six pages due Monday 21st
Mission Mystique
and a
Belief Syste
m
Template
Chapter
MANY SEE THE FIELD OF PUBLIC ADM INISTRA TION AS IN
DE c LINE. I do not share this view. At the same time, I have no interest in resur-
recting the field’s traditions formed during th e Progressive Era, New Deal or
World War II. I do, however, contend that strong administrative agencies within
government are critical in our current times. Without them we could not con-
front the millennium’s great problems such as a degrading environment, a fragile
global economy and outbreaks of radical religious fundamentalism around the
world. Although collaboration and networks are certainly needed to deal with
these problems, competent and dedicated government organizations are essential
as well. For purposes of lawful and democratic governance, these organizations
should lead the collaborations and form the nodes of the networks. In light of
this , the point is not to dwell on public administration’s supposed decline , but to
consider how its highest possible potential can be reached.
I argue in this book that in addition to insisting that bureaucracies be honest,
lawful, efficient, responsible, ably led and adequately financed , we must take the
next step by going beyond correcting what is wrong to capitalizing on what is
right. My working assumption is that if we look at government agencies around
us that stand out as “best,” we will find they consist of cohesive groups of women
and men who are “turned on” by so mething. But by what? Not their paychecks,
nor the latest reform gimmicks, but by the very work they are doing: stopping
child abuse, fighting forest fires , battling epidemics. Less dramatic activities have
consequences deep into the future too, such as building safe highways, helping
children learn and allowing the aged to live out their days in dignity. People
doing these things find their working lives important precisely because the work
they are doing is important. Public administration’s highest level of attainment is
2 CHAPTER 1
reached when the energy generated by serious engagement in important public
tasks finds its way into all aspects of agency life. The question asked in this book
is , how do we conceive of and move toward that state?
THE IDEA AND STUDY OF MISSION MYSTIQUE
My answer is embodied in a notion called mission mystique. This is a quality of
public agencies that can serve as a reference point for promotion of animated and
reflective administration. It lays the basis for conscious development of strong
institutional belief systems for agencies that center on a compelling public mission.
In the mission mystique organization, employees labor not merely to imple-
ment laws faithfully or to run programs efficiently, as critical as these require-
ments are. The act of carrying out the mission itself kindles passion. Men and
women work hard and creatively because they want to make the most emphatic
mark possible on the community and world with respect to their mission. This
sense of dedication and diligence is then noticed by attentive publics and confers
on the institution an aura of special pride and commitment. The institution in
effect becomes endowed with a kind of magnetism or institution- level charisma.
The analogy in the armed forces is the “crack” military units of which all those in
uniform are in awe.
The choice of language is deliberate. My Random House dictionary’s first
meaning for the word mystique is “a framework of doctrines, ideas, beliefs or the
like , constructed around a person or object, endowing him or it with enhanced
value or profound meaning. ” An illustration of applying the concept to an insti-
tution is Morehouse College in Atlanta, Ga. The president of this small, male,
historically African-American college, Dr. Robert Franklin, drums into the heads
of the students that they are at Morehouse to acquire the “five wells”: well-read,
well-spoken, well-traveled, well-dressed and well-balanced. The title of one of his
recent commencement speeches was “The Soul of Morehouse and the Future of
the Mystique. ” 1
My dictionary’s second meaning for the word is “an aura of mystery or mysti-
cal power. ” This definition is less helpful to us but not entirely out of place, for
the emotive nature of the first definition cannot always be put into words.
Indeed, this may be one of the attractions of mystique. Still, if we want to do
something practical with mission mystique we need to spell out its elements, as
was done by President Franklin at Morehouse.
A New Normative Model
I begin along this line by noting the significance of the modifier mission. Use of
this term derives from the truism that conviction is tied to purpose. The aura
that surrounds highly respected agencies centers on the organization’s reason
MISSION MYSTIQUE AND A BELIEF SYSTEM TEMPLATE 3
for being. Hence my ter minology is mission mystique. It is the co nstru ct’s
underlying fo undation in that it permeates th e institution’s culture, animates
its workfo rce and inspires a desire to improve.
A full set of the concept’s elements, which I offer as the template for a new
normative model for the field, was developed during the course of studying in
extensive detail six ou tstanding public organizations that from outward appear-
ances are premier in their respective policy realms. The personal experience of
“entering into” these entities was the source of most of my ideas. The template’s
components formed over five years of concerted research and were not co mplete
until the end of the journey. Yet, interestingly eno ugh , even though the six agen-
cies collectively “authored” the model, none of them fu lly measured up to it. As
in the Weberian ideal type, the particul ar diverges from the ideal, but in multiple
examples of its class is represented in the ideal’s essence. Such individuation is
itself helpful in emphasizing that all institutions are unique and must be accepted
as such. W hile I hope that practitioners will benefit from this undertaking by
being encouraged to experiment with some of my ideas, they will not find uni-
versal “o ne size fits all” nostrums in this book. Indeed, because of the underlying
premise that coherence derives from the particular mission, each application of
the template must be unique.
Belief System
C larification is also needed for the phrase “belief system .” On first blush such
language seems out of place in our practical, skeptical field . We are, of co urse,
familiar wi th systems of all kinds in public administration , but they are tangible
management or information systems, not intangible belief sys tems. Further-
more, the word belief denotes acting on faith rather than fact, something more
suited to the ecclesiastic, not bureaucratic, realm . Worse, associating subj ective
conviction with the com preh ensive notion of system impli es a unified dogma,
which is even more alienating.
Let me hasten to say that by emphas izi ng belief I am not leading us down a
road to abso lutist, doctrinal publi c administration. First, the word belief does not
mean an absence of reason or of empirical experience. In fact, convincing beliefs
must reflect both. Seco nd , belief systems need not claim possession of absolute
truth ; that is the task of sacred beliefs-and agency beliefs are decidedly secular,
with the only “truth” being true to one’s principles. This means that multipl e,
and conflicting, beliefs will inevi tably hold sway in the plural istic bureaucracy
that democracy spawns. Third, the belief sys tems to which I refer are not at the
level of universal abstractions. Arthur D enzau and Douglass North would call
them “s hared mental models” by which individuals make sense of complex prob-
lems not amenable to rational choice, doing so through perception-shaping cul-
tures and ideas. To Louis Howe they wo uld be “weak ontologies,” or commitmen.ts
4 CHAPTER 1
to an administrative perspective that allows “enchantment” while eschewing
authoritarian dogmatism. 2
Whether we recognize it or not, many belief systems are already enshrined in
the field of public administration. Examples are faith in the rule of law, the pri-
macy of the chief executive and the values of economy and efficiency. Policy
analysis, ince ntive-b ased entrepreneurship, public-private partnershi ps and
stakeholder analysis also embody worldviews that involve sys temic beliefs. None
of these ideas is irrefutably “right” in the sense of being objectively true; rather,
each is a social construction that is subj ectively accepted by many and hence cre-
ates its own “reality” in practice. Mission mystique is the same, and I hope it can
occupy one corner of the field ‘s enacted meaning.
Bureaucracy and Mission Mystique
As all students of public administration know, much of our literature (and soci-
ety) views bureaucracies in a decidedly negative light. Worthless or dangerous
government departments are also social co nstructions, although widely shared
ones . Many see public bureaucracy, as a general proposition, replete with turf
fixation , silo iso lation, rule obsession and tendencies toward aggrandizement.
The point this specter makes for us is that mission mystique must not be allowed
to degenerate into a Frankens tein’s monster. In-group tightness and isolation,
along with true believer attitudes, could easi ly al low that to happen.
