on time No Plagiarism
Week
5 Discussion: “Drop the Microphone”:
Examine Examples toward More Compelling
Argument Essay Drafts, and Putting the
Spotlight on You
–
The Person and the Passion
Behind the Stance and Topic
Required Resources
Read/review the following resources for t
his
activity:
·
Textbook: pp. 402
–
422.
·
Lesson
·
Minimum of 1 source from the textbook
Apply the following writing resources to your posts:
Ma
in
Post: Share “Good to Great” Techniques You Picked up in Your Textbook
Readings
To begin, look over the readings (sample essays/articles) of the text. Read as many as
you’d like; you do not need to choose just one. You are not evaluating one essay in t
his
discussion (although you may work with just one if you would like). Rather, you are
evaluating argument techniques, effective word choice and transitions, the author’s
voice, and the development of points with evidence. Not everything in these readings
will be relevant for you; it is your job to find those powerful gem
s of
wisdom that make
you think, “Yes! I can apply this same technique!”
So, as you look through the readings and choose single items and sections to focus on,
take your own notes and jot
down your own thoughts before writing and posting your
formal response to the following:
Quote one exact passage from a reading explaining the technique that appealed to you.
This may be a particular use of logic, the way an author puts flair on a synthesi
s of
support and opposition, a transition technique you had not considered, the way an
author discusses (concedes and refutes) an opposing viewpoint, how an author drives
the writing with voice, or any argument technique that “spoke to you.” Next, explain
in
as much detail as possible how you will use this technique in your own argument
research essay. Which portion of your essay and/or with which source? How will you
apply it to strengthen your essay?
Example structure:
· Quotation: (quote, cite in-text, and include at the end of your post a full reference)
· Technique that appealed to you in this quotation and why (being as detailed as possible).
· How you will use the technique: Be very specific and detailed, explaining exactly where in your essay you would like to use it, in which section, with sources, for voice, for anything that contributes to the effectiveness of your essay.
Example # 1:
Quotation 1: McCloskey (2016) asserts: “In any case, the problem is poverty, not inequality as such—not how many yachts the L’Oréal heiress Liliane Bettencourt has, but whether the average Frenchwoman has enough to eat” (p. 499).
Technique that appeals to me: The technique that appeals to me in this passage is the stark contrast between rich and poor and the very specific example, not just of rich people, but of a specifically named rich person. This appealed to me because seeing an author paint a picture in my own mind helped me to understand that I can easily improve my essay with this simple technique. I also love the transition here and the clarification of the problem. It’s a good transition to show a shift to what really matters, and I hadn’t thought about defining what the problem “is” and “is not.”
How I will use the technique in my draft: I will use this technique in a few places in my essay where I give general examples but could be much more powerful for my reader by offering something precise. One particular point in my essay addresses the problems some people have with no transportation to local clinics. In my essay, I wrote, “Consider, for example, those single mothers who cannot afford a vehicle and whose hands are tied when their children suddenly become very ill.” To apply McCloskey’s technique, I might instead say, “Consider, for example, the single mother who lives five miles from the nearest local clinic. Her three-month-old baby suddenly spikes a fever of 101 degrees, she has no car, all of her relatives live in other states, and it is below freezing outside.” In addition, I looked for places in my essay in which I could use this stronger transition and definition of problem technique. I found in my third paragraph, this: “If a clinic is more than a mile away, walking there with a child is an unreasonable expectation but necessary.” I realized that while this is a good argument, I could make it clear that distance is not the central issue, like McCloskey did with inequality. My idea for adding clarity is: “However, precise distance is not the key concern; the real concern is the peace of mind that local access brings to families.” I’m still working on the wording of this, but I will definitely apply this technique.
Reference for source used in this example:
McCloskey, D. N. (2016). The formula for a richer world? Equality, liberty, justice and wealth. In S.U. Seyler, & A. Brizzee (Eds.),
Read, reason, write: An argument text and reader. (pp. 497-502). McGraw-Hill.
Example # 2
Quotations:
Jaster (2015) states “Many comments I have seen about this topic allude to “female issues.” Look, women have been running around the woods for hundreds of years without anyone having to tell them how to deal with bodily functions. Trust me, we got this” (P. 409).
Jaster (2015) affirmed “Countless people also question how units will maintain the mystical alchemy of the bro-bond once women join the ranks, but unit cohesion doesn’t develop because men act like teenagers in a locker room. Overcoming adversity builds that bond. Ask a cop after a shootout or a firefighter who ran into a burning building. The man or woman to his left or right becomes his “brother” regardless of gender, religion or politics” (P. 409).
Techniques that appeal to me: In the first quotation I chose the respectfully snark and logical rationale behind the writing spoke to me. I found this quotation very interesting because without having to gather my own thoughts, the author alluded to this opposing argument as illogical and ridiculous. I chose the second quotation because the transition was smooth and very the authors voice was strong, I liked how strong words were used to make and comparisons. These comparisons lead to logical explanations, with this approach readers don’t have to dissect the topic to see the opposing stance is illogical and not as substantial.
How I will use this technique in my draft: I plan to use this technique in the body of my essay. I hope to use logic, easy explanations, and relatable comparisons to get my readers to see why my stance should be supported. I will use these techniques along with resources I’ve discovered to support my claim of mandatory Covid-19 vaccines. In my essay there is a relatable paragraph to explain the magnitude and number of person-to-person interactions healthcare professionals encounter every day. I used logic to get the reader to understand how busy the shifts are, how many people we interact with during a shift. This claim supported by the statics of contracting covid-19 from a non-vaccinated person compared to a vaccinated person shows the logic behind mandating vaccines of healthcare workers due to the increased person-to-person interactions. I will also use this technique when explaining the perspective of the patients receiving our care, how they feel about possibly being exposed to the virus when admitted. I may say these patients are admitted because they are ill and need care, some patients don’t receive the care they need because of their fear of covid-exposure and follow up with patient statements and my own personal experiences with patients. For example, a previous patient with COPD was diagnosed with stage 4 cancer during a hospital admission. This specific patient avoided going to doctors, and hospitals in fear of contracting the virus since they had a preexisting condition which was COPD. Logic technique would be able to rationalize had staff been vaccinated, this patient may of felt more comfortable going to the hospital and this new cancer diagnosis would not of been so advanced.
Reference:
Jaster, L. (2015). Women will make units stronger. In McGraw-Hill (Eds.), Read, reason, write: An argument txt and reader (p. 409).
Week 5 Discussion: “Drop the Microphone”:
Examine Examples toward More Compelling
Argument Essay Drafts, and Putting the
Spotlight on You
–
The Person and the Passion
Behind the Stance and Topic
Required Resources
Read/review the following resources for this activity:
·
Textbook: pp. 402
–
422.
·
Lesson
·
Minimum of 1 source from the textbook
Apply the following writing resources to your posts:
Main Post: Share “Good to Great” Techniques You Picked up in Your Textbook
Readings
To begin, look over the readings (sample essays/articles) of the text. Read as many as
you’d like; you do not need to choose just one. You are not evaluating one essay in t
his
discussion (although you may work with just one if you would like). Rather, you are
evaluating argument techniques, effective word choice and transitions, the author’s
voice, and the development of points with evidence. Not everything in these readings
will be relevant for you; it is your job to find those powerful gems of wisdom that make
you think, “Yes! I can apply this same technique!”
So, as you look through the readings and choose single items and sections to focus on,
take your own notes and jot
down your own thoughts before writing and posting your
formal response to the following:
Quote one exact passage from a reading explaining the technique that appealed to you.
This may be a particular use of logic, the way an author puts flair on a synthesi
s of
support and opposition, a transition technique you had not considered, the way an
author discusses (concedes and refutes) an opposing viewpoint, how an author drives
the writing with voice, or any argument technique that “spoke to you.” Next, explain
in
as much detail as possible how you will use this technique in your own argument
research essay. Which portion of your essay and/or with which source? How will you
apply it to strengthen your essay?
Week 5 Discussion: “Drop the Microphone”:
Examine Examples toward More Compelling
Argument Essay Drafts, and Putting the
Spotlight on You – The Person and the Passion
Behind the Stance and Topic
Required Resources
Read/review the following resources for this activity:
Textbook: pp. 402-422.
Lesson
Minimum of 1 source from the textbook
Apply the following writing resources to your posts:
Main Post: Share “Good to Great” Techniques You Picked up in Your Textbook
Readings
To begin, look over the readings (sample essays/articles) of the text. Read as many as
you’d like; you do not need to choose just one. You are not evaluating one essay in this
discussion (although you may work with just one if you would like). Rather, you are
evaluating argument techniques, effective word choice and transitions, the author’s
voice, and the development of points with evidence. Not everything in these readings
will be relevant for you; it is your job to find those powerful gems of wisdom that make
you think, “Yes! I can apply this same technique!”
So, as you look through the readings and choose single items and sections to focus on,
take your own notes and jot down your own thoughts before writing and posting your
formal response to the following:
Quote one exact passage from a reading explaining the technique that appealed to you.
This may be a particular use of logic, the way an author puts flair on a synthesis of
support and opposition, a transition technique you had not considered, the way an
author discusses (concedes and refutes) an opposing viewpoint, how an author drives
the writing with voice, or any argument technique that “spoke to you.” Next, explain in
as much detail as possible how you will use this technique in your own argument
research essay. Which portion of your essay and/or with which source? How will you
apply it to strengthen your essay?
Read, Reason, Write
AN ARGUMENT TEXT AND READER
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TWELFTH EDITION
AN ARGUMENT TEXT AND READER
Read, Reason, Write
Dorothy U. Seyler
Allen Brizee
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READ, REASON, WRITE: AN ARGUMENT TEXT AND READER, TWELFTH EDITION
Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121. Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill
Education. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Previous editions © 2015, 2012, and
2010. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a
database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education, including, but not
limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning.
Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the
United States.
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 LCR/LCR 21 20 19 18
ISBN: 978-1-259-91627-4
MHID: 1-259-91627-8
Brand Manager: Penina Braffman Greenfield
Product Developer: Elizabeth Murphy
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Designer: Jessica Cuevas
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Cover Image: © Piriya Photography/Moment/Getty Images
Compositor: Lumina Datamatics, Inc.
All credits appearing on page or at the end of the book are considered to be an extension of the copyright page.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Seyler, Dorothy U., author. | Brizee, Allen, author.
Title: Read, reason, write : an argument text and reader / Dorothy U. Seyler,
Allen Brizee.
Description: Twelfth edition. | New York, NY : McGraw-Hill Education, 2019.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017045184 (print) | LCCN 2017046594 (ebook) | ISBN
9781260195088 (Online) | ISBN 9781259916274 (softbound) | ISBN
9781260195064 (looseleaf)
Subjects: LCSH: English language—Rhetoric. | Persuasion (Rhetoric) | College
readers. | Report writing.
Classification: LCC PE1408 (ebook) | LCC PE1408 .S464 2019 (print) | DDC
808/.0427—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017045184
The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a Web site
does not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill Education, and McGraw-Hill Education does
not guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites.
mheducation.com/highered
sey16278_fm_i-xxviii.indd 4 10/30/17 8:38 PM
v
Brief Contents
SECTION 1 CRITICAL READING AND ANALYSIS 1
Chapter 1 Writers and Their Sources 2
Chapter 2 Responding Critically to Sources 32
SECTION 2 THE WORLD OF ARGUMENT 63
Chapter 3 Understanding the Basics of Argument 64
Chapter 4 Writing Effective Arguments 94
Chapter 5 Reading, Analyzing, and Using Visuals and
Statistics in Argument 116
Chapter 6 Learning More about Argument: Induction, Deduction,
Analogy, and Logical Fallacies 146
SECTION 3 STUDYING SOME ARGUMENTS BY GENRE 175
Chapter 7 Definition Arguments 176
Chapter 8 Evaluation Arguments 194
Chapter 9 The Position Paper: Claims of Values 209
Chapter 10 Arguments about Cause 225
Chapter 11 Presenting Proposals: The Problem/Solution
Argument 241
SECTION 4 THE RESEARCHED AND FORMALLY DOCUMENTED
ARGUMENT 265
Chapter 12 Locating, Evaluating, and Preparing to Use Sources 266
Chapter 13 Writing the Researched Essay 285
Chapter 14 Formal Documentation: MLA Style, APA Style 319
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SECTION 5 A COLLECTION OF READINGS 357
Chapter 15 The Media: Image and Reality 359
Chapter 16 The Web and Social Media: Their Impact on Our Lives 381
Chapter 17 Marriage and Gender Issues: The Debates Continue 401
Chapter 18 Education in America: Issues and Concerns 423
Chapter 19 The Environment: How Do We Sustain It? 443
Chapter 20 Laws and Rights: Gun Control and Immigration Debates 469
Chapter 21
Appendix
America: Past, Present, Future 495
Understanding Literature 524
vi BRIEF CONTENTS
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vii
Contents
New to the Twelfth Edition xvii
Features of Read, Reason, Write xix
Let Connect Composition Help Your Students Achieve Their Goals xxi
From the Authors xxv
About the Authors xxvii
SECTION 1 CRITICAL READING AND ANALYSIS 1
Chapter 1 WRITERS AND THEIR SOURCES 2
Reading, Writing, and the Contexts of Argument 3
Responding to Sources 4
Abraham Lincoln, “The Gettysburg Address” 4
The Response to Content 5
The Analytic Response 5
The Evaluation Response 6
The Research Response 7
Deborah Tannen, “Who Does the Talking Here?” 7
Writing Summaries 10
Active Reading: Use Your Mind! 13
Ruth Whippman, “Actually, Let’s Not Be in the Moment” 14
Using Paraphrase 16
Acknowledging Sources Informally 18
Referring to People and Sources 18
Joel Achenbach, “The Future Is Now: It’s Heading Right at Us, but We
Never See It Coming” 20
Presenting Direct Quotations: A Guide to Form and Style 23
Reasons for Using Quotation Marks 24
A Brief Guide to Quoting 24
For Reading and Analysis 26
Alex Knapp, “Five Leadership Lessons from James T. Kirk” 26
Suggestions for Discussion and Writing 31
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Chapter 2 RESPONDING CRITICALLY TO SOURCES 32
Traits of the Critical Reader/Thinker 33
Examining the Rhetorical Context of a Source 33
Who Is the Author? 34
What Type—or Genre—of Source Is It? 34
What Kind of Audience Does the Author Anticipate? 34
What Is the Author’s Primary Purpose? 35
What Are the Author’s Sources of Information? 35
Analyzing the Style of a Source 36
Denotative and Connotative Word Choice 37
Tone 39
Level of Diction 39
Sentence Structure 40
Metaphors 42
Organization and Examples 42
Repetition 43
Hyperbole, Understatement, and Irony 43
Quotation Marks, Italics, and Capital Letters 43
Alexandra Petri, “Nasty Women Have Much Work to Do” 45
Writing about Style 48
Understanding Purpose and Audience 48
Planning the Essay 48
Drafting the Style Analysis 49
Ellen Goodman, “In Praise of a Snail’s Pace” 50
Student Essay: James Goode, “A Convincing Style” 53
Analyzing Two or More Sources 55
Synthesizing Two or More Sources 57
Adam Grant, “Why I Taught Myself to Procrastinate” 57
Suggestions for Discussion and Writing 61
SECTION 2 THE WORLD OF ARGUMENT 63
Chapter 3 UNDERSTANDING THE BASICS OF ARGUMENT 64
Characteristics of Argument 65
Argument Is Conversation with a Goal 65
Argument Takes a Stand on an Arguable Issue 65
Argument Uses Reasons and Evidence 65
Argument Incorporates Values 66
Argument Recognizes the Topic’s Complexity 66
The Shape of Argument: What We Can Learn from Aristotle 66
Ethos (about the Writer/Speaker) 66
Logos (about the Logic of the Argument) 67
viii CONTENTS
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CONTENTS ix
Pathos (about Appeals to the Audience) 67
Kairos (about the Occasion or Situation) 68
The Language of Argument 69
Facts 70
Inferences 70
Judgments 71
Sam Wang and Sandra Aamodt, “Your Brain Lies to You” 72
The Shape of Argument: What We Can Learn from Toulmin 75
Claims 76
Grounds (or Data or Evidence) 78
Warrants 78
Backing 79
Qualifiers 79
Rebuttals 80
Using Toulmin’s Terms to Analyze Arguments 80
Erin Brodwin, “The Secret to Efficient Teamwork Is Ridiculously Simple” 81
For Analysis and Debate 83
Christina Paxson, “A Safe Place for Freedom of Expression” 83
Geoffrey R. Stone, “Free Speech on Campus” 86
Suggestions for Discussion and Writing 93
Chapter 4 WRITING EFFECTIVE ARGUMENTS 94
Know Your Audience 95
Who Is My Audience? 95
What Will My Audience Know about My Topic? 95
Where Does My Audience Stand on the Issue? 96
How Should I Speak to My Audience? 96
Understand Your Writing Purpose 97
What Type (Genre) of Argument Am I Preparing? 98
What Is My Goal? 98
Will the Rogerian or Conciliatory Approach Work for Me? 99
Move from Topic to Claim to Possible Support 99
Selecting a Topic 100
Drafting a Claim 100
Listing Possible Grounds 101
Listing Grounds for the Other Side or Another Perspective 101
Planning Your Approach 102
Draft Your Argument 103
Revise Your Draft 104
Rewriting 104
Editing 105
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A Few Words about Word Choice and Tone 106
Proofreading 107
For Analysis and Debate 108
Darius Rejali, “Five Myths about Torture and Truth” 108
M. Gregg Bloche, “Torture Is Wrong—But It Might Work” 111
Suggestions for Discussion and Writing 115
Chapter 5 READING, ANALYZING, AND USING VISUALS AND
STATISTICS IN ARGUMENT 116
Responding to Visual Arguments 117
Visual Rhetoric and Visual Literacy 117
Reading Graphics 124
Understanding How Graphics Differ 124
The Uses of Authority and Statistics 128
Judging Authorities 128
Understanding and Evaluating Statistics 130
Writing the Investigative Argument 131
Gathering and Analyzing Evidence 131
Planning and Drafting the Essay 133
Analyzing Evidence: The Key to an Effective Argument 133
Preparing Graphics for Your Essay 134
Student Essay: Garrett Berger, “Buying Time” 135
For Reading and Analysis 140
Joe Navarro, “Every Body’s Talking” 140
Suggestions for Discussion and Writing 145
Chapter 6 LEARNING MORE ABOUT ARGUMENT: INDUCTION, DEDUCTION,
ANALOGY, AND LOGICAL FALLACIES 146
Induction 147
Deduction 148
“The Declaration of Independence” 153
Analogy 157
Logical Fallacies 158
Causes of Illogic 158
Fallacies That Result from Oversimplifying 159
Fallacies That Result from Avoiding the Real Issue 162
For Reading and Analysis 167
Elizabeth Cady Stanton, “Declaration of Sentiments” 167
Peter Wehner, “In Defense of Politics, Now More Than Ever Before” 170
x CONTENTS
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SECTION 3 STUDYING SOME ARGUMENTS BY GENRE 175
Chapter 7 DEFINITION ARGUMENTS 176
Defining as Part of an Argument 177
When Defining Is the Argument 178
Strategies for Developing an Extended Definition 178
Preparing a Definition Argument 181
Student Essay: Laura Mullins, “Paragon or Parasite?” 182
For Analysis and Debate 185
Robin Givhan, “Glamour, That Certain Something” 185
Nicholas Haslam, “Crossing the Aegean Is ‘Traumatic.’ Your Bad Hair Day
Isn’t” 188
Suggestions for Discussion and Writing 193
Chapter 8 EVALUATION ARGUMENTS 194
Characteristics of Evaluation Arguments 195
Types of Evaluation Arguments 196
Preparing an Evaluation Argument 197
Student Review: Ian Habel, “Winchester’s Alchemy: Two Men and a Book” 199
Evaluating an Argument: The Rebuttal or Refutation Essay 202
Douglas Holtz-Eakin, “Globalization Shouldn’t Be a Dirty Word” 203
For Analysis and Debate 205
Thomas Sowell, “Christmas-Tree Totalitarians” 205
Suggestions for Discussion and Writing 208
Chapter 9 THE POSITION PAPER: CLAIMS OF VALUES 209
Characteristics of the Position Paper 210
Preparing a Position Paper 211
Student Essay: Chris Brown, “Examining the Issue of Gun Control” 213
Zainab Chaudry, “Ending Intolerance toward Minority Communities: Hate
Attacks on Sikh Americans” 217
Kaye Wise Whitehead, “A Never Ending War” 219
Haider Javed Warraich, “On Assisted Suicide, Going Beyond
‘Do No Harm’ ” 221
Suggestions for Discussion and Writing 224
Chapter 10 ARGUMENTS ABOUT CAUSE 225
Characteristics of Causal Arguments 226
An Example of Causal Complexity: Lincoln’s Election and the Start
of the Civil War 228
Mill’s Methods for Investigating Causes 229
CONTENTS xi
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Preparing a Causal Argument 231
For Analysis and Debate 233
Caroline Simard, “‘Daring to Discuss Women in Science’: A Response to
John Tierney” 233
David A. Strauss, “A New Wave of Equality” 236
Suggestions for Discussion and Writing 240
Chapter 11 PRESENTING PROPOSALS: THE PROBLEM/SOLUTION
ARGUMENT 241
Characteristics of Problem/Solution Arguments 242
Priya Natarajan, “Want More Scientists? Turn Grade Schools into
Laboratories” 244
Braden Allenby, “After Armstrong’s Fall, the Case for Performance
Enhancement” 247
Preparing a Problem/Solution Argument 251
Planning 251
Drafting 251
For Analysis and Debate 253
Gretchen Carlson, “My Fight Against Sexual Harassment” 253
Jonathan Swift, “A Modest Proposal” 256
Suggestions for Discussion and Writing 263
SECTION 4 THE RESEARCHED AND FORMALLY DOCUMENTED
ARGUMENT 265
Chapter 12 LOCATING, EVALUATING, AND PREPARING TO USE SOURCES 266
Selecting a Good Topic 267
What Type of Paper Am I Preparing? 267
Who Is My Audience? 267
How Can I Select a Good Topic? 268
What Kinds of Topics Should I Avoid? 268
Writing a Tentative Claim or Research Proposal 269
Preparing a Working Bibliography 270
Basic Form for Books 271
Basic Form for Articles 272
Locating Sources 273
The Book Catalog 273
The Reference Collection 274
Databases 275
The Web 277
Field Research 278
Federal, State, and Local Government Documents 278
Correspondence 278
Interviews 278
xii CONTENTS
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Lectures 279
Films, DVDs, Television 279
Surveys, Questionnaires, and Original Research 279
Evaluating Sources, Maintaining Credibility 280
Preparing an Annotated Bibliography 282
Student Annotated Bibliography: David Donaldson, “Tell Us What You Really
Are: The Debate over Labeling Genetically Modified Food” 283
Chapter 13 WRITING THE RESEARCHED ESSAY 285
Avoiding Plagiarism 286
What Is Common Knowledge? 289
Using Signal Phrases to Avoid Confusion 289
Organizing the Paper 293
Drafting the Essay 294
Plan Your Time 294
Handle In-Text Documentation as You Draft 294
Choose an Appropriate Writing Style 294
Write Effective Beginnings 296
Avoid Ineffective Openings 297
Compose Solid, Unified Paragraphs 298
Write Effective Conclusions 302
Avoid Ineffective Conclusions 303
Choose an Effective Title 303
Revising the Paper: A Checklist 303
Rewriting 304
Editing 304
Proofreading 305
The Completed Paper 305
Student Essay in MLA Style: David Donaldson, “Tell Us What You Really Are:
The Debate Over Labeling Genetically Modified Food” 305
Chapter 14 FORMAL DOCUMENTATION: MLA STYLE, APA STYLE 319
The Simplest Patterns of Parenthetical Documentation 321
Placement of Parenthetical Documentation 321
Parenthetical Citations of Complex Sources 322
Preparing MLA Citations for a Works Cited List 325
Forms for Books: Citing the Complete Book 326
Forms for Books: Citing Part of a Book 329
Forms for Periodicals: Articles in Magazines, Journals, and Newspapers 330
Forms for Periodicals: Articles in Newspapers Accessed in Print 332
Forms for Digital Sources 333
Forms for Other Print and Nonprint Sources 335
CONTENTS xiii
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APA Style 338
APA Style: In-Text Citations 338
APA Style: Preparing a List of References 341
Form for Books 342
Form for Articles 343
Form for Electronic Sources 344
Student Essay in APA Style: Carissa Ervine, “The Relationship Between
Depression and Marital Status” 345
SECTION 5 A COLLECTION OF READINGS 357
Chapter 15 THE MEDIA: IMAGE AND REALITY 359
Mark Edmundson, “Off to See the Wizard: Finding the Virtues of Homer,
Plato, and Jesus in Technicolor Oz” 360
Student Essay: Sienna Walker, “Big Pun’s Prophesy” 364
Stuart Elliott, “Coca-Cola—Taste the Change” 369
Tim Wu, “Mother Nature Is Brought to You By . . .” 371
Sanford J. Ungar, “Bannon called the media the ‘opposition.’ He’s right,
and it’s a good thing.” 375
Heather C. McGhee, “ ‘I’m Prejudiced,’ He Said. Then We Kept Talking.” 378
Chapter 16 THE WEB AND SOCIAL MEDIA: THEIR IMPACT ON OUR LIVES 381
Steven Pinker, “Mind over Mass Media” 382
Susan P. Crawford, “The New Digital Divide” 385
Fareed Zakaria, “Bile, Venom, and Lies: How I Was Trolled on
the Internet” 389
Liza Tucker, “The Right to Bury the (Online) Past” 392
Caitlin Gibson, “Clever Is Forever” 394
George Yancy, “I Am a Dangerous Professor” 397
Chapter 17 MARRIAGE AND GENDER ISSUES: THE DEBATES CONTINUE 401
Meg Jay, “The Downside of Living Together” 403
Stephanie Coontz, “Want a Happier Marriage, Dads? Then Take
Paternity Leave” 406
Lisa Jaster, “Women Will Make Units Stronger” 409
Jonathan Rauch, “Here’s How 9 Predictions about Gay
Marriage Turned Out” 411
Gloria Steinem, “Supremacy Crimes” 417
Chapter 18 EDUCATION IN AMERICA: ISSUES AND CONCERNS 423
Richard D. Kahlenberg, “To Really Integrate Schools, Focus on
Wealth, Not Race” 425
xiv CONTENTS
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Kate Walsh, “The National Teacher Shortage Is a Myth. Here’s What’s
Really Happening” 428
Joseph Zengerle, “Why Future Officers Should Read Shakespeare, Know
History and Understand Psychology” 430
Danielle Allen, “Tuition Is Now a Useless Concept in
Higher Education” 433
Charles R. Pruitt, “Partisan Politics Is Cutting the Heart out
of Public Ivies” 436
Howard Gardner, “Why Kids Cheat at Harvard” 440
Chapter 19 THE ENVIRONMENT: HOW DO WE SUSTAIN IT? 443
Gregory M. Kennedy, S.J., “Trash Talk: Reflections on Our
Throwaway Society” 445
Michael Novacek, “The Sixth Extinction: It Happened to Him. It’s
Happening to You.” 449
Bob Silberg, “Why a Half-Degree Temperature Rise Is a Big Deal” 453
Art Carden, “On Climate Change, Government Is Not the Answer” 457
Alexander Starritt, “The Cleverest Countries on Climate Change—and
What We Can Learn from Them” 459
Rachel Nuwer, “Elephant Loss Tied to Ivory Trade” 465
Chapter 20 LAWS AND RIGHTS: GUN CONTROL AND IMMIGRATION
DEBATES 469
Daniel Webster and Ronald Daniels, “Allowing Guns on Campus Will Invite
Tragedies, Not End Them” 470
David B. Rivkin Jr and Andrew M. Grossman, “Gun Control Proposals in the
Wake of Orlando Could Endanger Constitutional Rights” 474
Robert Wilson, “It’s Time for Police Officers to Start Demanding Gun Laws
That Could End Up Saving Their Own Lives” 476
Amy Chua, “Immigrate, Assimilate” 482
Roberto Suro, “Legal, Illegal” 487
Janet Napolitano, “The Truth about Young Immigrants and DACA” 491
Chapter 21 AMERICA: PAST, PRESENT, FUTURE 495
Abraham Lincoln, “Second Inaugural Address” 496
Deidre N. McCloskey, “The Formula for a Richer World? Equality, Liberty,
Justice, and Wealth” 498
Barack H. Obama, “Remarks by the President at the 50th Anniversary of
the Selma to Montgomery Marches” 502
Kwame Anthony Appiah, “How the Future Will Judge Us” 511
Anne Applebaum, “Trump’s Dark Promise to Return to
a Mythical Past” 514
Neil DeGrasse Tyson, “A Cosmic Perspective” 517
CONTENTS xv
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Appendix UNDERSTANDING LITERATURE 524
Getting the Facts: Active Reading, Summary, and Paraphrase 525
Paul Lawrence Dunbar, “Promise” 525
Kate Chopin, “The Story of an Hour” 526
Summary of “The Story of an Hour” 528
William Shakespeare, “Sonnet 116” 528
Paraphrase of “Sonnet 116” 529
Seeing Connections: Analysis 530
Analysis of Narrative Structure 531
Analysis of Character 531
Analysis of Elements of Style and Tone 532
Drawing Conclusions: Interpretation 533
Writing about Literature 533
Andrew Marvell, “To His Coy Mistress” 534
Christopher Marlowe, “The Passionate Shepherd to His Love” 535
Sir Walter Raleigh, “The Nymph’s Reply to the Shepherd” 536
A. E. Housman, “Is My Team Ploughing” 537
Amy Lowell, “Taxi” 538
Janet Taliaferro, “The Last Civilized Act” 539
Susan Glaspell, “Trifles” 544
Student Literary Analysis: Alan Peterson, “Faulkner’s Realistic
Initiation Theme” 561
Suggestions for Discussion and Writing 567
Index 568
xvi CONTENTS
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xvii
New to the
Twelfth Edition
This new edition continues the key features of previous editions while adding new
material that will make it even more helpful to both students and instructors. Significant
changes include the following:
• New readings. This edition features a rich collection of eighty readings, both
timely and classic, that provide examples of the varied uses of language and strate-
gies for argument. Forty-six of these readings are entirely new to this edition and
include high-quality examples of argument written by author and activist Kaye
Wise Whitehead, philosopher and novelist Kwame Anthony Appiah, Pulitzer
Prize-winning foreign policy journalist Anne Applebaum, noted author and profes-
sor of psychology Steven Pinker, political columnist and CNN host Fareed Zakaria,
astrophysicist Neil deGrasse Tyson, and engineer and U.S. Army Reserve soldier
Lisa Jaster—to name only a few.
• New coverage. An entirely new section in Chapter 5 introduces students to the
concepts of visual rhetoric and visual literacy, including Gestalt principles and the
C.A.R.P. design model. Chapter 6 includes additional in-depth coverage of deduc-
tive reasoning in written argument, and Chapter 13 is updated to address changes in
technology for drafting, revising, editing, and proofreading a paper, as well as sub-
mitting it to an instructor.
• New visuals. Almost all of the readings in this edition feature compelling visuals
that illustrate the topics discussed therein. At the outset of each chapter, students
are presented with a visual prompt tied to critical thinking questions that engage
them with key concepts covered throughout that chapter.
• Updated documentation coverage. MLA coverage is updated throughout to align
with the eighth edition of the MLA Handbook. Chapter 14 includes instruction
around these new guidelines, including ten new example MLA citation models.
This chapter also covers the latest APA guidelines for using and citing secondary
sources.
• Focus on current issues that are relevant to students. Of the seven chapters in
the anthology section, all have new readings and several take on a new and timely
focus. For example, Chapter 17 on marriage focuses on the issue of marriage equal-
ity, Chapter 18 on education concentrates on the topics of school choice and tuition,
and Chapter 20 on laws and rights examines guns on campus and the “Dream Act.”
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xix
Features of Read,
Reason, Write
Read, Reason, Write supports and aligns with the WPA Outcomes Statement for First-Year
Composition (NCTE, 2014). This text’s content and presentation are guided by decades of
classroom experience and by research and theory in composition and rhetoric. This com-
bination has made Read, Reason, Write a best-selling text for now twelve editions.
• Teaches critical thinking, reading, and composing through a step-by-step
approach to inquiry, analysis, and writing. This text introduces students to vari-
ous genres and guides them in analyzing style, rhetorical construction, and effec-
tiveness. It provides exercises for individual and group work to practice critical
reading and analysis. Questions are included to guide students in responding to,
analyzing, evaluating, and researching and writing about content.
• Provides instruction for beginning, drafting, completing, and then revising summa-
ries, analyses, and arguments. Guided by convention expectations, the text provides
instruction in overall organization, paragraph structure, and sentence-level issues such as
tone, mechanics, and attribution tailored to various genres. The text also contains
instruction in analyzing and using graphics, images, and document design, helping stu-
dents to think critically about—and also produce—visually enhanced communication.
• Provides instruction in both classical and contemporary rhetorical theory. The
text presents rhetorical theories in an accessible way to help instructors teach and
students learn these concepts. But, Read, Reason, Write also presents argument as
contextual: written (or spoken) to a specific audience with the expectation of
counterarguments.
• Includes guidelines and revision boxes throughout. These tools provide an easy
reference for students.
• Offers thorough and easy-to-reference coverage of both MLA and APA
documentation requirements.
• Features nine student essays. These illustrate the kinds of writing students will be
asked to prepare in the course—summaries, analyses, arguments, and formally doc-
umented papers.
• Presents a rich collection of readings. Readings are both timely and classic, pro-
viding examples of the varied uses of language and strategies for argument.
• Offers a brief but comprehensive introduction to reading and analyzing litera-
ture. Found in the appendix, this section also contains a student essay of literary analysis.
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xxi
Let Connect
Composition Help
Your Students
Achieve their Goals
Connect is a highly reliable, easy-to-use homework and learning management solution
that embeds learning science and award-winning adaptive tools to improve student
results. Connect Composition addresses the specific needs of the writing course and
various redesign models of instruction. In addition to the innovative content, revolution-
ary learning technology drives skills for the Argument course through a selection of
corresponding toolsets.
Power of Process
One overarching goal is at the heart of Power of Process: for students to become
self-regulating, strategic readers and writers. Power of Process facilitates engaged
reading and writing processes using research-based best practices suggested by major
professional reading and writing organizations.
Power of Process promotes close, strategic reading and critical thinking, leading to
richer, more insightful academic reading and writing in the Argument course and
beyond.
Connect Composition eReader
The Connect Composition eReader provides approximately seventy compelling readings
that instructors can incorporate into their syllabi. Readings are available across a wide
variety of genres, including arguments and literary selections. Instructors can filter the
readings by theme, discipline, genre, rhetorical mode, reading level, and word count.
LearnSmart Achieve
LearnSmart Achieve offers students an adaptive, individualized learning experience
designed to ensure the efficient mastery of reading and writing skills in tandem. By
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xxii LET CONNECT COMPOSITION HELP YOUR STUDENTS ACHIEVE THEIR GOALS
targeting students’ particular strengths and weaknesses, LearnSmart Achieve customizes
its lessons and facilitates high-impact learning at an accelerated pace.
LearnSmart Achieve provides instruction and practice for your students in the
following areas.
UNIT TOPIC
THE WRITING
PROCESS
The Writing Process
Generating Ideas
Planning and Organizing
Writing a Rough Draft
Revising
Proofreading, Formatting, and
Producing Texts
CRITICAL
READING
Reading to Understand
Literal Meaning
Evaluating Truth and
Accuracy in a Text
Evaluating the Effectiveness and
Appropriateness of a Text
THE RESEARCH
PROCESS
Developing and
Implementing a
Research Plan
Evaluating Information and
Sources
Integrating Source Material into
a Text
Using Information Ethically and
Legally
©
M
cG
ra
w
-H
ill
E
d
u
ca
tio
n
Power of Process
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LET CONNECT COMPOSITION HELP YOUR STUDENTS ACHIEVE THEIR GOALS xxiii
REASONING
AND
ARGUMENT
Developing an Effective
Thesis or Claim
Using Evidence and
Reasoning to Support a
Thesis or Claim
Using Ethos (Ethics) to Persuade
Readers
Using Pathos (Emotion) to
Persuade Readers
Using Logos (Logic) to Persuade
Readers
GRAMMAR AND
COMMON
SENTENCE
PROBLEMS
Parts of Speech
Phrases and Clauses
Sentence Types
Fused (Run-on) Sentences
Comma Splices
Sentence Fragments
Pronouns
Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement
Pronoun Reference
Subject-Verb Agreement
Verbs and Verbals
Adjectives and Adverbs
Dangling and Misplaced Modifiers
Mixed Constructions
Verb Tense and Voice Shifts
PUNCTUATION
AND
MECHANICS
Commas
Semicolons
Colons
End Punctuation
Apostrophes
Quotation Marks
Dashes
Parentheses
Hyphens
Abbreviations
Capitalization
Italics
Numbers
Spelling
STYLE AND
WORD CHOICE
Wordiness
Eliminating Redundancies
Sentence Variety
Coordination and
Subordination
Faulty Comparisons
Word Choice
Clichés, Slang, and Jargon
Parallelism
MULTILINGUAL
WRITERS
Helping Verbs, Gerunds
and Infinitives, and
Phrasal Verbs
Nouns, Verbs, and Objects
Articles
Count and Noncount Nouns
Sentence Structure and Word
Order
Subject-Verb Agreement
Participles and Adverb Placement
LearnSmart Achieve can be assigned by units and/or topics.
Book-Specific Resources for Instructors
The following teaching resources are available in Connect. Please contact your local
McGraw-Hill representative for the username and password to access these resources.
Gradeable Assessments tied to Readings
Instructors can assign gradeable assessments tied to more than sixty of the reading
selections in the twelfth edition of Read, Reason, Write. More than 700 new assess-
ments are now available through Connect.
The Read, Reason, Write Master Course
In the Read, Reason, Write Master Course, which you can copy to your own Connect
account and adapt as you wish, you will find various Connect Composition assignment
types to accelerate learning, including LearnSmart Achieve topics, pre- and post-tests,
sey16278_fm_i-xxviii.indd 23 10/30/17 8:38 PM
Power of Process assignments, Writing Assignments, and Discussion Board prompts
for every chapter of the text. Contact your local McGraw-Hill representative to copy the
course to your Connect account.
