melissa’s parents are of Hispanic descent. Melissa’s mother was born in the United States but grew up in the Dominican Republic. Melissa’s father, Barbino Genao (42), was born in the Dominican Republic. He resides in Massachusetts. He maintains a positive relationship with Melissa, although they do not have see each other often. Melissa has a 19-year old sister by her father. She lives in Massachusetts and has occasional contact with Melissa.
Melissa’s maternal grandmother resides in the Bronx and is very involved with Melissa’s care. Melissa’s maternal grandfather resides in the Dominican Republic. Melissa’s paternal grandmother resides in Massachusetts. Melissa’s paternal grandfather is deceased. There is a history of high blood pressure and diabetes on the maternal side of Melissa’s family. One of Melissa’s paternal great aunts was diagnosed with some type of developmental disability. There is no reported history of drug or alcohol abuse on either side of Melissa’s family.
Melissa is dependent on her mother to meet her needs. Melissa’s mother receives a lot of support from her extended family and friends. She does not receive any funded services or government benefits. Melissa’s mother would like her to receive care management and community habilitation services. She would like Melissa to attend extracurricular activities.
Melissa receives primary care pediatric services from Dr. Jose Perez at Broadway Pediatrics. She receives the following services from Morgan Stanley Children’ s Hospital of New York Presbyterian: Dr. James Garvin (oncology), Dr. Neil Feldstein (pediatric neurosurgeon), Dr. Tristan Sands (neurology), Dr. Murthy Gopalakrishnamoorthy (endocrinology), Dr. Joseph Picoraro (gastroenterology), Dr. Irena Distasi (audiology) and Dr. Danielle Sacks (orthodontist). She receives ophthalmology services from Dr. Compton. As previously reported, Melissa was diagnosed with a mild high frequency hearing damage in both ears. She wears a hearing aide. However, sometimes she is reluctant to use them. She does not need glasses. Melissa was diagnosed with a malignant brain tumor when she was 4.5 years old. She underwent surgery to remove the tumor. She then received 5 rounds of chemotherapy (3 of them with stem cell transplant). She also received 30 rounds of radiation. This occurred between July 2011 and February 2012. In November of 2012, Melissa had a seizure at school. She was diagnosed with epilepsy and was prescribed anti-seizure medication for 5-6 years. The medication was discontinued about 4 years ago. Melissa underwent a craniotomy in April 2021 due to side effects of the radiation that she underwent in 2011, that caused cavernous malformation of vein vessels. The following day, she had surgery to insert a shunt to relieve brain pressure. The shunt was removed about 3-4 days later. Melissa received growth hormone therapy from November 2014 until April of 2021. It was discontinued due to ineffectiveness. During a follow up appointment with her endocrinologist, the growth hormone therapy was resume. Melissa also is prescribed with an estrogen patch to help mature her reproductive system, that became affected after chemotherapy. In addition, Melissa is prescribed wit an appetite stimulant and PediaSure to complete for her growth. Melissa undergoes an MRI every six months. A psychiatrist has never treated Melissa. She has never been prescribed psychotropic medication. Comment by Anel Suriel: Feels repetitive considering the info already given. Consider condensing to just what is needed. Also how does this impact her languaging? Bi/multilingualism? Comment by Anel Suriel: Feels very personal as well. Since this may not affecting her academically nor linguistically, consider eliminating as you complete Part B.
Melissa is verbal and ambulatory. Sometimes, she requires verbal prompting about bathing and brushing her teeth, appropriate clothing. She is independent concerning dressing herself. Melissa is able to tell time with a digital clock. She is not able to tell time with an analog clock. She reads on an early elementary school level. Melissa is dependent about traveling via bus or subway. She understands the function of money. She requires verbal prompting to check for the correct change. Melissa rarely uses the stove and requires supervision when she does so. She can make Ramen Noodles. She is independent with regards to using the microwave oven. She is independent with regards to making a simple snack or a sandwich. Melissa requires verbal prompting with regards to making her bed. She is dependent with regards to washing dishes, cleaning her room and doing her laundry.y.
Wanda, it’s clear you see and consider all aspects of the child when creating these social histories, However, the task and class ask you to consider impact to language as connected to educational achievement. Hone in on these aspects only and eliminate the rest if you feel that they do not impact her languaging and academics.
To give you some support, consider the following questions and see the following article by María Cioè Peña who studies the intersection of dis/abilities and language: https://blmtraue.commons.gc.cuny.edu/2017/02/24/who-is-excluded-from-inclusion-points-of-union-and-division-in-bilingual-and-special-education/
1) What are Melissa’s languages? Are they addressed in school?
2) Do Melissa’s dis/abilities and educational services support or inhibit her bi/multilingualism? How is her bi/multilingualism addressed in her educational services—if at all? How should they be addressed to support her multiple identities?
3) How do her educational experiences support her languaging needs? In what language(s)? How should they/ could they be addressed?
(Feel free to pull from MCP’s work to think through these issues)