Again , permit me three clarifications in this regard . Firs t, I lay down as pre-
conditions to mission m ys tique acceptance of the Constitution and laws of the
land, as well as responsiveness to legal enactments of the two politi cal branches of
government and to the judicial interpretations of the third branch. Thus if mis-
sion mystique morphs into a monster it is, by definition , no longer mission
mystique. Second, whereas the template incorporates what I call qualified-i.e.,
limited-policy autonomy, this independence must be within reason and con-
fined to realms where political superiors have not spoken or to the practice of
advocacy and not outright disobedience or sabotage. That is to say, when top
executive officials or legislative bodies countermand exercise of such autonomy,
the agency must yield. Third , I would point out that empiri cal research on
bureaucratic behavior offers ample evidence that agency officials are aware of
their respo nsibilities to elected officials an d tend to support a new administration
in power even when the changes are contrary to personal views. 3
Agencies of Study
A word or two on the research itself. The initial idea for this book came from a
visit I paid to the U.S. Department of the Interior in 2003. On that occasion I
talked with several career department officials and asked, among other things,
MISSION MYSTIQUE AND A BELIEF SYSTEM TEMPLATE 5
whether any of the bureaus in their “Department of Everything, ” as they call
themselves, stood out. Their response was, unhesitatingly, that the National Park
Service (NPS) is No. 1. Reflecting on this consensus, two conceptual questions
I had not thought of previously came to mind: Could the features of this highly
touted bureau be distilled out to form a model of excellence? Could other highly
successful agencies in American government be found to have similar character-
istics? My ultimate answer to both questions was yes , but over the subsequent
years I was surprised by how much unfolding this idea involved.
The organizations studied included the NPS and three other federal agencies:
the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , the National Weather Service
and the Peace Corps. Other levels of government were represented by the Vir-
ginia State Police and the Department of Social Services of Mecklenburg County,
N .C. (Charlotte) . They were picked because of their range of missions repre-
sented and standout reputations , with convenience of location a secondary fac-
tor. In each study, I began by absorbing website postings and published literature.
Then I visited the headquarters of each organization and conducted open-ended
interviews with top executives and several managers. I also traveled to field instal-
lations to talk to persons down the hierarchy, along with informed outsiders like
retirees , elected officials, clients, critics and bureaucrats from elsewhere. The 105
persons interviewed or consulted for the book are named in a list at the end.
Supplementing these sources were internal reports, government documents,
newspaper articles, Internet biogs and direct observation. For the reader’s conve-
nience, an appendix provides summary data on each of the six institutions.
In writing each agency study I try figuratively to bring the reader into that
organization’s unique world. Sufficient detail is provided to allow readers to con-
sider implications of their own and to evaluate my conclusions. I do not use a
uniform format of presentation but allow each story to be told on its own terms.
In different ways and to different degrees I address history, legal grounding, orga-
nization, leadership, programs, culture, policy, politics and conduct. Every study
begins, however, with a critical incident that “brings to life” that agency’s world,
and ends with an overall assessment of fit with the mission mystique template.
LITERATURE PERTINENT TO MISSION
MYSTIQUE
I turn now to the literature that influenced most fully the theoretical positions
taken in this book. After beginning with lines of inquiry that are instructive for
their contrast to my approach, I discuss sources that were important for develop-
ing the mission mystique concept from the standpoints of purpose, motivation
and culture.
This book is not a public sector replay of In Search of Excellence and similar
studies. Thomas Peters and Robert Waterman’s 1982 business classic also builds
6 CHAPTER I
a model of organizational quality from examples of outstanding cases, but suc-
cess for these authors is measured by quantitative corporate criteria like market
share and return rates. By contrast, success in my study is defined as possessing
an intensity of purpose, energized culture and capacity to change. Also, whereas
the “lessons” drawn by Peters and Waterman are strategies for CEOs to follow,
mine consist of broad institutional attributes intended for public administrators
generally to adopt if appropriate. 4
Second, this book is not on the topic of branding, even though in recent years
that term has migrated to government from the business world. While for the
marketplace of commerce the co ncept of branding makes sense, mission mys-
tique is not appealing to buyer desires but to meeting societal needs. It is note-
worthy, however, that theorists of branding are sp lit into two camps. One uses
market surveys and electronic data collection to target precisely individual wants.
The other school of thought is dedicated to implanting “passionbrands” or
“superbrands” in the public’s mind that attract loyal patrons over time, some-
times drawing on archetypes to that end. The latter is a slightly closer analogy to
our subject. 5
A third line of contrasting research is on the high-reliability organization.
Todd La Porte, originator of this work, points o ut how aircraft carriers, nuclear
power plants, air traffic control systems and blood supply networks must be
absolutely failure-free to the greatest extent possible. Hence the institutional
quality of uppermost significance in these systems is constancy. It is achieved by
precise goals, standard operating procedures, feed back information systems and
redundant controls. While La Porte’s work possesses a normative thrust simi lar
to the tone of this book, mission mystique calls for a capacity to change, not just
dependability or predictability.6
Organization and Institution
We turn now to works that contribute directly to development of the book’s
theoretical positions. The single most important source in this regard is Philip
Selznick’s Leadership in Administration: A Sociological Interpretation, first pub-
lished in 1957. 7 One of Selznick’s most important ideas for us is his analytical
distinction between the organization and the institution. The first is a formal
system of objectives and rules expressly designed to achieve the coordination and
discipline needed for complex work. It is a creature of human rationalism set up
(or modified) at a given moment in time to achieve a current purpose. An institu-
tion is an organization upon which a mantle of informal relationships and shared
values has settled. Not deliberately designed , it is a natural product of social needs
and pressures that emerge organically over time. As a man-made organism, it
evolves, adapts, responds and prizes the founding heritage from which it came.
Thus while the organization is a rational instrument to achieve other pur-
poses, the institution and its work possess inherent worth. The organization
.c-
:et
11g
:as
w,
>rs
trS
he
! S-
te-
;es
ts.
or
ie-
to
>n.
!ar
be
nl
by
nd
lar
ust
1k’s
lip
ib-
cal
nal
nd
up
tu-
red
eds
‘ it
ur-
1on
MISSION MYSTIQUE AND A BELIEF SYSTEM TEMPLATE 7
becomes institutionalized when it is infused with values beyond the technical
requirements at hand. The leader’s task is to build on the existing social base
to form a core of members who immerse themselves in the institution’s culture
as they attend to their daily tasks. The organism reflects its own evolving val-
ues while adapting continuously to the external environment. Behavior in
support of the institution’s own purposes is spontaneously motivated rather
than contrived.
Selznick says that the totality of the institution’s rational and normative attri-
butes forms a “distinctive competence,” or character, that sets it apart as unique.
The essential ingredients of this competence are possession of a clearly defined
mission and an embodiment of the mission’s values within the normative fabric
of the institution. The result is that its members are personally bathed in these
values as they execute and elaborate policy. Meanwhile, the institution’s leader-
ship must be prepared to defend the integrity of the institution’s values against
undesired encroachment. Other responsibilities are to mediate internal conflict
and maintain a spirit of voluntary coordination when possible.
One of my former students, Larry Terry, wrote a book titled Leadership of
Public Bureaucracies that was partly inspired by Selznick’s work. 8 In it he pre-
sented a concept of “administrative conservatorship” that builds on Selznick’s
notion of distinctive competence. Terry argues that leaders of public organiza-
tions should see themselves not as heroic agents of change but as conservers of
the “wholeness” or integrity of their institution’s distinctive competence. This
includes interpreting the mission appropriately, which means not merely refer-
ring mechanically to the text of an organic act but drawing from its spirit a
proper reading for the current times. Thus administration extends beyond mere
enforcement of the law, or even delegated authority, to a creative preservation of
distinctive competence as circumstances change over time.
Leadership
The writings of Selznick and his followers stress the importance of the leader,
and properly so. Someone must launch the institution , i.e., take a freshly
minted organization with a statutory purpose and turn it into a value-laden
institution with distinctive competence. Also insightful and compelling
personalities are needed when radical new directions are necessary. Yet Arjen
Boin and Tom Christensen, in an essay on the development of public institu-
tions, argue that the forward movement of bureaucracies is characterized by
advancing complex goals in an exposed political environment. 9 This means
agency leadership must embrace subtleties that a purely “great man” theory of
progress could overlook.