Instructor’s Manual
The Instructor’s Manual is written with the diverse needs of composition instructors in
mind. Faculty new to teaching reading will appreciate the brief presentations of theory
that accompany the reading pedagogy in the textbook, as well as the suggestions for
how to teach some of the more difficult argument writing skills. Faculty new to teaching
writing will find help with ways to organize chapters into teachable sections and sug-
gestions for selecting among the easier and more challenging readings.
Flexible Content for Your Argument Course: Customize Read, Reason,
Write with Create™
As an alternative to the traditional text, instructors may use McGraw-Hill Create™ to
arrange chapters to align with their syllabus, eliminate those they do not wish to assign,
and add any of the Read, Reason, Write content available only in Create™ to build one
or multiple print or e-book texts, including Connect Composition access codes.
McGraw-Hill Create is a self-service Web site that allows instructors and departments
to create customized course materials using McGraw-Hill’s comprehensive, cross-
disciplinary content and digital products. Through Create™, instructors may also add
their own material, such as a course syllabus, a course rubric, course standards, and any
specific instruction for students.
xxiv LET CONNECT COMPOSITION HELP YOUR STUDENTS ACHIEVE THEIR GOALS
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xxv
From the Authors
I have written in previous prefaces to Read, Reason, Write that being asked to prepare a
new edition is much like being asked back to a friend’s home: You count on it and yet
are still delighted when the invitation comes. But an invitation to a 12th edition?! I am
amazed and humbled. I am also delighted to introduce you to my new coauthor Allen
and to share with you our story. Allen is actually a former student of mine from NVCC.
He was kind enough to let me know when he completed his PhD and took a position at
Loyola University Maryland in Baltimore—and thus made it easy for me to find him
when the time came to bring in a new member of the team.
We can assert that while Allen has brought some fresh ideas to this edition, the
essential character of this text remains the same: to help students become better writers
of the kinds of papers they are most often required to write both in college and the
workplace, that is, summaries, analyses, reports, arguments, and documented essays.
Read, Reason, Write remains committed to showing students how reading, analytic,
argumentative, and research skills are interrelated and how these skills combine to
develop critical thinking.
It continues to be true that no book of value is written alone. Over its more than
thirty years of life, a chorus of voices have enriched this text, too many now to list them
all. Two editors should be given a special thanks, though: Steve Pensinger, who led the
team through four early editions, and Lisa Moore, who brought new ideas to the 6th and
7th editions. Other sponsoring editors, developmental editors, and production editors
have enriched my journey through eleven editions and aided us in preparing this 12th
edition. May you all live long and prosper!
With Allen’s support I will once more close by dedicating Read, Reason, Write to
my daughter Ruth, who, in spite of her own career and interests, continues to give gen-
erously of her time, reading possible essays and listening patiently to my endless debates
about changes. And for all of the new students who will use this edition: May you
understand that it is the liberal education that makes continued growth of the human
spirit both possible and pleasurable.
Dorothy U. Seyler, Professor Emerita,
Northern Virginia Community College
Allen Brizee, Associate Professor,
Loyola University Maryland
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xxvii
About the Authors
DOROTHY SEYLER is professor emerita of English at Northern
Virginia Community College. A Phi Beta Kappa graduate of the College
of William & Mary, Dr. Seyler holds advanced degrees from Columbia
University and the State University of New York at Albany. She taught at
Ohio State University, the University of Kentucky, and Nassau
Community College before moving with her family to Northern Virginia.
In addition to articles published in both scholarly journals and
popular magazines, Dr. Seyler is the author of ten college textbooks,
including Introduction to Literature, Doing Research, Steps to College
Reading, and Patterns of Reflection. Read, Reason, Write was first
published in 1984. In 2007, she was elected to membership in the
Cosmos Club in Washington, D.C., for “excellence in education.”
Professor Seyler is also the author of The Obelisk and the
Englishman: The Pioneering Discoveries of Egyptologist William
Bankes (2015), a “fascinating story,” according to Kirkus Reviews, “of a
figure who deserves to be much better known.” She enjoys tennis, golf,
and travel—and writing about both sports and travel.
ALLEN BRIZEE is associate professor of writing at Loyola
University Maryland. At Loyola, Professor Brizee teaches courses in
first-year writing, rhetoric, technical writing, and writing for the Web. He
also coordinates the writing internship program. Allen began his
educational journey as a student of Dorothy’s at Northern Virginia
Community College (NVCC). After graduating, he transferred to
Virginia Tech, where he earned a BA in English (Phi Beta Kappa) and a
master’s in English.
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xxviii ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Professor Brizee taught part time at NVCC, The George Washington University,
and the University of Maryland while working as a technical writer. He then
completed his PhD at Purdue and, while there, also worked on the widely used Purdue
Online Writing Lab (OWL).
Dr. Brizee’s research interests include writing pedagogy and civic engagement,
and he has published articles in a number of academic journals. He coauthored
Partners in Literacy: A Writing Center Model for Civic Engagement and coedited
Commitment to Justice in Jesuit Higher Education, 3rd edition. He enjoys
collaborating with community groups in Baltimore and participating in medieval
martial arts.
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SECTION
Critical Reading
and Analysis
1
©
B
le
n
d
Im
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e
s/
A
la
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y
S
to
ck
P
h
o
to
R
F
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READ: What is the situation in the photo? Who are the two figures, where are
they, and how do they differ?
REASON: What ideas are suggested by the photo?
REFLECT/WRITE: Why might this visual have been chosen for Chapter 1?
©
R
u
b
b
e
rb
al
l/E
ri
k
Is
ak
so
n
/G
e
tt
y
Im
ag
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s
R
F
CHAPTER 1
Writers and Their Sources
sey16278_Ch01_001-031.indd 2 10/28/17 10:51 AM
3
“Are you happy with your new car?” Oscar asks. “Oh, yes, I love my new car,” Rachel responds.
“Why?” queries Oscar.
“Oh, it’s just great—and Dad paid for most of it,” Rachel exclaims.
“So you like it because it was cheap,” Oscar says. “But wasn’t your father going to
pay for whatever car you chose?”
“Well, yes—within reason.”
“Then why did you choose the Corolla? Why is it so great?”
Rachel ponders a moment and then replies: “It’s small enough for me to feel com-
fortable driving it, but not so small that I would be frightened by trucks. It gets good
mileage, and Toyota cars have a good reputation.”
“Hmm. Maybe I should think about a Corolla. Then again, I wouldn’t part with my
Miata!” Oscar proclaims.
A simple conversation, right? In fact, this dialogue represents an argument. You
may not recognize it as a “typical” argument. After all, there is no real dispute between
Oscar and Rachel—no yelling, no hurt feelings. But in its most basic form, an argument
is a claim (Rachel’s car is great) supported by reasons (the car’s size, mileage, and
brand). Similar arguments could be made in favor of this car in other contexts.
For instance, Rachel might have seen (and been persuaded by) a television or online
Toyota advertisement, or she might have read an article making similar claims in a
magazine such as Consumer Reports. In turn, she might decide to develop her argument
into an essay or speech for one of her courses.
READING, WRITING, AND THE CONTEXTS
OF ARGUMENT
Arguments, it seems, are everywhere. Well, what about this textbook, you counter. Its
purpose is to inform, not to present an argument. True—to a degree. But textbook
authors also make choices about what is important to include and how students should
learn the material. Even writing primarily designed to inform says to readers: Do it my
way! Well, what about novels, you “argue.” Surely they are not arguments. A good
point—to a degree. The ideas about human life and experience we find in novels are
more subtle, more indirect, than the points we meet head-on in many arguments. Still,
expressive writing presents ideas, ways of seeing the world. It seems that arguments can
be simple or profound, clearly stated or implied. And we can find them in many—if not
most—of our uses of language.
You can accept this larger scope of argument and still expect that in your course on
argument and critical thinking you probably will not be asked to write a textbook or a
novel. You might, though, be asked to write a summary or a style analysis, so you
should think about how those tasks might connect to the world of argument. Count on
this: You will be asked to write! Why work on your writing skills? Here are good
answers to this question:
• Communication is the single most important skill sought by employers.
• The better writer you become, the better reader you will be.
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4 SECTION 1 CRITICAL READING AND ANALYSIS
• The more confident a writer you become, the more efficiently you will handle
written assignments in all your courses.
• The more you write, the more you learn about who you are and what really matters
to you.
You are about to face a variety of writing assignments. Always think about what
role each assignment asks of you. Are you a student demonstrating knowledge? A
citizen arguing for tougher drunk-driving laws? A scholar presenting the results of
research? A friend having a conversation about a new car? Any writer—including
you—will take on different roles, writing for different audiences, using different
strategies to reach each audience. There are many kinds of argument and many ways to
be successful—or unsuccessful—in preparing them. Your argument course will be
challenging. This text will help you meet that challenge.
RESPONDING TO SOURCES
If this is a text about writing arguments, why does it contain so many readings? (You
noticed!) There are good reasons for the readings you find here:
• College and the workplace demand that you learn complex information through
reading. This text will give you lots of practice.
• You need to read to develop your critical thinking skills.
• Your reading will often serve as a basis for writing. In a course on argument, the
focus of attention shifts from you to your subject, a subject others have debated
before you. You will need to understand the issue, think carefully about the views
of others, and only then join in the conversation.
To understand how critical thinkers may respond to sources, let’s examine “The
Gettysburg Address,” Abraham Lincoln’s famous speech dedicating the Gettysburg
Civil War battlefield. We can use this document to see the various ways writers
respond—in writing—to the writing of others.
THE GETTYSBURG ADDRESS ABRAHAM LINCOLN
Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent a new nation,
conceived in liberty and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.
Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation so
conceived and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great battlefield of that
war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that field as a final resting place for those
who here gave their lives that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper
that we should do this. But, in a larger sense, we cannot dedicate—we cannot
consecrate—we cannot hallow—this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who
struggled here have consecrated it far above our poor power to add or to detract. The
world will little note nor long remember what we say here, but it can never forget what
they did here. It is for us, the living, rather to be dedicated here to the unfinished work
which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be
here dedicated to the great task remaining before us—that from these honored dead
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CHAPTER 1 Writers and Their Sources 5
we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of
devotion; that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain; that
this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom; and that government of the
people, by the people, for the people shall not perish from the earth.
Abraham Lincoln, “The Gettysburg Address,” (1863).
What Does It Say? THE RESPONSE TO CONTENT
Instructors often ask students to summarize their reading of a complex chapter, a sup-
plementary text, or a series of journal articles on library reserve. Frequently, book re-
port assignments specify that summary and evaluation be combined. Your purpose in
writing a summary is to show your understanding of the work’s main ideas and of the
relationships among those ideas. If you can put what you have read into your own words
and focus on the text’s chief points, then you have command of that material. Here is a
sample restatement of Lincoln’s “Address”:
Our nation was initially built on a belief in liberty and equality, but its future is now
being tested by civil war. It is appropriate for us to dedicate this battlefield, but those
who fought here have dedicated it better than we. We should dedicate ourselves to
continue the fight to maintain this nation and its principles of government.
Sometimes it is easier to recite or quote famous or difficult works than to state, more
simply and in your own words, what has been written. The ability to summarize reflects
strong writing skills. For more coverage of writing summaries, see pp. 10–12.
(For coverage of paraphrasing, a task similar to summary, see pp. 15–19.)
How Is It Written?
How Does It Compare
with Another Work? THE ANALYTIC RESPONSE
Summary requirements are often combined with analysis or evaluation, as in a book
report. Most of the time you will be expected to do something with what you have read,
and to summarize will be insufficient. Frequently you will be asked to analyze a work—
that is, to explain the writer’s choice of style (or the work’s larger rhetorical context).
This means examining sentence patterns, organization, metaphors, and other techniques
selected by the writer to convey attitude and give force to ideas. Developing your skills
in analysis will make you both a better reader and a better writer.
Many writers have examined Lincoln’s word choice, sentence structure, and choice
of metaphors to make clear the sources of power in this speech.* Analyzing Lincoln’s
style, you might examine, among other elements, his effective use of tricolon: the three-
fold repetition of a grammatical structure, with the three points placed in ascending
order of significance.
* See, for example, Gilbert Highet’s essay, “The Gettysburg Address,” in The Clerk of Oxenford: Essays on
Literature and Life (New York: Oxford UP, 1954), to which I am indebted in the following analysis.
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6 SECTION 1 CRITICAL READING AND ANALYSIS
Lincoln uses two effective tricolons in his brief address. The first focuses on the
occasion for his speech, the dedication of the battlefield: “we cannot dedicate—we
cannot consecrate—we cannot hallow. . . .” The best that the living can do is formally
dedicate; only those who died there for the principle of liberty are capable of making
the battlefield “hallow.” The second tricolon presents Lincoln’s concept of democratic
government, a government “of the people, by the people, for the people.” The purpose
of government—“for the people”—resides in the position of greatest significance.
A second type of analysis, a comparison of styles of two writers, is a frequent vari-
ation of the analytic assignment. By focusing on similarities and differences in writing
styles, you can see more clearly the role of choice in writing and may also examine the
issue of the degree to which differences in purpose affect style. One student, for exam-
ple, produced a thoughtful and interesting study of Lincoln’s style in contrast to that of
Martin Luther King, Jr.:
Although Lincoln’s sentence structure is tighter than King’s, and King likes the
rhythms created by repetition, both men reflect their familiarity with the King James
Bible in their use of its cadences and expressions. Instead of saying eighty-seven years
ago, Lincoln, seeking solemnity, selects the biblical expression “Fourscore and seven
years ago.” Similarly, King borrows from the Bible and echoes Lincoln when he
writes “Five score years ago.”
Is It Logical?
Is It Adequately Developed?
Does It Achieve Its Purpose? THE EVALUATION RESPONSE
Even when the stated purpose of an essay is “pure” analysis, the analysis implies a judg-
ment. We analyze Lincoln’s style because we recognize that “The Gettysburg Address”
is a great piece of writing and we want to see how it achieves its power. On other occa-
sions, evaluation is the stated purpose for close reading and analysis. The columnist
who challenges a previously published editorial has analyzed the editorial and found it
flawed. The columnist may fault the editor’s logic or lack of adequate or relevant sup-
port for the editorial’s main idea. In each case the columnist makes a negative evalua-
tion of the editorial, but that judgment is an informed one based on the columnist’s
knowledge of language and the principles of good argument.
Part of the ability to judge wisely lies in recognizing each writer’s (or speaker’s)
purpose, audience, and occasion. It would be inappropriate to assert that Lincoln’s
address is weakened by its lack of facts about the battle. The historian’s purpose is to
record the number killed or to analyze the generals’ military tactics. Lincoln’s purpose
was different.
As Lincoln reflected upon this young country’s being torn apart by civil strife, he saw
the dedication of the Gettysburg battlefield as an opportunity to challenge the country
to fight for its survival and the principles upon which it was founded. The result was a
brief but moving speech that appropriately examines the connection between the life
and death of soldiers and the birth and survival of a nation.
These sentences begin an analysis of Lincoln’s train of thought and use of metaphors. The
writer shows an understanding of Lincoln’s purpose and the context in which he spoke.
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CHAPTER 1 Writers and Their Sources 7
How Does It Help Me to Understand
Other Works, Ideas, Events? THE RESEARCH RESPONSE
Frequently you will read not to analyze or evaluate but rather to use the source as part of
learning about a particular subject. Lincoln’s address is significant for the Civil War
historian both as an event of that war and as an influence on our thinking about that war.
“The Gettysburg Address” is also vital to the biographer’s study of Lincoln’s life or to
the literary critic’s study either of famous speeches or of the Bible’s influence on
English writing styles. Thus Lincoln’s brief speech is a valuable source for students in a
variety of disciplines. It becomes part of their research process. Able researchers study
it carefully, analyze it thoroughly, place it in its proper historical, literary, and personal
contexts, and use it to develop their own arguments.
To practice reading and responding to sources, study the following article by
Deborah Tannen. The exercises that follow will check your reading skills and your
understanding of the various responses to reading just discussed. Use the prereading
questions to become engaged with Tannen’s essay.
WHO DOES THE TALKING HERE? DEBORAH TANNEN
Professor of linguistics at Georgetown University, Deborah Tannen writes popular books
on the uses of language by “ordinary” people. Among her many books are Talking from
9 to 5 (1994) and I Only Say This Because I Love You (2004). Here she responds to the
debate over who talks more, men or women.
PREREADING QUESTIONS What is the occasion for Tannen’s article—what is she
responding to? Who does most of the talking in your family—and are you okay with
the answer?
It’s no surprise that a one-page article published this month in the journal
Science inspired innumerable newspaper columns and articles. The study, by
Matthias Mehl and four colleagues, claims to lay to rest, once and for all, the
stereotype that women talk more than men, by proving—scientifically—that
women and men talk equally.
The notion that women talk more was reinforced last year when Louann
Brizendine’s “The Female Brain” cited the finding that women utter, on average,
20,000 words a day, men 7,000. (Brizendine later disavowed the statistic, as
there was no study to back it up.) Mehl and his colleagues outfitted 396 college
students with devices that recorded their speech. The female subjects spoke an
average of 16,215 words a day, the men 15,669. The difference is insignificant.
Case closed.
Or is it? Can we learn who talks more by counting words? No, according to a
forthcoming article surveying 70 studies of gender differences in talkativeness.
(Imagine—70 studies published in scientific journals, and we’re still asking the
question.) In their survey, Campbell Leaper and Melanie Ayres found that
counting words yielded no consistent differences, though number of words per
speaking turn did. (Men, on average, used more.)
1
2
3
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8 SECTION 1 CRITICAL READING AND ANALYSIS
This doesn’t surprise me.
In my own research on gender
and language, I quickly sur-
mised that to understand who
talks more, you have to ask:
What’s the situation? What are
the speakers using words for?
The following experience
conveys the importance of sit-
uation. I was addressing a
small group in a suburban Vir-
ginia living room. One man
stood out because he talked a
lot, while his wife, who was sit-
ting beside him, said nothing at
all. I described to the group a
complaint common among
women about men they live
with: At the end of a day she
tells him what happened, what
she thought and how she felt
about it. Then she asks, “How
was your day?”—and is disap-
pointed when he replies,
“Fine,” “Nothing much” or
“Same old rat race.”
The loquacious man spoke up. “You’re right,” he said. Pointing to his wife, he
added, “She’s the talker in our family.” Everyone laughed. But he explained, “It’s
true. When we come home, she does all the talking. If she didn’t, we’d spend the
evening in silence.”
The “how was your day?” conversation typifies the kind of talk women tend
to do more of: spoken to intimates and focusing on personal experience, your
own or others’. I call this “rapport-talk.” It contrasts with “report-talk”—giving or
exchanging information about impersonal topics, which men tend to do more.
Studies that find men talking more are usually carried out in formal experi-
ments or public contexts such as meetings. For example, Marjorie Swacker ob-
served an academic conference where women presented 40 percent of the
papers and were 42 percent of the audience but asked only 27 percent of the
questions; their questions were, on average, also shorter by half than the men’s
questions. And David and Myra Sadker showed that boys talk more in mixed-sex
classrooms—a context common among college students, a factor skewing the
results of Mehl’s new study.
Many men’s comfort with “public talking” explains why a man who tells his
wife he has nothing to report about his day might later find a funny story to tell at
dinner with two other couples (leaving his wife wondering, “Why didn’t he tell me
first?”).
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Who is the most passive figure in this group?
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CHAPTER 1 Writers and Their Sources 9
In addition to situation, you have to consider what speakers are doing with
words. Campbell and Ayres note that many studies find women doing more
“affiliative speech” such as showing support, agreeing or acknowledging others’
comments. Drawing on studies of children at play as well as my own research of
adults talking, I often put it this way: For women and girls, talk is the glue that
holds a relationship together. Their best friend is the one they tell everything to.
Spending an evening at home with a spouse is when this kind of talk comes into
its own. Since this situation is uncommon among college students, it’s another
factor skewing the new study’s results.
Women’s rapport-talk probably explains why many people think women talk
more. A man wants to read the paper, his wife wants to talk; his girlfriend or sister
spends hours on the phone with her friend or her mother. He concludes: Women
talk more.
Yet Leaper and Ayres observed an overall pattern of men speaking more.
That’s a conclusion women often come to when men hold forth at meetings,
in social groups or when delivering one-on-one lectures. All of us—women
and men—tend to notice others talking more in situations where we talk less.
Counting may be a start—or a stop along the way—to understanding gender
differences. But it’s understanding when we tend to talk and what we’re doing
with words that yields insights we can count on.
Deborah Tannen, “Who Does the Talking Here?” The Washington Post, 15 Jul. 2007. Copyright ©2007
Deborah Tannen. Reprinted by permission.
10
11
12
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QUESTIONS FOR READING AND REASONING
1. What was the conclusion of the researchers who presented their study in Science?
2. Why are their results not telling the whole story, according to Tannen? Instead of count-
ing words, what should we study?
3. What two kinds of talk does Tannen label? Which gender does the most of each type of
talking?
4. What is Tannen’s main idea or thesis?
QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION AND WRITING
5. How do the details—and the style—in the opening and concluding paragraphs
contribute to the author’s point? Write a paragraph answer to this question. Then
consider: Which one of the different responses to reading does your paragraph
illustrate?
6. Do you agree with Tannen that understanding how words are used must be part of any
study of men and women talking? If so, why? If not, how would you respond to her
argument?
7. “The Gettysburg Address” is a valuable document for several kinds of research projects.
For what kinds of research would Tannen’s essay be useful? List several possibilities
and be prepared to discuss your list with classmates.
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10 SECTION 1 CRITICAL READING AND ANALYSIS
WRITING SUMMARIES
Preparing a good summary is not easy. A summary briefly restates, in your own words,
the main points of a work in a way that does not misrepresent or distort the original.
A good summary shows your grasp of main ideas and your ability to express them
clearly. You need to condense the original while giving all key ideas appropriate
attention. As a student you may be assigned a summary to
• show that you have read and understood assigned works;
• complete a test question;
• have a record of what you have read for future study or to prepare for class discus-
sion; or
• explain the main ideas in a work that you will also examine in some other way,
such as in a book review.
When assigned a summary, pay careful attention to word choice. Avoid judgment
words, such as “Brown then proceeds to develop the silly idea that. . . .” Follow these
guidelines for writing good summaries.
GUIDELINES for Writing Summaries
1. Write in a direct, objective style, using your own words. Use few, if any,
direct quotations, probably none in a one-paragraph summary.
2. Begin with a reference to the writer (full name) and the title of the work,
and then state the writer’s thesis. (You may also want to include where
and when the work was published.)
3. Complete the summary by providing other key ideas. Show the reader
how the main ideas connect and relate to one another.
4. For short summaries, do not include specific examples, illustrations, or
background sections. For longer summaries of a complex work, use spe-
cific examples sparingly. Instead, paraphrase information from the original
piece (see pp. 16−18 for more information on paraphrasing).
5. Combine main ideas into fewer sentences than were used in the original.
6. Keep the parts of your summary in the same balance as you find in
the original. If the author devotes about 30 percent of the essay to
one idea, that idea should get about 30 percent of the space in your
summary.
7. Select precise, accurate verbs to show the author’s relationship to ideas.
Write Jones argues, Jones asserts, Jones believes. Do not use vague verbs
that provide only a list of disconnected ideas. Do not write Jones talks
about, Jones goes on to say.
8. Do not make any judgments about the writer’s style or ideas. Do not in-
clude your personal reaction to the work.
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CHAPTER 1 Writers and Their Sources 11
EXERCISE: Summary
With these guidelines in mind, read the following two summaries of Deborah Tannen’s “Who
Does the Talking Here?” (see pp. 7–9). Then answer the question: What is flawed or weak about
each summary? To aid your analysis, (1) underline or highlight all words or phrases that are
inappropriate in each summary, and (2) put the number of the guideline next to any passage that
does not adhere to that guideline.
SUMMARY 1
I really thought that Deborah Tannen’s essay contained some interest-
ing ideas about how men and women talk. Tannen mentioned a study
in which men and women used almost the same number of words. She
goes on to talk about a man who talked a lot at a meeting in Virginia.
Tannen also says that women talk more to make others feel good. I’m a
man, and I don’t like to make small talk.
SUMMARY 2
In Deborah Tannen’s “Who Does the Talking Here?” (published July 15,
2007), she talks about studies to test who talks more—men or women.
Some people think the case is closed—they both talk about the same
number of words. Tannen goes on to say that she thinks people use
words differently. Men talk a lot at events; they use “report-talk.”
Women use “rapport-talk” to strengthen relationships; their language is
a glue to maintain relationships. So just counting words does not work.
You have to know why someone is speaking.
Although we can agree that the writers of these summaries have read Tannen’s essay, we can
also find weaknesses in each summary. Certainly the second summary is more helpful than the
first, but it can be strengthened by eliminating some details, combining some ideas, and putting
more focus on Tannen’s main idea. Here is a much-improved version:
REVISED SUMMARY
In Deborah Tannen’s essay “Who Does the Talking Here?” (published
July 15, 2007), Tannen asserts that recent studies to determine if
men or women do the most talking are not helpful in answering that
question. These studies focus on just counting the words that men
and women use. Tannen argues that the only useful study of this
issue is one that examines how each gender uses words and in
which situations each gender does the most talking. She explains
that men tend to use “report-talk” whereas women tend to use
“rapport-talk.” That is, men will do much of the talking in meetings
when they have something to report. Women, on the other hand, will
do more of the talking when they are seeking to connect in a
relationship, to make people feel good. So, if we want to really
understand the differences, we need to stop counting words and
listen to what each gender is actually doing with the words that are
spoken.
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12 SECTION 1 CRITICAL READING AND ANALYSIS
At times you may need to write a summary of a page or two rather than one paragraph.
Frequently, long reports are preceded by a one-page summary. A longer summary may become part
of an article-length review of an important book. Or instructors may want a longer summary of a
lengthy or complicated article or text chapter. The following is an example of a summary of a
lengthy article on cardiovascular health.
SAMPLE LONGER SUMMARY
In her article “The Good Heart,” Anne Underwood (Newsweek, October
3, 2005) explores recent studies regarding heart disease that, in
various ways, reveal the important role that one’s attitudes have on
physical health, especially the health of the heart. She begins with the
results of a study published in The New England Journal of Medicine
that examined the dramatic increase in cardiovascular deaths after an
earthquake in Los Angeles in 1994. People who were not hurt by the
quake died as a result of the fear and stress brought on by the event.
As Underwood explains in detail, however, studies continue to show
that psychological and social factors affect coronaries even more than
sudden shocks such as earthquakes. For example, according to
Dr. Michael Frenneaux, depression “at least doubles an otherwise
healthy person’s heart-attack risk.” A Duke University study showed
that high levels of hostility also raised the risk of death by heart
disease. Another study showed that childhood traumas can increase
heart disease risks by 30 to 70 percent. Adults currently living under
work and family stress also increase their risks significantly.
How do attitudes make a difference? A number of studies
demonstrate that negative attitudes, anger, and hostile feelings directly
affect the chemistry of the body in ways that damage blood vessels.
They also can raise blood pressure. Less directly, people with these
attitudes and under stress often eat more, exercise less, and are more
likely to smoke. These behaviors add to one’s risk. Some physicians
are seeking to use this information to increase the longevity of heart
patients. They are advising weight loss and exercise, yoga and therapy,
recognizing, as Underwood concludes, that “the heart does not beat in
isolation, nor does the mind brood alone.”
Observe the differences between the longer summary of Anne Underwood’s article and the
paragraph summary of Deborah Tannen’s essay:
• Some key ideas or terms may be presented in direct quotation.
• Results of studies may be given in some detail.
• Appropriate transitional and connecting words are used to show how the parts of
the summary connect.
• The author’s name is often repeated to keep the reader’s attention on the article
summarized, not on the author of the summary.
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CHAPTER 1 Writers and Their Sources 13
ACTIVE READING: USE YOUR MIND!
Reading is not about looking at black marks on a page—or turning the pages as quickly
as we can. Reading means constructing meaning, getting a message. We read with our
brains, not our eyes and hands! This concept is often underscored by the term active
reading. To help you always achieve active reading, not passive page turning, follow
these guidelines.
GUIDELINES for Active
Reading
1. Understand your purpose in reading. Do not just start turning pages to
complete an assignment. Think first about your purpose. Are you reading
for knowledge on which you will be tested? Focus on your purpose as you
read, asking yourself, “What do I need to learn from this work?”
2. Reflect on the title before reading further. Titles are the first words writers
give us. Take time to look for clues in a title that may reveal the work’s sub-
ject and perhaps the writer’s approach or attitude as well. Henry Fairlie’s
title “The Idiocy of Urban Life,” for example, tells you both Fairlie’s subject
(urban or city living) and his position (urban living is idiotic).
3. Become part of the writer’s audience. Not all writers have you and me in
mind when they write. As an active reader, you need to “join” a writer’s au-
dience by learning about the writer, about the time in which the piece was
written, and about the writer’s expected audience. For readings in this text
you are aided by introductory notes; study them.
4. Predict what is coming. Look for a writer’s main idea or purpose statement.
Study the work’s organization. Then use this information to anticipate what
is coming. When you read “There are three good reasons for requiring a
dress code in schools,” you know the writer will list three reasons.
5. Concentrate. Slow down and give your full attention to reading. Watch for
transition and connecting words that show you how the parts of a text con-
nect. Read an entire article or chapter at one time—or you will need to start
over to make sense of the piece.
6. Annotate as you read. The more senses you use, the more active your in-
volvement. That means marking the text as you read (or taking notes if the
material is not yours). Underline key sentences, such as the writer’s thesis.
Then, in the margin, indicate that it is the thesis. With a series of examples
(or reasons), label them and number them. When you look up a word’s defi-
nition, write the definition in the margin next to the word. Draw diagrams to
illustrate concepts; draw arrows to connect example to idea. Studies have
shown that students who annotate their texts get higher grades. Do what
successful students do.
7. Keep a reading journal. In addition to annotating what you read, you may
want to develop the habit of writing regularly in a journal. A reading journal
gives you a place to note impressions and reflections on your reading, your
initial reactions to assignments, and ideas you may use in your next writing.
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14 SECTION 1 CRITICAL READING AND ANALYSIS
EXERCISE: Active Reading
Read the following essay, studying the annotations that are started for you. As you read, add
your own notes. Then test your active reading by responding to the questions that follow the
essay.
ACTUALLY, LET’S NOT BE IN THE MOMENT RUTH WHIPPMAN
Formerly a producer and director of BBC documentaries, Ruth Whippman now lives in
California with her family and devotes her professional life to writing. She is the author
of The Pursuit of Happiness and America the Anxious as well as essays that appear
frequently in newspapers and magazines. The following article, drawn from her second
book, was published November 27, 2016.
I’m at the kitchen sink, after a long day of work and kids and chores and the
emotional exhaustion of a toxic election season, attempting to mindfully focus on
congealed SpaghettiOs. My brain flits to the Netflix queue. I manhandle my
thoughts back to the leaky orange glob in front of me. My brain flits to the
president-elect.
I’m making a failed attempt at “mindful dishwashing,” the subject of a how-to
article an acquaintance recently shared on Facebook. According to the practice’s
thought leaders, in order to maximize our happiness, we should refuse to succumb
to domestic autopilot and instead be fully “in” the present moment, engaging
completely with every clump of oatmeal and decomposing particle of scrambled
egg. Mindfulness is supposed to be a defense against the pressures of modern
life, but it’s starting to feel suspiciously like it’s actually adding to them. It’s a
special circle of self-improvement hell,
striving not just for a Pinterest-worthy
home, but a Pinterest-worthy mind.
Perhaps the single philosophical
consensus of our time is that the key to
contentment lies in living fully mentally
in the present. The idea that we should
be constantly policing our thoughts
away from the past, the future, the
imagination or the abstract and back to
whatever is happening right now has
gained traction with spiritual leaders
and investment bankers, armchair
p h i l o s o p h e r s a n d g o v e r n m e n t
bureaucrats and human resources
departments. Corporate America offers
its employees mindfulness training to
“streamline their productivity,” and the
United States military offers it to the
Marine Corps. Americans now spend an
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2
Not dishwashing
— idea of
mindfulness
3
1Topic?
Wash with your hands; contemplate
more important issues with your mind!
©
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CHAPTER 1 Writers and Their Sources 15
estimated $4 billion each year on “mindfulness products.” “Living in the Moment”
has monetized its folksy charm into a multibillion-dollar spiritual industrial
complex.
So does the moment really deserve its many accolades? It is a philosophy
likely to be more rewarding for those whose lives contain more privileged mo-
ments than grinding, humiliating or exhausting ones. Those for whom a given
moment is more likely to be “sun-dappled yoga pose” than “hour 11 manning the
deep-fat fryer.”
On the face of it, our lives are often much more fulfilling lived outside the
present than in it. As anyone who has ever maintained that they will one day lose
10 pounds or learn Spanish or find the matching lids for the Tupperware will
know, we often anticipate our futures with more blind optimism than the reality is
likely to warrant.
Surely one of the most magnificent feats of the human brain is its ability to
hold past, present, future and their imagined alternatives in constant parallel, to
offset the tedium of washing dishes with the chance to be simultaneously
mentally in Bangkok, or in Don Draper’s bed, or finally telling your elderly relative
that despite her belief that “no one born in the 1970s died,” using a car seat isn’t
spoiling your child. It’s hard to see why greater happiness would be achieved by
reining in that magical sense of scope and possibility to outstare a SpaghettiO.
What differentiates humans from animals is exactly this ability to step men-
tally outside of whatever is happening to us right now, and to assign it context
and significance. Our happiness does not come so much from our experiences
themselves, but from the stories we tell ourselves that make them matter.
But still, the advice to be more mindful often contains a hefty scoop of mor-
alizing smugness, a kind of “moment-shaming” for the distractible, like a stern
teacher scolding us for failing to concentrate in class. The implication is that by
neglecting to live in the moment we are ungrateful and unspontaneous, we are
wasting our lives, and therefore if we are unhappy, we really have only ourselves
to blame.
This judgmental tone is part of a long history of self-help-based cultural
thought policing. At its worst, the positive-thinking movement deftly rebranded
actual problems as “problematic thoughts.” Now mindfulness has taken its place
as the focus of our appetite for inner self-improvement. Where once problems
ranging from bad marriages and work stress to poverty and race discrimination
were routinely dismissed as a failure to “think positive,” now our preferred solu-
tion to life’s complex and entrenched problems is to instruct the distressed to be
more mindful.
This is a kind of neo-liberalism of the emotions, in which happiness is seen
not as a response to our circumstances but as a result of our own individual men-
tal effort, a reward for the deserving. The problem is not your sky-high rent or
meager paycheck, your cheating spouse or unfair boss or teetering pile of dirty
dishes. The problem is you.
It is, of course, easier and cheaper to blame the individual for thinking the
wrong thoughts than it is to tackle the thorny causes of his unhappiness. So we
give inner-city schoolchildren mindfulness classes rather than engage with
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16 SECTION 1 CRITICAL READING AND ANALYSIS
education inequality, and instruct exhausted office workers in mindful breathing
rather than giving them paid vacation or better health care benefits.
In reality, despite many grand claims, the scientific evidence in favor of the
Moment’s being the key to contentment is surprisingly weak. When the United
States Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality conducted an enormous
meta-analysis of over 18,000 separate studies on meditation and mindfulness
techniques, the results were underwhelming at best.
Although some of the studies did show that mindfulness meditation or other
similar exercises might bring some small benefits to people in comparison with
doing nothing, when they are compared with pretty much any general relaxation
technique at all, including exercise, muscle relaxation, “listening to spiritual
audiotapes” or indeed any control condition that gives equal time and attention
to the person, they perform no better, and in many cases, worse.
So perhaps, rather than expending our energy struggling to stay in the
Moment, we should simply be grateful that our brains allow us to be elsewhere.
Ruth Whippman, “Actually, Let’s Not Be in the Moment,” The New York Times, 27 Nov. 2016. Copyright
©2016 by Ruth Whippman. Used with permission of the author.
12
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14
QUESTIONS FOR READING AND REASONING
1. What is the meaning of mindfulness? How do we practice it?
2. What are the presumed advantages of the practice of mindfulness?
3. What is the author’s view of this new concept? State her view as a thesis—the claim of
her essay.
4. How does Whippman support her claim? List specific details of her support.
QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION AND WRITING
5. In paragraph 3, Whippman demonstrates the current popularity of mindfulness; what is
clever about her discussion in this paragraph?
6. What is the most interesting piece of information or concept, for you, in Whippman’s
essay? Why? Write a journal entry—four or five sentences at least—in response to this
question.
USING PARAPHRASE
Paraphrasing’s goal is the same as summary’s: an accurate presentation of the informa-
tion and ideas of someone else. Unlike summary, we paraphrase an entire short work.
This can be a poem (see pp. 528–29 for a paraphrase of a poem) or a complex section of
prose that needs a simpler (but often longer than the original) restatement so that we are
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CHAPTER 1 Writers and Their Sources 17
clear about its meaning. We paraphrase short but complex pieces; we summarize an
entire essay or chapter or book.
Writers also use paraphrasing to restate some of the information or ideas from a
source as part of developing their own work. They do this extensively in a researched
essay, but they may also paraphrase parts of a source to add support to their
discussion—or to be clear about another writer’s ideas that they will evaluate or
challenge in some way.
Think, for a moment, about the writing process. Writers use many kinds of
experiences to develop their work. Formal researched essays contain precise
documentation and may use summary, paraphrase, and direct quotations, but they
rarely include personal references. Today, however, writers may blend styles and
strategies—in personal essays and researched essays, for example—rather than keeping
them distinct. And some scholars today also write books for nonspecialists. In these
books—or articles—documentation is placed only at the back, a more informal style is
used, and personal experiences may be included to engage readers. Journalists, too,
often blend personal experience and informal styles while drawing on one or more
sources to develop and support their ideas. Among the readings in this text you will
find a few personal essays and scholarly essays as well as works demonstrating a
blending of styles and strategies. This blending can be confusing for college students.
Make sure that you always understand what kind of work you are expected to produce
in each class, for every assignment.
Now, to illustrate paraphrase, suppose you don’t want to summarize Lincoln’s en-
tire speech, but you do want to use his opening point as a lead-in to commenting on our
own times. You might write:
Lincoln’s famous speech at the dedication of the Gettysburg battlefield begins with the
observation that our nation was initially built on a belief in liberty and equality, but
the country’s future had come to a point of being tested. We are not actually facing a
civil war today, but we are facing a culture war, a war of opposing values and beliefs,
that seems to be tearing our country apart.