Boin and Christensen go on to say that public administration founders must
overcome the liability of newness , develop effective practice, lay the basis for a
belief system, mobilize external support and survive a fragile honeymoon. Thus
8 CHAPTER I
their best bet may be to initiate norm-creation processes, experiment with ideas
for symbol and action, and nudge rather than require members to participate in
a process of acculturation. They summarize the leader’s preferred role as facilita-
tor of the development process, not imposer of direction or style.
Another pertinent concept regarding leaders and institutions is that of align-
ment between the two. Barry Dym and Harry Hutson develop this idea, illustrat-
ing it negatively by asking an MBA graduate to head a counterculture commune.
Attaining good alignment involves picking leaders whose character and style
march the type of organization, making sure the leader’s values are consonant
with the organization’s culture, selecting someone whose skill set would be in
harmony with the resources available to work with, and ascertaining whether the
leader’s personal objectives are in keeping with the mission and strategy of the
organization. 10
This view contrasts with the domineering entrepreneur for whom In Search of
Excellence was written. Also, it is very different from active leadership roles
favored by most public management theory. A contrary view would be that once
the founding is complete and distinctive competence is intact, the time should
come when leadership is not so much pulling the organization along but being a
part of it. When this occurs, the institution may best be thought of as possessing
its own trajectory; in effect, it shares a kind of leadership role.
Such an image is in keeping with another line of literature, that of the new
institutionalism in political science. It is called “new” because its exponents, such
as James March and Johan Olsen, wish to segregate themselves from trad
itional
political science that emphasized the wording of laws and the derails of formal
organization. The new approach seeks to identify general, underlying patterns
and processes in institutional development and behavior. Intellectual abstractions
are favored such as the concepts of”appropriateness” (when an act complies with
accepted norms) and “isomorphism” (the power consequences of a dominant
paradigm).
For us, the most useful insight offered by this school is that institutions stand
out in the political firmament as special because they persist over long periods of
time despite changes in membership and leadership. Once set in motion, the
elaborated rules, roles and symbols enable them to acquire a collective character
and identity that is carried forward to successive generations. Equipped with an
accumulation of knowledge and experience, the value of institutions lies in that,
unlike single cooperating individuals , they have the potential to adapt to absorb
imperatives of their environment and produce consistent, desirable outcomes.
Neo-institutionalists refer to this feature as “historical efficiency.” 11
The Three Pillars of Institution
Moving to the field of organization theory, W. Richard Scott has introduced to
the literature a three-part framework that has become influential: the three
pill:
con
pill:
asy
con
arei
pill1
hov
atta
agn
me:
em:
fon
ach
me1
eth
mtc
on
up
bro
me
pu1
WO,
the
stat
cat1
Sd
offi
lin1
Soi
ma
ti Cl
me
mi1
tit)
kn·
cat
exa
COi
res1
MISSION MYSTIQUE AND A BELIEF SYSTEM TEMPLATE 9
pillars of institutions.12 Although Scott’s objective is to use the pillars as means of
contrasting different paradigms in the study of institutions, he admits that each
pillar is found in any given organization. The first, called the regulative pillar, is
a system of rules and accompanying rewards and punishments designed to ensure
conformity to those rules. This pillar has an objective, coercive quality and oper-
ates by the mechanism of member self-interest. The second, called the normative
pillar, consists of a set of values as to what is important and a set of norms on
how things should be done. Accordingly, it defines goals and prescribes means to
attain them. Members act not out of self-interest but because they personally
agree with the values and norms. The third pillar is called cognitive. It frames
meaning and thereby manipulates it. A culture of signs, symbols and rituals
enunciates, reinforces and transfers shared values; even though subjectively
formed, they take on the guise of undeniable truths. Together, the three pillars
achieve the institution’s legitimacy in the eyes of its members and observers.
The institution’s culture, found in Scott’s second and third pillars, is the prime
mechanism for holding the institution’s social pieces together and sustaining its
ethos over time. Despite its obvious relevance to the public sector, academic
interest in organizational culture originated in the business world. Early authors
on the subject saw it as a site of manipulation by management in order to shake
up the stultified attitudes of poor-performing corporations. Later the focus was
broadened to cover organizational change in general, with the object being to
increase worker motivation and augment managerial control. The underlying
purpose of these culture studies is to foster “co ngruency” between the desires of
workers and managers, i.e., to bring everyone over to management’s side.
When the topic of organizational culture migrated to public administration,
the aim shifted away from manipulation and in the direction of a better under-
standing of the phenomenon by the academy.]. Steven Ott has proposed four
categories of cultural manifestation, a typology that expands the work of Edgar
Schein. 13 The most overt elements are artifacts. These include architecture,
office arrangements, graphic symbols and equipment. Also in this category are
linguistic jargon, anecdotes , stories, myths and accounts of founding heroes.
Somewhat less apparent are behavior patterns, i.e., attitudes, customs, habits,
manners, shared expectations, styles of interaction, generic management prac-
tices , informal rules and ritual performances. A third category of cultural
mechanism is beliefs and values. These include beliefs as to what is true, com-
mitments as to what is desirable, philosophies and ideologies, concepts of iden-
tity, codes of ethics, tacit understandings, justifications for behavior, realms of
knowledge, purposes of action and accepted visions of the future. The final
category is basic assumptions below the surface of conscious thought-for
example, the importance of law, the meaning of democracy, and definitions of
corruption and fairness.
A number of public administration scholars have explored this topic. In his
research on prisons, John Diiulio compared several correctional institutions,
10 CHAPTER 1
concluding that their successful management depends on building and main-
taining a strong organizational culture. To do this, leaders should focus on results,
infuse the organization with an ethic, manage by walking around, form alliances
with outsiders, innovate incrementally, and stay in place at least eight years in
order to absorb and influence the culture. 14
My colleague Anne Khademian has pub lished a book on organization culture
that links the issues ofleadership, mission and culture. Called Working with Cul-
ture, its central point is the importance of concentrating on the success of public
programs. 15 She endorses agency cultures that help integrate program fragments
and provide a navigational tool for actors in the political environment. In her
view, the best ones (1) possess a robustness based on long history, (2) incorporate
the value of program excellence at the team as well as individual level , and (3)
strive for openness to change, learning, diversity and systemic thinking.
Khademian also warns that the organization’s culture is not amenable to uni-
lateral control or reengineering by managers. Instead, leaders must “work with
the culture” as it evolves organically from its roots. She identifies these roots as
(1) the organizational task or mission , (2) the resources provided to accomplish
that task, and (3) the political environment’s legacies, expectations and con-
straints. In doing such culture work the manager should identify the exact nature
of program commitments, understand their connections to the roots of culture,
think about what changes in the culture are needed, consult with fellow mem-
bers of the organization on these changes, negotiate adjustments with the exter-
nal environment’s stakeholders and power-holders, and relentlessly practice and
demonstrate the needed cultural innovations.
Sense of Mission
Another book that integrates strategy, mission and culture is A Sense of Mission:
Defining Direction for the Large Corporation, by Andrew Campbell and Laura
Nash. 16 These authors write from the perspective of business management and,
after studying several British companies, have developed a model for maximizing
motivation and output by means of such integration. To them the “sense of mis-
sion” has little to do with a written statement, but consists of a coherent set of
authentically felt norms that possess genuine meaning for all employees. They
propose a model made up of four components: (1) purpose-the fundamental,
agreed-upon reason for the company’s existence; (2) strategy-the commercial
logic for the organization’s competitive market posture; (3) policies-the action
guidelines and behavioral patterns that are realized in practice; and (4) values-
the beliefs and moral principles that are embedded in the company culture. In a
diagram these components are placed at the four corners of a diamond , with
purpose at the apex, strategy at the left corner, values at the right and policies at
the bottom. The four points are connected by lines to show how fundamental
purpose is translated into action by the mediation through two different lenses:
M
the le~
nonecc
corpor
As(
Organ1
Pas can
con ten
best ur
ous, gr
posed
sociali1
curren
convey
and w
and pr
not ol::
empov
to achi
Pas1
look tc
orgam:
other,
order t
tions t
mo ti OJ
Thel
A nurr
in the.
phrase
a wide
fers a f
and al
Selznic
T. ‘.i
two or
more c
posses:
sense c
mo rah
mterac
no mer
MISSION MYSTIQUE AND A BELIEF SYSTEM TEMPLATE 11
the left corner’s rational strategy in meeting market competition and the right’s
noneconomic values and beliefs that additionally affect the organization, i.e.,
corporate standards and moral princip les .
A second book from business management in the U.K. is The Purpose-Driven
Organization: Unleashing the Power of Direction and Commitment, by Perry
Pascarella and Mark Frohman. 17 In the context of the corporation, the authors
contend that the direction and commitment of the organization as an entirety is
best unleashed not by a single, masterful intervention, but by means of continu-
ous, gradual change at all hierarchical levels and all work sites. The authors pro-
pose that a “purpose statement” be developed that combines three devices of
socialization : the formal mission statement, a credo or code of ethics, and the
current vision for the future. A synthesis of these becomes, ideally, a convincing
conveyance of the institution’s overall reason for being. Worked out over rime
and with extensive employee participation , this formulation, when produced
and projected effectively, is said to generate a source of energy and commitment
nor obtained by compensation or promotion. The workforce’s total extent of
empowerment is defined as the aggregate force of every member’s determination
to achieve the agreed-upon end.
Pascarella and Frohman contend that the purpose statement can be said to
look to both past and future. On the one hand , it incorporates knowledge of the
organization’s history and a readiness to retain what already works well. On the
other, it imagines a future state whose attainment requires flexible innovation in
order to keep up with a fast-changing world . By looking in both temporal direc-
tions this way, stated purpose becomes like the keel in a boat that affords forward
motion at maximum speed, along with adept maneuverability.
The Nature and Importan ce of Mission
A number of other writers have elaborated on the nature of mission as manifest
in the public sector. James Q. Wilson speaks of “sense of mission, ” the same
phrase used by Campbell and Nash. He, too , means not a statement of goals but
a widely shared and warmly endorsed culture that is difficult to create but con-
fers a feeling of special worth on members , aids in recruitment and socialization,
and allows managers to economize on material incentives. Wilson likens it to
Selznick’s notion of distinctive competence. 18
T. Zane Reeves, in a book on Vista and the Peace Corps, postulates that these
two organizations have what he calls a “commitment culture ,” in contrast to the
more common “process culture” found in American bureaucracy. Such agencies
possess a “secularized missionary identity” that embraces the attributes of a clear
sense of purpose, a shared set of values, a proclivity to take action, high employee
morale, an abundance of creativity, the absence of a counterculture, and vigorous
interaction with clients and citizens. Reeves expresses the opinion that the phe-
nomenon is kept from forming at the federal level because of the periodic change
12 CHAPTER I
of presidential administrations, and is perhaps more common at the state or local
level of government. 19
The literature on nonprofit organizations also recognizes the importance of
mission, which is not surprising because such institutions depend on serving a
cause to survive. E. B. Knauft, Renee A. Berger and Sandra T. Gray researched a
“search for excellence”-type book on nonprofits and found that the outstanding
ones have a clearly articulated mission, a leader who can set in motion a culture
that motivates fulfillment of the mission, and a board that can bring in funds
and provide a bridge to the community. The mission for such entities is con-
stantly on the tongues of leaders and staff as they deal with board members and
citizens. But while the organization is single-minded in pursuing the mission , it
must also be prepared to adapt it to changing times. 20
Psychologist Janet Weiss theorizes on the inner processes by which a mission
frames and motivates the members of an organization, which she says happens in
three ways. First, structures of knowledge stemming from the mission process
incoming information. Categorizations are made and paths of causation assumed.
Even though this framing has a stabilizing effect on information processing, con-
versations over mission within the organization can lead to new knowledge struc-
tures. Second, the mission motivates individuals by identifying a clear collective
interest of the society, thus making possible intrinsic motivation from the work
itself. Third, existence of the mission assists in the making of decisions by offer-
ing reference points for weighing what actions are desirable in the future, as well
as justifying past actions. 2 1
Commitment, Culture and Effectiven ess
Yoash Wiener, an authority on behavioral approaches to management, develops
a theory of normative commitment in the organization that is based not on
instrumental logic but on internalized moral beliefs as to what should be done. 22
He proposes a model of causation that shows personal biological factors and
home socialization as leading to personality needs, which in turn affect-within
the organization-operant beliefs, motivations and commitments, intentions
and behaviors. By pre-screening recruits, socializing new members and selecting
dedicated leaders, the organization augments employee contributions beyond
the logic of rational self-interest. Wiener measures organizational commitment
by three variables: personal sacrifice to the organization, heightened persistence
and long tenure, and mental preoccupation with the work.
My colleague Gary Wamsley has introduced to the organizational literature
the notion of an institution’s constitution. 23 By this he means the relatively stable
“rules of the game” that permeate its normative order. Whether or not these rules
are openly discussed or unspoken, their function is to lay out common expecta-
tions of what actions are acceptable and what are not. Rule content relates to such
MIS~
matters a:
coalitions
power, an
Are mi
without 1
build the,
the inten
design. 24
lie organ
Their co1
who over
ive intere
it; the pt
relatively
mzanona
responsi~
tenures a
ment an1
sary, an11
dedicatio
particula
belief in
this last’
ally nega
ciendy s1
employrr
Consi
correlatic
of it is o
views of:
Heskett 1
that coq
mance if
surveyed
with the
rather tl
employe1
of a Nev
to put th
and thei
they reg
impact.2
:ical
e of
ig a
~d a
ling
tu re
nds
:on-
and
l, it
;ion
1sm
cess
1ed.
:on-
ruc-
:rive
rork
ter-
well
lops
: on
ie.22
and
thin
tons
ting
ond
ient
:nee
tu re
able
ules
:cta-
:uch
MISSION MYSTIQUE AND A BELIEF SYSTEM TEMPLATE 13
matters as the distribution of power among department heads, dominant policy
coalitions and/or operational cadres, procedures for the succession and transfer of
power, and tolerable versus intolerable methods of conflict and dissent.
Are mission-oriented agencies with a strong culture more effective than those
without these characteristics? Hal Rainey and Paula Steinbauer undertook to
build theory on the subject by canvassing the conclusions of several scholars on
the interrelationship of mission orientation, leadership characteristics and task
design. 24 This “search for excellence” asks what makes certain outstanding pub-
lic organizations end up being “galloping elephants” among lesser animals.
Their conclusion is that several factors seem causal, such as when authorities
who oversee the organization are themselves supportive of its mission; support-
ive interest groups embrace the agency but are diverse enough not to “capture”
it; the public generally is supportive, as are organizational allies and partners;
relatively generous operating autonomy exists to allow creativity; and the orga-
nizational culture is strong, especially if linked to mission accomplishment,
responsiveness and adaptability. Politically skillfu l leaders that serve for long
tenures are also helpful, as well as professional gro ups that augment commit-
ment and enhance autonomy. Finally, highly motivated employees are neces-
sary, animated by three possible forces: public service motivation, or general
dedication ro concepts of public good; task motivation, or being drawn to a
particular activity because of personal interest; and mission motivation , or
belief in the inherent importance of the work being done . The authors refer to
this last characteristic in terms of mission valence, i.e., whether one is person-
ally negative or positive toward the mission. If the valence is positive and suffi-
ciently so, an individual may self-select into the organization by applying for
employment.