Paraphrasing—putting Lincoln’s idea into your own words—is a much more effec-
tive opening than quoting Lincoln’s first two sentences. It’s his idea that you want to
use, not his language.
NOTE: Observe three key points:
1. The idea is Lincoln’s but the word choice is entirely different. Resist the
urge to borrow any of Lincoln’s phrases—that would be quoting and
would require quotation marks—and that does not serve your purpose.
2. You still give credit to Lincoln for the idea.
3. Summary, paraphrasing, and quoting all share this one characteristic:
You let readers know that you are using someone else’s information or
ideas.
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18 SECTION 1 CRITICAL READING AND ANALYSIS
EXERCISE: Paraphrase
1. Find several examples of paraphrasing in Whippman’s essay.
2. Assume that you are writing an essay on the disadvantages of mindfulness. Paraphrase
the ideas in Whippman’s paragraphs 9 and 10 to use in your assumed essay.
3. For an essay on the problems with the concept of mindfulness, evaluate the following
two paragraphs that use some material from Whippman’s essay.
PARAPHRASE 1
The currently popular concept of mindfulness actually comes with
problems. This concept seems to suggest that it’s our fault if we are
unhappy; we have failed to live each moment with positive thoughts.
Mindfulness also shifts the focus from trying to address real problems
in education and the workplace to teaching students and workers deep
breathing exercises, as Ruth Whippman observes.
PARAPHRASE 2
The currently popular concept of mindfulness actually comes with
problems. In her essay “Actually, Let’s Not Be in the Moment,” Ruth
Whippman worries that mindfulness seems to blame unhappy people
for failing to live each moment with positive thoughts. As Whippman
observes, mindfulness also shifts the focus from trying to address real
problems in education and the workplace to teaching student and
workers deep breathing exercises.
ACKNOWLEDGING SOURCES INFORMALLY
As you have seen in the summaries and paraphrases above, even when you are not
writing a formally documented paper, you must identify each source by author. What
follows are some of the conventions of writing to use when writing about sources.
Referring to People and Sources
Readers in academic, professional, and business contexts expect writers to follow spe-
cific conventions of style when referring to authors and to various kinds of sources.
Study the following guidelines and examples, and then mark the next few pages for easy
reference—perhaps by turning down a corner of the first and last pages.
References to People
• In a first reference, give the person’s full name (both the given name and the sur-
name): Ellen Goodman, Robert J. Samuelson. In second and subsequent references,
use only the last name (surname): Goodman, Samuelson.
• Do not use Mr., Mrs., or Ms. Special titles such as President, Chief Justice, or
Doctor may be used in the first reference with the person’s full name.
■ ■
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CHAPTER 1 Writers and Their Sources 19
• Never refer to an author by her or his first name. Write Tannen, not Deborah;
Lincoln, not Abraham.
References to Titles of Works
Titles of works must always be written as titles. Titles are indicated by capitalization
and by either quotation marks or italics. The examples provided below show when to
use quotation marks and when to use italics.
Guidelines for Capitalizing Titles
• The first and last words are capitalized.
• The first word of a subtitle is capitalized.
• All other words in titles are capitalized except
— Articles (a, an, the).
— Coordinating conjunctions (and, or, but, for, nor, yet, so).
— Prepositions (in, for, about).
Titles Requiring Quotation Marks
Titles of works published within other works—within a book, magazine, or newspaper—
are indicated by quotation marks.
ESSAYS “Who Does the Talking Here?”
SHORT STORIES “The Story of an Hour”
POEMS “To Daffodils”
ARTICLES “Choose Your Utopia”
CHAPTERS “Writers and Their Sources”
LECTURES “Crazy Mixed-Up Families”
TV EPISODES “Pride and Prejudice” (one drama on the television show
Masterpiece Theatre)
Titles Requiring Italics
Titles of works that are separate publications and, by extension, titles of items such as
works of art and websites are in italics.
PLAYS A Raisin in the Sun
NOVELS War and Peace
NONFICTION BOOKS Read, Reason, Write: An Argument Text
and Reader
BOOK-LENGTH POEMS The Odyssey
MAGAZINES AND JOURNALS Wired
NEWSPAPERS The Wall Street Journal
FILMS The Wizard of Oz
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20 SECTION 1 CRITICAL READING AND ANALYSIS
PAINTINGS The Birth of Venus
TELEVISION PROGRAMS Star Trek
WEBSITES www.worldwildlife.org
DATABASES ProQuest
Read the following article and respond by answering the questions that follow.
Observe, as you read, how the author refers to the various sources he uses to develop his
article and how he presents material from those sources. We will use this article as a
guide to handling quotations.
THE FUTURE IS NOW: IT’S HEADING RIGHT
AT US, BUT WE NEVER SEE IT COMING JOEL ACHENBACH
A former humor columnist and currently a staff writer for The Washington Post, Joel
Achenbach also has a regular blog www.washingtonpost.com. His books include
anthologies of his columns and Captured by Aliens: The Search for Life and Truth in a
Very Large Universe (2003). The following article was published April 13, 2008.
PREREADING QUESTIONS What is nanotechnology? What do you think will be the next
big change—and what field will it come from?
The most important things happening in the world today won’t make tomor-
row’s front page. They won’t get mentioned by presidential candidates or Chris
Matthews1 or Bill O’Reilly2 or any of the other folks yammering and snorting on
cable television.
They’ll be happening in laboratories—out of sight, inscrutable and unhyped
until the very moment when they change life as we know it.
Science and technology form a two-headed, unstoppable change agent.
Problem is, most of us are mystified and intimidated by such things as biotech-
nology, or nanotechnology, or the various other -ologies that seem to be threat-
ening to merge into a single unspeakable and incomprehensible thing called
biotechnonanogenomicology. We vaguely understand that this stuff is changing
our lives, but we feel as though it’s all out of our control. We’re just hanging on
tight, like Kirk and Spock when the Enterprise starts vibrating at Warp 8.
What’s unnerving is the velocity at which the future sometimes arrives.
Consider the Internet. This powerful but highly disruptive technology crept out of
the lab (a Pentagon think tank, actually) and all but devoured modern civilization—
with almost no advance warning. The first use of the word “internet” to refer to a
computer network seems to have appeared in this newspaper on Sept. 26, 1988,
in the Financial section, on page F30—about as deep into the paper as you can
go without hitting the bedrock of the classified ads.
1
2
3
4
1 Political talk-show host on MSNBC.—Ed.
2 Former radio and television talk-show host on the FOX News Channel.—Ed.
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CHAPTER 1 Writers and Their Sources 21
The entire reference: “SMS Data Products Group Inc. in McLean won a
$1,005,048 contract from the Air Force to supply a defense data network internet
protocol router.” Perhaps the unmellifluous compound noun “data network
internet protocol router” is one reason more of us didn’t pay attention. A couple
of months later, “Internet”—still lacking the “the” before its name—finally elbowed
its way to the front page when a virus shut down thousands of computers. The
story referred to “a research network called Internet,” which “links as many as
50,000 computers, allowing users to send a variety of information to each other.”
The scientists knew that computer networks could be powerful. But how many
knew that this Internet thing would change the way we communicate, publish,
sell, shop, conduct research, find old friends, do homework, plan trips and on
and on?
Joe Lykken, a theoretical physicist at the Fermilab research center in Illinois,
tells a story about something that happened in 1990. A Fermilab visitor, an
English fellow by the name of Tim Berners-Lee, had a new trick he wanted to
demonstrate to the physicists. He typed some code into a little blank box on the
computer screen. Up popped a page of data.
Lykken’s reaction: Eh.
He could already see someone else’s data on a computer. He could have
the colleague e-mail it to him and open it as a document. Why view it on a sepa-
rate page on some computer network?
But of course, this unimpressive piece of software was the precursor to what
is known today as the World Wide Web. “We had no idea that we were seeing
not only a revolution, but a trillion-dollar idea,” Lykken says.
Now let us pause to reflect upon the fact that Joe Lykken is a very smart
guy—you don’t get to be a theoretical physicist unless you have the kind of brain
that can practically bend silverware at a distance—and even he, with that giant
cerebral cortex and the billions of neurons flashing and winking, saw the
proto-Web and harrumphed. It’s not just us mortals, even scientists don’t always
grasp the significance of innovations. Tomorrow’s revolutionary technology may
be in plain sight, but everyone’s eyes, clouded by conventional thinking, just
can’t detect it. “Even smart people are really pretty incapable of envisioning a
situation that’s substantially different from what they’re in,” says Christine
Peterson, vice president of Foresight Nanotech Institute in Menlo Park, Calif.
So where does that leave the rest of us?
In technological Palookaville.
Science is becoming ever more specialized; technology is increasingly a se-
ries of black boxes, impenetrable to but a few. Americans’ poor science literacy
means that science and technology exist in a walled garden, a geek ghetto. We
are a technocracy in which most of us don’t really understand what’s happening
around us. We stagger through a world of technological and medical miracles.
We’re zombified by progress.
Peterson has one recommendation: Read science fiction, especially “hard
science fiction” that sticks rigorously to the scientifically possible. “If you look out
into the long-term future and what you see looks like science fiction, it might be
wrong,” she says. “But if it doesn’t look like science fiction, it’s definitely wrong.”
5
6
8
7
9
10
11
12
13
14
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22 SECTION 1 CRITICAL READING AND ANALYSIS
That’s exciting—and a little scary. We want the blessings of science (say,
cheaper energy sources) but not the terrors (monsters spawned by atomic radi-
ation that destroy entire cities with their fiery breath).
Eric Horvitz, one of the sharpest minds at Microsoft, spends a lot of time
thinking about the Next Big Thing. Among his other duties, he’s president of the
Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence. He thinks that, some-
time in the decades ahead, artificial systems will be modeled on living things. In
the Horvitz view, life is marked by robustness, flexibility, adaptability. That’s
where computers need to go. Life, he says, shows scientists “what we can do as
engineers—better, potentially.”
Our ability to monkey around with life itself is a reminder that ethics, religion
and old-fashioned common sense will be needed in abundance in decades to
come. . . . How smart and flexible and rambunctious do we want our computers
to be? Let’s not mess around with that Matrix business.
Every forward-thinking person almost ritually brings up the mortality issue.
What’ll happen to society if one day people can stop the aging process? Or if
only rich people can stop getting old?
It’s interesting that politicians rarely address such matters. The future in gen-
eral is something of a suspect topic . . . a little goofy. Right now we’re all focused
on the next primary, the summer conventions, the Olympics and their political
implications, the fall election. The political cycle enforces an emphasis on the
immediate rather than the important.
And in fact, any prediction of what the world will be like more than, say, a
year from now is a matter of hubris. The professional visionaries don’t even talk
about predictions or forecasts but prefer the word “scenarios.” When Sen. John
McCain, for example, declares that radical Islam is the transcendent challenge of
the 21st century, he’s being sincere, but he’s also being a bit of a soothsayer.
Environmental problems and resource scarcity could easily be the dominant
global dilemma. Or a virus with which we’ve yet to make our acquaintance. Or
some other “wild card.”
Says Lykken, “Our ability to predict is incredibly poor. What we all thought
when I was a kid was that by now we’d all be flying around in anti-gravity cars on
Mars.”
Futurists didn’t completely miss on space travel—it’s just that the things fly-
ing around Mars are robotic and take neat pictures and sometimes land and sniff
the soil.
Some predictions are bang-on, such as sci-fi writer Arthur C. Clarke’s decla-
ration in 1945 that there would someday be communications satellites orbiting
the Earth. But Clarke’s satellites had to be occupied by repairmen who would
maintain the huge computers required for space communications. Even in the
late 1960s, when Clarke collaborated with Stanley Kubrick on the screenplay to
2001: A Space Odyssey, he assumed that computers would, over time, get big-
ger. “The HAL 9000 computer fills half the spaceship,” Lykken notes.
Says science-fiction writer Ben Bova, “We have built into us an idea that
tomorrow is going to be pretty much like today, which is very wrong.”
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
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CHAPTER 1 Writers and Their Sources 23
The future is often viewed as an endless resource of innovation that will
make problems go away—even though, if the past is any judge, innovations cre-
ate their own set of new problems. Climate change is at least in part a conse-
quence of the invention of the steam engine in the early 1700s and all the
industrial advances that followed.
Look again at the Internet. It’s a fantastic tool, but it also threatens to disperse
information we’d rather keep under wraps, such as our personal medical data, or
even the instructions for making a fission bomb.
We need to keep our eyes open. The future is going to be here sooner than
we think. It’ll surprise us. We’ll try to figure out why we missed so many clues.
And we’ll go back and search the archives, and see that thing we should have
noticed on page F30.
Joel Achenbach, “The Future Is Now,” The Washington Post, 13 Apr. 2008. Copyright ©2008 The
Washington Post. All rights reserved. Used by permission and protected by the Copyright Laws of the
United States. The printing, copying, redistribution, or retransmission of the Material without express
written permission is prohibited. www.washingtonpost.com.
25
26
27
QUESTIONS FOR READING AND REASONING
1. What is Achenbach’s subject? What is his thesis? Where does he state it?
2. What two agents together are likely to produce the next big change?
3. Summarize the evidence Achenbach provides to support the idea that we don’t recog-
nize the next big change until it is here.
4. If we want to try to anticipate the next big change, what should we do?
5. What prediction did Arthur C. Clarke get right? In what way was his imagination incor-
rect? What can readers infer from this example?
6. Are big changes always good? Explain.
7. How does Achenbach identify most of his sources? He does not identify Chris
Matthews or Bill O’Reilly in paragraph 1. What does this tell you about his expected
audience?
PRESENTING DIRECT QUOTATIONS: A GUIDE
TO FORM AND STYLE
Although most of your papers will be written in your own words and style, you will
sometimes use direct quotations. Just as there is a correct form for references to people
and to works, there is a correct form for presenting borrowed material in direct quota-
tions. Study the guidelines and examples and then mark these pages, as you did the
others, for easy reference.
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24 SECTION 1 CRITICAL READING AND ANALYSIS
Reasons for Using Quotation Marks
We use quotation marks in four ways:
• To indicate dialogue in works of fiction and drama
• To indicate the titles of some kinds of works
• To indicate the words that others have spoken or written
• To separate ourselves from or call into question particular uses of words
The following guidelines apply to all four uses of quotation marks, but the focus
will be on the third use.
A Brief Guide to Quoting
1. Quote accurately. Do not misrepresent what someone else has written. Take time to
compare what you have written with the original.
2. Put all words taken from a source within quotation marks. (To take words from a
source without using quotation marks is to plagiarize, a form of stealing punished in
academic and professional communities.)
3. Never change any of the words within your quotation marks. Indicate any deleted
words with ellipses [spaced periods (. . .)]. If you need to add words to make the mean-
ing clear, place the added words in [square brackets], not (parentheses).
4. Always make the source of the quoted words clear. If you do not provide the author of
the quoted material, readers will have to assume that you are calling those words into
question—the fourth reason for quoting. Observe that Achenbach introduces Joe
Lykken in paragraph 6 and then uses his last name or “he” through the next three para-
graphs so that readers always know to whom he is referring and quoting.
5. When quoting an author who is quoted by the author of the source you are using, you
must make clear that you are getting that author’s words from your source, not
directly from that author.
For example:
original: “We had no idea that we were seeing not only a revolution, but a
trillion-dollar idea.”
incorrect: Referring to his first experience with the World Wide Web, Lykken
observed: “We had no idea that we were seeing . . . a revolution.”
correct: To make his point about our failure to recognize big changes
when they first appear, Achenbach quotes theoretical physicist
Joe Lykken’s response to first seeing the World Wide Web:
“We had no idea that we were seeing . . . a revolution.”
6. Place commas and periods inside the closing quotation mark—even when only one
word is quoted: Unable to anticipate big changes coming from modern science, we are,
Achenbach observes, in “technological Palookaville.”
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CHAPTER 1 Writers and Their Sources 25
7. Place colons and semicolons outside the closing quotation mark: Achenbach jokingly
explains our reaction to the complexities of modern technologies in his essay “The
Future Is Now”: “We’re zombified by progress.”
8. Do not quote unnecessary punctuation. When you place quoted material at the end of
a sentence you have written, use only the punctuation needed to complete your sentence.
original: The next big change will be “happening in laboratories—out
of sight, inscrutable, and unhyped.”
incorrect: Achenbach explains that we will be surprised by the next big
change because it will, initially, be hidden, “happening in
laboratories—.”
correct: Achenbach explains that we will be surprised by the next big
change because it will, initially, be hidden, “happening in
laboratories.”
9. When the words you quote are only a part of your sentence, do not capitalize the first
quoted word, even if it was capitalized in the source. Exception: You introduce the
quoted material with a colon.
incorrect: Achenbach observes that “The future is often viewed as an
endless resource of innovation.”
correct: Achenbach observes that “the future is often viewed as an
endless resource of innovation.”
also correct: Achenbach argues that we count too much on modern
science to solve problems: “The future is often viewed as
an endless resource of innovation.”
10. Use single quotation marks (the apostrophe key on your keyboard) to identify quoted
material within quoted material: Achenbach explains that futurists “prefer the word
‘scenarios.’”
11. Depending on the structure of your sentence, use a colon, a comma, or no punctua-
tion before a quoted passage. A colon provides a formal introduction to a quoted pas-
sage. (See the example in item 9.) Use a comma only when your sentence requires it.
Quoted words presented in a “that” clause are not preceded by a comma.
original: “What’s unnerving is the velocity at which the future some-
times arrives.”
correct: “What’s unnerving,” Achenbach notes, “is the velocity at
which the future sometimes arrives.”
also correct: Achenbach observes that we are often unnerved by “the
velocity at which the future sometimes arrives.”
12. To keep quotations brief, omit irrelevant portions. Indicate missing words with
ellipses. For example: Achenbach explains that “we want the blessings of science . . .
but not the terrors.” Some instructors want the ellipses placed in square brackets—
[. . .]—to show that you have added them to the original. Modern Language Association
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26 SECTION 1 CRITICAL READING AND ANALYSIS
(MLA) style does not require the square brackets unless you are quoting a passage that
already has ellipses as part of that passage. The better choice would be not to quote that
passage.
13. Consider the poor reader.
• Always give enough context to make the quoted material clear.
• Do not put so many bits and pieces of quoted passages into one sentence that
your reader struggles to follow the ideas.
• Make sure that your sentences are complete and correctly constructed. Quoting
is never an excuse for a sentence fragment or distorted construction.
NOTE: All examples of quoting given above are in the present tense. We
write that “Achenbach notes,” “Achenbach believes,” “Achenbach asserts.”
Even though his article was written in the past, we use the present tense to
describe his ongoing ideas. (APA style differs somewhat; if you are going to
document in APA style, check guidelines for using present or past tense
when writing about the ideas of others.)
FOR READING AND ANALYSIS
As you read the following article, practice active reading, including annotating each es-
say. Concentrate first on what the author has to say, but also observe the organization of
the essay and the author’s use of quotations and references to other authors and works.
FIVE LEADERSHIP LESSONS
FROM JAMES T. KIRK ALEX KNAPP
Currently social media editor at Forbes magazine and popular blogger, Alex Knapp has
been a freelance writer and editor for many years. He holds a law degree from the Uni-
versity of Kansas and focuses, in his writing, on the future of technology and culture.
PREREADING QUESTIONS What lessons might Captain Kirk have to offer to
businesspeople who read Forbes magazine? How might these lessons have value to
you as a college student?
Captain James T. Kirk is one of the most famous Captains in the history of Star-
fleet. There’s a good reason for that. He saved the planet Earth several times,
stopped the Doomsday Machine, helped negotiate peace with the Klingon Empire,
kept the balance of power between the Federation and the Romulan Empire, and
even managed to fight Nazis. On his five-year mission commanding the U.S.S. Enter-
prise, as well as subsequent commands, James T. Kirk was a quintessential leader,
who led his crew into the unknown and continued to succeed time and time again.
1
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CHAPTER 1 Writers and Their Sources 27
Kirk’s success was no
fluke, either. His style of
command demonstrates a
keen understanding of
leadership and how to
maintain a team that suc-
ceeds time and time again,
regardless of the dangers
faced. Here are five of the
key leadership lessons
that you can take away
from Captain Kirk as you
pilot your own organiza-
tion into unknown futures.
1. NEVER STOP LEARNING
“You know the greatest danger facing us is ourselves, an irrational fear of
the unknown. But there’s no such thing as the unknown—only things temporarily
hidden, temporarily not understood.”
Captain Kirk may have a reputation as a suave ladies man, but don’t let that
exterior cool fool you. Kirk’s reputation at the Academy was that of a “walking
stack of books,” in the words of his former first officer, Gary Mitchell. And a pas-
sion for learning helped him through several missions. Perhaps the best demon-
stration of this is in the episode “Arena,” where Kirk is forced to fight a Gorn
Captain in single combat by advanced beings. Using his own knowledge and
materials at hand, Kirk is able to build a rudimentary shotgun, which he uses to
defeat the Gorn.
If you think about it, there’s no need for a 23rd Century Starship Captain to
know how to mix and prepare gunpowder if the occasion called for it. After all,
Starfleet officers fight with phasers and photon torpedoes. To them, gunpow-
der is obsolete. But the same drive for knowledge that drove Kirk to the stars
also caused him to learn that bit of information, and it paid off several years
later.
In the same way, no matter what your organization does, it helps to never
stop learning. The more knowledge you have, the more creative you can be. The
more you’re able to do, the more solutions you have for problems at your dis-
posal. Sure, you might never have to face down a reptilian alien on a desert
planet, but you never know what the future holds. Knowledge is your best key to
overcoming whatever obstacles are in your way.
2. HAVE ADVISORS WITH DIFFERENT WORLDVIEWS
“One of the advantages of being a captain, Doctor, is being able to ask for
advice without necessarily having to take it.”
Kirk’s closest two advisors are Commander Spock, a Vulcan committed to a
philosophy of logic, and Dr. Leonard McCoy, a human driven by compassion and
scientific curiosity. Both Spock and McCoy are frequently at odds with each
3
4
5
6
7
8
©
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B
C
/P
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o
to
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2
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28 SECTION 1 CRITICAL READING AND ANALYSIS
other, recommend different courses of action and bringing very different types of
arguments to bear in defense of those points of view. Kirk sometimes goes with
one, or the other, or sometimes takes their advice as a springboard to develop-
ing an entirely different course of action.
However, the very fact that Kirk has advisors who have a different worldview
not only from each other, but also from himself, is a clear demonstration of Kirk’s
confidence in himself as a leader. Weak leaders surround themselves with yes
men who are afraid to argue with them. That fosters an organizational culture
that stifles creativity and innovation, and leaves members of the organization
afraid to speak up. That can leave the organization unable to solve problems or
change course. Historically, this has led to some serious disasters, such as Star
Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace.
Organizations that allow for differences of opinion are better at developing
innovation, better at solving problems, and better at avoiding groupthink. We all
need a McCoy and a Spock in our lives and organizations.
3. BE PART OF THE AWAY TEAM
“Risk is our business. That’s what this starship is all about. That’s why we’re
aboard her.”
Whenever an interesting or challenging mission came up, Kirk was al-
ways willing to put himself in harm’s way by joining the Away Team. With his
boots on the ground, he was always able to make quick assessments of the
situation, leading to superior results. At least, superior for everyone with a
name and not wearing a red shirt. Kirk was very much a hands-on leader,
leading the vanguard of his crew as they explored interesting and dangerous
situations.
When you’re in a leadership role, it’s sometimes easy to let yourself get
away from leading Away Team missions. After all, with leadership comes perks,
right? You get the nice office on the higher floor. You finally get an assistant to
help you with day to day activities, and your days are filled with meetings and
decisions to be made, and many of these things are absolutely necessary. But
it’s sometimes easy to trap yourself in the corner office and forget what life is
like on the front lines. When you lose that perspective, it’s that much harder to
understand what your team is doing, and the best way to get out of the prob-
lem. What’s more, when you’re not involved with your team, it’s easy to lose
their trust and have them gripe about how you don’t understand what the job
is like.
This is a lesson that was actually imprinted on me in one of my first jobs,
making pizzas for a franchise that doesn’t exist anymore. Our general manager
spent a lot of time in his office, focused on the paperwork and making sure that
we could stay afloat on the razor-thin margins we were running. But one thing he
made sure to do, every day, was to come out during peak times and help make
pizza. He didn’t have to do that, but he did. The fact that he did so made me
like him a lot more. It also meant that I trusted his decisions a lot more. In much
the same way, I’m sure, as Kirk’s crew trusted his decisions, because he knew
the risks of command personally.
9
10
11
12
13
14
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CHAPTER 1 Writers and Their Sources 29
4. PLAY POKER, NOT CHESS
“Not chess, Mr. Spock. Poker. Do you know the game?”
In one of my all-time favorite Star Trek episodes, Kirk and his crew face down
an unknown vessel from a group calling themselves the “First Federation.”
Threats from the vessel escalate until it seems that the destruction of the
Enterprise is imminent. Kirk asks Spock for options, who replies that the
Enterprise has been playing a game of chess, and now there are no winning
moves left. Kirk counters that they shouldn’t play chess—they should play poker.
He then bluffs the ship by telling them that the Enterprise has a substance in its
hull called “corbomite” which will reflect the energy of any weapon back against
an attacker. This begins a series of actions that enables the Enterprise crew to
establish peaceful relations with the First Federation.
I love chess as much as the next geek, but chess is often taken too seriously
as a metaphor for leadership strategy. For all of its intricacies, chess is a game of
defined rules that can be mathematically determined. It’s ultimately a game of
boxes and limitations. A far better analogy to strategy is poker, not chess. Life is
a game of probabilities, not defined rules. And often understanding your oppo-
nents is a much greater advantage than the cards you have in your hand. It was
knowledge of his opponent that allowed Kirk to defeat Khan in Star Trek II by
exploiting Khan’s two-dimensional thinking. Bluffs, tells, and bets are all a big
part of real-life strategy. Playing that strategy with an eye to the psychology of
our competitors, not just the rules and circumstances of the game, can often lead
to better outcomes than following the rigid lines of chess.
5. BLOW UP THE ENTERPRISE
“‘All I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by.’ You could feel the wind at
your back in those days. The sounds of the sea beneath you, and even if you
take away the wind and the water it’s still the same. The ship is yours. You can
feel her. And the stars are still there, Bones.”
One recurring theme in the original Star Trek series is that Kirk’s first love is the
Enterprise. That love kept him from succumbing to the mind-controlling spores in
“This Side of Paradise,” and it’s hinted that his love for the ship kept him from
forming any real relationships or starting a family. Despite that love, though, there
came a point in Star Trek III: The Search For Spock where Captain Kirk made a
decision that must have pained him enormously—in order to defeat the Klingons
attacking him and save his crew, James Kirk destroyed the Enterprise. The
occasion, in the film, was treated with the solemnity of a funeral, which no doubt
matched Kirk’s mood. The film ends with the crew returning to Vulcan on a stolen
Klingon vessel, rather than the Enterprise. But they returned victorious.
We are often, in our roles as leaders, driven by a passion. It might be a product
or service, it might be a way of doing things. But no matter how much that passion
burns within us, the reality is that times change. Different products are created.
Different ways of doing things are developed. And there will come times in your
life when that passion isn’t viable anymore. A time when it no longer makes sense
to pursue your passion. When that happens, no matter how painful it is, you need
to blow up the Enterprise. That is, change what isn’t working and embark on a new
path, even if that means having to live in a Klingon ship for awhile.
15
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17
18
19
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30 SECTION 1 CRITICAL READING AND ANALYSIS
FINAL TAKEAWAY:
In his many years of service to the Federation, James Kirk embodied several
leadership lessons that we can use in our own lives. We need to keep exploring
and learning. We need to ensure that we encourage creativity and innovation by
listening to the advice of people with vastly different opinions. We need to occa-
sionally get down in the trenches with the members of our teams so we under-
stand their needs and earn their trust and loyalty. We need to understand the
psychology of our competitors and also learn to radically change course when
circumstances dictate. By following these lessons, we can lead our organizations
into places where none have gone before.
Alex Knapp, “Five Leadership Lessons from James T. Kirk,” Forbes, 5 Mar. 2012. Copyright ©2012 by
Forbes. All rights reserved. Used by permission and protected by the Copyright Laws of the United States.
The printing, copying, redistribution, or retransmission of this Content without express written permission
is prohibited. www.forbes.com
21
QUESTIONS FOR READING
1. What is Knapp’s subject?
2. What does the first point—never stop learning—reveal about Kirk’s academy behavior?
3. What does having advisors with differing views reveal about a leader?
4. Explain what the author means by destroying the Enterprise as a leadership strategy.
QUESTIONS FOR REASONING AND ANALYSIS
5. Knapp appears to use just a simple list as his structure. What other structure does the
author use?
6. Knapp clearly loved the Star Trek TV series. How does he guide readers who may not
have grown up watching Captain Kirk?
7. The author argues that leaders should play poker, not chess. Explain his view of life and
the point of his game analogy.
QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION AND WRITING
8. The Star Trek series has been one of the most popular and long running. If you have not
watched this series, has Knapp’s essay piqued your interest in Captain Kirk and encour-
aged you to seek out the reruns? Why or why not?
9. Which of the five lessons seems most easily applied to college students? Why? Explain
your choice.
10. Which of the five lessons seems least applicable to college students? Why? Now, you
are one of Captain Kirk’s advisors. What good advice can you find in the lesson that has
been put at the bottom of the list?
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31
SUGGESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION AND WRITING
1. Write a one-paragraph summary of Alex Knapp’s essay. Be sure that your summary clearly
states the author’s main idea, the claim of his argument. Take your time and polish your
word choice.
2. Read actively and then prepare a one-and-a-half-page summary of Geoffrey Stone’s speech
“Free Speech on Campus” (pp. 86−92). Your readers want an accurate and focused but much
shorter version of the original because they will not be reading the original piece. Explain
not only what the writer’s main ideas are but also how the writer develops his speech. Pay
close attention to your word choice.
3. A number of years ago, before the first Kindle, Bill Gates argued that e-books will replace
paper books. What are the advantages of e-books? What are the advantages of paper books?
Are there any disadvantages to either type of book? Which do you prefer? How would you
argue for your preference?
4. Select one futuristic idea that interests you—robots in the home, driverless cars, a moon
colony, or whatever captures your imagination—and see what you can learn about it. Be
prepared to share your information in a class discussion, or consider exploring your topic in
an essay.
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CHAPTER 2
Responding Critically to Sources
READ: What are the marchers protesting?
REASON: What information in the picture helps you determine the purpose
of the protest march?
REFLECT/WRITE: What is the significance of the word “Nasty” in this
protest sign?
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p
e
n
ce
r
P
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tt
/G
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tt
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Im
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s
sey16278_Ch02_032-062.indd 32 10/28/17 10:52 AM
33
In some contexts, the word critical carries the idea of harsh judgment: “The manager was critical of her secretary’s long phone conversations.” In other contexts, the term
means to evaluate carefully. When we speak of the critical reader or critical thinker, we
have in mind someone who reads actively, who thinks about issues, and who makes
informed judgments. Here is a profile of the critical reader or thinker:
TRAITS OF THE CRITICAL READER/THINKER
• Focused on the facts.
Give me the facts and show me that they are relevant to the issue.
• Analytic.
What strategies has the writer/speaker used to develop the argument?
• Open-minded.
Prepared to listen to different points of view, to learn from others.
• Questioning/skeptical.
What other conclusions could be supported by the evidence presented?
How thorough has the writer/speaker been?
What persuasive strategies are used?
• Creative.
What are some entirely different ways of looking at the issue or problem?
• Intellectually active, not passive.
Willing to analyze logic and evidence.
Willing to consider many possibilities.
Willing, after careful evaluation, to reach a judgment, to take a stand on issues.
EXAMINING THE RHETORICAL
CONTEXT OF A SOURCE
Reading critically requires preparation. Instead of “jumping into reading,” begin by ask-
ing questions about the work’s rhetorical context. Rhetoric is about the art of writing (or
speaking). Someone has chosen to shape a text in a particular way at this time for an
imagined audience to accomplish a specific goal. The better you understand all of the
decisions shaping a particular text, the better you will understand that work. And, then,
the better you will be able to judge the significance of that work. So, try to answer the
following five questions before reading. Then complete your answers while you read—
or by doing research and thinking critically after you finish reading.
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34 SECTION 1 CRITICAL READING AND ANALYSIS
Who Is the Author?
Key questions to answer include:
• Does the author have a reputation for honesty, thoroughness, and fairness? Read
the biographical note, if there is one. Ask your instructor about the author, or learn
about the author in a biographical dictionary or online. Try Book Review Digest
(in your library or online) for reviews of the author’s books.
• Is the author writing within his or her area of expertise? People can voice opinions
on any subject, but they cannot transfer expertise from one subject area to another.
A football player endorsing a political candidate is a citizen with an opinion, not an
expert on politics.
• Is the author identified with a particular group or set of beliefs? Does the biogra-
phy place the writer or speaker in a particular institution or organization?
For example, a member of a Republican administration may be expected to favor
a Republican president’s policies. A Roman Catholic priest may be expected to
take a stand against abortion. These kinds of details provide hints, but you should
not decide, absolutely, what a writer’s position is until you have read the work
with care. Be alert to reasonable expectations but avoid stereotyping.
What Type—or Genre—of Source Is It?
Are you reading a researched and documented essay by a specialist—or the text of a
speech delivered the previous week to a specific audience? Is the work an editorial—or
a letter to the editor? Does the columnist (such as Adam Grant, who appears later in this
chapter) write business columns? Is the cartoon a comic strip or a political cartoon from
the editorial page of a newspaper? (You will see both kinds of cartoons in this text.)
Know what kind of text you are reading before you start. That’s the only way to give
yourself the context you need to be a good critical reader.
What Kind of Audience Does the Author Anticipate?
Understanding the intended audience helps you answer questions about the depth and
sophistication of the work and a possible bias or slant.
• Does the author expect a popular audience, a general but educated audience, or a
specialist audience of shared expertise? Does the author anticipate an audience
that shares cultural, political, or religious values? Often you can judge the ex-
pected audience by noting the kind of publication in which the article appears, the
publisher of the book, or the venue for the speech. For example, Reader’s Digest is
written for a mass audience, and Psychology Today for a general but more knowl-
edgeable reader. By contrast, articles in The Journal of the American Medical
Association (JAMA) are written by physicians and research scientists for a special-
ized reader. (It would be inappropriate, then, for a general reader to complain that
an article in JAMA is not well written because it is too difficult.)
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CHAPTER 2 Responding Critically to Sources 35
• Does the author expect an audience favorable to his or her views? Or with a “wait
and see” attitude? Or even hostile? Some newspapers and television news organi-
zations are consistently liberal, whereas others are noticeably conservative. (Do
you know the political leanings of your local paper? Of the TV news that you
watch? Of the blogs or websites you choose?) Remember: All arguments are
“slanted” or “biased”—that is, they take a stand. That’s as it should be. Just be
sure to read or listen with an awareness of the author’s particular background,
interests, and possible stands on issues.
What Is the Author’s Primary Purpose?
Is the work primarily informative or persuasive in intent? Designed to entertain or be
inspiring? Think about the title. Read a book’s preface to learn of the author’s goals.
Pay attention to tone as you read.
What Are the Author’s Sources of Information?
Much of our judgment of an author and a work is based on the quality of the author’s
choice of sources. So always ask yourself: Where was the information obtained? Are
sources clearly identified? Be suspicious of those who want us to believe that their un-
named “sources” are “reliable.” Pay close attention to dates. A biography of King
George III published in 1940 may still be the best source. An article urging more
development based on county population statistics from the 1990s is no longer reliable.
NOTE: None of the readings in this textbook were written for publication in
this textbook. They have all come from some other context. To read them
with understanding you must identify the original context and think about
how that should guide your reading.
EXERCISES: Examining the Context
1. For each of the following works, comment on what you might expect to find. Con-
sider author, occasion, audience, and reliability.
a. An article on the Republican administration, written by a former campaign
worker for a Democratic presidential candidate.
b. A discussion, published in The Boston Globe, of the New England Patriots’ hope
for the next Super Bowl.
c. A letter to the editor about conservation, written by a member of the Sierra
Club. (What is the Sierra Club? Check out its website.)
d. A column in Newsweek on economics. (Look at the business section of this mag-
azine. Your library has it or has access to it through a database.)
e. A 1988 article in Nutrition Today on the best diets.
f. A biography of Benjamin Franklin published by Oxford University Press.
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36 SECTION 1 CRITICAL READING AND ANALYSIS
g. A Family Circle article about a special vegetarian diet written by a physician.
(Who is the audience for this magazine? Where is it sold?)
h. An editorial in The New York Times written after the Supreme Court’s striking
down of Washington, D.C.’s handgun restrictions.
i. A speech on new handgun technology delivered at a convention of the National
Rifle Association.
j. An editorial in your local newspaper titled “Stop the Highway Killing.”
2. Analyze an issue of your favorite magazine. Look first at the editorial pages and the
articles written by staff, then at articles contributed by other writers. Answer these
questions for both staff writers and contributors:
a. Who is the audience?
b. What is the purpose of the articles and of the entire magazine?
c. What type of article dominates the issue?
3. Select one environmental website and study what is offered. The EnviroLink Net-
work (www.envirolink.org) will lead you to many sites. Write down the name of the
site you chose and its address (URL). Then answer these questions:
a. Who is the intended audience?
b. What seems to be the primary purpose or goal of the site?
c. What type of material dominates the site?
d. For what kinds of writing assignments might you use material from the site?
ANALYZING THE STYLE OF A SOURCE
Critical readers read for implication and are alert to tone or nuance. When you read, think
not only about what is said but also about how it is said. Consider the following passage:
The fact that there are now over forty college football “bowl” games is a joke and
shows that the NCAA and participating schools have sold their souls to corporate
sponsors and just want to make a quick buck at the expense of student athletes.
This passage observes that the number of bowl games is large, that big money in
college sports, especially football, can have negative repercussions, while student
athletes are often exploited for their labor and sacrifices. But it actually says more than
that, doesn’t it? Note the writer’s attitude toward the NCAA and colleges who belong to
that organization, as well as the corporate partners who sponsor these games.