Considerable empirical work of a quantitative nature has been done to seek
correlations between existence of a clear mission culture and effectiveness. Much
of it is of little value because of inadequate measures of the variables, and over-
views of studies in the business literature are inconclusive. John Kotter and James
Heskett reported on the results of four studies of U.S. firm s; their conclusion was
that corporate culture seems to have a significant impact on long-term perfor-
mance if the culture does not freeze stability. 25 Swedish scholar Mats Alvesson
surveyed international research on the subject and found the verdict to be mixed,
with the direction of causality sometimes running from performance to culture
rather than in the opposite way.26 Occasionally, research on government-
employee motivation is more encouraging; for example, in a survey of employees
of a New York state agency, Bradley Wright found that personnel are motivated
to put their best efforts forward when they view their agency’s work as significant
and their own contribution to it as important. Th is is especially the case when
they regard the job as hard, believe they are good at it, and clearly know its
impact. 27
14 CHAPTER I
A MISSION MYSTIQUE TEMPLATE
What, then , does mission mystique in action look like? Thinking of the passion-
kindling nature of the mission as the central source of electric power in the
turned-on public agency, what does the social circuitry within the institution look
like that draws on that energy to operate an animated organization over time?
I call it a belief system-or belief systems, since al l institutions by definition
possess their individual characteristics. Still, I contend, a commonality exists
among effective mission mystique belief systems to the extent that a set of key
attributes is present. The word system suggests, th ese characteris ti cs-nine in
number-are interconnected. They form the foundation of the book’s analysis,
and for convenience I present them in abbreviated matrix form. The resulting
construct is called a template rather than a model or blueprint, in that the ce
lls
present general guidance, not explicit instruction (see Figure 1.1).
A summary of the template’s contents may be made by row. Each row of the
matrix can be thought of as making, by virtue of the combined effect of its cells,
a distinct contribution to mission mystique. Starting with the top row, its three
cells collectively bestow an aura of being endowed with a sense of purpose-the
agency is charged with an important public mission, achieving it responds to
urgent needs , and past achievements are known. The middle row’s trio of cells
indicates the presence of passion and commitment-the organization’s personnel
are highly motivated , its culrure is institutionalized and supportive, and its
history is identified and celebrated. The bottom row’s attributes sustain the
Figure 1.1 The Mission Mystique Belief System: A Temp late
System
Requirements
A Purposive
Aura
Internal
Comm itment
Sustaining
Features
Prime
Qualities
1 A ce ntral
miss ion purpose
permeates the age ncy
4 Agency personnel
are intrin sical ly
motivated
7 Be li efs are open
to contestation
and opposition
Source: Compiled by the author.
Essential
Elaborations
2 The societal need
met by the miss ion
is seen as urgent
5 Agency cu lture
instituti onalizes
the belief system
8 Qualified policy
autonomy to permit
appropriate change
Temporal
Aspects
3 Has a distin ctive
reputation based
on ach ieve ment
6 Agency history
is known and
celebrated
9 Agency renewal
and learn ing are
ongo ing
;ts
ey
m
IS,
~g
lls
he
ls,
·ee
he
to
:lls
iel
ItS
~he
MISSION MYSTIQUE AN D A BELIEF SYSTEM TEMPLATE 15
institution over time-i nternal dissent is voiced , room for creative policy action
exists, and habits of organizational learning and renewal are ingrained . In sum ,
the institution possesses the following characte ri sti cs, enu merated as in the
figure: (1) direction, (2) imp ortance and (3) confidence; (4) dedication , (5) com –
munity an d (6) identity; and (7) di sse nt, (8) po li cy space and (9) renewal.
T he reader will note that I have not shown in the templ ate features commonly
thought of as prese nt in any acceprabl e govern m ent age ncy, such as compliance
to the Const itution and laws, o bservance of standard ethical practices, and at
least minimall y adeq uate reso urces . They are ass um ed to exist in the mission
mystique agency, and an absence thereof results in ineli gib ili ty for the status.
Another precondition , as mentioned ea rli er, is able leadership. This is obviously
a c riti cal factor, yet what “able” mea n s in the co ntext of mi ss ion mystique
varies-a ropi c that is bes t addressed in the book’s co ncludin g chapter.
Mission Purpose
An emph atic definition of central in st ituti onal purpose, covered in cell 1, is a
kind of “first among eq ual s” in the array of mi ssio n mystique attributes. It gives
the age ncy pol itical di recti o n , captures its importan ce, establishes its reason for
being a nd forms the basis of its mystique. More than any other quali ty, a stro ng
sense of miss ion is indispensable to moral e, image and success. Without it, the
o rganiza tion is perce ived as one more bureaucra ti c pi ece of furniture in the house
of government-largely unno ti ced , probably wo rn o ut, a likel y boring pl ace to
work, and certain ly possess in g no di stinction .
Organizations, private and public, have different ways of exp ress in g th eir mis-
sions. T he miss ions of corpo ratio ns, crafted by management, ce nter on achieving
management’s goals, with perh aps altruistic-sounding references to citizen needs
and serving the co mmuni ty included . Mission statements in gove rnment, drafted
with a politi cal ear to the ground , often m ake the mistake of try in g to in co rpo-
rate every activity in the organization , and in the process of becoming so co m-
prehensive they are utterly bland and insta ntly forgettab le. No netheless , such
sta tements are reverently framed and hun g on office walls. Campbell and Nash
are right in say in g th at a true sense of miss ion may have littl e to do with wri tten
documents; yet Pascarella and Fro hman point out that th e very act of hav ing
emp loyees participate in the process of prep aring a missio n statem ent, credo or
visio n statement may ge nerate energy and commitment.
In gove rnm ent we find two distinct types of mi ss ion articulation. One occurs
when a new major goal is set by the legislative body, th e implementation of
whi ch crea tes an agency. In these in stances, what is called the organic act typi-
cally co ntains a clause that srates the miss ion. This sta tement, a lega l and sym-
boli c ac t of confe r ral of del egated authority, beco m es a powerfu l tool of
accu lturati on inside th e agency and of politi cal persuasion outside it. If succi nct
enoug h to be eas ily rem embered, the word ing can become so m ething of an
16 CHAPTER 1
agency mantra, repeated over and over in policy debates and legislative testi-
mony. In this book I refer to such enunciated missions as “specified.”
The second type of mission found in the public sector arises when legislative
bodies, instead of embarking self-conscious ly on new initiatives, simp ly put
in place the structures needed to carry out traditional, accepted functions of
government. Examples are schoo ls or universities in the case of public educa-
tion and police or fire departments in the public safety function. In effect, the
mere creation of the organization establishes its mission. In this book I call
such missions “acknowledged. ” This does not mean these unstated purposes
cannot be fas hioned into culturally stirring or politically appealing rhetorical
devices, however. For example, in this book we encounter instances where insis-
tence on achieving the highest possible superiority in performing the traditional
function becomes a mission rallying cry.
The literature on mission’s contribution to organizational effectiveness makes
much of the notion that a mission should be unitary. The assumption here is that
having a single, clear goal concentrates the force of the mission and thus has the
greatest impact on behavior. Wilson and oth ers who tie mission to culture
expand this logic to how a single mission strengthens the institution’s entire
thrust.
It would be a mistake, however, to jump to conclusions. Certainly, if the
entity being discussed incorporates many missions because it is a composite
department with many bureaus, the mission sense is weakened, perhaps to the
point of disappearing. The Defense, Interior and Commerce Departments come
to mind in this respect. In these instances, mission mystique is applicable only at
the bureau or subdivision level, where a focused identity might exist.
Yet even at the bureau or small agency level, mission multiplicity may occur.
The consequences of that will depend on various factors. If different facets of one
central purpose can be identified, coherence is possible-for example, fighting
crime versus preventing it. Also, competing but allied purposes may require sepa-
rate identification, such as punishing tax cheaters while trying to get them to
settle up. Still another possib ility is projecting a meaningful yet vaguely defined
mission so as to hold it open to further elaboration, such as expanding a cam-
paign against domestic child abuse to patrolling the Internet for predators.
The bottom line is that to contribute to mystique the mission should have
two characteristics. One is a compelling “bite, ” achieved by a crisp phrasing that
captures the imagination by aiming for the high ground or even conveying elan.