How can we rewrite this passage to make it more favorable? Here is one version
produced by students in a group exercise:
The large number of college football bowl games, now over forty, may indicate that
the NCAA and participating schools have lost focus on the purpose of athletics in
American higher education by developing cozy relationships with corporate partners
and their lucrative sponsorship deals.
The writers have not changed their critical view of the large number of college foot-
ball bowl games and the risks of nonprofit educational institutions making a lot of money
with big companies. But in this version the number of bowl games, the NCAA, and the
colleges are not ridiculed. What are the differences in the two passages? The only differ-
ences are the word choice and the order in which those words appear in the sentence.
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CHAPTER 2 Responding Critically to Sources 37
Denotative and Connotative Word Choice
The students’ ability to rewrite the passage on college football bowl games to give it a
positive attitude tells us that although some words may have similar meanings, they
cannot always be substituted for one another without changing the message. Words with
similar meanings have similar denotations. Often, though, words with similar denota-
tions do not have the same connotations. A word’s connotation is what the word sug-
gests, what we associate the word with. The words house and home, for example, both
refer to a building in which people live, but the word home suggests ideas—and
feelings—of family and security. Thus the word home has a strong positive connotation.
House by contrast brings to mind a picture of a physical structure only because the word
doesn’t carry any “emotional baggage.”
We learn the connotations of words the same way we learn their denotations—in
context. Most of us, living in the same culture, share the same connotative associations
of words. At times, the context in which a word is used will affect the word’s
connotation. For example, the word buddy usually has positive connotations. We may
think of an old or trusted friend. But when an unfriendly person who thinks a man may
have pushed in front of him says, “Better watch it, buddy,” the word has a negative
connotation. Social, physical, and language contexts control the connotative significance
of words. Become more alert to the connotative power of words by asking what words
the writers could have used instead.
NOTE: Writers make choices; their choices reflect and convey their attitudes.
Studying the context in which a writer uses emotionally charged words is the
only way to be sure that we understand the writer’s attitude.
EXERCISES: Connotation
1. For each of the following words or phrases, list at least two synonyms that have a
more negative connotation than the given word.
■ ■
a. child
b. persistent
c. thin
d. a large group
e. scholarly
f. trusting
g. underachiever
h. quiet
2. For each of the following words, list at least two synonyms that have a more positive
connotation than the given word.
a. notorious
b. fat
c. politician
d. old (people)
e. fanatic
f. reckless
g. drunkard
h. cheap
3. Read the following paragraph and decide how the writer feels about the activity
described. Note the choice of details and the connotative language that make you
aware of the writer’s attitude.
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38 SECTION 1 CRITICAL READING AND ANALYSIS
Needing to complete a missed assignment for my physical education
class, I dragged myself down to the tennis courts on a gloomy after-
noon. My task was to serve five balls in a row into the service box.
Although I thought I had learned the correct service movements, I
couldn’t seem to translate that knowledge into a decent serve. I tossed
up the first ball, jerked back my racket, swung up on the ball—
clunk—I hit the ball on the frame. I threw up the second ball, brought
back my racket, swung up on the ball—ping—I made contact with the
strings, but the ball dribbled down on my side of the net. I trudged
around the court, collecting my tennis balls; I had only two of them.
4. Write a paragraph describing an activity that you liked or disliked without saying
how you felt. From your choice of details and use of connotative language, convey
your attitude toward the activity. (The paragraph in exercise 3 is your model.)
5. Select one of the words listed below and explain, in a paragraph, what the word con-
notes to you personally. Be precise; illustrate your thoughts with details and examples.
a. nature
b. mother
c. romantic
d. geek
e. playboy
f. artist
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COLLABORATIVE EXERCISES: On Connotation
1. List all of the words you know for human female and for human male. Then clas-
sify them by connotation (positive, negative, neutral) and by level of usage (formal,
informal, slang). Is there any connection between type of connotation and level of
usage? Why are some words more appropriate in some social contexts than in others?
Can you easily list more negative words used for one sex than for the other? Why?
2. Some words can be given a different connotation in different contexts. First, for
each of the following words, label its connotation as positive, negative, or neutral.
Then for each word with a positive connotation, write a sentence in which the word
would convey a more negative connotation. For each word with a negative connota-
tion, write a sentence in which the word would suggest a more positive connotation.
■ ■
a. natural
b. old
c. committed
d. free
e. chemical
f. lazy
3. Each of the following groups of words might appear together in a thesaurus, but the
words actually vary in connotation. After looking up any words whose connotation
you are unsure of, write a sentence in which each word is used correctly. Briefly
explain why one of the other words in the group should not be substituted.
a. brittle, hard, fragile
b. quiet, withdrawn, glum
c. shrewd, clever, cunning
d. strange, remarkable, bizarre
e. thrifty, miserly, economical
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CHAPTER 2 Responding Critically to Sources 39
Tone
We can describe a writer’s attitude toward the subject as positive, negative, or (rarely)
neutral. Attitude is the writer’s position on, or feelings about, his or her subject. The
way that attitude is expressed—the voice we hear and the feelings conveyed through
that voice—is the writer’s tone. Writers can choose to express attitude through a wide
variety of tones. We may reinforce a negative attitude through an angry, somber, sad,
mocking, peevish, sarcastic, or scornful tone. A positive attitude may be revealed
through an enthusiastic, serious, sympathetic, jovial, light, or admiring tone. We cannot
be sure that just because a writer selects a light tone, for example, the attitude must be
positive. Humor columnists often choose a light tone to examine serious social and
political issues. Given their subjects, we recognize that the light and amusing tone
actually conveys a negative attitude toward the topic.
COLLABORATIVE EXERCISES: On Tone
With your class partner or in small groups, examine the following three paragraphs,
which are different responses to the same event. First, decide on each writer’s attitude.
Then describe, as precisely as possible, the tone of each paragraph.
1. It is tragically inexcusable that this young athlete was not examined fully before he was
allowed to join the varsity team. The physical examinations given were unbelievably
sloppy. What were the coach and trainer thinking of not to insist that each youngster be
examined while undergoing physical stress? Apparently they were not thinking about
our boys at all. We can no longer trust our sons and our daughters to this inhumane sys-
tem so bent on victory that it ignores the health—indeed the very lives—of our children.
2. It was learned last night, following the death of varsity fullback Jim Bresnick, that
none of the players was given a stress test as part of his physical examination. The
oversight was attributed to laxness by the coach and trainer, who are described to-
day as being “distraught.” It is the judgment of many that the entire physical educa-
tion program must be reexamined with an eye to the safety and health of all students.
3. How can I express the loss I feel over the death of my son? I want to blame someone,
but who is to blame? The coaches, for not administering more rigorous physical check-
ups? Why should they have done more than other coaches have done before or than
other coaches are doing at other schools? My son, for not telling me that he felt funny
after practice? His teammates, for not telling the coaches that my son said he did not
feel well? Myself, for not knowing that something was wrong with my only child?
Who is to blame? All of us and none of us. But placing blame will not return my son to
me; I can only pray that other parents will not have to suffer so. Jimmy, we loved you.
Level of Diction
In addition to responding to a writer’s choice of connotative language, observe the level
of diction used. Are the writer’s words primarily typical of conversational language or
of a more formal style? Does the writer use slang words or technical words? Is the word
■ ■
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40 SECTION 1 CRITICAL READING AND ANALYSIS
choice concrete and vivid or abstract and intellectual? These differences help to shape
tone and affect our response to what we read. Lincoln’s word choice in “The Gettysburg
Address” (see pp. 4–5) is formal and abstract. Lincoln writes “on this continent” rather
than “in this land,” “we take increased devotion” rather than “we become more
committed.” Another style, the technical, will be found in some articles in this text. The
social scientist may write that “the child . . . is subjected to extremely punitive
discipline,” whereas a nonspecialist, more informally, might write that “the child is
controlled by beatings or other forms of punishment.”
One way to create an informal style is to choose simple words: land instead of con-
tinent. To create greater informality, a writer can use contractions: we’ll for we will.
There are no contractions in “The Gettysburg Address.”
NOTE: In your academic and professional writing, you should aim for a style
informal enough to be inviting to readers but one that, in most cases, avoids
contractions or slang words.
Sentence Structure
Attitude is conveyed and tone created primarily through word choice, but sentence
structure and other rhetorical strategies are also important. Studying a writer’s sentence
patterns will reveal how they affect style and tone. When analyzing these features, con-
sider the following questions:
1. Are the sentences generally long or short, or varied in length?
Are the structures primarily:
• Simple (one independent clause)
In 1900, empires dotted the world.
• Compound (two or more independent clauses)
Women make up only 37 percent of television characters, yet women make up more
than half of the population.
• Complex (at least one independent and one dependent clause)
As nations grew wealthier, traditional freedom wasn’t enough.
Sentences that are both long and complex create a more formal style. Compound
sentences joined by and do not increase formality much because such sentences are re-
ally only two or more short, simple patterns hooked together. On the other hand, a long
“simple” sentence with many modifiers will create a more formal style. The following
example, from an essay on leadership by Michael Korda, is more complicated than the
sample compound sentence above:
• Expanded simple sentence
[A] leader is like a mirror, reflecting back to us our own sense of purpose, putting
into words our own dreams and hopes, transforming our needs and fears into
coherent policies and programs.1
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CHAPTER 2 Responding Critically to Sources 41
In “The Gettysburg Address” three sentences range from 10 to 16 words, six sen-
tences from 21 to 29 words, and the final sentence is an incredible 82 words. All but two
of Lincoln’s sentences are either complex or compound-complex sentences. By con-
trast, in “The Future Is Now,” Joel Achenbach includes a paragraph with five sentences.
These sentences are composed of 7, 11, 3, 11, and 19 words each. All five are simple
sentences.
2. Does the writer use sentence fragments (incomplete sentences)?
Although many instructors struggle to rid student writing of fragments, professional
writers know that the occasional fragment can be used effectively for emphasis. Science
fiction writer Bruce Sterling, thinking about the “melancholic beauty” of a gadget no
longer serving any purpose, writes:
• Like Duchamp’s bottle-rack, it becomes a found objet d’art. A metallic fossil of
some lost human desire. A kind of involuntary poem.
The second and third sentences are, technically, fragments, but because they build on
the structure of the first sentence, readers can add the missing words It becomes to
complete each sentence. The brevity, repetition of structure, and involvement of the
reader to “complete” the fragments all contribute to a strong conclusion to Sterling’s
paragraph.
3. Does the writer seem to be using an overly simplistic style? If so, why?
Overly simplistic sentence patterns, just like an overly simplistic choice of words, can
be used to show that the writer thinks the subject is silly or childish or insulting. In one
of her columns, Ellen Goodman objects to society’s oversimplifying of addictions and
its need to believe in quick and lasting cures. She makes her point with reference to two
well-known examples—but notice her technique:
• Hi, my name is Jane and I was once bulimic but now I am an exercise guru. . . .
• Hi, my name is Oprah and I was a food addict but now I am a size 10.
4. Does the writer use parallelism (coordination) or antithesis (contrast)?
When two phrases or clauses are parallel in structure, the message is that they are
equally important. Look back at Korda’s expanded simple sentence. He coordinates
three phrases, asserting that a leader is like a mirror in these three ways:
• Reflects back our purpose
• Puts into words our dreams
• Transforms our needs and fears
Antithesis creates tension. A sentence using this structure says “not this” but “that.”
Lincoln uses both parallelism and antithesis in one striking sentence:
• The world will little note nor long remember
what we say here,
but it [the world] can never forget
what they did here.
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42 SECTION 1 CRITICAL READING AND ANALYSIS
Metaphors
When Korda writes that a leader is like a mirror, he is using a simile. When Lincoln
writes that the world will not remember, he is using a metaphor—actually
personification. Metaphors, whatever their form, all make a comparison between two
items that are not really alike. The writer is making a figurative comparison, not a literal
one. The writer wants us to think about some ways in which the items are similar.
Metaphors state directly or imply the comparison; similes express the comparison using
a connecting word; personification always compares a nonhuman item to humans. The
exact label for a metaphor is not as important as
• recognizing the use of a figure of speech,
• identifying the two items being compared,
• understanding the point of the comparison, and
• grasping the emotional impact of the figurative comparison.
REMEMBER: Pay attention to each writer’s choice of metaphors. Metaphors
reveal much about feelings and perceptions of life. And, like connotative
words, they affect us emotionally even if we are not aware of their use.
Become aware. Be able to “open up”—explain—metaphors you find in your
reading.
EXERCISE: Opening Up Metaphors
During World War II, E. B. White, the essayist and writer of children’s books, defined
the word democracy in one of his New Yorker columns. His definition contains a series
of metaphors. One is: Democracy “is the hole in the stuffed shirt through which the
sawdust slowly trickles.” We can open up or explain the metaphor this way:
Just as one can punch a hole in a scarecrow’s shirt and discover that
there is only sawdust inside, nothing to be impressed by, so the idea of
equality in a democracy “punches” a hole in the notion of an aristocratic
ruling class and reveals that aristocrats, underneath, are ordinary peo-
ple, just like you and me.2
Here are two more of White’s metaphors on democracy. Open up each one in a few
sentences.
Democracy is “the dent in the high hat.”
Democracy is “the score at the beginning of the ninth.”
Organization and Examples
Two other elements of writing, organization and choice of examples, also reveal attitude
and help to shape the reader’s response. When you study a work’s organization, ask
yourself questions about both placement and volume. Where are these ideas placed? At
■ ■
■ ■
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CHAPTER 2 Responding Critically to Sources 43
the beginning or end—the places of greatest emphasis—or in the middle, suggesting
that they are less important? With regard to volume, ask yourself, “What parts of the
discussion are developed at length? What points are treated only briefly?” Note:
Sometimes simply counting the number of paragraphs devoted to the different parts of
the writer’s subject will give you a good understanding of the writer’s main idea and
purpose in writing.
Repetition
Well-written, unified essays will contain some repetition of key words and phrases.
Some writers go beyond this basic strategy and use repetition to produce an effective
cadence, like a drum beating in the background, keeping time to the speaker’s fist
pounding the lectern. In his repetition of the now-famous phrase “I have a dream,”
Martin Luther King, Jr., gives emphasis to his vision of an ideal America. In the
following paragraph, a student tried her hand at repetition to give emphasis to her
definition of liberty:
Liberty is having the right to vote and not having other laws which restrict that right;
it is having the right to apply to the university of your choice without being rejected
because of race. Liberty exists when a gay man has the right to a teaching position
and is not released from the position when the news of his orientation is disclosed.
Liberty exists when a woman who has been offered a job does not have to decline for
lack of access to day care for her children, or when a 16-year-old boy from the inner
city can get an education and is not instead compelled to go to work to support his
family.
These examples suggest that repetition generally gives weight and seriousness to writ-
ing and thus is appropriate when serious issues are being discussed in a forceful style.
Hyperbole, Understatement, and Irony
These three strategies create some form of tension to gain emphasis. Hyperbole
overstates:
• “I will love you through all eternity!”
Understatement says less than is meant:
• Coming in soaking wet, you say, “It’s a bit damp outside.”
Irony creates tension by stating the opposite of what is meant:
• To a teen dressed in torn jeans and a baggy sweatshirt, the parent says, “Dressed for
dinner, I see.”
Quotation Marks, Italics, and Capital Letters
Several visual techniques can also be used to give special attention to certain words. A
writer can place a word or phrase within quotation marks to question its validity or
meaning in that context. Ellen Goodman writes, for example:
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44 SECTION 1 CRITICAL READING AND ANALYSIS
• I wonder about this when I hear the word “family” added to some politician’s
speech.3
Goodman does not agree with the politician’s meaning of the word family. The expres-
sion so-called has the same effect:
• There have been restrictions on the Tibetans’ so-called liberty.
Italicizing a key word or phrase or using all caps also gives additional emphasis. Dave
Barry, in an essay satirizing “smart” technology, uses all caps for emphasis:
• Do you want appliances that are smarter than you? Of course not. Your appliances
should be DUMBER than you, just like your furniture, your pets and your represen-
tatives in Congress.4
Capitalizing words not normally capitalized has the same effect of giving emphasis. As
with exclamation points, writers need to use these strategies sparingly, or the emphasis
sought will be lost.
EXERCISES: Recognizing Elements of Style
1. Name the technique or techniques used in each of the following passages. Then
briefly explain the idea of each passage.
a. We are becoming the tools of our tools. (Henry David Thoreau)5
b. The bias and therefore the business of television is to move information, not
collect it. (Neil Postman)6
c. If guns are outlawed, only the government will have guns. Only the police, the
secret police, the military. The hired servants of our rulers. Only the govern-
ment—and a few outlaws. (Edward Abbey)7
d. Having read all the advice on how to live 900 years, what I think is that eating a
tasty meal once again will surely doom me long before I reach 900 while not
eating that same meal could very well kill me. It’s enough to make you reach for
a cigarette! (Russell Baker)8
e. If you are desperate for a quick fix, either legalize drugs or repress the user. If
you want a civilized approach, mount a propaganda campaign against drugs.
(Charles Krauthammer)9
f. Oddly enough, the greatest scoffers at the traditions of American etiquette,
who scorn the rituals of their own society as stupid and stultifying, voice re-
spect for the customs and folklore of Native Americans, less industrialized
people, and other societies they find more “authentic” than their own. (Judith
Martin)10
g. Text is story. Text is event, performance, special effect. Subtext is ideas. It’s
motive, suggestions, visual implications, subtle comparisons. (Stephen
Hunter)11
h. This flashy vehicle [the school bus] was as punctual as death: seeing us waiting
at the cold curb, it would sweep to a halt, open its mouth, suck the boy in, and
spring away with an angry growl. (E. B. White)12
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CHAPTER 2 Responding Critically to Sources 45
2. Read the following essay by Alexandra Petri. Use the questions that precede and
follow the essay to help you determine Petri’s attitude toward her subject and to
characterize her style.
■ ■
NASTY WOMEN HAVE MUCH WORK TO DO ALEXANDRA PETRI
A graduate of Harvard College, Alexandra Petri is the author of A Field Guide to
Awkward Silences (2015) and humor columnist for The Washington Post, writing the
ComPost blog and weekly columns. Her columns are usually humorous but never
frivolous. The following column was published October 22, 2016—close to Halloween.
PREREADING QUESTIONS What is Petri’s purpose in writing? What does she want to
accomplish—besides being funny?
“Such a nasty woman.”
—Donald Trump
The nasty women gather on the heath just after midnight. It is Nasty Women’s
Sabbath, Election Eve, and they must make haste.
Their sturdy he-goats and their broomsticks are parked with the valet.
Beyond the circle, their familiar owls and toads and pussycats strut back and
forth, boasting of being grabbed or not grabbed.
A will-o’-the-wisp zigzags back and forth over the assemblage (it is bad with
directions, like a nasty woman).
They have much to do and the hour is late.
They must sabotage the career of an upwardly mobile young general named
Macbeth.
They must lure an old wizard into a cave and lock him there so that Camelot
may fall.
They must finish Ron and Harry’s homework for them (again).
No, wait, I am suggesting that.
They must turn some people into newts and let some of them get better and
let others run for office and go on prime-time cable.
They must transform all of Odysseus’s sailors into swine and then back
again, get Sabrina through high school, freeze Narnia permanently, complete all
sorts of housework for Samantha Stevens.
They have a good many apples to poison and drug and mermaid voices to
steal and little dogs to get, too.
And then they have an election to rig.
They must make haste. The vagenda is quite full.
They gather around the bubbling cauldron as the squirrels scurry off into
hiding and the bats fly in.
One particularly nasty woman who has been juggling a lot at home and at
work lately flies in late on her Swiffer and apologizes; she has not even had time
to put a wart on her nose or a bat into her hair. Nasty women know that it
only looks easy.
The nasty women gather around the cauldron and lean in.
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46 SECTION 1 CRITICAL READING AND ANALYSIS
They lean in with the ingredients that they have been gathering for days, for
years, to make the potion potent.
Eye of newt. Wool of bat. Woman cards, both tarot and credit. Binders.
Lemons. Lemonade. Letters to the editor saying that a woman could not govern
at that time of month—when in fact she would be at the height of her power and
capable of unleashing the maximum number of moon-sicknesses against our
enemies, but the nasty women do not stoop to correct this.
They toss in pieces of meat and legs with nothing else attached and dolls
and sweethearts and sugars and all the other things they were told to be, and
like it.
They drop in paradoxes: powerful rings that give you everything and keep
you from getting the job, heels that only move forward by moving backward,
skirts that are too long and too short at the same time, comic-book drawings
whose anatomy defies gravity, suits that become pantsuits when a woman slips
them on, enchanted shirts and skirts and sweaters that can ask for it, whatever it
is, on their own. They take the essence of a million locker rooms wrung out of
towels and drop it in, one drip at a time. Then stir.
They sprinkle it with the brains of the people who did not recognize that they
were doctors, pepper it with ground-up essays by respected men asking why
women aren’t funny, whip in six pounds of pressure and demands for perfection.
They drizzle it with the laughter of women in commercials holding salads and the
rueful smiles of women in commercials peddling digestive yogurts. They toss in
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21
What great plans are these women cooking up together?
©
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CHAPTER 2 Responding Critically to Sources 47
some armpit hair and a wizened old bat, just to be safe. And wine. Plenty of
wine. And cold bathwater. Then they leave it to simmer.
And they whisper incantations into it, too. They whisper to it years of shame
and blame and what-were-you-wearing and boys-will-be-boys. They tell the
formless mass in the cauldron tales of the too many times that they were told
they were too much. Too loud. Too emotional. Too bossy. Insufficiently smiling.
The words shouted at them as they walked down the streets. The words typed
at them when their minds traveled through the Internet. Every concession they
were told to make so that they took up less space. Every time they were too
mean or too nice or shaped wrong. Every time they were told they were differ-
ent, other, objects, the princess at the end of the quest, the grab-bag prize for
the end of the party.
They pour them all into a terrible and bitter brew and stir to taste.
It tastes nasty. It is the taste of why we cannot have nice things, and they are
used to that.
Perhaps if the potion works, they will not have to be.
The nasty women have a great deal to do before the moon sinks back
beneath the horizon.
But that is all right. They know how to get things done.
Alexandra Petri, “Nasty Women Have Much To Do,” The Washington Post, 22 Oct. 2016. Copyright ©2016
The Washington Post. All rights reserved. Used by permission and protected by the Copyright Laws of the
United States. The printing, copying, redistribution, or retransmission of the Material without express writ-
ten permission is prohibited. www.washingtonpost.com.
QUESTIONS FOR READING AND REASONING
1. Humor is a strategy, perhaps a purpose, but it is not a subject. Is Petri’s subject the three
witches of Macbeth? Halloween witches? Consider her title and think about how best to
state her subject.
2. Remembering that humor pieces also have a point to make, how would you state the
author’s claim?
3. Where does the expression “nasty women” come from?
4. Examine the list of things that the gathered women have to do in paragraphs 5−11. How
does Petri create humor in this list? What in the list seems more serious? Why?
5. Reread the list of what goes into the cauldron. What do many of the details have in
common?
QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION AND WRITING
6. What specific strategies are used by Petri to create tone and convey attitude?
7. What specific passages or recurring element do you find the most amusing? Why?
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48 SECTION 1 CRITICAL READING AND ANALYSIS
WRITING ABOUT STYLE
What does it mean to “do a style analysis”? A style analysis answers the question “How
is it written?” Let’s think through the steps in preparing a study of a writer’s choice and
arrangement of language.
Understanding Purpose and Audience
A style analysis is not the place for challenging the ideas of the writer. A style analysis
requires the discipline to see how a work has been put together even if you disagree with
the writer’s views. You do not have to agree with a writer to appreciate his or her skill in
writing.
If you think about audience in the context of your purpose, you should conclude
that a summary of content does not belong in a style analysis. Why? Because we write
style analyses for people who have already read the work. Remember, though, that your
reader may not know the work in detail, so give examples to illustrate the points of your
analysis.
Planning the Essay
First, organize your analysis according to elements of style, not according to the organi-
zation of the work. Scrap any thoughts of “hacking” your way through the essay, com-
menting on the work paragraph by paragraph. This approach invites summary and
means that you have not selected an organization that supports your purpose in writing.
Think of an essay as like the pie in Figure 2.1. We could divide the pie according to key
ideas—if we were summarizing. But we can also carve the pie according to elements of
style, the techniques we have discussed in this chapter. This is the general plan you want
to follow for your essay.
FIGURE 2.1 Analyzing Style
Word choice Metaphors
Irony,
hyperbole,
understatement
Organization
Repetition
Caps,
quotations,
italics
Sentence
structure
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CHAPTER 2 Responding Critically to Sources 49
Choose those techniques you think are most important in creating the writer’s atti-
tude, and discuss them one at a time. Do not try to include the entire pie; instead, select
three or four elements to examine in detail. If you were asked to write an analysis of the
Alexandra Petri article, for example, you might select her use of sentence structure,
hyperbole, and irony. These are three techniques that stand out in Petri’s writing.
Drafting the Style Analysis
If you were to select three elements of style, as in the Alexandra Petri example above,
your essay might look something like this:
Paragraph 1: Introduction 1. Attention-getter
2. Author, title, publication information
of article/book
3. Brief explanation of author’s subject
4. Your thesis—that you will be analyz-
ing style
Paragraph 2: First body paragraph Analysis of sentence structure. (See
below for more details on body
paragraphs.)
Paragraph 3: Second body paragraph 1. Topic sentence that introduces analy-
sis of hyperbole
2. Three or more examples of hyperbole
3. Explanation of how each example con-
nects to the author’s thesis—that is,
how the example of hyperbole works
to convey attitude. This is your analy-
sis; don’t forget it!
Paragraph 4: Third body paragraph Analysis of irony—with same three
parts as listed above.
Paragraph 5: Conclusion Restate your thesis: We can understand
Petri’s point through a study of these
three elements of her style.
A CHECKLIST FOR REVISION
When revising and polishing your draft, use these questions to complete your essay.
Have I handled all titles correctly?
Have I correctly referred to the author?
Have I used quotation marks correctly when presenting examples of style? (Use the
guidelines in Chapter 1 for these first three questions.)
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50 SECTION 1 CRITICAL READING AND ANALYSIS
Do I have an accurate, clear presentation of the author’s subject and thesis?
Do I have enough examples of each element of style to show my readers that these
elements are important?
Have I connected examples to the author’s thesis? That is, have I shown my readers
how these techniques work to develop the author’s attitude?
To reinforce your understanding of style analysis, read the following essay by Ellen
Goodman, answer the questions that follow, and then study the student essay that ana-
lyzes Goodman’s style.
IN PRAISE OF A SNAIL’S PACE ELLEN GOODMAN
Author of Close to Home (1979), At Large (1981), and Keeping In Touch (1985), collections
of her essays, Ellen Goodman began as a feature writer for The Boston Globe in 1967
and was a syndicated columnist from 1976 until her retirement in 2009. The following
column was published August 13, 2005.
PREREADING QUESTIONS Why might someone write in praise of snail mail? What does
Goodman mean by “hyperactive technology”?
CASCO BAY, Maine—I arrive at the island post office carrying an artifact from
another age. It’s a square envelope, handwritten, with a return address that can
be found on a map. Inside is a condolence note, a few words of memory and
sympathy to a wife who has become a widow. I could have sent these words far
more efficiently through e-mail than through this “snail mail.” But I am among
those who still believe that sympathy is diluted by two-thirds when it arrives over
the Internet transom.
I would no more send an e-condolence than an e-thank you or an e-wedding
invitation. There are rituals you cannot speed up without destroying them. It
would be like serving Thanksgiving dinner at a fast-food restaurant.
My note goes into the old blue mailbox and I walk home wondering if
slowness isn’t the only way we pay attention now in a world of hyperactive
technology.
Weeks ago, a friend lamented the trouble she had communicating with her
grown son. It wasn’t that her son was out of touch. Hardly. They were connected
across miles through e-mail and cell phone, instant-messaging and text-messaging.
But she had something serious to say and feared that an e-mail would elicit a reply
that said: I M GR8. Was there no way to get undivided attention in the full in-box of
his life? She finally chose a letter, a pen on paper, a stamp on envelope.
How do you describe the times we live in, so connected and yet fractured?
Linda Stone, a former Microsoft techie, characterizes ours as an era of “continu-
ous partial attention.” At the extreme end are teenagers instant-messaging while
they are talking on the cell phone, downloading music and doing homework. But
adults too live with all systems go, interrupted and distracted, scanning every-
thing, multi-technological-tasking everywhere.
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CHAPTER 2 Responding Critically to Sources 51
Are we having fun yet?
We suffer from the illusion, Stone says, that we can expand our personal
bandwidth, connecting to more and more. Instead, we end up overstimulated,
overwhelmed and, she adds, unfulfilled. Continuous partial attention inevitably
feels like a lack of full attention.
But there are signs of people searching for ways to slow down and listen up.
We are told that experienced e-mail users are taking longer to answer, freeing
themselves from the tyranny of the reply button. Caller ID is used to find out who
we don’t have to talk to. And the next “killer ap,” they say, will be e-mail software
that can triage the important from the trivial.
Meanwhile, at companies where technology interrupts creativity and online
contact prevents face-to-face contact, there are no e-mail-free Fridays. At others,
there are bosses who require that you check your BlackBerry at the meeting
door.
If a ringing cell phone once signaled your importance to a client, now that
client is impressed when you turn off the cell phone. People who stayed con-
nected 10 ways, 24-7, now pride themselves on “going dark.”
“People hunger for more attention,” says Stone, whose message has been
welcomed even at a conference of bloggers. “Full attention will be the aphrodi-
siac of the future.”
Indeed, at the height of our romance with e-mail, “You’ve Got Mail” was the
cinematic love story. Now e-mail brings less thrill—“who will be there?” And more
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52 SECTION 1 CRITICAL READING AND ANALYSIS
dread—“how many are out there?” Today’s romantics are couples who leave
their laptops behind on the honeymoon.
As for text-message flirtation, a young woman ended hers with a man who
wrote, “C U L8R.” He didn’t have enough time to spell out Y-O-U?
Slowness guru Carl Honore began “In Praise of Slowness” after he found
himself seduced by a book of condensed classic fairy tales to read to his son.
One-minute bedtime stories? We are relearning that paying attention briefly is as
impossible as painting a landscape from a speeding car.
It is not just my trip to the mailbox that has brought this to mind. I come here
each summer to stop hurrying. My island is no Brigadoon: WiFi is on the way, and
some people roam the island with their cell phones, looking for a hot spot. But
I exchange the Internet for the country road.
Georgia O’Keeffe once said that it takes a long time to see a flower. No tech-
nology can rush the growth of the leeks in the garden. All the speed in the Inter-
net cannot hurry the healing of a friend’s loss. Paying attention is the coin of this
realm.
Sometimes, a letter becomes the icon of an old-fashioned new fashion. And
sometimes, in this technological whirlwind, it takes a piece of snail mail to carry
the stamp of authenticity.
Ellen Goodman, “In Praise of a Snail’s Pace,” The Washington Post, 13 Aug. 2005, A21. Copyright ©2005
The Washington Post. All rights reserved. Used by permission and protected by the Copyright Laws of the
United States. The printing, copying, redistribution, or retransmission of the Material without express writ-
ten permission is prohibited. www.washingtonpost.com.
12
13
14
15
16
QUESTIONS FOR READING AND REASONING
1. What has Goodman just done? How does this action serve the author as a lead-in to her
subject?
2. What is Goodman’s main idea or thesis?
3. What examples illustrate the problem the author sees in our times? What evidence does
she present to suggest that people want to change the times?
4. What general solutions does Goodman suggest?
QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION AND WRITING
5. How do the details at the beginning and end of the essay contribute to Goodman’s
point? Write a paragraph answer to this question. Then consider: Which one of the dif-
ferent responses to reading does your paragraph illustrate?
6. The author describes our time as one of “continuous partial attention.” Does this phrase
sum up our era? Why or why not? If you agree, do you think this is a problem? Why or
why not?
7. For what kinds of research projects would this essay be useful? List several possibilities
to discuss with classmates.
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CHAPTER 2 Responding Critically to Sources 53
A CONVINCING STYLE
James Goode
Ellen Goodman’s essay, “In Praise of a Snail’s Pace,” is not, of
course, about snails. It is about a way of communicating that our
society has largely lost or ignored: the capability to pay full attention
in communications and relationships. Her prime example of this is the
“snail mail” letter, used for cards, invitations, and condolences.
Anything really worth saying, she argues, must be written fully and
sent by mail to make us pay attention. Goodman’s easy, winning style
of word choice and metaphor persuades us to agree with her point, a
point also backed up by the logic of her examples.
“In Praise of a Snail’s Pace” starts innocently. The author is
merely taking a walk to the post office with a letter, surely nothing
unusual. But as Goodman describes her letter, she reveals her belief
that “snail mail” is a much more authentic way of sharing serious
tidings than a message that “arrives over the Internet transom.” The
letter, with its “square” envelope and “handwritten” address,
immediately sounds more personal than the ultramodern electronic
message. The words have guided the reader’s thinking. Goodman also
describes our times as “connected yet fractured” and us as living in a
world of “continuous partial attention.” “Being connected” becomes
synonymous by the end of the essay with “not paying attention.” Word
choice is crucial here. The author creates in the reader’s mind a
dichotomy: be fast and false, or slow down and mean it.
Goodman’s metaphors make a point, too. “A picture is worth a
thousand words” and the pictures created by the words here further
the fast/slow debate. The idea that sending an e-condolence would be
STUDENT ESSAY
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54 SECTION 1 CRITICAL READING AND ANALYSIS
“like serving Thanksgiving dinner at a fast-food restaurant” gives an
instant image of the worthlessness of an e-mail condolence note. The
mother trying to get attention in the “full in-box” of her son’s life shows
us that a divided and distracted brain answering five hundred e-mails
cannot be expected to concentrate on any of them. Again, trying to pay
attention briefly is just as impossible as “painting a landscape from a
speeding car.” The “tyranny” of the reply button must be overcome
by our “going dark.” Getting away from our electronic world, Goodman
reasons, helps us restore meaning to what we do.
But while the reader listens to clever words and paints
memorable mind pictures, any resistance is worn away with a steady
stream of examples. From the author mailing an envelope to Georgia
O’Keeffe’s remark that it takes a long time to see a flower, example
after example supports her view. The mother wishing for the total
attention of her son and the office workers’ turning off cell phones and
computers have already been mentioned. Linda Stone, a former
Microsoft techie and a credible authority on modern communications
and their effects on users, is quoted several times. Goodman notes
with excellent effect that Stone’s message has been received even at a
conference of bloggers—if the most connected group out there
supports this, why shouldn’t everyone else? The author herself comes
to an island every year to escape the mad hurry of the business world
by wandering country roads. These examples build until the reader is
convinced that snail mail is the mark of authenticity and
connectedness.
“In Praise of a Snail’s Pace” is a thoughtful essay that takes aim at
the notion that one person can do it all and still find meaning. The
“connected” person is in so much of a hurry that he or she must not be
really interested in much of anything. By showing “interrupted and
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CHAPTER 2 Responding Critically to Sources 55
distracted” readers that “no technology can rush the growth of the
leeks in the garden,” the author makes a convincing case for the real
effectiveness of written mail. Whether through word choice, metaphor,
or example, Ellen Goodman’s message comes through: Slow down and
send some “snail mail” and be really connected for once.
Courtesy of James Goode.
ANALYZING TWO OR MORE SOURCES
Scientists examining the same set of facts do not always draw the same conclusions;
neither do historians and biographers agree on the significance of the same documents.
How do we recognize and cope with these disparities? As critical readers we analyze
what we read, pose questions, and refuse to believe everything we find in print or online.
To develop these skills in recognizing differences, instructors frequently ask students to
contrast the views of two or more writers. In psychology class, for example, you may be
asked to contrast the views of Sigmund Freud and John B. Watson on child development.
In a communications course, you may be asked to contrast the moderator styles of two
talk-show hosts. We can examine differences in content or presentation, or both. Here
are guidelines for preparing a contrast of sources.
• Work with sources that have something in common. Think about the
context for each, that is, each source’s subject and purpose. (There is
little sense in contrasting a textbook chapter, for example, with a TV
talk show because their contexts are so different.)
• Read actively to understand the content of the two sources. Record
or save films, radio, or TV shows so that you can listen/view them sev-
eral times, just as you would read a written source more than once.
• Analyze for differences, focusing on your purpose in contrasting. If
you are contrasting the ideas of two writers, for example, then your
analysis will focus on ideas, not on writing style. To explore differences
in two news accounts, you may want to consider all of the following:
the impact of placement in the newspaper/magazine, accompanying
photographs or graphics, length of each article, what is covered in
each article, and writing styles. Prepare a list of specific differences.
• Organize your contrast. It is usually best to organize by points of differ-
ence. If you write first about one source and then about the other, the
ways that the sources differ may not be clear for readers. Take the time
GUIDELINES for Preparing a
Contrast Essay
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56 SECTION 1 CRITICAL READING AND ANALYSIS
to plan an organization that clearly reveals your contrast purpose in writing.
To illustrate, a paper contrasting the writing styles of two authors can be
organized according to the following pattern:
Introduction: Introduce your topic and establish your purpose to contrast
styles of writer A and writer B.
A1
Sentence structures of writer A and writer B
B1
A2
Word choices of writer A and writer B
B2
A3
Metaphors used by writer A and writer B
B3
Conclusion: Explain the effect of the differences in style of the writers.
• Illustrate and discuss each of the points of difference for each of the
sources. Provide examples and explain the impact of the differences.
• Always write for an audience who may be familiar with your general topic
but not with the specific sources you are discussing. Be sure to provide
adequate context (names, titles of works, etc.).
SYNTHESIZING TWO OR MORE SOURCES
Sometimes we have the writing goal of synthesizing sources rather than contrasting
them. because the goal is to show the sources basically agree. You can still use the con-
trast structure even though your purpose is to demonstrate similarities rather than differ-
ences. If the sources contain some differences, you might want to begin by noting those,
but then proceed to organize by points of similarity.
Remember that summarizing first one source and then the other does not produce a
synthesis. Instead, you are actually leaving your reader with the task of finding the sim-
ilarities. But when you group points of similarity, you are then doing the analysis for the
reader, fulfilling your purpose in writing.
EXERCISE: Analyzing Two Sources
In chapter 1, Ruth Whippman has written to question the popular current view that we
need to develop “mindfulness.” You will find that many have written about the topic of
mindfulness. Locate a second article on this subject, and read to see if the author agrees
with Whippman or supports the concept of mindfulness. If there is agreement, prepare
a synthesis of the two articles. If there is disagreement, prepare a contrast of the two
articles. You may be asked to prepare just an outline, rather than completing an essay.