For example, a public works department would not say it fills potholes or collects
garbage, but that it keeps the community clean and repaired. An airport author-
ity would not describe its mission as operat in g an aviation terminal, but as pro-
viding the gateway to the city.
The second essential quality for the mission message is to constitute a concept
that is sufficiently simple that it can be absorbed and remembered. Ir should not
M l
be a le
exact o
ing th<
no nm<
allows
Theol
Urge1
When
that rr
orgarn
socier;
upon
hurric
omy, ‘
public
Ha
sense.
peopl1
flier a1
S!On I
inflari
long-1
ume,
full ac
meast
facete
sure, :
and a
rhe b
when
Re pi
Cell :
reput
agenc
eithe1
statw
As
Jerry’
: testi-
slative
ly put
ons of
!duca-
ct, the
I call
rposes
tori cal
: JUSIS-
itional
makes
is that
ias the
:ulture
entire
if the
1posite
to the
;come
mlyat
occur.
of one
ghting
~ sepa-
1em to
eflned
1 cam-
:l have
ig that
g elan.
:ollects
uthor-
1s pro-
)ncept
1ld not
MISSION MYSTIQUE AND A BELIEF SYSTEM TEMPLATE 17
be a lengthy statement; in fact, the expression may not be reducible to a single
exact text at all, but embody a si ngle powerful idea. Illustrations would be reduc-
ing the communiry’s carbon imprint (a recycling program) or enriching citizens
nonmonetarily (a museum or arts center). The very imprecision of such concep ts
allows for future interpretation and may even evoke a bit of “mystery” mystique.
The object is not clear expression but emotional voltage.
Urgent Need
When the agency mission addresses an urgent societal need, the importance of
that mission is verified-the point of cell 2. Indeed, it is on this point that the
organization’s legitimacy is ultimately at stake. It goes witho ut saying that all
societal “needs” are constructed subjectively. Yet some are sufficiently agreed
upon to take on the appearance of objective meaning. Examples are recessions,
hurricanes and epidemics; when these catastrophes occur, regulators of the econ-
omy, emergency management agencies and public health departments receive
public support-provid ed they are perceived as doin g a good job.
Hopefully, many needs that government addresses are quite “real ” in this
sense. But citizens always disagree, of course, because policy problems bother
people differentially. Thus agencies operate in an environment of political con-
flict and divided media attention. When treading this unsteady ground, the mis-
sion mystique agency must proceed carefully. If it is perceived as artificially
inflating societal need by scare tactics, propaganda or loaded “needs assessments,”
long-run credib iliry is threatened . The better course is to track problems over
time, report trends so berly, make recommendations justified by them and take
full advantage of support offered by political allies and stakeholder groups. This
measured approach is particularl y essential if problems are “wicked, ” i.e., multi-
faceted and insoluble, like poverty, drugs, crime or obesity. Steady political pres-
sure, an ability to capitalize on problem-illustrating news events when they occur,
and a readiness to shift ground toward new and better ways to meet the need are
the best way to maintain mission mystique when it is most essential: that is,
when the need is unrelenting and probably getting worse.
Reputation and Record
Cell 3 in Figure 1.1 calls for two separate but related attributes: a distinctive
reputation and a solid record of achievement. This is a tall order. Relatively new
agencies are automatically excluded, in that they have not had time to obtain
either. Many older ones will fall short of the standard too ; by no means can the
status of mission mystique be attained by all agencies.
As for reputation, there are few bureaucratic “passionbrands” like Ben and
Jerry’s ice cream. The popular view of government agencies is that collectively
18 CHAPTER I
all of them are unreliable or worse. Yet surveys show that when citizens are
questioned about services they commonly receive, a majority express approval of
the results . Over several years the American Customer Satisfaction Index com-
piled by the University of Michigan Business School computed scores (on a
range of 0-100) in the mid-80s for Social Security retirement benefits, high 70s
for Veterans Affairs ourpatient services, mid-70s for Medicare coverage and low
60s for Internal Revenue Service filings. 28
The mission mystique agency need not be the winner of a popularity contest,
however-only the possessor of a distinctive reputation. The organization ought
to be known as good at what it does by those who matter, such as appropriation
committees, political allies , important clients and program collaborarors. Such
fame is not tautological to mystique, by the way, as the latter involves many addi-
tional attributes, as the template shows.
The best route to a good agency reputation is an existing record of achieve-
ment in its distinct area. In the long run, the two assets of reputation and record
are coupled anyway, as those familiar with the organization’s domain will be well
informed of when fame has outlived accomplishment. With respect to compiling
a performance record, American public administration is unusual by world stan-
dards in how extensively it is assessed by independent sources: financial audits ,
program evaluations, performance measures, citizen surveys, inspector general
reports, legislative oversight, judicial scrutiny, media investigations and whistle-
blower publicity. An agency that survives all this review looking reasonably good
cannot be too bad.
Speaking of competence, the concept of mission mystique does not reject the
principle of being held externally accountable for proven effectiveness. What it
adds is a supplemental paradigm of capacity assessment-one that moves beyond
the notion of the agency as an instrumental tool whose accomplishments must
be checked upon. Premier administrative institutions engaged in battling wicked
societal problems should be accorded a status something like that of the qualified
oncologist who is fighting to prolong your life as a cancer patient. Checking out
the doctor’s background and qualifications is prudent, and getting a second or
third opinion is smart. In the end, however, you must trust that person’s judg-
ment that the doctor is doing everything conceivable on your behalf. In order to
have this level of confidence, you must know that she or he is a trained and moti-
vated specialist who is board-certified and a member of the medical profession in
good standing; that as a human being the physician cares about your well-being
and is investing all possible energy in allowing you to survive and have more
good years; and that she or he does not rely on past laurels but takes short courses
and keeps up with the field.
Similarly, the mission mystique agency possesses comparable attributes of
reputation, record, focus, dedication and continuous updating. Just as with
one’s oncologist, the time comes to let go and trust; the best institutional effort
ava1
age1
dm
Int
We
wit
reff
Th,
rew
ant
pos
gat1
ma
are
lllS I
sha
its
Th
ma
ure
mg
anc
inti
to ‘
the
int
m11
lov
pe1
wh
ern
Ill!
A
n
all
1zens are
proval of
iex com-
res (on a
high 70s
· and low
r contest,
::>nought
:ipriation
lrs. Such
myaddi-
·achieve-
1d record
II be well
::>mpiling
>rid stan-
tl audits,
r general
. whistle-
bly good
‘.eject the
What it
s beyond
nts must
gwicked
qualified
:king Out
~condor
n’s judg-
order to
nd moti-
ess1on m
ell-being
1ve more
t courses
butes of
as with
1al effort
MISSION MYSTIQUE AND A BELIEF SYSTEM TEMPLATE 19
avai lable is at work. Thus in a constitutive instead of instrumental sense, the
agency that embodies mission mystique represents potential effectiveness in that
domain, time and place, perhaps the best conceivable.
Intrinsic Motivation
We move now to the middle row of the mission mystique template, which deals
with motivation, organization culture and sense of identity. Behavioral scientists
refer to “intrinsic” motivation as being moved by inner commitment to a cause.
This contrasts with “extrinsic” motivation, which is activation by external
rewards like pay and status. This is the subject of cell 4.
In our review of pertinent scholarship, we noted that Pascarella and Frohman
anticipate that an alignment of shared purpose within the organization makes
possible the creation of a normatively united workforce that generates an aggre-
gate amount of energy that is impossible to mobilize any other way. Reeves states
that occasionally we come across agencies made up of “secular missionaries” who
are focused, enth usiastic and proactive. In his analysis of pillars, Scott argues that
institutional motivation can be derived from rational self-interest, norms they
share with the organization, and cultural frames imposed by it.
Just what is inside the black box of intrinsic motivation? Wiener theorizes that
it starts with biological and family factors that then influence personality needs .
These in turn lead to workplace beliefs and commitments. Resultant behavioral
manifestations are self-sacrifice, preoccupation with the work, and lengthy ten-
ure. Weiss speculates that the factor of mission enters into the picture by structur-
ing and processing information, identifying a clear interest of society to pursue ,
and furnishing a basis for decisions. Rainey and Steinbauer speculate that the
intensity of their galloping elephants is driven by three factors: general dedication
to the public good, personal interest in the work and belief in the importance of
the work (called mission motivation). These factors can enco urage self-selection
into the organization . And, if Wright is correct, belief in the importance of the
mission and in one’s ability to contribute to it strengthens motivation.
As we study the six agencies of this book, then, we should check for the fol-
lowing: the importance of mission versus pay as a motivator; the degree to which
personnel seem united behind a cause; levels of morale and proactive conduct;
whether personnel are preoccupied w ith their work; and whether family experi-
ences, personal interests and belief in the work’s importance influen ce seeki ng
initial employment.
A Mission Mystique Culture
The agency’s organizational culture, like the m1ss1on concept itself, affects
all cells of the matrix. Whereas cell 1 accounts for what inspires the enterprise,
20 CHAPTER 1
cell 5 relates to the shared feelings that energize it. Both factors perform key
integrating function s, and their adequate fulfillment is indispensable to mission
mystique.
To Selznick, what sets an institution apart from a formal organization is the
presence of shared values and relationships that evolve organically over time. An
institutional community is formed that, along with technical capabilities, creates a
distinctive competence. To Terry, the central concern is that leaders conserve the
essence and integrity of this distinctive competence, even as details of agency life
and work change. A theme of March and Olsen’s neo-institutionalism is the insti-
tution’s persistence over time and the “historical efficiency” that accum ulates; this,
in large part, is enabled by organizational culture. Campbell and Nash see the cul-
ture’s values as mediating between the organization’s purpose and policies, along
with conscious leadersh ip strategies based on economic considerations. Boin and
Christensen urge that leaders should facilitate the development of an institutional
belief system by initiating norm-creation processes, experimenting with symbolic
meanings and nudging members to participate in the building of a culture.
Khademian makes the point that public administration cultures help inte-
grate program fragments and also provide signposts for navigating the organiza-
tion’s political environment. She urges managers to work with culture by
recognizing its relevance to program excellence. Meanwhile, they sho uld also be
thinking about how to nudge-but not impose-cultural innovations . Her
approach to organizational change is a far cry from the view often found in the
corporate wo rld, which is to demolish traditional cultur~s and replace them with
dynamic new ones that produce congruence with management’s aims. Unless
destruction of the agency’s cultural integrity is intended (as sometimes happens
when component organizations are consolidated), discarding rather than reshap-
ing a usable organizational culture can be wasteful and destroy morale.
The ideal mission mystique culture does several things: it induces enthusiasm
for the mission purpose, reinforces individual employee motivation , conveys a
sense of work importance and the agency’s competence in doing it, and supports
a willingness to recognize agency shortcomings and experiment with change.
Scott wo uld argue that such a mission becomes embedded in the culture by his
two last pillars, personally accepted norms and a constructed frame of meaning.
Ott depicts this frame as including physical symbols like banners, verbal prac-
tices like stories, behavioral patterns such as rituals, an d a variety of beliefs and
commitments. For most public managers and government employees, it is prob-
ably this immediate cultural environment that is most salient for influencing
their ongoing work lives, surpassing in daily impact background influences such
as cons titutional and democratic principles.
The mission mystique ideal anticipates substantial cultural coherence around a
certain type of program activity, geographical place or utilized technology. Within
the central cultural field, however, vario us subcultures are likely to exist. Opti-
mally such cultural pluralism creates healthy tensions. Sometimes complicating
M
the pi
bodi e1
stand:
enhail
source
be on
An I
Thei
forgo
a nati
agenc
Wrin
the fi
not t:
milir:
Se
orgar
Re co
they
what
into
depe
back
encei
sets;
the <
mg1
to cc
1
1. e.,
ask 1
ents
ti on
thei1
tnSI!
ager
The
non
the
colc
MISSION MYSTIQUE AND A BELIEF SYSTEM TEMPLATE 21
the picture is the presence of one or more publi c service professions-that is,
bodies of personnel that stand apart because of their special training, skills and
standards of co nduct. Rainey and Steinbauer note that such professions can
enhance agency commitment and autono my; yet it is also true they can be a
source of internal independence, which may or may not be a bad thing. We will
be on the lookout for these possibilities in the chapters to come.
An Honored Past
The importance of honoring the institution’s past, covered in cell 6, is often
forgotten in considerations of organizational mission and cultu re. I once heard
a national authori ty on the public service, speaking in an open forum, dismiss
agency history as useful as a recruiting tool bur of no inherent importance.
Writers on pub lic administration generally urge that more attention be paid to
th e field’s history, bur they are usually referring to the discipline’s own history,
not that of its practicing institutions. Yet recording the institution’s past, as any
military historian will tell you, is extremely important.
Selznick’s overall stance could be reduced to an aphorism: an institution is an
organization wrapped in values. If that is so, it is also wrapped in memories.
Recollections of the past are essential to the living organizational entity because
they possess meanings that amp lify what it stands for. These meanings connect
what is pressing now to what happened before, converting contemporary events
into the latest ep isode of an institutional saga. The contents of the saga wi ll differ
depending on who relates it. For retired old hands, the memories may extend
back to the organization’s founding . For those who were not present but experi-
enced many of the crises and triumphs that happened since, the recollected past
sets apart markers of change. For institutional outsiders who wish to understand
the agency beyond the superficiality of statutes and tables of organization , delv-
ing into its origi ns and history is indispensable. T his we do in the agency chapters
to come.
The organ ization’s history can also be seen as a process of forming an identity-
i.e., compiling “wh o we are.” It is like what we mention when strangers at a party
ask us to tell them about ourselves: we say what state we are from, what our par-
ents do or did and where we were educated. Similarly, the “who we are” institu-
tionally is told by the circumstances of initial establishment, the founders and
their concerns, and the events that shaped later development. Obtaining such
insight is an essential part of socializing new employees, and hence a section on
agency history is often incorporated in orientation sess ions or initial training.
The story is also periodically retold in other forms , such as anniversary celebra-
tions, the dedication of plaques or buildings, and visits to agency museums.
In all of this activity, we must keep in mind, transferring historical insights to
the next generation is not done by a methodical recital of facts. The narratives are
co lored by a point of view. Naturally, the agency wishes to preserve and present
22 CHAPTER I
the good memories, not the bad. Also, culture’s dominant values will bias the
stories. The true aim of writing agency history, however, is not sound scho larship
but building a storehouse of mythic meaning. For mission mystique agencies,
the storehouse should be fu ll.
Contested Beliefs
Discussion of cell 7 takes us to the template’s bottom row of cells, where the
projection of mission purpose (top row) and pursuit of that purpose (middle
row) are made sustainab le over time-by allowing dissent to surface, giving
policymakers room to innovate, and insisting on contin uous improvement and
self-renewal.
Opportunities for contestation and opposition are particularly essential for
the mission mystique agency because of the intense nature of convictions within
it. These feelings can easily lead to arrogance, un checked gro up think, and insis-
tence that its mission is the only one that matters. Contes ting this ass umed
monopoly over truth and righ t may be done at the level of blocking misguided
individuals or challenging high policy; it can derive from internal features of the
organization or depend on external sources of counter influence-b ut, some-
how, it must be there.
Help in thinking through this problem comes from two scholars. One is
political theorist Stephen Wh ite, originator of the phrase “weak ontology” that
was mentioned earlier in the book. In his book Sustaining Affirmation: The
Strengths of Weak Ontology in Political Thinking, White seeks ways to acquire
firm beliefs witho ut becoming trapped by absolutist thinking. 29 He addresses
this issue in the realm of moral philosophy, where he is concerned that rejection
by postmodernists and pragmatists of fixed ontological foundations , along with
the doctrinal rigidities of comm unitarianism, feminism and sectarian funda-
mentalism, leaves little room for defensible affirmative beliefs that are based on
convincing but debatable conviction. With the problem of conceiving the moral
self as his impetus, White searches the ideas of several philosophers to determine
whether a contestable yet strong belief system is possible. Simplifying his argu-
ment, and app lying it in a way he does not vis ualize, Whi te concludes that a
belief system can avoid both nihilism and absolutism if it has planted within it a
capacity for self-questioning. This way, even though certitude is never possible,
certain “figurations” of universals can command tentative agreement; when
applying them in practice, however, reflection and argumentation can follow
that may mobilize a different view.