■ ■
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CHAPTER 2 Responding Critically to Sources 57
You may be asked to prepare the outline on your own or with a classmate who has the
same second article as you do.
■ ■
WHY I TAUGHT MYSELF TO PROCRASTINATE ADAM GRANT
Adam Grant, a Phi Beta Kappa graduate from Harvard with a PhD in organizational psychol-
ogy from the University of Michigan, is The Wharton School’s top-rated professor. He is the
author of two books, Originals (how individuals champion new ideas) and Give and Take,
named one of the best books of 2013. He has been widely recognized for his work in busi-
ness innovation as well as for his guidelines in developing both creative and moral children.
PREREADING QUESTIONS Why would anyone recommend procrastinating? What might
be Grant’s twist on this topic?
Normally, I would have finished this column weeks ago. But I kept putting it
off because my New Year’s resolution is to procrastinate more.
I guess I owe you an explanation. Sooner or later.
We think of procrastination as a curse. Over 80 percent of college students
are plagued by procrastination, requiring epic all-nighters to finish papers and
prepare for tests. Roughly 20 percent of adults report being chronic procrastina-
tors. We can only guess how much higher the estimate would be if more of them
got around to filling out the survey.
But while procrastination is a vice for productivity, I’ve learned—against my
natural inclinations—that it’s a virtue for creativity.
Intent on her work, but has she paused to “pro-crastinate”?
For years, I believed that anything worth doing was worth doing early.
In graduate school I submitted my dissertation two years in advance. In college,
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58 SECTION 1 CRITICAL READING AND ANALYSIS
I wrote my papers weeks early and finished my thesis four months before
the due date. My roommates joked that I had a productive form of obses-
sive-compulsive disorder. Psychologists have coined a term for my condition:
pre-crastination.
Pre-crastination is the urge to start a task immediately and finish it as soon
as possible. If you’re a serious pre-crastinator, progress is like oxygen and post-
ponement is agony. When a flurry of emails land in your inbox and you don’t an-
swer them instantly, you feel as if your life is spinning out of control. When you
have a speech to give next month, each day you don’t work on it brings a creep-
ing sense of emptiness, like a dementor is sucking the joy from the air around
you (look it up—now!).
In college, my idea of a productive day was to start writing at 7 a.m. and not
leave my chair until dinnertime. I was chasing “flow,” the mental state described
by the psychologist Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi in which you are so completely ab-
sorbed in a task that you lose a sense of time and place. I fell so deeply into that
zone of concentration that my roommates once gave a party while I was writing
and I didn’t even notice.
But procrastinators, as the writer Tim Urban describes it on the blog Wait But
Why, are at the mercy of an Instant Gratification Monkey who inhabits their
brains, constantly asking questions like “Why would we ever use a computer for
work when the Internet is sitting right there waiting to be played with?”
If you’re a procrastinator, overcoming that monkey can require herculean
amounts of willpower. But a pre-crastinator may need equal willpower
to not work.
A few years ago, though, one of my most creative students, Jihae Shin,
questioned my expeditious habits. She told me her most original ideas came to
her after she procrastinated. I challenged her to prove it. She got access to a
couple of companies, surveyed people on how often they procrastinated, and
asked their supervisors to rate their creativity. Procrastinators earned signifi-
cantly higher creativity scores than pre-crastinators like me.
I wasn’t convinced. So Jihae, now a professor at the University of Wisconsin,
designed some experiments. She asked people to come up with new business
ideas. Some were randomly assigned to start right away. Others were given five
minutes to first play Minesweeper or Solitaire. Everyone submitted their ideas,
and independent raters rated how original they were. The procrastinators’ ideas
were 28 percent more creative.
Minesweeper is awesome, but it wasn’t the driver of the effect. When people
played games before being told about the task, there was no increase in creativ-
ity. It was only when they first learned about the task and then put it off that they
considered more novel ideas. It turned out that procrastination encouraged
divergent thinking.
Our first ideas, after all, are usually our most conventional. My senior thesis
in college ended up replicating a bunch of existing ideas instead of introducing
new ones. When you procrastinate, you’re more likely to let your mind wander.
That gives you a better chance of stumbling onto the unusual and spotting unex-
pected patterns. Nearly a century ago, the psychologist Bluma Zeigarnik found
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CHAPTER 2 Responding Critically to Sources 59
that people had a better memory for incomplete tasks than for complete ones.
When we finish a project, we file it away. But when it’s in limbo, it stays active in
our minds.
Begrudgingly, I acknowledged that procrastination might help with everyday
creativity. But monumental achievements are a different story, right?
Wrong. Steve Jobs procrastinated constantly, several of his collaborators
have told me. Bill Clinton has been described as a “chronic procrastinator” who
waits until the last minute to revise his speeches. Frank Lloyd Wright spent
almost a year procrastinating on a commission, to the point that his patron drove
out and insisted that he produce a drawing on the spot. It became Fallingwater,
his masterpiece. Aaron Sorkin, the screenwriter behind Steve Jobs and The
West Wing, is known to put off writing until the last minute. When Katie Couric
asked him about it, he replied, “You call it procrastination, I call it thinking.”
So what if creativity happens not in spite of procrastination, but because of
it? I decided to give it a try. The good news is that I am no stranger to self-
discipline. So I woke up one morning and wrote a to-do list for procrastinating more.
Then I set out to achieve the goal of not making progress toward my goals. It
didn’t go excellently.
My first step was to delay creative tasks, starting with this article. I resisted
the temptation to sit down and start typing, and instead waited. While procrasti-
nating (i.e., thinking), I remembered an article I had read months earlier on
pre-crastination. It dawned on me that I could use my own experiences as a
pre-crastinator to set the stage for readers.
Next, I drew some inspiration from George Costanza on Seinfeld, who made
it a habit to quit on a high note. When I started writing a sentence that felt good,
I stopped in the middle of it and walked away. When I returned to writing later
that day, I was able to pick up where I had left the trail of thought. Mitch Albom,
author of Tuesdays With Morrie, uses the same trick. “If you quit in the middle of
a sentence, that’s just great,” he told me. “You can’t wait to get back to it the next
morning.”
Once I did finish a draft, I put it away for three weeks. When I came back to
it, I had enough distance to wonder, “What kind of idiot wrote this garbage?” and
rewrote most of it. To my surprise, I had some fresh material at my disposal:
During those three weeks, for example, a colleague had mentioned the fact that
Mr. Sorkin was an avid procrastinator.
What I discovered was that in every creative project, there are moments that
require thinking more laterally and, yes, more slowly. My natural need to finish
early was a way of shutting down complicating thoughts that sent me whirling in
new directions. I was avoiding the pain of divergent thinking—but I was also
missing out on its rewards.
Of course, procrastination can go too far. Jihae randomly assigned a third
group of people to wait until the last minute to begin their project. They weren’t
as creative either. They had to rush to implement the easiest idea instead of
working out a novel one.
To curb that kind of destructive procrastination, science offers some useful
guidance. First, imagine yourself failing spectacularly, and the ensuing frenzy of
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60 SECTION 1 CRITICAL READING AND ANALYSIS
anxiety may jump-start your engine. Second, lower your standards for what
counts as progress, and you will be less paralyzed by perfectionism. Carving out
small windows of time can help, too: The psychologist Robert Boice helped grad-
uate students overcome writer’s block by teaching them to write for 15 minutes a
day. My favorite step is pre-commitment: If you’re passionate about gun control,
go to the app stickK and fork over some cash in advance. If you don’t meet your
deadline, your money will be donated to the National Rifle Association. The fear
of supporting a cause you despise can be a powerful motivator.
But if you’re a procrastinator, next time you’re wallowing in the dark play-
ground of guilt and self-hatred over your failure to start a task, remember that
the right kind of procrastination might make you more creative. And if you’re a
pre-crastinator like me, it may be worth mastering the discipline of forcing your-
self to procrastinate. You can’t be afraid of leaving your work un
Adam Grant, “Why I Taught Myself to Procrastinate,” The New York Times, 16 Jan. 2016. Copyright ©2016
by Adam Grant. Used with permission of the author.
QUESTIONS FOR READING
1. What does a good procrastinator allow for?
2. What does pre-crastination mean? Which term best describes the author?
3. Who are some of the most famous procrastinators? What happened when Grant chose
to procrastinate while writing this essay?
QUESTIONS FOR READING AND ANALYSIS
4. What is Grant’s thesis—the claim of his argument? Try to state it with precision.
5. Although the author can be said to have a serious topic, how does he avoid preaching?
Find several examples of style elements that add a light touch to his essay.
QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION AND WRITING
6. Have you experienced an “in the flow” level of concentration that would have let you
work in the midst of a party? If so, how did you do it? If not, why not?
7. Are you a pro- or a pre-crastinator? A good or a bad procrastinator? Are you likely to
try Grant’s advice for becoming a good procrastinator? Why or why not?
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61
SUGGESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION AND WRITING
1. Analyze the style of one of the essays from section 5 of this text. Do not comment on every
element of style; select several elements that seem to characterize the writer’s style and
examine them in detail. Remember that style analyses are written for an audience familiar
with the work, so summary is not necessary.
2. Many of the authors included in this text have written books that you will find in your
library. Select one that interests you, read it, and prepare a review of it that synthesizes
summary, analysis, and evaluation. Prepare a review of about 300 words; assume that the
book has just been published.
3. Choose two newspaper and/or magazine articles that differ in their discussion of the same
person, event, or product. You may select two different articles on a person in the news, two
different accounts of a news event, an advertisement and a Consumer Reports analysis of the
same product, or two reviews of a book or movie. Analyze differences in both content and
presentation, and then consider why the two accounts differ. Organize by points of differ-
ence, and write to an audience not necessarily familiar with the articles.
4. Choose a recently scheduled public event (the Super Bowl, the Olympics, a presidential
election, the Academy Award presentations, the premiere of a new television series), and
find several articles written before and several after the event. First compare articles written
after the event to see if they agree factually. If not, decide which article appears to be more
accurate and why. Then examine the earlier material and decide which was the most and
which the least accurate. Write an essay in which you explain the differences in speculation
before the event and why you think these differences exist. Your audience will be aware of
the event, but not necessarily aware of the articles you are studying.
CREDITS
1. Michael Korda. “How to Be a Leader.” Newsweek, 5 Jan. 1981.
2. E. B. White. “The Meaning of Democracy.” The New Yorker, 3 July 1943.
3. Ellen Goodman. “Family Ties Pulled Tight at Holiday Dinners.” The Washington Post, 24 Nov. 1989.
4. Dave Barry. “Remote Control.” The Washington Post, 5 Mar. 2000.
5. Henry David Thoreau. Walden (1854).
6. Neil Postman. The Disappearance of Childhood. Vintage Books, 1994, p. 82.
7. Edward Abbey. Abbey’s Road. Dutton, 1979.
8. Russell Baker. “Sunday Observer: Eat What You Are.” The New York Times Magazine, 10 Oct. 1982.
9. Charles Krauthammer. “Legalize? No. Deglamorize.” The Washington Post, 20 May 1988.
10. Judith Martin. “The Roles of Manners.” The Responsive Community, Spring 1996.
11. Stephen Hunter. “Look Out Below: At the Movies, Subtext Plays a Summer Role.” The Washington
Post, 18 Aug. 2002, p. G01.
12. E. B. White. “Education” in One Man’s Meat. Harper & Row, 1944.
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The World of Argument
2SECTION
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Understanding the
Basics of Argument
READ: What is the situation? What is the reaction of the younger children?
What does the older boy try to do?
REASON: Why is the older boy frustrated?
REFLECT/WRITE: What can happen to those who lack scientific
knowledge?
CHAPTER 3
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65
In this section we will explore the processes of thinking logically and analyzing issues to reach informed judgments. Remember: Mature people do not need to agree on all
issues to respect one another’s good sense, but they do have little patience with
uninformed or illogical statements masquerading as argument.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ARGUMENT
Argument Is Conversation with a Goal
When you enter into an argument (as speaker, writer, or reader), you become a partici-
pant in an ongoing debate about an issue. Since you are probably not the first to address
the issue, you need to be aware of the ways that the issue has been debated by others and
then seek to advance the conversation, just as you would if you were having a more
casual conversation with friends. If the time of the movie is set, the discussion now
turns to whose car to take or where to meet. If you were to just repeat the time of the
movie, you would add nothing useful to the conversation. Also, if you were to change
the subject to a movie you saw last week, you would annoy your friends by not offering
useful information or showing that you valued the current conversation. Just as with
your conversation about the movie, you want your argument to stay focused on the
issue, to respect what others have already contributed, and to make a useful addition to
our understanding of the topic.
Argument Takes a Stand on an Arguable Issue
A meaningful argument focuses on a debatable issue. We usually do not argue about
facts. “Professor Jones’s American literature class meets at 10:00 on Mondays” is not
arguable. It is either true or false. We can check the schedule of classes to find out.
(Sometimes the facts change; new facts replace old ones.) We also do not debate per-
sonal preferences for the simple reason that they are just that—personal. If the debate is
about the appropriateness of boxing as a sport, for you to declare that you would rather
play tennis is to fail to advance the conversation. You have expressed a personal prefer-
ence, interesting perhaps, but not relevant to the debate.
Argument Uses Reasons and Evidence
Some arguments merely “look right.” That is, conclusions are drawn from facts, but
the facts are not those that actually support the assertion, or the conclusion is not the
only or the best explanation of those facts. To shape convincing arguments, we need
more than an array of facts. We need to think critically, analyze the issue, see rela-
tionships, weigh evidence. We need to avoid the temptation to “argue” from emotion
only, or to believe that just stating our opinion is the same thing as building a sound
argument.
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66 SECTION 2 THE WORLD OF ARGUMENT
Argument Incorporates Values
Arguments are based not just on reason and evidence but also on the beliefs and values
we hold and think that our audience may hold as well. In a reasoned debate, you want
to make clear the values that you consider relevant to the argument. In an editorial
defending the sport of boxing, one editor wrote that boxing “is a sport because the
world has not yet become a place in which the qualities that go into excellence in
boxing [endurance, agility, courage] have no value” (The Washington Post, February 5,
1983). But James J. Kilpatrick also appeals to values when he argues, in an editorial
critical of boxing, that we should not want to live in a society “in which deliberate
brutality is legally authorized and publicly applauded” (The Washington Post,
December 7, 1982). Observe, however, the high level of seriousness in the appeal to
values. Neither writer settles for a simplistic personal preference: “Boxing is exciting”
or “Boxing is too violent.”
Argument Recognizes the Topic’s Complexity
Much false reasoning (the logical fallacies discussed in Chapter 6) results from a
writer’s oversimplifying an issue. A sound argument begins with an understanding that
most issues are terribly complicated. The wise person approaches such ethical concerns
as abortion or euthanasia or such public policy issues as tax cuts or trade agreements
with the understanding that there are many philosophical, moral, and political issues
that complicate discussions of these topics. Recognizing an argument’s complexity may
also lead us to an understanding that there can be more than one “right” position. The
thoughtful arguer respects the views of others, seeks common ground when possible,
and often chooses a conciliatory approach.
THE SHAPE OF ARGUMENT: WHAT WE CAN
LEARN FROM ARISTOTLE
Still one of the best ways to understand the basics of argument is to reflect on what the
Greek philosopher Aristotle describes as the three “players” in any argument: the writer
(or speaker), the argument itself, and the reader (or audience). Aristotle also reminds us
that a writer’s credibility (ethos) and appeals to the reader’s logic (logos) and emotions
(pathos) are important in understanding and evaluating an argument. Moreover, he
notes that the occasion or “situation” (kairos) should be considered. Let’s examine each
part of this model of argument.
Ethos (about the Writer/Speaker)
It seems logical to begin with ethos because without this player we have no argument.
We could, though, end with the writer because Aristotle asserts that this player in any
argument is the most important. No argument, no matter how logical, no matter how
appealing to one’s audience, can succeed if the audience rejects the arguer’s credibility,
his or her ethical qualities.
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CHAPTER 3 Understanding the Basics of Argument 67
Think how often in political contests those running attack their opponent’s
character rather than the candidate’s programs. Remember the smear campaign
against Obama—he is (or was) a Muslim and therefore unfit to be president, the first
point an error of fact, the second point an emotional appeal to voters’ fears.
Candidates try these smear tactics, even without evidence, because they understand
that every voter they can convince of an opponent’s failure of ethos is a citizen who
will vote for them.
Many American voters want to be assured that a candidate is patriotic, religious
(but of course not fanatic!), a loyal spouse, and a loving parent. At times, we even lose
sight of important differences in positions as we focus on the person instead. But this
tells us how much an audience values their sense of the arguer’s credibility. During his
campaign for reelection, after the Watergate break-in, Nixon was attacked with the line
“Would you buy a used car from this guy?” (In defense of used-car salespeople, not all
are untrustworthy!)
Logos (about the Logic of the Argument)
Logos refers to the argument itself—to the assertion and the support for it. Aristotle
maintains that part of an arguer’s appeal to his or her audience lies in the logic of the
argument and the quality of the support provided. Even the most credible of writers will
not move thoughtful audiences with inadequate evidence or sloppy reasoning. Yes,
“arguments” that appeal to emotions, to our needs and fantasies, will work for some
audiences—look at the success of advertising, for example. But if you want to present a
serious claim to critical readers, then you must pay attention to your argument. Paying
attention means not only having good reasons but also organizing them clearly. Your
audience needs to see how your evidence supports your point. Consider the following
argument in opposition to the war on Iraq.
War can be justified only as a form of self-defense. To initiate a war, we need to be
able to show that our first strike was necessary as a form of self-defense. The Bush
administration argued that Iraq had weapons of mass destruction and intended to use
them against us. Responding to someone’s “intent” to do harm is always a difficult
judgment call. But in this case, there were no weapons of mass destruction, so there
could not have been any intent to harm the United States, or at least none that was
obvious and immediate. Thus we must conclude that this war was not the right course
of action for the United States.
You may disagree (many will) with this argument’s assertion, but you can respect the
writer’s logic, the clear connecting of one reason to the next. One good way to strengthen
your credibility is to get respect for clear reasoning.
Pathos (about Appeals to the Audience)
Argument implies an audience, those whose views we want to influence in some way.
Aristotle labels this player pathos, the Greek word for both passion and suffering (hence
pathology, the study of disease). Arguers need to be aware of their audience’s feelings
on the issue, the attitudes and values that will affect their response to the argument.
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68 SECTION 2 THE WORLD OF ARGUMENT
There are really two questions arguers must answer: “How can I engage my audience’s
interest?” and “How can I engage their sympathy for my position?”
Some educators and health experts believe that childhood obesity is a major prob-
lem in the United States. Other Americans are much more focused on the economy—or
their own careers. Al Gore is passionately concerned about the harmful effects of global
warming; others, though increasingly fewer, think he lacks sufficient evidence of
environmental degradation. How does a physician raise reader interest in childhood
obesity? How does Gore convince doubters that we need to reduce carbon emissions?
To prepare an effective argument, we need always to plan our approach with a clear
vision of how best to connect to a specific audience—one that may or may not agree
with our interests or our position.
Kairos (about the Occasion or Situation)
While ethos, logos, and pathos create the traditional three-part communication model,
Aristotle adds another term to enhance our understanding of any argument “moment.”
The term kairos refers to the occasion for the argument, the situation that we are in.
What does this moment call for from us? Is the lunch table the appropriate time and
place for an argument with your coworker over her failure to meet a deadline that is
part of a joint project? You have just received a 65 on your history test; is this the best
time to e-mail your professor to protest the grade? Would the professor’s office be the
better place for your discussion than an e-mail sent just a few minutes after you have
left class?
Personal confrontation
at a business meeting:
Not cool.
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CHAPTER 3 Understanding the Basics of Argument 69
The concept of kairos asks us to consider what is most appropriate for the occasion,
to think through the best time, place, and genre (type of argument) to make a successful
argument. This concept has special meaning for students in a writing class who some-
times have difficulty thinking about audience at all. When practicing writing for the
academic community, you may need to modify the language or tone that you use in
other situations.
We argue in a specific context of three interrelated parts, as illustrated in Figure 3.1.
We present support for an assertion to a specific audience whose expectations
and character we have given thought to when shaping our argument. And we present
ourselves as informed, competent, and reliable so that our audience will give us their
attention.
THE LANGUAGE OF ARGUMENT
We could title this section the languages of argument because arguments come in
visual language as well as in words. But visual arguments—images, cartoons, photos,
ads—are almost always accompanied by some words: figures speaking in bubbles,
a caption, a slogan (Nike’s “Just Do It!”). So we need to think about the kinds of
statements that make up arguments, whether those arguments are legal briefs or
cartoons, casual conversations or scholarly essays. To build an argument we need
some statements that support other statements that present the main idea or claim of
the argument.
• Claims: usually either inferences or judgments, for these are debatable assertions.
• Support: facts, opinions based on facts (inferences), or opinions based on values,
beliefs, or ideas (judgments) or some combination of the three.
Let’s consider what kinds of statements each of these terms describes.
FIGURE 3.1 Aristotelian Structure of Argument
Writer/speaker
Logos PathosEthos
Argument and
its support
Readers/listeners
Creates
argument
To a�ect
audience
Judges argument
and arguers
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70 SECTION 2 THE WORLD OF ARGUMENT
Facts
Facts are statements that are verifiable. Factual statements refer to what can be counted
or measured or confirmed by reasonable observers or trusted experts.
There are twenty-six desks in Room 110.
In the United States about 400,000 people die each year as a result of smoking.
These are factual statements. We can verify the first by observation—by counting.
The second fact comes from medical records. We rely on trusted record-keeping sources
and medical experts for verification. By definition, we do not argue about the facts.
Usually. Sometimes “facts” change, as we learn more about our world. For example,
only in the last thirty years has convincing evidence been gathered to demonstrate the
relationship between smoking and various illnesses of the heart and lungs. And some-
times “facts” are false facts. These are statements that sound like facts but are incorrect.
For example: Nadel has won more Wimbledon titles than Federer. Not so.
Inferences
Inferences are opinions based on facts. Inferences are the conclusions we draw from an
analysis of facts.
There will not be enough desks in Room 110 for upcoming fall-semester classes.
Smoking is a serious health hazard.
Predictions of an increase in student enrollment for the coming fall semester lead to the
inference that most English classes scheduled in Room 110 will run with several more
students per class than last year. The dean should order new desks. Similarly, we infer
from the number of deaths that smoking is a health problem; statistics show more
people dying from tobacco than from AIDS, or murder, or car accidents, causes of death
that get media coverage but do not produce nearly as many deaths.
Inferences vary in their closeness to the facts supporting them. That the sun will
“rise” tomorrow is an inference, but we count on its happening, acting as if it is a fact.
However, the first inference stated above is based not just on the fact of twenty-six desks
but on another inference—a projected increase in student enrollment—and two
assumptions. The argument looks like this:
FACT: There are twenty-six desks in Room 110.
INFERENCE: There will be more first-year students next year.
ASSUMPTIONS: 1. English will remain a required course.
2. No additional classrooms are available for English classes.
CLAIM: There will not be enough desks in Room 110 for upcoming
fall-semester classes.
This inference could be challenged by a different analysis of the facts supporting enroll-
ment projections. Or, if additional rooms can be found, the dean will not need to order
new desks. Inferences can be part of the support of an argument, or they can be the
claim of an argument.
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CHAPTER 3 Understanding the Basics of Argument 71
Judgments
Judgments are opinions based on values, beliefs, or philosophical concepts. (Judgments
also include opinions based on personal preferences, but we have already excluded
these from argument.) Judgments concern right and wrong, good and bad, better or
worse, should and should not:
No more than twenty-six students should be enrolled in any English class.
Cigarette advertising should be eliminated, and the federal government should develop an
antismoking campaign.
NOTE: Placing such qualifiers as “I believe,” “I think,” or “I feel” in an asser-
tion does not free you from the need to support that claim. The statement
“I believe that President Obama was a great president” calls for an argument
based on evidence and reasons.
To support the first judgment, we need to explain what constitutes overcrowding, or
what constitutes the best class size for effective teaching. If we can support our views on
effective teaching, we may be able to convince the college president that ordering more
desks for Room 110 is not the best solution to an increasing enrollment in English
classes. The second judgment also offers a solution to a problem, in this case a national
health problem. To reduce the number of deaths, we need to reduce the number of
smokers, either by encouraging smokers to quit or nonsmokers not to start. The under-
lying assumption: Advertising does affect behavior.
EXERCISE: Facts, Inferences, and Judgments
Compile a list of three statements of fact, three inferences, and three judgments. Try to
organize them into three related sets, as illustrated here:
• Smoking is prohibited in some restaurants.
• Secondhand smoke is a health hazard.
• Smoking should be prohibited in all restaurants.
We can classify judgments to see better what kind of assertion we are making and,
therefore, what kind of support we need to argue effectively.
FUNCTIONAL JUDGMENTS (guidelines for judging how something or
someone works or could work)
Tiger Woods is the best golfer to play the game.
Antismoking advertising will reduce the number of smokers.
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72 SECTION 2 THE WORLD OF ARGUMENT
AESTHETIC JUDGMENTS (guidelines for judging art, literature,
music, or natural scenes)
The sunrise was beautiful.
The Great Gatsby’s structure, characters, and symbols are perfectly wedded to create the
novel’s vision of the American dream.
ETHICAL JUDGMENTS (guidelines for group or social behavior)
Lawyers should not advertise.
It is discourteous to talk during a film or lecture.
MORAL JUDGMENTS (guidelines of right and wrong for judging
individuals and for establishing legal principles)
Taking another person’s life is wrong.
Equal rights under the law should not be denied on the basis of race or gender.
Functional and aesthetic judgments generally require defining key terms and establishing
criteria for the judging or ranking made by the assertion. How, for example, do we
compare golfers? On the amount of money won? The number of tournaments won? Or
the consistency of winning throughout one’s career? What about the golfer’s quality and
range of shots? Ethical and moral judgments may be more difficult to support because
they depend not just on how terms are defined and criteria established but on values and
beliefs as well. If taking another person’s life is wrong, why isn’t it wrong in war? Or is
it? These are difficult questions that require thoughtful debate.
EXERCISES: Understanding Assumptions,
Facts, False Facts, Inferences, and Judgments
1. Categorize the judgments you wrote for the previous exercise (p. 71) as aesthetic,
moral, ethical, or functional. Alternatively, compile a list of three judgments that
you then categorize.
2. For each judgment listed for exercise 1, generate one statement of support, either a
fact or an inference or another judgment. Then state any underlying assumptions
that are part of each argument.
3. Read the following article and then complete the exercise that follows. This exer-
cise tests both careful reading and your understanding of the differences among
facts, inferences, and judgments.
■ ■
YOUR BRAIN LIES TO YOU SAM WANG and SANDRA AAMODT
Dr. Samuel S. H. Wang is a professor of molecular biology and neuroscience at
Princeton, where he manages a research lab. Dr. Sandra Aamodt, former editor of
Nature Neuroscience, is a freelance science writer. Drs. Wang and Aamodt are the
authors of Welcome to Your Brain: Why You Lose Your Car Keys but Never Forget How
to Drive and Other Puzzles of Everyday Life (2008). They also manage a blog—”Welcome
to Your Brain.”
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CHAPTER 3 Understanding the Basics of Argument 73
False beliefs are everywhere. Eighteen percent of Americans think the sun
revolves around the earth, one poll has found. Thus it seems slightly less egre-
gious that, according to another poll, 10 percent of us think that Senator Barack
Obama, a Christian, is instead a Muslim. The Obama campaign has created a
Web site to dispel misinformation. But this effort may be more difficult than it
seems, thanks to the quirky way in which our brains store memories—and
mislead us along the way.
The brain does not simply gather and stockpile information as a computer’s
hard drive does. Current research suggests that facts may be stored first in the
hippocampus, a structure deep in the brain about the size and shape of a fat
man’s curled pinkie finger. But the information does not rest there. Every time we
recall it, our brain writes it down again, and during this re-storage, it is also repro-
cessed. In time, the fact is gradually transferred to the cerebral cortex and is
separated from the context in which it was originally learned. For example, you
know that the capital of California is Sacramento, but you probably don’t remem-
ber how you learned it.
This phenomenon, known as source amnesia, can also lead people to forget
whether a statement is true. Even when a lie is presented with a disclaimer,
people often later remember it as true.
With time, this misremembering only gets worse. A false statement from a
non-credible source that is at first not believed can gain credibility during the
months it takes to reprocess memories from short-term hippocampal storage to
longer-term cortical storage. As the source is forgotten, the message and its
implications gain strength. This could explain why, during the 2004 presidential
campaign, it took some weeks for the Swift Boat Veterans for Truth campaign
against Senator John Kerry to have an effect on his standing in the polls.
Even if they do not understand the neuroscience behind source amnesia,
campaign strategists can exploit it to spread misinformation. They know that if
their message is initially memorable, its impression will persist long after it is
debunked. In repeating a falsehood, someone may back it up with an opening
line like “I think I read somewhere” or even with a reference to a specific
source.
In one study, a group of Stanford students was exposed repeatedly to an
unsubstantiated claim taken from a Web site that Coca-Cola is an effective paint
thinner. Students who read the statement five times were nearly one-third more
likely than those who read it only twice to attribute it to Consumer Reports (rather
than The National Enquirer, their other choice), giving it a gloss of credibility.
Adding to this innate tendency to mold information we recall is the way our
brains fit facts into established mental frameworks. We tend to remember news
that accords with our worldview, and discount statements that contradict it.
In another Stanford study, 48 students, half of whom said they favored
capital punishment and half of whom said they opposed it, were presented with
two pieces of evidence, one supporting and one contradicting the claim that
capital punishment deters crime. Both groups were more convinced by the
evidence that supported their initial position.
1
2
3
7
8
4
5
6
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74 SECTION 2 THE WORLD OF ARGUMENT
Psychologists have suggested that legends propagate by striking an
emotional chord. In the same way, ideas can spread by emotional selection,
rather than by their factual merits, encouraging the persistence of falsehoods
about Coke—or about a presidential candidate.
Journalists and campaign workers may think they are acting to counter
misinformation by pointing out that it is not true. But by repeating a false rumor,
they may inadvertently make it stronger. In its concerted effort to “stop the
smears,” the Obama campaign may want to keep this in mind. Rather than em-
phasize that Mr. Obama is not a Muslim, for instance, it may be more effective to
stress that he embraced Christianity as a young man.
Consumers of news, for their part, are prone to selectively accept and
remember statements that reinforce beliefs they already hold. In a replication of
the study of students’ impressions of evidence about the death penalty, research-
ers found that even when subjects were given a specific instruction to be objec-
tive, they were still inclined to reject evidence that disagreed with their beliefs.
In the same study, however, when subjects were asked to imagine their
reaction if the evidence had pointed to the opposite conclusion, they were more
open-minded to information that contradicted their beliefs. Apparently, it pays for
consumers of controversial news to take a moment and consider that the oppo-
site interpretation may be true.
In 1919, Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes of the Supreme Court wrote that “the
best test of truth is the power of the thought to get itself accepted in the compe-
tition of the market.” Holmes erroneously assumed that ideas are more likely to
spread if they are honest. Our brains do not naturally obey this admirable dictum,
but by better understanding the mechanisms of memory perhaps we can move
closer to Holmes’s ideal.
Sam Wang and Sandra Aamodt, “Your Brain Lies to You,” The New York Times, 27 June 2008. Reprinted
by permission of the authors.
9
10
11
12
13
Label each of the following sentences as F (fact), FF (false fact), I (inference), or
J (judgment).
1. Campaigns have trouble getting rid of misinformation about their candidate.
2. When we reprocess information we may get the information wrong, but we
always remember the source.
3. The Obama campaign should have stressed that he became a Christian as a
young man.
4. Most of us remember information that matches our view of the world.
5. When students were told to be objective in evaluating evidence, they continued
to reject evidence they disagreed with.
6. Coke is an effective paint thinner.
7. True statements should be accepted and false statements rejected.
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CHAPTER 3 Understanding the Basics of Argument 75
8. Justice Holmes was wrong about the power of truth to spread more widely than
falsehood.
9. The more we understand about the way the world works, the better our chances
of separating truth from falsehood.
10. Americans do not seem to understand basic science.
THE SHAPE OF ARGUMENT: WHAT WE CAN
LEARN FROM TOULMIN
British philosopher Stephen Toulmin adds to what we have learned from Aristotle by
focusing our attention on the basics of the argument itself. First, consider this definition
of argument: An argument consists of evidence and/or reasons presented in support of
an assertion or claim that is either stated or implied. For example:
CLAIM: We should not go skiing today
GROUNDS: because it is too cold.
GROUNDS: Because some laws are unjust,
CLAIM: civil disobedience is sometimes justified.
GROUNDS: It’s only fair and right for academic institutions to
CLAIM: accept students only on academic merit.
The parts of an argument, Toulmin asserts, are actually a bit more complex than these
examples suggest. Each argument has a third part that is not stated in the preceding
examples. This third part is the “glue” that connects the support—the evidence and
reasons—to the argument’s claim and thus fulfills the logic of the argument. Toulmin
calls this glue an argument’s warrants. These are the principles or assumptions that allow
us to assert that our evidence or reasons—what Toulmin calls the grounds—do indeed
support our claim. Figure 3.2 illustrates these basics of the Toulmin model of argument.
■ ■
CLAIM: Academic institutions should accept students only on academic
merit.
GROUNDS: It is only fair and right.
WARRANT: (1) Fair and right are important values. (2) Academic institutions
are only about academics.
FIGURE 3.2 The Toulmin Structure of Argument
Look again at the sample arguments to see what warrants must be accepted to make
each argument work:
CLAIM: We should not go skiing today.
GROUNDS: It is too cold.
WARRANTS: When it is too cold, skiing is not fun; the activity is not sufficient to
keep one from becoming uncomfortable. AND: Too cold is what is too
cold for me.
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76 SECTION 2 THE WORLD OF ARGUMENT
CLAIM: Civil disobedience is sometimes justified.
EVIDENCE: Some laws are unjust.
WARRANTS: To get unjust laws changed, people need to be made aware of the
injustice. Acts of civil disobedience will get people’s attention and
make them aware that the laws need changing.
Warrants play an important role in any argument, so we need to be sure to
understand what they are. Note, for instance, the second warrant operating in
the first argument: The temperature considered uncomfortable for the speaker
will also be uncomfortable for her companions—an uncertain assumption. In
the second argument, the warrant is less debatable, for acts of civil disobedi-
ence usually get media coverage and thus dramatize the issue. The underlying
assumptions in the third example stress the need to know one’s warrants. Both
warrants will need to be defended in the debate over selection by academic
merit only.
COLLABORATIVE EXERCISE: Building Arguments
With your class partner or in small groups, examine each of the following claims. Select
two, think of one statement that could serve as evidence for each claim, and then think
of the underlying assumption(s) that complete each of the arguments.
1. Professor X is not a good instructor.
2. Americans need to reduce the fat in their diets.
3. Tiger Woods is a great golfer.
4. Military women should be allowed to serve in combat zones.
5. College newspapers should be free of supervision by faculty or administrators.
Toulmin was particularly interested in the great range or strength or probabil-
ity of various arguments. Some kinds of arguments are stronger than others be-
cause of the language or logic they use. Other arguments must, necessarily, be
heavily qualified for the claim to be supportable. Toulmin developed his language
to provide a strategy for analyzing the degree of probability in a given argument
and to remind us of the need to qualify some kinds of claims. You have already
seen how the idea of warrants, or assumptions, helps us think about the “glue” that
presumably makes a given argument work. Taken together, Toulmin terms and
concepts help us analyze the arguments of others and prepare more convincing ar-
guments of our own.
Claims
A claim is what the argument asserts or seeks to prove. It answers the question “What
is your point?” In an argumentative speech or essay, the claim is the speaker’s or
writer’s main idea or thesis. Although an argument’s claim “follows” from reasons and
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CHAPTER 3 Understanding the Basics of Argument 77
evidence, we often present an argument—whether written or spoken—with the claim
stated near the beginning of the presentation. We can better understand an argument’s
claim by recognizing that we can have claims of fact, claims of value, and claims of
policy.
Claims of Fact
Although facts usually support claims, we do argue over some facts. Historians and
biographers may argue over what happened in the past, although they are more likely to
argue over the significance of what happened. Scientists also argue over the facts, over
how to classify an unearthed fossil, or whether the fossil indicates that the animal had
feathers. For example:
CLAIM: The small, predatory dinosaur Deinonychus hunted its prey in packs.
This claim is supported by the discovery of several fossils of Deinonychus close together
and with the fossil bones of a much larger dinosaur. Their teeth have also been found in
or near the bones of dinosaurs that have died in a struggle.
Assertions about what will happen are sometimes classified as claims of fact, but
they can also be labeled as inferences supported by facts. Predictions about a future
event may be classified as claims of fact:
CLAIM: The United States will win the most gold medals at the 2016 Olympics.
CLAIM: I will get an A on tomorrow’s psychology test.
What evidence would you use to support each of these claims? (And, did the first one
turn out to be correct?)
Claims of Value
These include moral, ethical, and aesthetic judgments. Assertions that use such words
as good or bad, better or worse, and right or wrong will be claims of value. The
following are all claims of value:
CLAIM: Roger Federer is a better tennis player than Andy Roddick.
CLAIM: Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is one of the most significant American
novels.
CLAIM: Cheating hurts others and the cheater too.
CLAIM: Abortion is wrong.
Arguments in support of judgments demand relevant evidence, careful reasoning, and
an awareness of the assumptions one is making. Support for claims of value often
include other value statements. For example, to support the claim that censorship is bad,
arguers often assert that the free exchange of ideas is good and necessary in a democ-
racy. The support is itself a value statement.
Claims of Policy
Finally, claims of policy are assertions about what should or should not happen, what
the government ought or ought not to do, how to best solve social problems. Claims of
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78 SECTION 2 THE WORLD OF ARGUMENT
policy debate, for example, college rules, state gun laws, or federal aid to Africans
suffering from AIDS. The following are claims of policy:
CLAIM: College newspapers should not be controlled in any way by college
authorities.
CLAIM: States should not have laws allowing people to carry concealed
weapons.
CLAIM: The United States must provide more aid to African countries where
25 percent or more of the citizens have tested positive for HIV.
Claims of policy are often closely tied to judgments of morality or political philosophy,
but they also need to be grounded in feasibility. That is, your claim needs to be doable,
to be based on a thoughtful consideration of the real world and the complexities of
public policy issues.
Grounds (or Data or Evidence)
The term grounds refers to the reasons and evidence provided in support of a claim.
Although the words data and evidence can also be used, note that grounds is the most
general term because it includes reasons or logic as well as examples or statistics. We
determine the grounds of an argument by asking the question “Why do you think that?”
or “How do you know that?” When writing your own arguments, you can ask yourself
these questions and answer by using a because clause:
CLAIM: Smoking should be banned in restaurants because
GROUNDS: secondhand smoke is a serious health hazard.
CLAIM: Federer is a better tennis player than Roddick because
GROUNDS: 1. he was ranked number one longer,
2. he won more tournaments than Roddick, and
3. he won more major tournaments than Roddick.
Warrants
Why should we believe that your grounds do indeed support your claim? Your argu-
ment’s warrants answer this question. They explain why your evidence really is
evidence. Sometimes warrants reside in language itself, in the meanings of the words
we are using. If I am younger than my brother, then my brother must be older than I am.
In a court case attempting to prove that Jones murdered Smith, the relation of evidence
to claim is less assured. If the police investigation has been properly managed and the
physical evidence is substantial, then Smith may be Jones’s murderer. The prosecution
has—presumably beyond a reasonable doubt—established motive, means, and
opportunity for Smith to commit the murder. In many arguments based on statistical
data, the argument’s warrant rests on complex analyses of the statistics—and on the
conviction that the statistics have been developed without error.
Still, without taking courses in statistics and logic, you can develop an alertness to
the “good sense” of some arguments and the “dubious sense” of others. You know, for
example, that good SAT scores are a predictor of success in college. Can you argue that
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CHAPTER 3 Understanding the Basics of Argument 79
you will do well in college because you have good SATs? No. We can determine only a
statistical probability. We cannot turn probabilities about a group of people into a war-
rant about one person in the group. (In addition, SAT scores are only one predictor.
Another key variable is motivation.)
What is the warrant for the Federer claim?
CLAIM: Federer is a better tennis player than Roddick.
GROUNDS: The three facts listed above.
WARRANT: It is appropriate to judge and rank tennis players on these kinds of
statistics. That is, the better player is one who has held the number-one
ranking for the longest time, has won the most tournaments, and also
has won the most major tournaments.
Backing
Standing behind an argument’s warrant may be additional backing. Backing answers the
question “How do we know that your evidence is good evidence?” You may answer this
question by providing authoritative sources for the data used (for example, the Census
Bureau or the U.S. Tennis Association). Or, you may explain in detail the methodology
of the experiments performed or the surveys taken. When scientists and social scientists
present the results of their research, they anticipate the question of backing and auto-
matically provide a detailed explanation of the process by which they acquired their
evidence. In criminal trials, defense attorneys challenge the backing of the prosecution’s
argument. They question the handling of blood samples sent to labs for DNA testing, for
instance. The defense attorneys want jury members to doubt the quality of the evidence.
This discussion of backing returns us to the point that one part of any argument is
the audience. To create an effective argument, ask yourself: Will my warrants and back-
ing be accepted? Is my audience likely to share my values, religious beliefs, or scientific
approach? If you are speaking to a group at your church, then backing based on
the religious beliefs of that church may be effective. If you are preparing an argument
for a general audience, then using specific religious assertions as warrants or backing
probably will not result in an effective argument.
Qualifiers
Some arguments are absolute; they can be stated without qualification. If I am younger
than my brother, then he must be older than I am. Most arguments need some qualifica-
tion; many need precise limitations. If, when playing bridge, I am dealt eight spades,
then my opponents and partner together must have five spade cards—because there are
thirteen cards of each suit in a deck. My partner probably has one spade but could be
void of spades. My partner possibly has two or more spades, but I would be foolish to
count on it. When bidding my hand, I must be controlled by the laws of probability.
Look again at the smoking-ban claim. Observe the absolute nature of both the claim and
its support. If second-hand smoke is indeed a health hazard, it will be that in all restau-
rants, not just in some. With each argument ask what qualification is needed for a suc-
cessful argument.
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80 SECTION 2 THE WORLD OF ARGUMENT
Sweeping generalizations often come to us in the heat of a debate or when we first
start to think about an issue. For example: Gun control is wrong because it restricts in-
dividual rights. But on reflection surely you would not want to argue against all forms
of gun control. (Remember: An unqualified assertion is understood by your audience to
be absolute.) Would you sell guns to felons in jail or to children on the way to school?
Obviously not. So, let’s try the claim again, this time with two important qualifiers:
QUALIFIED Adults without a criminal record should not be restricted in the
CLAIM: purchase of guns.
Others may want this claim further qualified to eliminate particular types of guns or to
control the number purchased or the process for purchasing. The gun-control debate is
not about absolutes; it is all about which qualified claim is best.
Rebuttals
Arguments can be challenged. Smart debaters assume that there are people who will dis-
agree with them. They anticipate the ways that opponents can challenge their arguments. When
you are planning an argument, you need to think about how you can counter or rebut the
challenges you anticipate. Think of yourself as an attorney in a court case preparing your
argument and a defense of the other attorney’s challenges to your argument. If you ignore
the important role of rebuttals, you may not win the jury to your side.
USING TOULMIN’S TERMS
TO ANALYZE ARGUMENTS
Terms are never an end in themselves; we learn them when we recognize that they help us
to organize our thinking about a subject. Toulmin’s terms can aid your reading of the ar-
guments of others. You can “see what’s going on” in an argument if you analyze it, apply-
ing Toulmin’s language to its parts. Not all terms will be useful for every analysis because,
for example, some arguments will not have qualifiers or rebuttals. But to recognize that an
argument is without qualifiers is to learn something important about that argument.
First, here is a simple argument broken down into its parts using Toulmin’s terms:
GROUNDS: Because Dr. Bradshaw has an attendance policy,
CLAIM: students who miss more than seven classes will
QUALIFIER: most likely (last year, Dr. Bradshaw did allow one student, in unusual
circumstances, to continue in the class) be dropped from the course.
WARRANT: Dr. Bradshaw’s syllabus explains her attendance policy, a
BACKING: policy consistent with the concept of a discussion class that depends on
student participation and consistent with the attendance policies of most
of her colleagues.
REBUTTAL: Although some students complain about an attendance policy of any
kind, Dr. Bradshaw does explain her policy and her reasons for it
the first day of class. She then reminds students that the syllabus is a
contract between them; if they choose to stay, they agree to abide by the
guidelines explained on the syllabus.
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CHAPTER 3 Understanding the Basics of Argument 81
This argument is brief and fairly simple. Let’s see how Toulmin’s terms can help us
analyze a longer, more complex argument. Read actively and annotate the following
essay while noting the existing annotations using Toulmin’s terms. Then answer the
questions that follow the article.
THE SECRET TO EFFICIENT
TEAMWORK IS RIDICULOUSLY SIMPLE ERIN BRODWIN
Erin Brodwin is the science editor for Business Insider and has published in other maga-
zines, such as Scientific American, Popular Science, Newsweek, and Psychology Today.
She received a bachelor’s from the University of California, San Diego, and a master’s
degree from the City University of New York’s Graduate School of Journalism. This
article was published in Business Insider on January 23, 2015.
PREREADING QUESTIONS Why do you think women are paid less than men? Why do
you think women do not advance as far as men in the workplace?
Want to avoid another boring, unproductive meeting?
Invite more women.
Two new studies from scientists at MIT, Carnegie Mellon, and Union College
suggest the most efficient groups—the ones who are the best at collaborating,
analyzing problems, and solving them the fastest and most effectively—weren’t
comprised simply of the smartest people.
Instead, they had just three things in common, one of which was simply that
they had more women.
You might be thinking to yourself, well of course the more diverse teams did
better; the greater the range of opinions and ideas, the better, right?
Not quite. The groups in the study didn’t get smarter when they simply
included an even number of women and men. It was even more specific than
that: The more women a team had, the better they performed.
This result makes a little more sense in light of another part of the study
which looked at how well the members of a team could read the emotions of their
fellow teammates. Women did consistently better on this test, which involved
looking at images of people’s faces in which only their eye regions were showing
and identifying what complex emotion they were feeling, from shame to curiosity.
Here’s a female example from the emotion-reading test: The word choices
were reflective, aghast, irritated, and impatient. Which emotion do you think
she’s feeling?
Introduction1
Primary claim2
Grounds3
4
Anticipated
challenge
5
Rebuttal
Secondary claim
6
Backing7
8
‘‘Reading the Mind in the Eyes’’ Test Revised Version.
©
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82 SECTION 2 THE WORLD OF ARGUMENT
Reflective was the correct choice.
In this test and others designed to measure how well a person can read and
interpret others’ feelings, women consistently score higher than men—a concept
known as “emotional intelligence” and first coined by psychologist Daniel
Goleman in 1995.
In another large study from this year of more than 4,600 people, for example,
women scored higher in almost all aspects of emotional intelligence (labeled EIQ
in this chart for shorthand), including understanding, facilitating, and managing
emotions, than their male counterparts.
MALES FEMALES
Perception 7.40 (1.8) 8.03 (1.7)
Understanding 6.78 (1.6) 7.43 (1.6)
Facilitation 6.55 (1.6) 7.02 (1.5)
Management 5.88 (1.4) 6.57 (1.4)
TIE Total 26.62 (5.2) 29.06 (5.0)
Women outperformed men in every subscale of the TIE, and consequently in the total score.
“TIE: An Ability Test of Emotional Intelligence,” PLOS One.
These results held steady even when teams weren’t physically together but
instead worked exclusively online. Even without being able to see their fellow
team-members’ faces, women performed consistently better than men at gaug-
ing other people’s emotions.
How do they do this? It’s called reading between the lines.
Oh yeah. Recent research has suggested that when it comes to picking out
the emotional undercurrents of emails and texts, the vast majority of us are
usually way off base (Does an extra exclamation mark mean she’s being
sarcastic, or extra enthusiastic?!).
But those of us who can accurately detect the hidden emotions in the written
word are also, perhaps, the ones who are better at working together in groups.
And more often than not, those people tend to be female.
This finding squares with other research on women in professional leader-
ship roles. One recent report found, for example, that companies with women on
their boards had far higher average returns on equity than those without women
on their boards; another concluded that companies led by female CEOs
outperform companies led by male CEOs by nearly 50%.
Erin Brodwin, “The Secret to Efficient Teamwork Is Ridiculously Simple,” Business Insider, 23 Jan. 2015.
Copyright ©2015 Business Insider. Used with permission.
QUESTIONS FOR READING
1. What is Brodwin’s subject? (Women in the workplace is not sufficiently precise as an
answer.)
2. What does new research show about women and their impact on teams and efficiency
in the workplace?
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CHAPTER 3 Understanding the Basics of Argument 83
3. According to psychologists, what are the reasons behind the differences between
women and men who work in teams?
QUESTIONS FOR REASONING AND ANALYSIS
4. What is Brodwin’s claim?
5. What is her primary support? (Add a “because” clause to her claim to find her grounds.)
6. Review the author’s comments about women in the workplace. What, in Brodwin’s
view, is their reason for performing differently than men? Does the author provide evi-
dence for this warrant? Is support needed?
QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION AND WRITING
7. Reflect on the author’s position regarding women in the workplace. Do you believe
Brodwin’s claim? Do you agree with her conclusion?
8. Brodwin asserts that women simply read between the lines more effectively than do
men. If this is the case, how might businesses and non-profit organizations apply this
skill to increase efficiency? And how might these organizations “train up” men who
may be lagging in emotional IQ, or EIQ?
9. How can professional organizations increase their number of female employees?
Toulmin’s terms can help you to see what writers are actually “doing” in their argu-
ments. Just remember that writers do not usually follow the terms in precise order. In-
deed, you can find both grounds and backing in the same sentence, or claim and
qualifiers in the same paragraph, and so on. Still, the terms can help you to sort out your
thinking about a claim you want to support. Now use your knowledge of argument as
you read and analyze the following arguments.
FOR ANALYSIS AND DEBATE
A SAFE PLACE FOR
FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION CHRISTINA PAXSON
The 19th president of Brown University since 2012, Christina Paxson holds a PhD in eco-
nomics from Columbia University. She taught at Princeton and was Dean of the Wilson
School there before moving to Brown. In this essay, published in 2016, she presents her
views on a college’s search for balance between free speech and protecting students.
PREREADING QUESTIONS Consider Paxson’s title. What view of campus speech do you
think she will develop?
New students are entering colleges and universities at a time of fierce
debate about whether institutions of higher education are becoming places that
stifle speech in the interest of protecting students from ideas and perspectives
they don’t want to hear. In the clash over freedom of expression and the sup-
posed coddling of American college students, safe spaces and trigger warnings
are held up as the poster children of overprotective universities.
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In the setting of private institutions, this is not a First Amendment issue.
Private colleges and universities could restrict the expression of ideas and
beliefs within their campuses, if they chose to do so. But most private colleges
and universities wisely do not make this choice. Instead, colleges and universi-
ties protect the rights of members of their communities to express a full range of
ideas, however controversial.
That is because freedom of expression is an essential component of
academic freedom, which protects the ability of universities to fulfill their core
mission of advancing knowledge. Suppressing ideas at a university is akin to
turning off the power at a factory. As scholars and students, our responsibility is
to subject old truths to scrutiny and put forward new ideas to improve them.
At universities, we also advance understanding about issues of justice and
fairness, and these discussions can be equally, if not more, difficult. From the
earliest days of this country, college campuses have been the sites of fierce de-
bates about slavery, war, women’s rights and racial justice. These discussions
create rocky moments, and they should.
If we don’t have these debates—if we limit the flow of ideas—then in 50 years
we will be no better than we are today.
I don’t share the view that American college students want to be protected
from ideas that make them uncomfortable. Just the opposite. Over the past few
years, our students have addressed topics that make many people very uncom-
fortable indeed—racism, sexual assault, religious persecution. These are some
of the toughest problems facing society today, and we do not shy away from
them.
As for “safe spaces”—the term is used in so many different ways that it is
impossible to discuss it without being precise about its meaning. The term
emerged from the women’s movement nearly 50 years ago to refer to forums
where women’s rights issues were discussed. Then it was extended to denote
spaces where violence and harassment against the lesbian, gay, bisexual,
transgender and queer community would not be tolerated, and then extended
yet again to mean places where students from marginalized groups can come
together to feel comfortable discussing their experiences and just being
themselves.
If this is what a safe space means, then, yes, Brown has them. Proudly. And
even the campuses that decry these spaces have them also. I’m not talking
about rooms with Play-Doh and coloring books like one set up by Brown campus
organizers specifically as a resource to support survivors of sexual assault in one
instance some years ago. There have been many unfortunate mischaracteriza-
tions in the media of the intent of that support space as a so-called shield from
ideas.
Rather, we see safe spaces in the choices our students make every day.
Students find many opportunities through clubs and organizations to meet those
who share similar backgrounds and interests—religious, political and otherwise.
In her memoir My Beloved World, Supreme Court Justice Sonia Sotomayor
talks about Acción Puertorriqueña, a Princeton group for students of Puerto
Rican heritage. Although she made it a point to develop relationships with people
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CHAPTER 3 Understanding the Basics of Argument 85
from different backgrounds, that group gave her a much-needed anchor in an
unfamiliar environment. Maybe this isn’t what the critics mean when they deride
“safe spaces,” but these spaces deserve to exist at colleges across the country.
I would say the same for trigger warnings, which are meant to alert students
who have been subjected to trauma, such as sexual assault and combat, that
some material in class may be disturbing. Faculty should be free to use them at
their discretion.
My final point—often missed in the media debates—is this: Universities are
doing something difficult and important. We are grappling with how to create
peaceful, just and prosperous societies, even as we live in a society that often
feels more divided and rancorous than ever, fractured along lines of race, ethnic-
ity, income and ideology.
With the right of academic freedom comes the moral responsibility to think
carefully about how that right is exercised in the service of society to confront
these divides.
At Brown, as at many institutions of higher education, we are not coddling
our students—or limiting freedom of expression. Instead, we are teaching them,
encouraging them and giving them the space to have the discussions that will
make them better scholars and prepare them to best serve society.
Christina Paxson, “Brown University President: A Safe Space for Freedom of Expression,” The Washington
Post, 5 Sept. 2016. Reprinted by permission of Dr. Christina Paxson, President, Brown University
QUESTIONS FOR READING
1. What, in Paxson’s view, is the purpose of a university?
2. Why is freedom of expression essential to fulfill that purpose?
3. What did safe spaces mean initially? What has the term evolved to mean?
4. What is the purpose of trigger warnings?
QUESTIONS FOR REASONING AND ANALYSIS
5. What is the author’s claim? What are her reasons and evidence in support of this claim?
6. Who does the author blame for distorting, in her view, the value of safe spaces and trig-
ger warnings? How does this advance her argument?
7. Examine Paxson’s opening paragraphs. What does she seek to gain with her lengthy
introduction?
QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION AND WRITING
8. Are you aware of the view that American colleges have become overly protective of
students? Do you think this view is accurate? Why or why not?
9. Paxson asserts that her university fosters debate and free expression while also provid-
ing safe spaces and trigger warnings. Is it possible to have both? If you agree, how can
you add to the author’s argument? If you disagree, how would you refute Paxson?
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FREE SPEECH ON CAMPUS GEOFFREY R. STONE
A noted American law and First Amendment scholar, Geoffrey Stone holds an endowed
chair at The University of Chicago Law School. Stone’s most recently published book is
Sex and the Constitution: Sex, Religion, and Law from America’s Origins to the
Twenty-First Century (2017). What follows is a speech he gave to the American Law
Institute on May 17, 2016.
PREREADING QUESTIONS Given his recent book and his opening paragraph below,
what approach to Stone’s discussion of free speech might you expect? What might be
gained by this approach?
Academic freedom is not a law of nature. It is not something to be taken for
granted. It is, rather, a hard-bought acquisition in a lengthy struggle for academic
integrity.
Indeed, until well into the 19th century, real freedom of thought was neither
practiced nor professed in American universities. To the contrary, any real free-
dom of inquiry or expression in American colleges in this era was smothered by
the prevailing theory of “doctrinal moralism,” which assumed that the worth of an
idea must be judged by what the institution’s leaders thought its moral value to
be. Thus, through the first half of the nineteenth century, American higher educa-
tion squelched any notion of free discussion or intellectual curiosity. Indeed, as
the nation moved towards Civil War, any professor or student in the North who
defended slavery, or any professor or student in the South who challenged slav-
ery, could readily be dismissed, disciplined, or expelled.
Between 1870 and 1900, though, there was a genuine revolution in American
higher education. With the battle over Darwinism, new academic goals came to
be embraced. For the first time, to criticize, as well as to preserve, traditional moral
values and understandings became an accepted function of higher education. By
1892, William Rainey Harper, the first president of The University of Chicago, could
boldly assert: “When for any reason the administration of a university attempts to
dislodge a professor or punish a student because of his political or religious sen-
timents, at that moment the institution has ceased to be a university.”
But, despite such sentiments, the battle for academic freedom has been a
contentious and a continuing one. In the closing years of the 19th century, for
example, businessmen who had accumulated vast industrial wealth began to
support universities on an unprecedented scale. But that support was not with-
out strings, and during this era professors who offended wealthy trustees by
criticizing the ethics of their business practices were dismissed from such lead-
ing universities as Cornell and Stanford.
Then, during World War I, when patriotic zealots persecuted and even prose-
cuted those who questioned the wisdom or the morality of the war, universities
collapsed almost completely in their defense of academic freedom. Students and
professors were systematically expelled or fired at such institutions as Columbia
and Virginia merely for “encouraging a spirit of indifference towards the war.”
Similar issues arose again, with a vengeance, during the age of McCarthy. In
the late 1940s and 1950s, most universities excluded those even suspected of
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CHAPTER 3 Understanding the Basics of Argument 87
entertaining Communist sympathies from university life. Yale President Charles
Seymour went so far as to boast that “there will be no witch hunts at Yale,
because there will be no witches. We will neither admit nor hire anyone with
Communist sympathies.”
We now face a similar set of challenges. We live today in an era of political
correctness in which students themselves demand censorship, and colleges and
universities, afraid to offend their students, too often surrender academic free-
dom to charges of offense.
7
To give just a few examples, several colleges and universities, including
Brown, Johns Hopkins, and Williams, have recently withdrawn speaker invitations
because of student objections to the views of the invited speakers, Northwestern
University recently subjected a professor to a sustained sexual harassment
investigation for publishing an essay in the Chronicle of Higher Education
criticizing Northwestern’s sexual harassment investigations, Colorado College
suspended a student for making a joke that mocked feminism, William & Mary,
DePaul University, and the University of Colorado all disciplined students for
criticizing their affirmative action programs, and the University of Kansas
disciplined a professor for condemning the National Rifle Association.
At Wesleyan University, after the school newspaper published a student op-ed
criticizing the Black Lives Matter movement, other students demanded that the
university defund the school paper; at Amherst College, students demanded that
the administration remove posters stating that “All Lives Matter;” at Emory University,
students demanded that the university punish other students who had chalked
“Trump in 2016” on the university’s sidewalks because, in their words, a university is
“supposed to be a safe place and this made us feel unsafe;” and at Harvard, African-
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Students protest against a speaker on the Texas A&M campus.
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American students demanded that a professor be taken to the woodshed for saying
in class that he would be “lynched” if he gave a closed book examination.
The latter is an example of so-called micro-aggressions—words or phrases
that may make students uncomfortable or may make them feel “unsafe.” Saying
“off the reservation” has been deemed a micro-aggression to Native Americans,
saying “America is a melting pot” has been deemed a micro-aggression to new
immigrants, and saying “As a woman, I know what you must go through as a
racial minority” has been deemed a micro-aggression to racial minorities. Such
micro-aggressions, whether used by faculty or students, have been deemed
punishable by colleges and universities across the nation. A recent survey
revealed that 72% of current college students support disciplinary action against
any student or faculty member who expresses views that they deem “racist,
sexist, homophobic or otherwise offensive.”
Another recent invention is the trigger warning. A trigger warning is a
requirement that before professors assign readings or hold classes that might
make some students feel uncomfortable, they must warn students in advance
that the readings or the class will deal with such sensitive topics as rape,
affirmative action, abortion, murder, slavery, the Holocaust, religion,
homosexuality, or immigration. The idea is that students who would be upset can
then avoid having to deal with such emotionally fraught material.
So, where did all this come from? It was not too long ago when college stu-
dents were demanding the right to free speech. Now, they demand the right to
be free from speech that they find to be offensive, upsetting, or emotionally dis-
turbing. The current phenomenon is based on the assumption that students
should not be made to feel uncomfortable or unsafe.
One often-expressed theory is that this has happened because students of
this generation, unlike their predecessors, are weak, fragile, and emotionally un-
stable. The explanation is that this generation of young adults has been raised
by so-called helicopter parents, who have protected, rewarded, and celebrated
them in every way from the time they were infants. They have therefore never
learned to deal with challenge, defeat, uncertainty, anxiety, stress, insult, or fear.
On this view, this generation of college students is, in fact, emotionally inca-
pable of dealing with challenge. But if this is so, the proper role of a university is
not to protect and pamper them, but to prepare them for the challenges of the
real world. The goal should not be to shield them from discomfort, insult, and
insecurity, but to enable them to be effective citizens of the world. On this view,
if their parents have, indeed, failed them, then their colleges and universities
should save them from themselves.
There is, however, another possibility. It is that students, or at least some
students, have always felt this way, but until now they were too intimidated, too
shy, too deferential to speak up. On this view of the matter, this generation of
college students deserves credit, because instead of remaining silent and op-
pressed, they have the courage to demand respect, equality, and safety.
My own view, for what it’s worth, is that there is an element of truth in both of
these perspectives, but I am inclined to think that the former view explains more
of the current reality than the latter.
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CHAPTER 3 Understanding the Basics of Argument 89
Faced with the ongoing challenge to academic freedom at American univer-
sities, The University of Chicago President Robert Zimmer charged a faculty com-
mittee last year with the task of drafting a formal statement for The University of
Chicago on Freedom of Expression. The goal of that committee, which I chaired,
was to stake out The University of Chicago’s position on these issues. The Com-
mittee consisted of seven very distinguished faculty members from across the
University. After broad consultation, we produced a brief, three-page report. At
the risk of being self-indulgent, I want to read you some excerpts from that report:
Because the University is committed to free and open inquiry in all
matters, it guarantees all members of the University community the broadest
possible latitude to speak, write, listen, challenge, and learn. Of course, the
ideas of different members of the University community will often and quite
naturally conflict. But it is not the proper role of the University to attempt to
shield individuals from ideas and opinions they find unwelcome, disagreeable,
or even deeply offensive.
Although the University greatly values civility, and although all members
of the University community share in the responsibility for maintaining a cli-
mate of mutual respect, concerns about civility and mutual respect can never
be used as a justification for closing off discussion of ideas, however offensive
or disagreeable those ideas may be to some members of our community.
The freedom to debate and discuss the merits of competing ideas does
not, of course, mean that individuals may say whatever they wish, wherever
they wish. The University may restrict expression that violates the law, that
falsely defames a specific individual, that constitutes a genuine threat or
harassment, that unjustifiably invades substantial privacy or confidentiality in-
terests, or that is otherwise directly incompatible with the core functioning of
the University. But these are narrow exceptions to the general principle of
freedom of expression, and it is vitally important that these exceptions never
be used in a manner that is inconsistent with the University’s commitment to a
completely free and open discussion of ideas.
In a word, the University’s fundamental commitment is to the principle
that robust debate and deliberation may not be suppressed because the
ideas put forth are thought by some or even by most members of the Univer-
sity community to be offensive, unwise, immoral, or wrong-headed. It is for
the individual members of the community, not for the University as an institu-
tion, to make those judgments for themselves, and to act on those judg-
ments not by seeking to suppress speech, but by openly and vigorously
contesting the ideas that they oppose. Indeed, fostering the ability of mem-
bers of the University community to engage in such debate and deliberation
in an effective and responsible manner is an essential part of the University’s
educational mission.
As a corollary to the University’s commitment to protect and promote
free expression, members of the University community must also act in
conformity with the principle of free expression. Although members of the
University are free to criticize and contest the views expressed on campus,
and to criticize and contest speakers who are invited to express their views
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90 SECTION 2 THE WORLD OF ARGUMENT
on campus, they may not obstruct or otherwise interfere with the freedom of
others to express views they reject or even loathe. To this end, the University
has a solemn responsibility not only to promote a lively and fearless freedom
of debate and deliberation, but also to protect that freedom when others
attempt to restrict it. As University of Chicago President William Rainey
Harper observed 125 years ago, without a vibrant commitment to free and
open inquiry, a university ceases to be a university.
Interestingly, when we wrote this report, we were thinking only about The
University of Chicago. To our surprise, the report has had a national and even
international impact. Indeed, I’m pleased to say that our report has since been
adopted by a range of other universities, including such diverse institutions as
Princeton, Purdue, Johns Hopkins, American University, the University of
Wisconsin, and Louisiana State University.
But now that I’ve finished congratulating myself, let me elaborate a bit. Why
should a university take the position that members of the university community
should be free to advance any and all ideas, however offensive, obnoxious, and
wrong-headed they might be? For lawyers, the reasons are familiar.
First, one thing we have learned from bitter experience is that even the ideas we
hold to be most certain might in fact turn out to be wrong. As confident as we might
be in our own wisdom, experience teaches that certainty is different from truth.
Second, history teaches that suppression of speech breeds suppression of
speech. If today I am permitted to silence those whose views I find distasteful, I
have then opened the door to allow others down the road to silence me. The
neutral principle of no suppression of ideas protects us all.
Third, a central precept of free expression is the concern with chilling effect.
That problem is especially acute today because of the effects of social media. It
used to be the case that students and faculty members were generally willing to
take controversial positions because the risks were relatively modest. After all,
one could say something provocative, and the statement soon disappeared from
view. But in a world of social media, where every comment you make can be
circulated to the world and can be called up by prospective employers or
graduate schools or neighbors with the click of a button, the potential costs of
speaking courageously—of taking controversial positions, of taking risks—is
greater than ever before in history. Indeed, according to a recent survey, 65% of
all college students now say that it is unsafe for them to express unpopular
views, and this clearly has an effect on faculty as well. In this setting, it is
especially important for universities to stand up for free expression.
So, how should this work in practice? Should students be allowed to express
whatever views they want—however offensive they might be to others? Yes.
Absolutely. Should those who disagree and who are offended by the views and
speech of others be allowed to condemn that speech and those speakers in the
most vehement terms? Yes. Absolutely. Should those who are offended and who
disagree be allowed to demand that the university punish those who have
offended them? Yes. Absolutely. Should the university punish those whose
speech annoys, offends, and insults others? Absolutely not. That is the core
meaning of academic freedom.
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CHAPTER 3 Understanding the Basics of Argument 91
But what should a university do? A university should educate its students
about the importance of civility and mutual respect. These are core values for
students, for professors, for citizens, and even for lawyers. But these are values
that should be reinforced by education and example, not by censorship.
Moreover, a university should encourage disagreement, argument, and debate.
It should instill in its students and faculty the importance of winning the day by
facts, by ideas, and by persuasion, rather than by force, obstruction, or
censorship.
The bottom line is this: For a university to fulfill its most fundamental mission,
it must be a SAFE SPACE for even the most loathsome, odious, offensive, dis-
loyal arguments. Students should be encouraged to be tough, fearless, rigorous
and effective advocates and critics.
At the same time, though, a university has to recognize that, our society
being flawed as it is, the costs of free speech will often fall most heavily on those
groups and individuals who feel the most marginalized, unwelcome, and
disrespected.
All of us feel that way sometimes, but in our often unjust society the individ-
uals who most often bear the brunt of free speech—at least of certain types of
free speech—tend to be racial minorities; religious minorities; women; gays, les-
bians and transsexuals; immigrants; and so on. Universities must be sensitive to
this reality. Even if they cannot “solve” this problem by censorship, this does not
mean that they can’t take other steps to address the special challenges faced by
groups and individuals who are most often made to feel unwelcome and unval-
ued by others.
Universities should take this challenge seriously. They should support
students who feel vulnerable, marginalized, silenced, and demeaned. They
should help those students learn how to speak up, how to respond effectively,
how to challenge those whose attitudes, whose words, and whose beliefs
offend, appall, and outrage them. This is a core responsibility of universities, for
the world is not a safe space, and it is our job to enable our graduates to win the
battles they will need to fight in the years and decades to come. This is not a
challenge that universities can or should ignore.
Having said all of this, I don’t mean to suggest that there aren’t hard cases.
As you well know, as simple as it may be to state a principle, it is always much
more difficult to apply to concrete situations. So, as a law professor, let me leave
you with a few hypothetical situations for you to mull over on your own.
First, suppose a sociology professor gives a talk on campus condemning
homosexuality as immoral and calling on “normal” students to steer clear of fags,
perverts, and sexual degenerates. What, if anything, should the chair of the
sociology department do?
Second, suppose a student hangs a Confederate flag, a swastika, an image
of an aborted fetus, or a vote for Trump sign on the door to his dorm room? What,
if anything, should the resident head do?
Third, suppose the dean of a university’s law school goes on Fox News and
says “Abortion is murder. We should fire any woman faculty member and expel
any woman student who has had an abortion.” the president of the university is
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then inundated with complaints from alumni saying, in effect, “I’ll never give
another nickel to your damn school as long as she remains dean of the law
school.” What, if anything, should the president of the university do?
As these hypotheticals suggest, there are, in fact, interesting cases. But we
should not let the marginal cases obscure the clarity of our core commitment to
academic freedom. That commitment is now seriously and dangerously under
attack. It will be interesting to see whether our universities today have the courage,
the integrity, and the fortitude to be true universities. It does remain to be seen.
Thank you.
Geoffrey R. Stone, “Free Speech on Campus,” speech delivered at the American Law Institute’s 93rd
annual meeting, 17 May 2016. Used with permission of the author.
QUESTIONS FOR READING
1. What point does Stone establish in his six-paragraph introduction?
2. What is the challenge to free speech that colleges face today? Who on campus is bring-
ing this challenge?
3. What are “micro-aggressions” and “trigger warnings”?
4. What are two ways of explaining the current campus situation? What is Stone’s opinion
of the explanations?
5. What, in essence, is The University of Chicago’s position on free expression?
QUESTIONS FOR REASONING AND ANALYSIS
6. In his speech, Stone is defending his college’s position on free expression. What is his
claim?
7. What three basic reasons are presented in support of his claim?
8. To make free expression work, what must universities do? What is their responsibility
to students, in Stone’s view?
9. Has the author successfully supported his claim? If so, how? If not, how would you re-
fute his argument?
10. What does Stone accomplish at the end of his speech with his three examples of “hard
cases”?
QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION AND WRITING
11. Stone asserts that a commitment to academic freedom is under attack. Do you agree?
Why or why not?
12. Examine the arguments of Paxson and Stone: What attitudes do they share? How do
their positions differ?
13. Which author comes closest to representing your views? After reading the argument of
the other author, has your position changed in any way? If so, why? If not, why?
14. Take one of Stone’s “hard cases” and explain how you think the case should be handled.
Support your position.
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SUGGESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION AND WRITING
1. Compare the style and tone of Paxson’s and Stone’s essays. Has each one written in a way
that works for the author’s approach to this issue? Be prepared to explain your views or
develop them into a comparative analysis of style.
2. Reread and study the essay “Your Brain Lies to You” (pp. 72–74) and then analyze the argu-
ment’s parts, using Toulmin’s terms.
3. Student drinking—including binge and underage drinking—remains an issue on college
campuses. Should colleges actively seek to control binge and underage drinking on campus?
Draw on your own experience as well as what statistics and discussions of this problem that
you may find online to develop a claim that you can support.
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Writing Effective Arguments
READ: Who are the figures in the painting? What are they doing?
REASON: What details in the painting help to date the scene?
REFLECT/WRITE: What is significant about the moment captured in this
painting?
CHAPTER 4
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The basics of good writing remain much the same for works as seemingly different as the personal essay, the argument, and the researched essay. Good writing is focused,
organized, and concrete. Effective essays are written in a style and tone that are suited
to both the audience and the writer’s purpose. These are sound principles, all well
known to you. But how, exactly, do you achieve them when writing argument? This
chapter will help you answer that question.
KNOW YOUR AUDIENCE
Too often, students plunge into writing without thinking much about audience, for, after
all, their “audience” is only the instructor who has given the assignment, and their
purpose is to complete the assignment and get a grade. These views of audience and
purpose are likely to lead to badly written arguments. First, if you are not thinking about
readers who may disagree with you, you may not develop the best defense of your
claim. Second, you may ignore your essay’s needed introductory material on the
assumption that the instructor, knowing the assignment, has a context for understanding
your writing. To avoid these pitfalls, use the following questions to sharpen your
understanding of audience.
Who Is My Audience?
If you are writing an essay for the student newspaper, your audience consists—
primarily—of students, but do not forget that faculty and administrators also read
the student newspaper. If you are preparing a letter-to-the-editor refutation of a
recent column in your town’s newspaper, your audience will be the readers of that
newspaper—that is, adults in your town. Some instructors give assignments that
create an audience such as those just described so that you will practice writing
with a specific audience in mind.
If you are not assigned a specific audience, imagine your classmates, as well as
your instructor, as part of your audience. In other words, you are writing to readers in
the academic community. These readers are intelligent and thoughtful, expecting sound
reasoning and convincing evidence. From diverse cultures and experiences, these
readers also represent varied values and beliefs. Do not confuse the shared expectations
of writing conventions with shared beliefs.
What Will My Audience Know about My Topic?
What can you expect a diverse group of readers to know? Whether you are writing on a
current issue or a centuries-old debate, you must expect most readers to have some
knowledge of the issues. Their knowledge does not free you from the responsibility of
developing your support fully, though. In fact, their knowledge creates further demands.
For example, most readers know the main arguments on both sides of the abortion issue.
For you to write as if they do not—and thus to ignore the arguments of the opposition—
is to produce an argument that probably adds little to the debate on the subject.
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96 SECTION 2 THE WORLD OF ARGUMENT
On the other hand, what some readers “know” may be little more than an overview
of the issues from TV news—or the emotional outbursts of a family member. Some
readers may be misinformed or prejudiced, but they embrace their views enthusiasti-
cally nonetheless. So, as you think about the ways to develop and support your argu-
ment, you will have to assess your readers’ knowledge and sophistication. This
assessment will help you decide how much background information to provide or what
false facts need to be revealed and dismissed.
Where Does My Audience Stand on the Issue?
Expect readers to hold a range of views, even if you are writing to students on your
campus or to an organization of which you are a member. It is not true, for instance, that
all students want coed dorms or pass/fail grading. And if everyone already agrees with
you, you have no reason to write. An argument needs to be about a topic that is open to
debate. So:
• Assume that some of your audience will probably never agree with you but may
offer you grudging respect if you compose an effective argument.
• Assume that some readers do not hold strong views on your topic and may be open
to convincing if you present a good case.
• Assume that those who share your views will still be looking for a strong argument
in support of their position.
• Assume that if you hold an unpopular position your best strategy will be a concil-
iatory approach. (See p. 99 for a discussion of the conciliatory argument.)
How Should I Speak to My Audience?
Your audience will form an opinion of you based on how you write and how you reason.
The image of argument—and the arguer—that we have been creating in this text’s
discussion is of thoughtful claims defended with logic and evidence. However, the
heated debate at yesterday’s lunch does not resemble this image of argument. Sometimes
the word persuasion is used to separate the emotionally charged debate from the calm,
intellectual tone of the academic argument. Unfortunately, this neat division between
argument and persuasion does not describe the real world of debate. The thoughtful
arguer also wants to be persuasive, and highly emotional presentations can contain
relevant facts in support of a sound idea. Instead of thinking of two separate categories—
argument and persuasion—think instead of a continuum from the most rigorous logic to
extreme flights of fantasy. Figure 4.1 suggests this continuum with some kinds of
arguments placed along it.