The second aurhor is Rosemary O ‘Leary, author of The Ethics of D
issent:
Managing Guerrilla Government. 30 This term refers to dissenters who try-using
under-the-table means-to sabo tage the policies adopted by government agen-
cies . Although O ‘Leary admits some guerilla tactics are clearly unacceptable, she
lS the
irship
noes,
re the
iiddle
;1vmg
1t and
al for
vi thin
InSIS-
umed
uided
of the
;ome-
)ne is
” that
t: The
:quire
.resses
:ction
~with
unda-
ed on
moral
rm me
argu-
that a
m It a
;sible,
when
oil ow
issent:
·usmg
agen-
e, she
MISSION MYSTIQUE AND A BELIEF SYSTEM TEMPLATE 23
withholds blanket condemnation of them. H er larger message is that because of
its centered authority and hierarchical organization, all administration is subject
to becoming blind to needed criticism. Thus it is important that constructive
ways be found to permit dissent . She endorses several ideas to this end, such as
fostering a culture that welcomes dissent, creating multiple channels of commu-
nication, and training supervisors to treat dissent as discussion . She also points
out that so m e dissenters di ssent just to be h eard , and thus boundaries must be set
as to when it is tolerated.
Qualified Autonomy
On the topic of cell 8, The Forging of Bureaucratic Autonomy: Reputations, Net-
works and Policy Innovation in Executive Agencies, 1862-1928, by Dan iel Carpen-
ter, analyzes the emergence of a small number of competent, innovative and
influential federal bureaus in the late nin eteen th and early twentieth centuries. 31
Examp les are Gifford Pinchot’s Forest Service; H arvey Wiley’s Chemistry Bureau;
and Post Office programs of rural free delivery, parcel post and postal savings.
Carpenter’s view is that, because of savvy political leadership, strong cultures,
networks of support, and the legitimacy-b uilding effect of their work, these
burea us could carve out areas of political autonomy. This space for action was
used to enlarge agency agendas within accepted zones of congressional deference
and eventually win over public support. Carpenter concludes that, in these cases,
bureaucratic autonomy was forged not at the expense of democratic principles,
but in a symbiotic relationship with them.
Whether or not we should classify these early bureaus as instances of mission
mystique, the autonomy Carpe nter discusses might well serve as a standard for
mystique agencies today. First, its scope is appropriate: sufficient so as to afford
room to build and develop , yet not so great as to compromise representative
government. Second, its use is appropriate: taking on new activities and creating
new programs within a general conferral of authority, and using the leverage
thereby attained to mobi lize more support for an enhanced mission .
Now, a century later, con ditions in the American polity have obviously
changed. Autonomy must now be qualified in different ways. The enormous
upgrading of the American presidency, and to some extent gubernatorial office as
well, means negotiating policy space is more complicated than achieving a degree
of legis lative deference. Executive administrations today claim they control all of
bureaucracy, even though its range has multiplied several times since the 19th
century and only a small part of the terrain can be centrally tended at one time.
Within that ample space agencies can, if they do not attract attention as being
“out of lin e, ” innovate proactively.
An added facto r is the mammoth growth of executive staff agencies and polit-
ical appointees. This imposes a layer of supervision that must also be taken into
24 CHAPTER I
account. Hopefully it can be penetrated by a network of personal contacts or
coalition of political allies. Also to be considered is the proliferation of detached
organizations that play a part in policy implementation, i.e., partners, contrac-
tors, grant recipients and other collaborators. Finally, the chronic revenue short-
falls that plague contemporary government add to the importance of any help
autonomy provides in acquiring sufficient resources to sustain the mission.
A classic issue of public administration is whether the powerful bureaucratic
forces of the modern state endanger democracy. Put in terms of this book, the
question posed is: Will the strength of mission mystique lead to bypassing elec-
toral processes and elected policymakers? This would lead to autonomy that is
not “qualified.” My short answer is that it can, but in most instances will not.
The danger is greatest in sensitive areas where administration is prone to secrecy
and where coercive power is a factor, such as the police, intelligence and national
security functions. The FBI under J. Edgar Hoover and the CIA in the Bush II
administration are notorious examples. But in most of the bureaucracy, I would
argue, sufficient openness, transparency and independent reviewing power exist
to bring bureaucratic abuses into the open so they can be dealt with by elected
officials, the media and the courts. America is not, after all , a dictatorship where
administration is the instrument of suppression; to the contrary, it is a populist
republic where bureaucracy generally is scorned, checked, investigated and
cut back, and a measure of mission mystique can be a counterbalance to such
tendencies.
Agency Renewal
Over time, the mission mystique agency must be relentless in engaging in renewal
processes by which continuous improvement is sought (cell 9). This is true not
only to avoid the pitfalls of sloth or abuse, but to keep aims and practices up with
ever-changing times.
To do so requires thoughtful strategies and habits of mind. The agency must
remain dependable but incorporate a dynamic beyond the constancy of La Porte’s
high-reliability organization. At the same time, it should be innovative but not
make a fetish out of change for its own sake. As urged by Terry, the integrity of
the institution’s distinctive competence must be preserved even as its applications
alter. As warned by Wamsley, care must be taken not to throw out the agency’s
“constitutional” rules of the game and thereby cause havoc that inhibits sound
change. Khademian advises that the agency should maintain connection with its
cultural roots yet always be ready to “rework” the culture when necessary. Pas-
carella/Frohman ask metaphorically that the organization’s purpose be seen as a
keel that allows careful negotiation across the water from past knowledge to
future state. Like Knauft’s premier nonprofit organization, leaders and members
m
m
m
sel
le:
ab
fir
be
or
th
to
fo
he
tal
de
ex
all
w:
ch
th
en
cts or
ached
11trac-
;hort-
‘ help
cratic
k, the
; elec-
hat is
1 not.
:crecy
tional
Jsh II
vould
· exist
lected
.vhere
pulist
land
such
11ewal
1e not
>With
must
>one’s
tt not
ity of
mons
ency’s
:ound
ith its
. Pas-
11 as a
ge to
nbers
MISSION MYSTIQUE AND A BELIEF SYSTEM TEMPLATE 25
must keep the timeless cause firmly in mind as they talk to the community about
its changing needs.
Given this guidance, what should “renewal” in the mission mystique context
mean? Substantial literature exists on organizational learning, a concept that
seems quite compatible with what we are after. 32 Three types of organizational
learning are often postulated. One is called single-loop learning, which is the
ability of the organization to identify a problem and then “loop” around it to
find a solution. An illustration of this is post-hoc analysis of mistakes that have
been made or misguided conduct that has been uncovered. A second type of
organizational learning is double-loop. Here, the organization not only addresses
the immediate problem but loops around again and changes its norms so as not
to have to continue facing the problem. Examples would be retraining sessions
for employees or trying out new program ideas or installing new technologies.
The third learning type is triple-loop. It is the more drastic and lasting step of
heightening generally the organization’s capacity to change. Efforts are under-
taken to reshape the agency’s ethos so that it becomes culturally habituated to
dealing with change as an ever-present possibility. This is not planning for
expected future developments, but always being prepared to deal with any and
all change that comes along regardless of its nature. Being “future-ready” in this
way could cover policies, programs, structures and the workforce.
This completes the preliminaries for studying mission mystique. In the next
chapter we begin entering the worlds of individual public agencies to explore
their institutional belief systems in derail in order to learn if and how they
embody passion, pride and charisma.