Where should you place yourself along this continuum of language? You will have
to answer this question with each specific writing context. Much of the time you will
choose “thoughtful, restrained language,” as expected by the academic community, but
there may be times that you will use various persuasive strategies. Probably you will not
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CHAPTER 4 Writing Effective Arguments 97
FIGURE 4.1 A Continuum of Argumentative Language
Rigorously
objective
language
Thoughtful,
restrained
language
A combination
of reason and
various clever
strategies with
language
Strong appeals
to emotion
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select “strong appeals to emotion” for your college or workplace writing. Remember
that you have different roles in your life, and you use different voices as appropriate to
each role. Most of the time, you will want to use the serious voice you normally select
for serious conversations with other adults. This is the voice that will help you establish
your credibility, your ethos.
As you learned in Chapter 2, irony is a useful rhetorical strategy for giving one’s
words greater emphasis by actually writing the opposite of what you mean. Many
writers use irony effectively. Irony catches our attention, makes us think, and engages us
with the text. Sarcasm is not quite the same as irony. Irony can cleverly focus on life’s
complexities. Sarcasm is more often vicious than insightful, relying on harsh, negative
word choice. Probably in most of your academic work, you will want to avoid sarcasm
and think carefully about using any strongly worded appeal to your readers’ emotions.
Better to persuade your audience with the force of your reasons and evidence than to
lose them because of the static of nasty language. But the key, always, is to know your
audience and understand how best to present a convincing argument to that specific
group.
UNDERSTAND YOUR WRITING PURPOSE
There are many types or genres of argument and different reasons for writing—beyond
wanting to write convincingly in defense of your views. Different types of arguments
require different approaches, or different kinds of evidence. It helps to be able to
recognize the kind of argument you are contemplating.
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98 SECTION 2 THE WORLD OF ARGUMENT
What Type (Genre) of Argument Am I Preparing?
Here are some useful ways to classify arguments and think about their support.
• Investigative paper similar to those in the social sciences. If you are asked to
collect evidence in an organized way to support a claim about advertising strategies
or violence in children’s TV programming, then you will be writing an investigative
essay. You will present evidence that you have gathered and analyzed to
support your claim.
• Evaluation. If your assignment is to explain why others should read a particular
book or take a particular professor’s class, then you will be preparing an evaluation
argument. Be sure to think about your criteria: What makes a book or a professor
good? Why do you dislike Lady Gaga? Is it her music—or her lifestyle?
• Definition. If you are asked to explain the meaning of a general or controversial
term, you will be writing a definition argument. What do we mean by wisdom?
What are the characteristics of cool? A definition argument usually requires both
specific details to illustrate the term and general ideas to express its meaning.
• Claim of values. If you are given the assignment to argue for your position on
euthanasia, trying juveniles as adults, or the use of national identification cards,
recognize that your assignment calls for a position paper, a claim based heavily on
values. Pay close attention to your warrants or assumptions in any philosophical
debate.
• Claim of policy. If you are given a broad topic: “What should we do
about ?” and you have to fill in the blank, your task is to offer
solutions to a current problem. What should we do about childhood obesity? About
home foreclosures? These kinds of questions are less philosophical and more
practical. Your solutions must be workable.
• Refutation or rebuttal. If you are given the assignment to find a letter to the
editor, a newspaper editorial, or an essay in this text with which you disagree,
your job is to write a refutation essay, a specific challenge to a specific argument.
You know, then, that you will refer repeatedly to the work you are rebutting, so
you will need to know it thoroughly.
What Is My Goal?
It is also helpful to consider your goal in writing. Does your topic call for a strong state-
ment of views (i.e., “These are the steps we must take to reduce childhood obesity”)?
Or is your goal an exploratory one, a thinking through of possible answers to a more
philosophical question (“Why is it often difficult to separate performance from person-
ality when we evaluate a star?”)? Thinking about your goal as well as the argument’s
genre will help to decide on the kinds of evidence needed and on the approach to take
and tone to select.
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CHAPTER 4 Writing Effective Arguments 99
Will the Rogerian or Conciliatory Approach Work for Me?
Psychologist Carl Rogers asserts that the most successful arguments take a conciliatory
approach. The characteristics of this approach include
• showing respect for the opposition in the language and tone of the argument,
• seeking common ground by indicating specific facts and values that both sides
share, and
• qualifying the claim to bring opposing sides more closely together.
In their essay “Euthanasia—A Critique,” authors Peter A. Singer and Mark Siegler
provide a good example of a conciliatory approach. They begin their essay by explain-
ing and then rebutting the two main arguments in favor of euthanasia. After stating the
two arguments in clear and neutral language, they write this in response to the first
argument:
We agree that the relief of pain and suffering is a crucial goal of medicine. We question,
however, whether the care of dying patients cannot be improved without resorting to the
drastic measure of euthanasia. Most physical pain can be relieved with the appropriate use
of analgesic agents. Unfortunately, despite widespread agreement that dying patients must
be provided with necessary analgesia, physicians continue to underuse analgesia in the
care of dying patients because of the concern about depressing respiratory drive or creating
addiction. Such situations demand better management of pain, not euthanasia.1
In this paragraph the authors accept the value of pain management for dying
patients. They go even further and offer a solution to the problem of suffering among
the terminally ill—better pain management by doctors. They remain thoughtful in their
approach and tone throughout, while sticking to their position that legalizing euthanasia
is not the solution.
Consider how you can use the conciliatory approach to write more effective argu-
ments. It will help you avoid “overheated” language and maintain your focus on what is
doable in a world of differing points of view. There is the expression that “you can catch
more flies with honey than with vinegar.” Using “honey” instead of “vinegar” might
also make you feel better about yourself.
MOVE FROM TOPIC TO CLAIM
TO POSSIBLE SUPPORT
When you write a letter to the editor of a newspaper, you have chosen to respond to
someone else’s argument that has bothered you. In this writing context, you already
know your topic and, probably, your claim as well. You also know that your purpose
will be to refute the article you have read. In composition classes, the context is not
always so clearly established, but you will usually be given some guidelines with which
to get started.
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100 SECTION 2 THE WORLD OF ARGUMENT
Selecting a Topic
Suppose that you are asked to write an argument that is in some way connected to First
Amendment rights. Your instructor has limited and focused your topic choice and
purpose. Start thinking about possible topics that relate to freedom of speech and
censorship issues. To aid your topic search and selection, use one or more invention
strategies:
• Brainstorm (make a list).
• Freewrite (write without stopping for ten minutes).
• Map or cluster (connect ideas to the general topic in various spokes, a kind
of visual brainstorming).
• Read through this text for ideas.
Your invention strategies lead, let us suppose, to the following list of possible topics:
Administrative restrictions on the college newspaper
Hate speech restrictions or codes
Deleting certain books from high school reading lists
Controls and limits on alcohol and cigarette advertising
Restrictions on violent TV programming
Dress codes/uniforms
Looking over your list, you realize that the last item, dress codes/uniforms, may be
about freedom but not freedom of speech, so you drop it from consideration. All of the
other topics have promise. Which one do you select? Two considerations should guide
you: interest and knowledge. First, your argument is likely to be more thoughtful and
lively if you choose an issue that matters to you. But unless you have time for study, you
are wise to choose a topic about which you already have some information and ideas.
Suppose that you decide to write about television violence because you are concerned
about violence in American society and have given this issue some thought. It is time to
phrase your topic as a tentative thesis or claim.
Drafting a Claim
Good claim statements will keep you focused in your writing—in addition to establish-
ing your main idea for readers. Give thought both to your position on the issue and to
the wording of your claim. Claim statements to avoid:
• Claims using vague words such as good or bad.
VAGUE: TV violence is bad for us.
BETTER: We need more restrictions on violent TV programming.
• Claims in loosely worded “two-part” sentences.
UNFOCUSED: Campus sexual assault is a serious problem, and we need to do
something about it.
BETTER: College administrators and students need to work together to reduce
both the number of campus sexual assaults and the fear of sexual assault.
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CHAPTER 4 Writing Effective Arguments 101
• Claims that are not appropriately qualified.
OVERSTATED: Violence on television is making us a violent society.
BETTER: TV violence is contributing to viewers’ increased fear of violence
and insensitivity to violence.
• Claims that do not help you focus on your purpose in writing.
UNCLEAR
PURPOSE:
Not everyone agrees on what is meant by violent TV programming.
(Perhaps this is true, but more important, this claim suggests that you will define
violent programming. Such an approach would not keep you focused on a First
Amendment issue.)
BETTER: Restrictions on violent TV programs can be justified.
(Now your claim directs you to the debate over restrictions of content.)
Listing Possible Grounds
As you learned in Chapter 3, you can generate grounds to support a claim by adding a
“because” clause after a claim statement. We can start a list of grounds for the topic on
violent TV programming in this way:
We need more restrictions on violent television programming because
• Many people, including children and teens, watch many hours of TV (get stats).
• People are affected by the dominant activities/experiences in their lives.
• There is a connection between violent programming and desensitizing and fear of
violence and possibly more aggressive behavior in heavy viewers (get detail of
studies).
• Society needs to protect young people.
You have four good points to work on, a combination of reasons and inferences
drawn from evidence.
Listing Grounds for the Other Side or Another Perspective
Remember that arguments generate counterarguments. Continue your exploration of
this topic by considering possible rebuttals to your proposed grounds. How might
someone who does not want to see restrictions placed on television programming
respond to each of your points? Let’s think about them one at a time:
We need more restrictions on violent television programming because
1. Many people, including children and teens, watch many hours of TV.
Your opposition cannot really challenge your first point on the facts, only its relevance
to restricting programming. The opposition might argue that if parents think their chil-
dren are watching too much TV, they should turn it off. The restriction needs to be a
family decision.
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102 SECTION 2 THE WORLD OF ARGUMENT
2. People are affected by the dominant activities/experiences in their lives.
It seems common sense to expect people to be influenced by dominant forces in their
lives. Your opposition might argue, though, that many people have the TV on for many
hours but often are not watching it intently for all of that time. The more dominant
forces in our lives are parents and teachers and peers, not the TV. The opposition might
also argue that people seem to be influenced to such different degrees by television that
it is not fair or logical to restrict everyone when perhaps only a few are truly influenced
by their TV viewing to a harmful degree.
3. There is a connection between violent programming and desensitizing and fear of
violence and possibly more aggressive behavior in heavy viewers.
Some people are entirely convinced by studies showing these negative effects of violent
TV programming, but others point to the less convincing studies or make the argument
that if violence on TV were really so powerful an influence, most people would be
violent or fearful or desensitized.
4. Society needs to protect young people.
Your opposition might choose to agree with you in theory on this point—and then turn
again to the argument that parents should be doing the protecting. Government controls
on programming restrict adults as well as children, whereas it may only be some
children who should watch fewer hours of TV and not watch adult “cop” shows
at all.
Working through this process of considering opposing views can help you see
• where you may want to do some research for facts to provide backing for your
grounds,
• how you can best develop your reasons to take account of typical counterargu-
ments, and
• if you should qualify your claim in some ways.
Planning Your Approach
Now that you have thought about arguments on the other side, you decide that you want
to argue for a qualified claim that is also more precise:
To protect young viewers, we need restrictions on violence in children’s programs and
ratings for prime-time adult shows that clearly establish the degree of violence in
those shows.
This qualified claim responds to two points of the rebuttals. Our student hasn’t given in
to the other side but has chosen to narrow the argument to emphasize the protection of
children, an area of common ground.
Next, it’s time to check some of the articles in this text or go online to get some data
to develop points 1 and 3. You need to know that 99 percent of homes have at least one
TV; you need to know that by the time young people graduate from high school, they
have spent more time in front of the TV than in the classroom. Also, you can find
the average number of violent acts by hour of TV in children’s programs. Then, too,
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CHAPTER 4 Writing Effective Arguments 103
there are the various studies of fearfulness and aggressive behavior that will give you
some statistics to use to develop the third point. Be sure to select reliable sources and
then cite the sources you use. Citing sources is not only required and right; it is also
part of the process of establishing your credibility and thus strengthening your
argument.
Finally, how are you going to answer the point about parents controlling their
children? You might counter that in theory this is the way it should be—but in fact not
all parents are at home watching what their children are watching, and not all parents
care enough to pay attention. However, all of us suffer from the consequences of those
children who are influenced by their TV watching to become more aggressive or fearful
or desensitized. These children grow up to become the adults the rest of us have to inter-
act with, so the problem becomes one for the society as a whole to solve. If you had not
disciplined yourself to go through the process of listing possible rebuttals, you may not
have thought through this part of the debate.
DRAFT YOUR ARGUMENT
Many of us can benefit from a step-by-step process of invention—such as we have been
exploring in the last few pages. In addition, the more notes you have from working
through the Toulmin structure, the easier it will be to get started on your draft. Students
report that they can control their writing anxiety when they generate detailed notes.
A page of notes that also suggests an organizational strategy can remove that awful
feeling of staring at a blank computer screen.
In the following chapters on argument, you will find specific suggestions for orga-
nizing the various kinds of arguments. But you can always rely on one of these two
basic organizations, regardless of the specific genre:
PLAN 1: ORGANIZING AN ARGUMENT
Attention-getting opening (why the issue is important, or current, etc.)
Claim statement
Reasons and evidence in order from least important to most important
Challenge to potential rebuttals or counterarguments
Conclusion that reemphasizes claim
PLAN 2: ORGANIZING AN ARGUMENT
Attention-getting opening
Claim statement (or possibly leave to the conclusion)
Order by arguments of opposing position, with your challenge to each
Conclusion that reemphasizes (or states for the first time) your claim
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104 SECTION 2 THE WORLD OF ARGUMENT
REVISE YOUR DRAFT
If you have drafted at the computer, begin revising by printing a copy of your draft.
Most of us cannot do an adequate job of revision by looking at a computer screen.
Then remind yourself that revision is a three-step process: rewriting, editing, and
proofreading.
Rewriting
You are not ready to polish the writing until you are satisfied with the argument. Look
first at the total piece. Do you have all the necessary parts: a claim, support, some re-
sponse to possible counterarguments? Examine the order of your reasons and evidence.
Do some of your points belong, logically, in a different place? Does the order make the
most powerful defense of your claim? Be willing to move whole paragraphs around to
test the best organization. Also reflect on the argument itself. Have you avoided logical
fallacies? Have you qualified statements when appropriate? Do you have enough sup-
port? The best support?
Consider development: Is your essay long enough to meet assignment require-
ments? Are points fully developed to satisfy the demands of readers? One key to
development is the length of your paragraphs. If most of your paragraphs are only
two or three sentences, you have not developed the point of each paragraph satisfac-
torily. It is possible that some paragraphs need to be combined because they are
really on the same topic. More typically, short paragraphs need further explanation
of ideas or examples to illustrate ideas. Compare the following paragraphs for
effectiveness:
GUIDELINES for
• Try to get a complete draft in one sitting so that you can read the whole
piece.
• If you can’t think of a clever opening, state your claim and move on to
the body of your essay. After you draft your reasons and evidence, a
good opening may occur to you.
• If you find that you need something more in some parts of your essay,
leave space there as a reminder that you will need to return to that
paragraph later.
• Try to avoid using either a dictionary or thesaurus while drafting. Your
goal is to get the ideas down. You will polish later.
• Learn to draft at your computer. Revising is so much easier that you will
be more willing to make significant changes if you work at your PC. If you
are handwriting your draft, leave plenty of margin space for additions or
for directions to shift parts around.
Draftingfor
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CHAPTER 4 Writing Effective Arguments 105
First Draft of a Paragraph from an Essay on Gun Control
One popular argument used against the regulation of gun ownership is the
need of citizens, especially in urban areas where the crime rate is higher, to
possess a handgun for personal protection, either carried or kept in the home.
Some citizens may not be aware of the dangers to themselves or their families
when they purchase a gun. Others, more aware, may embrace the myth that
“bad things only happen to other people.”
Revised Version of the Paragraph with Statistics Added
One popular argument used against the regulation of gun ownership is the
need of citizens, especially in urban areas where the crime rate is higher, to
possess a handgun for personal protection, whether it is carried or kept in the
home. Although some citizens may not be aware of the dangers to themselves
or their families when they purchase a gun, they should be. According to the
Center to Prevent Handgun Violence, from their Web page “Firearm Facts,”
“guns that are kept in the home for self-protection are 22 times more likely to
kill a family member or friend than to kill in self-defense.” The Center also
reports that guns in the home make homicide three times more likely and
suicide five times more likely. We are not thinking straight if we believe that
these dangers apply only to others.
A quick trip to the Web has provided this student with some facts to support his argument.
Observe how he has referred informally but fully to the source of his information. (If your
instructor requires formal MLA documentation in all essays, then you will need to add a
Works Cited page and give a full reference to the website. See Chapter 14.)
Editing
Make your changes, print another copy, and begin the second phase of revision: editing.
As you read through this time, pay close attention to unity and coherence, sentence pat-
terns, and word choice. Read each paragraph as a separate unit to be certain that every-
thing is on the same subtopic. Then look at your use of transition and connecting words,
both within and between paragraphs. Ask yourself: Have you guided the reader through
the argument using appropriate connectors such as therefore, in addition, as a conse-
quence, also, and so forth?
Read again, focusing on each sentence, checking to see that you have varied sentence
patterns and length. Read sentences aloud to let your ear help you find awkward construc-
tions or unfinished thoughts. Strive as well for word choice that is concrete and specific,
avoiding wordiness, clichés, trite expressions, or incorrect use of specialized terms. Observe
how Samantha edited one paragraph in her essay “Balancing Work and Family”:
Draft Version of Paragraph
Women have come a long way in equalizing themselves, but inequality within
marriages do exist. One reason for this can be found in the media. Just last
week America turned on thier televisions to watch a grotesque dramatization
of skewed priorities. On Who Wants to Marry a Millionaire, a panel of women
vied for the affections of a millionaire who would choose one of them to be his
wife. This show said that women can be purchased. Also that men must provide
and that money is worth the sacrifice of one’s individuality. The show also suggests
that physical attraction is more important than the building of a complete
relationship. Finally, the show says that women’s true value lies in thier appearance.
This is a dangerous message to send to both men women viewers.
Vague reference.
Vague reference.
Wordy.
agr?
Short sentences.
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106 SECTION 2 THE WORLD OF ARGUMENT
Edited Version of Paragraph
Although women have come a long way toward equality in the workplace,
inequality within marriages can still be found. The media may be partly to
blame for this continued inequality. Just last week Americans watched a
grotesque dramatization of skewed priorities. On Who Wants to Marry a
Millionaire, a panel of women vied for the affections of a millionaire who
would choose one of them to be his wife. Such displays teach us that women
can be purchased, that men must be the providers, that the desire for money is
worth the sacrifice of one’s individuality, that physical attraction is more
important than a complete relationship, and that women’s true value lies in
their appearance. These messages discourage marriages based on equality and
mutual support.
Samantha’s editing has eliminated wordiness and vague references and has combined
ideas into one forceful sentence. Support your good argument by taking the time to
polish your writing.
A Few Words about Word Choice and Tone
You have just been advised to check your word choice to eliminate wordiness, vague-
ness, clichés, and so on. Here is a checklist of problems often found in student papers
with some ways to fix the problems:
• Eliminate clichés. Do not write about “the fast-paced world we live in today” or the
“rat race.” First, do you know for sure that the pace of life for someone who has a
demanding job is any faster than it was in the past? Using time effectively has
always mattered. Also, clichés suggest that you are too lazy to find your own words.
• Avoid jargon. In the negative sense of this word, jargon refers to nonspecialists
who fill their writing with “heavy-sounding terms” to give the appearance of
significance. Watch for any overuse of “scientific” terms such as factor or aspect,
or other vague, awkward language.
• Avoid language that is too informal for most of your writing contexts. What do you
mean when you write: “Kids today watch too much TV”? Alternatives include
children, teens, adolescents. These words are less slangy and more precise.
• Avoid nasty attacks on the opposition. Change “those jerks who are foolish enough
to believe that TV violence has no impact on children” to language that explains
your counterargument without attacking those who may disagree with you. After
all, you want to change the thinking of your audience, not make them resent you for
name-calling.
Women have come a long way in equalizing themselves, but inequality within
marriages do exist. One reason for this can be found in the media. Just last
week America turned on thier televisions to watch a grotesque dramatization
of skewed priorities. On Who Wants to Marry a Millionaire, a panel of women
vied for the affections of a millionaire who would choose one of them to be his
wife. This show said that women can be purchased. Also that men must provide
and that money is worth the sacrifice of one’s individuality. The show also suggests
that physical attraction is more important than the building of a complete
relationship. Finally, the show says that women’s true value lies in thier appearance.
This is a dangerous message to send to both men women viewers.
Vague reference.
Vague reference.
Wordy.
agr?
Short sentences.
Women have come a long way in equalizing themselves, but inequality within
marriages do exist. One reason for this can be found in the media. Just last
week America turned on thier televisions to watch a grotesque dramatization
of skewed priorities. On Who Wants to Marry a Millionaire, a panel of women
vied for the affections of a millionaire who would choose one of them to be his
wife. This show said that women can be purchased. Also that men must provide
and that money is worth the sacrifice of one’s individuality. The show also suggests
that physical attraction is more important than the building of a complete
relationship. Finally, the show says that women’s true value lies in thier appearance.
This is a dangerous message to send to both men women viewers.
Vague reference.
Vague reference.
Wordy.
agr?
Short sentences.
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CHAPTER 4 Writing Effective Arguments 107
• Avoid all discriminatory language. In the academic community and the adult
workplace, most people are bothered by language that belittles any one group.
This includes language that is racist or sexist or reflects negatively on older or
differently abled persons or those who do not share your sexual orientation or re-
ligious beliefs. Just don’t do it!
Proofreading
You also do not want to lose the respect of readers because you submit a paper filled
with “little” errors—errors in punctuation, mechanics, and incorrect word choice.
Most readers will forgive one or two little errors but will become annoyed if they
begin to pile up. So, after you are finished rewriting and editing, print a copy of your
paper and read it slowly, looking specifically at punctuation, at the handling of
quotations and references to writers and to titles, and at those pesky words that come
in two or more “versions”: to, too, and two; here and hear; their, there, and they’re;
and so forth. If instructors have found any of these kinds of errors in your papers
over the years, then focus your attention on the kinds of errors you have been known
to make.
Refer to Chapter 1 for handling references to authors and titles and for handling
direct quotations. Use a glossary of usage for homonyms (words that sound alike but
have different meanings), and check a handbook for punctuation rules. Take pride in
your work and present a paper that will be treated with respect. What follows is a check-
list of the key points for writing good arguments that we have just examined.
A CHECKLIST FOR REVISION
Have I selected an issue and purpose consistent with assignment guidelines?
Have I stated a claim that is focused, appropriately qualified, and precise?
Have I developed sound reasons and evidence in support of my claim?
Have I used Toulmin’s terms to help me study the parts of my argument, including
rebuttals to counterarguments?
Have I taken advantage of a conciliatory approach and emphasized common ground
with opponents?
Have I found a clear and effective organization for presenting my argument?
Have I edited my draft thoughtfully, concentrating on producing unified and coher-
ent paragraphs and polished sentences?
Have I eliminated wordiness, clichés, jargon?
Have I selected an appropriate tone for my purpose and audience?
Have I used my word processor’s spell-check and proofread a printed copy with
great care?
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108 SECTION 2 THE WORLD OF ARGUMENT
FOR ANALYSIS AND DEBATE
FIVE MYTHS ABOUT TORTURE AND TRUTH DARIUS REJALI
A professor of political science at Reed College, Iranian-born Darius Rejali is a recog-
nized expert on the causes and meaning of violence, especially on torture, in our world.
His books Torture and Democracy (2007) and Spirituality and the Ethics of Torture
(2009) have won acclaim and resulted in frequent interviews for Rejali. The following
essay appeared on December 16, 2007, in The Washington Post.
PREREADING QUESTIONS Can you think of five myths about torture? What do you
expect rejali to cover in this essay?
So the CIA did indeed torture Abu Zubaida, the first al-Qaeda terrorist sus-
pect to have been waterboarded. So says John Kiriakou, the first former CIA
employee directly involved in the questioning of “high-value” al-Qaeda detain-
ees to speak out publicly. He minced no words last week in calling the CIA’s
“enhanced interrogation techniques” what they are.
But did they work? Torture’s defenders, including the wannabe tough guys who
write Fox’s “24,” insist that the rough stuff gets results. “It was like flipping a switch,”
said Kiriakou about Abu Zubaida’s response to being waterboarded. But the al-
Qaeda operative’s confessions—descriptions of fantastic plots from a man who in-
telligence analysts were convinced was mentally ill—probably didn’t give the CIA
any actionable intelligence. Of course, we may never know the whole truth, since
the CIA destroyed the videotapes of Abu Zubaida’s interrogation. But here are
some other myths that are bound to come up as the debate over torture rages on.
1. Torture worked for the Gestapo. Actually, no. Even Hitler’s notorious se-
cret police got most of their information from public tips, informers and inter-
agency cooperation. That was still more than enough to let the Gestapo decimate
anti-Nazi resistance in Austria, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Denmark, Norway,
France, Russia and the concentration camps.
Yes, the Gestapo did torture people for intelligence, especially in later years.
But this reflected not torture’s efficacy but the loss of many seasoned profes-
sionals to World War II, increasingly desperate competition for intelligence
among Gestapo units and an influx of less disciplined younger members. (Why
do serious, tedious police work when you have a uniform and a whip?) It’s sur-
prising how unsuccessful the Gestapo’s brutal efforts were. They failed to break
senior leaders of the French, Danish, Polish and German resistance. I’ve spent
more than a decade collecting all the cases of Gestapo torture “successes” in
multiple languages; the number is small and the results pathetic, especially com-
pared with the devastating effects of public cooperation and informers.
2. Everyone talks sooner or later under torture. Truth is, it’s surprisingly
hard to get anything under torture, true or false. For example, between 1500 and
1750, French prosecutors tried to torture confessions out of 785 individuals.
Torture was legal back then, and the records document such practices as the
bone-crushing use of splints, pumping stomachs with water until they swelled and
pouring boiling oil on the feet. But the number of prisoners who said anything was
low, from 3 percent in Paris to 14 percent in Toulouse (an exceptional high). Most
of the time, the torturers were unable to get any statement whatsoever.
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CHAPTER 4 Writing Effective Arguments 109
And such examples could be multiplied. The Japanese fascists, no strangers
to torture, said it best in their field manual, which was found in Burma during
World War II: They described torture as the clumsiest possible method of gather-
ing intelligence. Like most sensible torturers, they preferred to use torture for
intimidation, not information.
3. People will say anything under torture. Well, no, although this is a favorite
chestnut of torture’s foes. Think about it: Sure, someone would lie under torture,
but wouldn’t they also lie if they were being interrogated without coercion?
In fact, the problem of torture does not stem from the prisoner who has infor-
mation; it stems from the prisoner who doesn’t. Such a person is also likely to lie,
to say anything, often convincingly. The torture of the informed may generate no
more lies than normal interrogation, but the torture of the ignorant and innocent
overwhelms investigators with misleading information. In these cases, nothing is
indeed preferable to anything. Anything needs to be verified, and the CIA’s own
1963 interrogation manual explains that “a time-consuming delay results”—hardly
useful when every moment matters.
Intelligence gathering is especially vulnerable to this problem. When police offi-
cers torture, they know what the crime is, and all they want is the confession. When
intelligence officers torture, they must gather information about what they don’t know.
4. Most people can tell when someone is lying under torture. Not so—and
we know quite a bit about this. For about 40 years, psychologists have been
testing police officers as well as normal people to see whether they can spot
lies, and the results aren’t encouraging. Ordinary folk have an accuracy rate of
about 57 percent, which is pretty poor considering that 50 percent is the flip of a
coin. Likewise, the cops’ accuracy rates fall between 45 percent and
65 percent—that is, sometimes less accurate than a coin toss.
Why does this matter? Because even if torturers break a person, they have to
recognize it, and most of the time they can’t. Torturers assume too much and reject
what doesn’t fit their assumptions. For instance, Sheila Cassidy, a British physician,
cracked under electric-shock torture by the Chilean secret service in the 1970s and
identified priests who had helped the country’s socialist opposition. But her devout
interrogators couldn’t believe that priests would ever help the socialists, so they
tortured her for another week until they finally became convinced. By that time,
she was so damaged that she couldn’t remember the location of the safe house.
In fact, most torturers are nowhere near as well trained for interrogation as
police are. Torturers are usually chosen because they’ve endured hardship and
pain, fought with courage, kept secrets, held the right beliefs and earned a
reputation as trustworthy and loyal. They often rely on folklore about what lying
behavior looks like—shifty eyes, sweaty palms and so on. And, not surprisingly,
they make a lot of mistakes.
5. You can train people to resist torture. Supposedly, this is why we can’t
know what the CIA’s “enhanced interrogation techniques” are: If Washington
admits that it waterboards suspected terrorists, al-Qaeda will set up
“waterboarding-resistance camps” across the world. Be that as it may, the truth
is that no training will help the bad guys.
Simply put, nothing predicts the outcome of one’s resistance to pain better
than one’s own personality. Against some personalities, nothing works; against
others, practically anything does. Studies of hundreds of detainees who broke
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110 SECTION 2 THE WORLD OF ARGUMENT
under Soviet and Chinese torture, including Army-funded studies of U.S.
prisoners of war, conclude that during, before and after torture, each prisoner
displayed strengths and weaknesses dependent on his or her own character.
The CIA’s own “Human Resources Exploitation Manual” from 1983 and its
so-called Kubark manual from 1963 agree. In all matters relating to pain, says
Kubark, the “individual remains the determinant.”
The thing that’s most clear from torture-victim studies is that you can’t train
for the ordeal. There is no secret knowledge out there about how to resist torture.
Yes, there are manuals, such as the IRA’s “Green Book,” the anti-Soviet “Manual
for Psychiatry for Dissidents” and “Torture and the Interrogation Experience,” an
Iranian guerrilla manual from the 1970s. But none of these volumes contains
specific techniques of resistance, just general encouragement to hang tough.
Even al-Qaeda’s vaunted terrorist-training manual offers no tips on how to resist
torture, and al-Qaeda was no stranger to the brutal methods of the Saudi police.
And yet these myths persist. “The larger problem here, I think,” one active
CIA officer observed in 2005, “is that this kind of stuff just makes people feel
better, even if it doesn’t work.”
Darius Rejali, “Five Myths About Torture and Truth,” The Washington Post, 17 Dec. 2007. Reprinted by
permission of the author.
QUESTIONS FOR READING
1. What context for his discussion does the author provide in the opening two paragraphs?
2. What worked better than torture for the Gestapo? What led to an increase in torture in
the Gestapo?
3. What do the data show about getting people to speak by torturing them?
4. Who are the people most likely to lie under torture?
5. Why are interrogators not very good at recognizing when the tortured are lying?
QUESTIONS FOR REASONING AND ANALYSIS
6. What structure does the author use? What kind of argument is this?
7. What is Rejali’s position on torture, the claim of his argument?
8. What grounds does he present in support of his claim?
9. Describe Rejali’s style; how does his style of writing help his argument?
QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION AND WRITING
10. Which of the five discussions has surprised you the most? Why?
11. Has the author convinced you that all five myths lack substance? Why or why not? If
you disagree, how would you refute Rejali?
12. Why do intelligence and military personnel continue to use harsh interrogation strategies
even though the evidence suggests that what, if anything, they learn will not be useful?
Ponder this question.
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CHAPTER 4 Writing Effective Arguments 111
TORTURE IS WRONG—BUT IT MIGHT WORK M. GREGG BLOCHE
A law professor at Georgetown University, Gregg Bloche is also a physician. His MD and
JD degrees are both from Yale University. Bloche specializes in medical ethics, health
care law, and human rights law. Widely published, he is the author of The Hippocratic
Myth (2011). His essay on torture appeared on May 29, 2011.
PREREADING QUESTIONS Has Bloche intrigued you with his title? What do you expect
his position to be?
Torture, liberals like me often insist, isn’t just immoral, it’s ineffective. We like this
proposition because it portrays us as protectors of the nation, not wusses willing to
risk American lives to protect terrorists. And we love to quote seasoned interrogators’
assurances that building rapport with the bad guys will get them to talk.
But the killing of Osama bin Laden four weeks ago has revived the old debate
about whether torture works. Could it be that “enhanced interrogation techniques”
employed during the George W. Bush administration helped find bin Laden’s
now-famous courier and track him to the terrorist in chief’s now-infamous lair?
Sen. John McCain (R-Ariz.) and current administration officials say no. Former
attorney general Michael Mukasey and former vice president Dick Cheney say yes.
The idea that waterboarding and other abuses may have been effective in
getting information from detainees is repellant to many, including me. It’s contrary
to the meme many have embraced: that torture doesn’t work because people
being abused to the breaking point will say anything to get the brutality to stop—
anything they think their accusers want to hear.
But this position is at
odds with some behavioral
science, I’ve learned. The
architects of enhanced
interrogation are doctors
who built on a still-
classified, research-based
model that suggests how
abuse can indeed work.
I’ve examined the sci-
ence, studied the available
paper trail and interviewed
key actors, including sev-
eral who helped develop
the enhanced interrogation
program and who haven’t
spoken publicly before.
This inquiry has made it
possible to piece together
the model that under-girds
enhanced interrogation.
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112 SECTION 2 THE WORLD OF ARGUMENT
This model holds that harsh methods can’t, by themselves, force terrorists to
tell the truth. Brute force, it suggests, stiffens resistance. Rather, the role of abuse
is to induce hopelessness and despair. That’s what sleep deprivation, stress po-
sitions and prolonged isolation were designed to do. Small gestures of con-
tempt—facial slaps and frequent insults—drive home the message of futility. Even
the rough stuff, such as “walling” and waterboarding, is meant to dispirit, not to
coerce.
Once a sense of hopelessness is instilled, the model holds, interrogators can
shape behavior through small rewards. Bathroom breaks, reprieves from
foul-tasting food and even the occasional kind word can coax broken men to
comply with their abusers’ expectations.
Certainly, interrogators using this approach have obtained false confessions.
Chinese interrogators did so intentionally, for propaganda purposes, with
American prisoners during the Korean War. McCain and other critics of “torture-
lite” cite this precedent to argue that it can’t yield reliable information. But the
same psychological sequence—induction of hopelessness, followed by rewards
to shape compliance—can be used to get terrorism suspects to tell the truth, or
so the architects of enhanced interrogation hypothesize.
Critical to this model is the ability to assess suspects’ truthfulness in real
time. To this end, CIA interrogators stressed speedy integration of intelligence
from all sources. The idea was to frame questions to detect falsehoods; interro-
gators could then reward honesty and punish deceit.
It’s been widely reported that the program was conceived by a former Air
Force psychologist, James Mitchell, who had helped oversee the Pentagon’s
program for training soldiers and airmen to resist torture if captured. That Mitchell
became the CIA’s maestro of enhanced interrogation and personally water-
boarded several prisoners was confirmed in 2009 through the release of
previously classified documents. But how Mitchell got involved and why the
agency embraced his methods remained a mystery.
The key player was a clinical psychologist turned CIA official, Kirk Hubbard,
I learned through interviews with him and others. On the day 19 hijackers bent on
mass murder made their place in history, Hubbard’s responsibilities at the agency
included tracking developments in the behavioral sciences with an eye toward
their tactical use. He and Mitchell knew each other through the network of
psychologists who do national security work. Just retired from the Air Force,
Mitchell figured he could translate what he knew about teaching resistance into
a methodology for breaking it. He convinced Hubbard, who introduced him to
CIA leaders and coached him through the agency’s bureaucratic rivalries.
Journalistic accounts have cast Mitchell as a rogue who won a CIA contract
by dint of charisma. What’s gone unappreciated is his reliance on a research
base. He had studied the medical and psychological literature on how Chinese
interrogators extracted false confessions. And he was an admirer of Martin
Seligman, the University of Pennsylvania psychologist who had developed the
concept of “learned helplessness” and invoked it to explain depression.
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CHAPTER 4 Writing Effective Arguments 113
Mitchell, it appears, saw connections and seized upon them. The despair
that Chinese interrogators tried to instill was akin to learned helplessness.
Seligman’s induction of learned helplessness in laboratory animals, therefore,
could point the way to prison regimens capable of inducing it in people. And—
this was Mitchell’s biggest conceptual jump—the Chinese way of shaping be-
havior in prisoners who were reduced to learned helplessness held a broader
lesson.
To motivate a captive to comply, a Chinese interrogator established an
aura of omnipotence. For weeks or months, the interrogator was his prisoner’s
sole human connection, with monopoly power to praise, punish and reward.
Rapport with the interrogator offered the only escape from despair. This
opened possibilities for the sculpting of behavior and belief. For propaganda
purposes, the Chinese sought sham confessions. But Mitchell saw that behav-
ioral shaping could be used to pursue other goals, including the extraction
of truth.
Did the methods Mitchell devised help end the hunt for bin Laden? Have
they prevented terrorist attacks? We’ll never know. Not only are counterterrorism
operations shrouded in secrecy, but it’s impossible to prove or disprove claims
that enhanced interrogation works better than other methods when prisoners
are intent on saying nothing.
Scientific study of this question would require random sorting of suspects
into groups that receive either torture-lite or conventional forms of interrogation.
To frame this inquiry is to show why it can’t be carried out: It would violate inter-
national law and research ethics. The CIA, Hubbard told me, conducted no such
study for this reason.
So we’re left with the unsavory possibility that torture-lite works—and that it
may have helped find bin Laden. It does no good to point out, as some human
rights advocates have, that the detainees who yielded information about his cou-
rier did so after the abuse stopped. The model on which enhanced interrogation
is based can account for this. The detainees’ cooperation could have ensued
from hopelessness and despair, followed by interrogators’ adroit use of their
power to punish and reward.
This possibility poses the question of torture in a more unsettling fashion,
by denying us the easy out that torture is both ineffective and wrong. We must
choose between its repugnance to our values and its potential efficacy. To
me, the choice is almost always obvious: Contempt for the law of nations
would put us on a path toward a more brutish world. Conservatives are fond
of saying, on behalf of martial sacrifice, that freedom isn’t free. Neither is basic
decency.
M. Gregg Bloche, “Torture Is Wrong—But It Might Work,” The Washington Post, 29 May 2011. Used with
permission of the author.
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114 SECTION 2 THE WORLD OF ARGUMENT
QUESTIONS FOR READING
1. What argument is embraced by those who are opposed to the use of torture?
2. What did Bloche learn about the purpose of “enhanced interrogation”? How is it used as
part of a process for getting information?
3. The debate over the use of enhanced interrogation techniques and of hidden sites contin-
ues. Bloche mentions several studies in his discussion. See what more you can learn
about this debate. Ponder this question: Why do some continue these strategies when
studies fail to confirm that they work?
4. What must interrogators assess for this model to work? How do they try to do this?
5. Why can we not know for certain if torture works?
QUESTIONS FOR REASONING AND ANALYSIS
6. What is Bloche’s claim? (Be careful; it is not a simple statement.)
7. What grounds does he present in support of his claim?
8. Study the author’s introduction. What does he gain by announcing his position on
torture in his opening paragraph?
9. Study Bloche’s conclusion: Why is deciding on one’s position more difficult now?
What does Bloche mean by his final sentence?
QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION AND WRITING
10. Has Bloche convinced you that the issue of using enhanced interrogation has
become more complex? Why or why not? If you disagree with the author, how would
you refute him?
11. Both Bloche and Rejali discuss the issue of interrogators needing to assess what, if any,
good information they may be getting from interrogation. What does this tell you about
the task of intelligence gathering? Ponder this issue for class discussion or writing.
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SUGGESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION AND WRITING
1. Do Rejali and Bloche hold opposing viewpoints on the use of torture—or are their differ-
ences more that of approach and focus? Read each author again and then write an analysis of
their differences in style, approach to the issue, and position on the issue.
2. Reflect on what you have learned about torture from Rejali and Bloche and then consider:
What may be the greatest “unknown” part of the equation in the use of interrogation as a
strategy for finding people who have broken the law? Or, put another way, what do you see
as the biggest problem to ensuring success from questioning people under pressure to get
intelligence from them?
3. The debate over the use of enhanced interrogation techniques and of hidden sites continues.
Bloche mentions several studies in his discussion. Go online and see what more you can
learn about this debate. Ponder this question: Why do some continue these strategies when
studies fail to confirm that they work?
4. Should the debate over enhanced interrogation procedures be about effectiveness or ethics?
And if it should be about effectiveness, then how much evidence is needed to defend torture
on the grounds that it works? Ponder these questions.
CREDIT
1. Peter A. Singer and Mark Siegler. “Euthanasia—A Critique.” New England Journal of Medicine, 28
June 1990, vol. 322, pp. 1881-1888.
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CHAPTER 5
Reading, Analyzing, and Using
Visuals and Statistics in Argument
READ: This is a photo of President John F. Kennedy; where was it taken?
REASON: What is your initial reaction to the photo? How does it make you
feel? What does it make you think about?
REFLECT/WRITE: There are many images of President Kennedy; why
would we select this one for your consideration? What comment does it make
that extends beyond one particular president?
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We live in a visual age. Many of us go to movies to appreciate and judge the film’s visual effects. The Web is awash in pictures, colorful icons, animated GIFs, and
videos. Perhaps the best print symbol of our visual age in print is USA Today, a paper
filled with color photos and many tables and other graphics as a primary way of pre-
senting information. USA Today has forced the more traditional papers to add color to
compete. We also live in a numerical age. We refer to the events of September 11, 2001,
as 9/11—without any disrespect. This chapter brings together these markers of our
times as they are used in argument—and as argument. Finding statistics and visuals
used as part of argument, we also need to remember that cartoons and advertisements
are arguments in and of themselves.
RESPONDING TO VISUAL ARGUMENTS
Many arguments bombard us today in visual forms. These include photos, political
cartoons, and advertising. Most major newspapers have a political cartoonist whose
drawings appear regularly on the editorial page. Some comic strips are also political in
nature, at least some of the time. These cartoons are designed to make a political point
in a visually clever and amusing way. (That is why they are both “cartoons” and
“political” at the same time.) Their uses of irony and caricatures of known politicians
make them among the most emotionally powerful, indeed stinging, of arguments.
Photographs accompany many newspaper and magazine articles, and they often tell
a story. Indeed, some photographers are famous for their ability to capture a personality
or a newsworthy moment. So accustomed to these visuals today, we sometimes forget to
study photographs. Be sure to examine each photo, remembering that authors and
editors have selected each one for a reason.
Advertisements are among the most creative and powerful forms of argument
today. Remember that ads are designed to take your time (for shopping) and your
money. Their messages need to be powerful to motivate you to action. With some prod-
ucts (what most of us consider necessities), ads are designed to influence product
choice, to get us to buy brand A instead of brand B. With other products, ones we really
do not need or that may actually be harmful to us, ads need to be especially clever. Some
ads do provide information (car X gets better gas mileage than car Y). Other ads
(perfume ads, for example) take us into a fantasy land so that we will spend $50 on a
small but pretty bottle. Another type of ad is the “image advertisement,” an ad that
assures us that a particular company is top-notch. If we admire the company, we will
buy its goods or services. Understanding a few basic design principles, outlined below,
will help you read, analyze, and even create these types of visual arguments.
Visual Rhetoric and Visual Literacy
Because visual argument, also known as visual rhetoric, is such a common and powerful
form of communication, you will be expected to read, analyze, and even create communica-
tion that mixes text with images—this is known as visual literacy. More than merely making
something “pretty,” visual literacy is based in cognitive psychology, as well as cultural and
rhetorical theory. The basic concepts below—Gestalt principles, reading patterns, focal
points, and colors—provide an introduction to visual rhetoric and visual literacy.
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118 SECTION 2 THE WORLD OF ARGUMENT
Reading Patterns
In cultures that read from left to right, readers looking at a print document usually begin
in the top left corner, move right and then down the page in a Z pattern. Similarly,
online readers usually move down a Web page in an F pattern, which is influenced by
the location of navigation bars and headings. Of course, reading patterns also depend on
the location of design elements, such as focal points and colors, so remember that the
design of the work will have an impact on the reading pattern of the audience.
Gestalt Principles and the C.A.R.P. Design Model
The Gestalt principles of design evolved from Gestalt theory, a psychological
approach to analyzing human perceptions and human behavior first theorized by the
Berlin School of Experimental Psychology. When applied to visuals, Gestalt
principles hold that certain designs and graphic forms have a greater impact on peo-
ple when used in specific combinations with one another. For example, the first ele-
ment of the C.A.R.P. model, contrast, refers to the visual and cognitive impact
something like black text can have when placed on a white background. When the
contrast decreases, for example if gray text is used on a white background, the visual
and cognitive impact decreases: Decrease contrast and you decrease impact. Take a
look at the design of this book; notice that the text, text boxes, and images contrast
with their backgrounds to ensure impact and readability. The elements of the C.A.R.P.
model are explained below:
The C.A.R.P. Design Model
• Contrast: Design elements, such as text, have more impact and are more readable
when placed over backgrounds that are a different color or shade. For example, the
guidelines boxes below create contrast with the text within them but also with the
white page behind them.
• Alignment: Design elements are carefully placed in some way to create a notable
pattern and establish a connection with one another. Note the guidelines boxes again:
Even though the boxes are separate, the red line on the left continues in each box,
creating alignment between them.
• Repetition: Design elements, such as logos, icons, or colors, help readers understand
that they are still within the larger piece of work. For example, the pages of the MLA
section of Read, Reason, Write are edged in blue to help you find them within the text
and to help you understand that you are still in the MLA section.
• Proximity: Design elements are placed near one another if they share similar con-
cepts or ideas. For example, navigation links on a website are not randomly placed
around a page. Rather, navigation links are placed near one another, usually in naviga-
tion bars at the top or on the edges of a Web page. Because navigation links share the
similar purpose of helping users move around the website, they are placed in proxim-
ity to one another.
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CHAPTER 5 Reading, Analyzing, and Using Visuals and Statistics in Argument 119
Focal Points
Focal points are design elements that immediately catch readers’ attention and draw
their eyes to them. For example, human faces or the faces of animals, especially cute
ones like puppies and kittens, are strong focal points. Circles and spheres, whether
complete or just partially visible, are also strong focal points. But a document’s focal
point does not have to be a face or a sphere; white space may also form a focal point,
especially if it is placed near a dense collection of text.
Colors
Colors are some of the most powerful design features used in visual rhetoric. They can
form focal points (see the text in red below), influence reading patterns, and serve as
essential elements of the C.A.R.P. design principles. But colors are also culturally de-
pendent; that is, the meaning of colors sometimes depends on the cultural context. For
example, in Western cultures, red means ALARM, but in some Asian cultures, red
means good luck and good fortune. In Western cultures, white means purity, but in
some Asian cultures, it means death. So, why do you think wedding dresses in China
are red, while wedding dresses in America are white? Exactly. Note that when creating
images using colors, you also need to remember that some segment of your audience,
especially males, may have some sort of color vision deficiency. The most common
color vision deficiency is red-green color blindness.
Below are general guidelines for reading visuals and guidelines for reading
arguments presented in photographs, political cartoons, and advertisements. You can
practice these steps with the exercises that follow.
• Is a scene or situation depicted? If so, study the details to identify the
situation.
• Identify each figure in the photo.
• What details of scene or person(s) carry significance?
• How does the photograph make you feel?
Reading
Photographs
GUIDELINES for
• What is the context and purpose of the visual and who is the audience?
• Does the visual follow the C.A.R.P. model? If not, why not?
• How is the visual designed? Does the visual follow the Z reading pattern or the
F reading pattern?
• What is the focal point?
• Are colors used, or is the image grayscale or black and white?
Reading
Visuals
GUIDELINES for
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120 SECTION 2 THE WORLD OF ARGUMENT
EXERCISES: Analyzing Photos, Cartoons, and Ads
1. Analyze the photo on p. 116, using the guidelines previously listed.
2. Review the photos that open Chapters 1, 4, 5, 8, 19, and 21. Select the one you find
most effective. Analyze it in detail to show why you think it is the best.
3. Review the cartoons that open Chapters 3, 6, 7, 11, 16, and 20. Select the one you
find most effective. Analyze it in detail to show why you think it is the cleverest.
4. Analyze the ads on pp. 121–123, again using the guidelines listed above. After
answering the guideline questions, consider these as well: Will each ad appeal
effectively to its intended audience? If so, why? If not, why not?
■ ■
■ ■
• What scene is depicted? Identify the situation.
• Identify each of the figures in the cartoon. Are they current politicians, fig-
ures from history or literature, the “person in the street,” or symbolic
representations?
• Who speaks the lines in the cartoon?
• What is the cartoon’s general subject? What is the point of the cartoon, the
claim of the cartoonist?
Reading Political CartoonsGUIDELINES for
• What product or service is being advertised?
• Who seems to be the targeted audience?
• What is the ad’s primary strategy? To provide information? To reinforce the
product’s or company’s image? To appeal to particular needs or desires? For
example, if an ad shows a group of young people having fun and drinking a
particular beer, to what needs/desires is the ad appealing?
• Does the ad use specific rhetorical strategies such as humor, understate-
ment, or irony?
• What is the relation between the visual part of the ad (photo, drawing,
typeface, etc.) and the print part (the text, or copy)? Does the ad use a
slogan or catchy phrase? Is there a company logo? Is the slogan or logo
clever? Is it well known as a marker of the company? What may be the effect
of these strategies on readers?
• What is the ad’s overall visual impression? Consider both images and
colors used.
Reading AdvertisementsGUIDELINES for
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CHAPTER 5 Reading, Analyzing, and Using Visuals and Statistics in Argument 121
In 1858, Scottish missionary David Livingstone
embarked on a historic journey along the Zambezi
River in southern Africa. On that trip, malaria
claimed the life of Livingstone’s wife, Mary.
Livingstone himself also later died from the disease.
Today, 150 years later, malaria remains a
threat. Over one million people, mostly chil-
dren and pregnant women, die from
malaria each year. About 40 per-
cent of the global population is
vulnerable to the disease.
But an unprecedented
global action—by govern-
ments and corporations,
NGOs and health organi-
zations—has been mobi-
lized against malaria. And
this combined e�ort is
yielding results:
• Across Africa, people
are receiving anti-malarial med-
ications, as well as bed nets and
insecticides that protect against the
mosquitoes that transmit the disease.
• In Rwanda, malaria cases are down by 64
percent, and deaths by 66 percent. Similar results
are seen in Ethiopia and Zambia. And in
Mozambique, where 9 out of 10 children had
been infected, that number is now 2 in 10.
• Scientists are expanding the pipeline of
a�ordable, e�ective anti-malarial medicines, while
also making progress on discovering a vaccine.
April 25 is World Malaria Day. As part of that
event, a team of medical experts will retrace
Livingstone’s journey along the Zambezi, the “River
of Life.” As part of the Roll Back Malaria Zambezi
Expedition, they will travel 1,500 miles in inflatable
boats through Angola, Namibia, Botswana,
Zambia, Zimbabwe and Mozambique.
By exposing the di�culties of delivering
supplies to remote areas, the expedi-
tion will demonstrate that only
a coordinated, cross-border
action can beat back the dis-
ease, and turn the lifeline of
southern Africa into a
“River of Life” for those
threatened by malaria.
ExxonMobil is the
largest non-pharmaceutical
private-sector contributor to
the fight against malaria. But
our support is more than finan-
cial. We are actively partnering
with governments and agencies in
a�ected countries, enabling them to
combat malaria with the same disciplined,
results-based business practices that ExxonMobil
employs in its global operations.
Livingstone once said, “I am prepared to go
anywhere, provided it be forward.” The communi-
ties burdened by this disease cannot move forward
until malaria is controlled and, someday, eradicated.
We urge everyone to join in this global e�ort.
For more information, visit www.zambezi-
expedition.org and www.rollbackmalaria.org.
the river of life
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Retracing a historic journey to help fight malaria.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Photo by Helge Bendl
Courtesy Exxon-Mobil Corporation.
sey16278_Ch05_116-145.indd 121 10/28/17 10:53 AM
122 SECTION 2 THE WORLD OF ARGUMENT
Courtesy of Peace Corps.
sey16278_Ch05_116-145.indd 122 10/28/17 10:53 AM
CHAPTER 5 Reading, Analyzing, and Using Visuals and Statistics in Argument 123
© 2008 Avid Technology, Inc. All rights r eserved. Avid is a register ed trademark of A vid Technology, Inc. or its subsidiaries in the United States and/or other countries.
Your business side. Your creative side.
Inspire both. Intr oducing Avid’s new editing lineup.
Quality, performance and value. A new way of thinking. A new way of doing business.
Take a closer look at Avid.com/NewThinkingScript.
Artist: Richard Borge, www.richardborge.com; Creative Director: Dan Greenwald;
Design Studio: White Rhino; Client: AVID. ©2008 Avid Technology Inc.
sey16278_Ch05_116-145.indd 123 10/28/17 10:53 AM
124 SECTION 2 THE WORLD OF ARGUMENT
READING GRAPHICS
Graphics—photographs, diagrams, tables, charts, and graphs—present a good bit of
information in a condensed but also visually engaging format. Graphics are everywhere:
in textbooks, magazines, newspapers, and the Web. It’s a rare training session or board
meeting that is conducted without the use of graphics to display information. So, you
want to be able to read graphics and create them, when appropriate, in your own writing.
First, study the chart below that illustrates the different uses of various visuals. General
guidelines for reading graphics follow. The guidelines will use Figure 5.1 to illustrate
points. Study the figure repeatedly as you read through the guidelines.
S
u
ic
id
e
R
a
te
p
e
r
10
0
,0
0
0
Age Group (years)
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
White males
Black males
White females
Black females
10–14 15–19 20–24 25–34 35–44 45–54 55–64 65–74 75–84 85+
FIGURE 5.1 Differences in Suicide Rate According to Race, Gender, and Age
Data from the U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1994.
Understanding How Graphics Differ
Each type of visual serves specific purposes. You can’t use a pie chart, for example, to ex-
plain a process; you need a diagram or a flowchart. So, when reading graphics, understand
what each type can show you. When preparing your own visuals, select the graphic that
will most clearly and effectively present the particular information you want to display.
TYPE PURPOSE EXAMPLE
Diagram show details, demonstrate
process
drawing of knee tendons,
photosynthesis
Table list numerical information income of U.S. households
Bar chart comparative amounts of
related numbers
differences in suicide rates
by age and race
Pie chart relative portions of a whole percentages of Americans
by educational level
Flowchart steps in a process purification of water
Graph relationship of two items income increases over time
Map information relative to
a geographical area
locations of world’s rain forests
sey16278_Ch05_116-145.indd 124 10/28/17 10:53 AM
CHAPTER 5 Reading, Analyzing, and Using Visuals and Statistics in Argument 125
Graphics provide information, raise questions, explain processes, engage us emo-
tionally, make us think. Study the various graphics in the exercises that follow to
become more expert in reading and responding critically to visuals.
1. Locate the particular graphic referred to in the text and study it at that point in
your reading. Graphics may not always be placed on the same page as the text
reference. Stop your reading to find and study the graphic; that’s what the writer
wants you to do. Find Figure 5.1 on the previous page.
2. Read the title or heading of the graphic. Every graphic is given a title. What is the
subject of the graphic? What kind of information is provided? Figure 5.1 shows dif-
ferences in suicide rates by race, gender, and age.
3. Read any notes, description, and the source information at the bottom of the
graphic. Figure 5.1 came from the U.S. Bureau of the Census for 1994. Critical ques-
tions: What is this figure showing me? Is the information coming from a reliable
source? Is it current enough to still be meaningful?
4. Study the labels—and other words—that appear as part of the graphic. You can-
not draw useful conclusions unless you understand exactly what is being shown.
Observe in Figure 5.1, that the four bars for each age group (shown along the hori-
zontal axis) represent white males, black males, white females, and black females,
in that order, for each age category.
5. Study the information, making certain that you understand what the numbers
represent. Are the numerals whole numbers, numbers in hundreds or thousands,
or percentages? In Figure 5.1, we are looking at suicide rates per 100,000 people
for four identified groups of people at different ages. So, to know exactly how many
white males between 15 and 19 commit suicide, we need to know how many white
males between 15 and 19 there are (or were in 1994) in the United States popula-
tion. The chart does not give us this information. It gives us comparative rates
per 100,000 people in each category and tells us that almost 20 in every 100,000
white males between 15 and 19 commit suicide.
6. Draw conclusions. Think about the information in different ways. Critical questions:
What does the author want to accomplish by including these figures? How are they
significant? What conclusions can you draw from Figure 5.1? Answer these ques-
tions to guide your thinking:
a. Which of the four compared groups faces the greatest risk from suicide over his
or her lifetime? Would you have guessed this group? Why or why not? What
might be some of the causes for the greatest risk to this group?
b. What is the greatest risk factor for increased suicide rate—race, gender, age, or
a combination? Does this surprise you? Would you have guessed a different
factor? Why?
c. Which group, as young teens, is at greatest risk? Are you surprised? Why or why
not? What might be some of the causes for this?
Reading
Graphics
GUIDELINES for
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126 SECTION 2 THE WORLD OF ARGUMENT
EXERCISES: Reading and Analyzing Graphics
1. Study the pie charts in Figure 5.2 and then answer the following questions.
■ ■
Year 2000
281 million
69.4%
12.1%
12.5%
3.7%
0.7%
1.6%
Year 2025
357 million
59.3%
5.1%
12.4%
20.2%
0.8%
2.1%
European descent
Latinos
African Americans
Asian Americans
Native Americans
Claim membership in
two or more groups
Year 2050
439 million
49.9%
12.2%
27.8%
5.9%
0.8%
3.2%
FIGURE 5.2 The Shifting of U.S. Racial-Ethnic Mix
$80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
In
co
m
e
in
T
h
o
u
sa
n
d
s
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985
Year
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
$3,296 $3,816
$5,440
$7,719
$11,159
$16,252
$20,591
$26,547
$32,940
$42,219
Women
Men
$6,598
$9,184
$12,934
$19,173
$24,999
$28,979
$50,241
$58,373
58%
59%
60%
65%
71%
66%
66%
72%
61%
$5,434
$40,367
60%
FIGURE 5.3 The Gender Gap Over Time: What Percentage of Men’s
Income Do Women Earn?
a. What is the subject of the charts?
b. In addition to the information within the pie charts, what other information is pro-
vided?
c. Which group increases by the greatest relative amount? How would you account
for that increase?
d. Which figure surprises you the most? Why?
2. Study the line graph in Figure 5.3 and then answer the following questions.
sey16278_Ch05_116-145.indd 126 10/28/17 10:53 AM
CHAPTER 5 Reading, Analyzing, and Using Visuals and Statistics in Argument 127
1970 2000 2009
MEN WOMEN MEN WOMEN MEN WOMEN
Life expectancy 67.1 74.1 74.24 79.9 75.6 80.8
% of BAs awarded 57 43 45 55 38 62
% of MSs awarded 60 40 45 55 37.4 62.6
% of PhDs awarded 87 13 45 55 37.4 62.6
% in legal profession 95 5 70 30 n/a n/a
Median earnings $26,760 $14,232 $33,345 $25,862 $62,455 $44,857
FIGURE 5.4 Men and Women in a Changing Society.
for 1970: 1966 Statistical Abstract, U.S. Dept of Commerce, Economics and Statistics Administration, Bureau of the Census.
For 2009: U.S. Bureau of the Census and National Center for Educational Statistics.
a. What is being presented and compared in this table?
b. What, exactly, do the numerals in the second line represent? What, exactly, do
the numerals in the third line represent? (Be sure that you understand what these
numbers mean.)
c. For the information given in lines 2, 3, 4, and 5, in which category have women
made the greatest gains on men?
d. Which figure surprises you the most? Why?
4. Maps can be used to show all kinds of information, not just the locations of cities,
rivers, or mountains. Study the map in Figure 5.5 and then answer the questions that
follow.
a. What, exactly, does the map show? Why does it not “look right”?
b. How many electoral votes did each candidate win?
c. How are the winning states for each candidate clustered? What conclusions can
you draw from observing this clustering?
d. What advice would you give to each party to ensure that party’s presidential win
in 2020?
e. How would the map look if it were drawn to show population by state?
a. What two subjects are treated by the graph?
b. In 2000, what percentage of men’s income did women earn?
c. During which five-year period did men’s incomes increase by the greatest
amount?
d. Does the author’s prediction for the year 2005 suggest that income equality for
women will have taken place?
e. Are you bothered by the facts on this graph? Why or why not?
3. Study the table in Figure 5.4 and then answer the following questions.
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128 SECTION 2 THE WORLD OF ARGUMENT
THE USES OF AUTHORITY AND STATISTICS
Most of the visuals you have just studied provide a way of presenting statistics—data
that many today consider essential to defending a claim. One reason you check the
source information accompanying graphics is that you need to know—and evaluate—
the authority of that source. When a graphic’s numbers have come from the Census
Bureau, you know you have a reliable source. When an author writes that “studies have
shown . . . ,” you should be suspicious of the authority of the data. All elements of the
arguments we read—and write—affect a writer’s credibility.
Judging Authorities
We know that movie stars and sports figures are not authorities on soft drinks and
watches. But what about real authorities? When writers present the opinions or
■ ■
WA
12
ID
4
MT
3
WY
3
OR
7
NV
6
AZ
7
UT
6
CO
9
OK
7
KS
6
NE
5
IA
6
MO
10
AR
6
AL
9
GA
16
TN
11
LA
8
MS
6
SD
3
ND
3
MN
10
IL
20
KY
8
VA
13
PA
20
NY
29
ME
4
VT 3
NH
4
CT
7
NJ
14
RI
4
MD
10
DE
3
NC
15
SC
9
OH
18IN
11
WV
5
NM
5
TX
38
MI
16
CA
55
FL
29
MA
11
HI
4
AK
3
DC
3
Trump
Clinton
WI
10
FIGURE 5.5 Electoral Votes per State for the 2016 Presidential Election
Reprinted by permission of Sam Wang.
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CHAPTER 5 Reading, Analyzing, and Using Visuals and Statistics in Argument 129
research findings of authorities as support for a claim, they are saying to readers that
the authority is trustworthy and the opinions valuable. But what they are asserting is
actually an assumption or warrant, part of the glue connecting evidence to claim.
Remember: Warrants can be challenged. If the “authority” can be shown to lack au-
thority, then the logic of the argument is destroyed. Use this checklist of questions to
evaluate authorities:
Is the authority actually an authority on the topic under discussion? When a famous
scientist supports a candidate for office, he or she speaks as a citizen, not as an
authority.
Is the work of the authority still current? Times change; expertise does not always
endure. Galileo would be lost in the universe of today’s astrophysicists. Be particu-
larly alert to the dates of information in the sciences in general, in genetics and the
entire biomedical field, in health and nutrition. It is almost impossible to keep up
with the latest findings in these areas of research.
Does the authority actually have legitimate credentials? Are the person’s publica-
tions in respected journals? Is he or she respected by others in the same field? Just
because it’s in print or online does not mean it’s a reliable source!
Do experts in the field generally agree on the issue? If there is widespread disagree-
ment, then referring to one authority does not do much to support a claim. This is
why you need to understand the many sides of a controversial topic before you write
on it, and you need to bring knowledge of controversies and critical thinking skills
to your reading of argument. This is also why writers often provide a source’s
credentials, not just a name, unless the authority is quite famous.
Is the authority’s evidence reliable, so far as you can judge, but the interpretation of
that evidence seems odd, or seems to be used to support strongly held beliefs? Does
the evidence actually connect to the claim? A respected authority’s work can be
stretched or manipulated in an attempt to defend a claim that the authority’s work
simply does not support.
EXERCISES: Judging Authorities
1. Jane Goodall has received worldwide fame for her studies of chimpanzees in Gombe
and for her books on those field studies. Goodall is a vegetarian. Should she be used
as an authority in support of a claim for a vegetarian diet? Why or why not?
Consider:
a. Why might Goodall have chosen to become a vegetarian?
b. For what arguments might Goodall be used as an authority?
c. For what arguments might she be used effectively for emotional appeal?
2. Suppose a respected zoologist prepares a five-year study of U.S. zoos, compiling a
complete list of all animals at each zoo. He then updates the list for each of the five
years, adding births and deaths. When he examines his data, he finds that deaths are
one and one-half times the number of births. He considers this loss alarming and
writes a paper arguing for the abolishing of zoos on the grounds that too many ani-
■ ■
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130 SECTION 2 THE WORLD OF ARGUMENT
mals are dying. Because of his reputation, his article is published in a popular sci-
ence magazine. How would you evaluate his authority and his study?
a. Should you trust the data? Why or why not?
b. Should you accept his conclusions? Why or why not?
c. Consider: What might be possible explanations for the birth/death ratio?
Understanding and Evaluating Statistics
There are two useful clichés to keep in mind: “Statistics don’t lie, but people lie with
statistics” and “There are lies, damned lies, and statistics.” The second cliché is perhaps
a bit cynical. We don’t want to be naïve in our faith in numbers, but neither do we want
to become so cynical that we refuse to believe any statistical evidence. What we do need
to keep in mind is that when statistics are presented in an argument, they are being used
by someone interested in winning that argument.
Some writers use numbers without being aware that the numbers are incomplete or
not representative. Some present only part of the relevant information. Some may not
mean to distort, but they do choose to present the information in language that helps
their cause. There are many ways, some more innocent than others, to distort reality
with statistics. Use the following guidelines to evaluate the presentation of statistical
information.
■ ■
• Is the information current and therefore still relevant? Crime rates in your
city based on 2000 census data probably are no longer relevant, certainly
not current enough to support an argument for increased (or decreased)
police department spending.
• If a sample was used, was it randomly selected and large enough to be
significant? Sometimes in medical research, the results of a small study are
publicized to guide researchers to important new areas of study. When
these results are reported in the press or on TV, however, the small size of
the study is not always made clear. Thus one week we learn that coffee is
bad for us, the next week that it is okay.
• What information, exactly, has been provided? When you read “Two out of
three chose the Merit cigarette combination of low tar and good taste,” you
must ask yourself “Two-thirds of how many altogether?”
• How have the numbers been presented? And what is the effect of that pre-
sentation? Numbers can be presented as fractions, whole numbers, or per-
centages. Writers who want to emphasize budget increases will use whole
numbers—billions of dollars. Writers who want to de-emphasize those in-
creases select percentages. Writers who want their readers to respond to
the numbers in a specific way add words to direct their thinking: “a mere 3
percent increase” or “the enormous $5 billion increase.”
Evaluating StatisticsGUIDELINES for
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CHAPTER 5 Reading, Analyzing, and Using Visuals and Statistics in Argument 131
EXERCISES: Reading Tables and Charts and Using Statistics
1. Figure 5.6 (p. 132), a table from the Census Bureau, shows U.S. family income data
from 1980 to 2009. Percentages and median income are given for all families and
then, in turn, for white, black, Asian, and Hispanic families. Study the data and then
complete the exercises that follow.
a. In a paper assessing the advantages of a growing economy, you want to include a
paragraph on family income growth to show that a booming economy helps every-
one, that “a rising tide lifts all boats.” Select data from the table that best support your
claim. Write a paragraph beginning with a topic sentence and including your data as
support. Think about how to present the numbers in the most persuasive form.
b. Write a second paragraph with the topic sentence “Not all Americans have ben-
efited from the boom years” or “A rising tide does not lift all boats.” Select data
from the table that best support this topic sentence and present the numbers in
the most persuasive form.
c. Exchange paragraphs with a classmate and evaluate each other’s selection and
presentation of evidence.
2. Go back to Figure 5.1 (p. 124) and reflect again on the information that it depicts.
Then consider what conclusions can be drawn from the evidence and what the im-
plications of those conclusions are. Working in small groups or with a class partner,
decide how you want to use the data to support a point.
3. Figure 5.7 (p. 133 ), another table from the Census Bureau, presents mean earnings
by highest degree earned. First, be sure that you know the difference between mean
and median (which is the number used in Figure 5.6). Study the data and reflect on
the conclusions you can draw from the statistics. Consider: Of the various groups
represented, which group most benefits from obtaining a college degree—as op-
posed to having only a high school diploma?
WRITING THE INVESTIGATIVE ARGUMENT
The first step in writing an investigative argument is to select a topic to study. Composi-
tion students can write successful investigative essays on the media, on campus issues,
and on various local concerns. Although you begin with a topic—not a claim—since you
have to gather evidence before you can see what it means, you should select a topic that
holds your interest and that you may have given some thought to before choosing to
write. For example, you may have noticed some clever ads for jeans or beer, or perhaps
you are bothered by plans for another shopping area along a major street near your home.
Either one of these topics can lead to an effective investigative, or inductive, argument.
Gathering and Analyzing Evidence
Let’s reflect on strategies for gathering evidence for a study of magazine ads for a
particular kind of product (the topic of the sample student paper that follows).
• Select a time frame and a number of representative magazines.
• Have enough magazines to render at least twenty-five ads on the product you are studying.
■ ■
■ ■
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132 SECTION 2 THE WORLD OF ARGUMENT
Year
ALL FAMILIES 1
HISPANIC ORIGIN 8
WHITE
BLACK
ASIAN AND
PACIFIC ISLANDER
1990 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2000 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2009 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1990 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2000 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2009 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1990 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2000 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2008 4, 5. . . . . . . . . . . .
2009 3, 4, 5 . . . . . . . . . .
1990 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2000 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2008 4, 5. . . . . . . . . . . .
2009 3, 4, 5 . . . . . . . . . .
1990 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2000 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2008 4, 7. . . . . . . . . . . .
2009 3, 4, 7 . . . . . . . . . .
Percent distribution
Median
income
(dollars)
Under
$15,000
$15,000
to
$24,999
$25,000
to
$34,999
$35,000
to
$49,999
$50,000
to
$74,999
$75,000
to
$99,999
$100,000
and over
Number
of
families
(1,000)
66,322 8.7 9.4 10.3 15.6 22.5 14.6 19.1 54,369
73,778 7.0 8.6 9.3 14.3 19.8 15.1 26.2 61,063
78,874 8.4 9.2 9.9 13.7 19.3 14.2 26.0 61,521
76,867 8.7 9.1 10.0 13.8 19.4 13.5 25.6 60,088
56,803 6.6 8.7 10.0 15.8 23.3 15.4 20.4 56,771
61,330 5.7 7.9 9.0 14.2 20.1 15.8 27.7 63,849
64,183 6.9 8.5 9.5 13.4 19.8 15.0 27.5 65,000
64,145 7.2 8.4 9.5 13.8 19.9 14.1 27.0 62,545
7,471 23.9 14.7 12.5 14.4 17.5 8.8 8.2 32,946
8,731 15.7 14.0 12.8 15.8 16.7 10.3 13.0 40,547
9,359 18.2 14.4 12.8 15.3 16.6 9.8 13.4 39,879
9,367 18.0 14.5 13.3 15.2 16.4 10.6 12.1 38,409
1,536 8.1 7.8 8.2 11.6 21.2 15.0 28.5 64,969
2,962 6.2 6.4 6.4 11.7 17.3 15.5 37.0 75,393
3,494 7.7 7.2 7.6 12.8 16.0 13.0 36.6 73,578
3,592 6.9 7.0 7.9 10.4 17.7 12.3 37.7 75,027
4,961 17.0 16.3 13.6 17.3 19.1 8.5 8.2 36,034
8,017 12.8 14.6 13.0 18.1 19.4 10.5 12.0 41,469
10,503 15.5 14.6 14.1 16.8 17.2 9.6 12.5 40,466
10,422 15.2 14.7 14.3 16.0 17.9 9.5 12.4 39,730
[Constant dollars based on CPI-U-RS deflator. Families as of March of following year, (66,322 represents 66,322,000). Based on
Current Population Survey, Annual Social and Economic Supplement (ASEC); see text, this section, Section 1, and Appendix III. For data
collection changes over time, see
Guide to Tabular Presentation]
1 Includes other races not shown separately. 2 Data reflect implementation of Census 2000-based population controls and a
28,000 household sample expansion to 78,000 households. 3 Median income is calculated using $2,500 income intervals. Beginning
with 2009 income data, the Census Bureau expanded the upper income intervals used to calculate medians to $250,000 or more.
Medians falling in the upper open-ended interval are plugged with “$250,000.” Before 2009, the upper open-ended interval was
$100,000 and a plug of “$100,000” was used. 4 Beginning with the 2003 Current Population Survey (CPS), the questionnaire allowed
respondents to choose more than one race. For 2002 and later, data represent persons who selected this race group only and excludes
persons reporting more than one race. The CPS in prior years allowed respondents to report only one race group. See also comments
on race in the text for Section 1. 5 Data represent White alone, which refers to people who reported White and did not report any
other race category. 6 Data represent Black alone, which refers to people who reported Black and did not report any other race
category. 7 Data represent Asian alone, which refers to people who reported Asian and did not report any other race category.
8 People of Hispanic origin may be any race.
FIGURE 5.6 Money Income of Families—Percent Distribution by Income Level in Constant (2009)
Dollars: 1980 to 2009.
U.S. Census Bureau, Income, Poverty and Health Insurance Coverage in the United States, 2009 Current Population Reports, P60-238
and historical Tables – Table F-23, September 2010
• Once you decide on the magazines and issues to be used, pull all ads for your product.
Your task is to draw useful conclusions based on adequate data objectively collected.
You can’t leave some ads out and have a valid study.
• Study the ads, reflecting on the inferences they allow you to draw. The inferences be-
come the claim of your argument. You may want to take the approach of classifying the
ads, that is, grouping them into categories by the various appeals used to sell the product.
sey16278_Ch05_116-145.indd 132 10/28/17 10:53 AM
CHAPTER 5 Reading, Analyzing, and Using Visuals and Statistics in Argument 133
FIGURE 5.7 Mean Earnings by Highest Degree Earned: 2009
U.S. Census Bureau, Current population survey, unpublished data.
[In dollars. For persons 18 years old and over with earnings. Persons as of March 2010. Based on Current Population Survey; see
text, Section 1 and Appendix III. For definition of mean, see Guide to Tabular Presentation]
42,469 20,241 30,627 32,295 39,771 58,665 73,738 127,803 103,054
Total
persons
Characteristic
Not a
high
school
graduate
High
school
graduate
only
Some
college,
no
degree Associate’s
Mean earnings by level of highest degree (dol.)
Bachelor’s Master’s Professional Doctorate
All persons 1 . . .
25 to 34 years old . . . .
35 to 44 years old . . . .
45 to 54 years old . . . .
55 to 64 years old . . . .
65 years old and over .
Male . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Female . . . . . . . . . . .
Male . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Female . . . . . . . . . . .
Male . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Female . . . . . . . . . . .
Male . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Female . . . . . . . . . . .
35,595 19,415 30,627 31,392 35,544 45,662 58,997 86,440 74,628
49,356 24,728 27,511 39,606 42,489 66,346 80,583 136,366 108,147
51,956 23,725 36,090 44,135 45,145 69,548 86,532 146,808 112,134
50,372 24,537 34,583 42,547 42,344 59,670 75,372 149,184 110,895
37,544 19,395 28,469 29,602 33,541 44,147 45,138 95,440 95,585
50,180 23,036 35,468 39,204 47,572 69,479 90,954 150,310 114,347
33,797 15,514 24,304 23,340 33,432 43,689 58,534 89,897 83,706
43,337 20,457 31,429 33,119 40,632 57,762 73,771 127,942 104,533
51,287 23,353 36,416 40,352 48,521 71,286 81,776 149,149 115,497
34,040 15,187 24,615 25,537 33,996 43,309 58,036 89,526 85,682
33,362 18,938 25,970 29,129 33,734 47,799 60,067 102,328 82,510
37,553 21,829 30,723 33,969 41,142 55,655 68,890 (B) (B)
29,831 15,644 22,954 25,433 29,464 42,567 54,523 (B) (B)
29,565 19,816 25,998 29,836 33,783 49,017 71,322 79,220 88,435
32,279 21,588 28,908 35,089 38,768 58,570 80,737 (B) 89,968
25,713 16,170 21,473 24,281 29,785 39,568 61,843 (B) (B)
White 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sex:
Age:
Black 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hispanic 3 . . . . . . . . . . .
B Base figure too small to meet statistical standards for reliability of a derived figure. 1 Includes other races not shown
separately. 2 For persons who selected this race group only. 3 Persons of Hispanic origin may be any race.
More briefly, consider your hunch that your area does not need another shopping
mall. What evidence can you gather to support a claim to that effect? You could locate
all existing strip or enclosed malls within a ten-mile radius of the proposed new mall
site, visit each one, and count the number and types of stores already available. You
may discover that there are plenty of malls but that the area really needs a grocery
store or a bookstore. So instead of reading to find evidence to support a claim, you are
creating the statistics and doing the analysis to guide you to a claim. Just remember to
devise objective procedures for collecting evidence so that you do not bias your
results.
Planning and Drafting the Essay
You’ve done your research and studied the data you’ve collected; how do you put this
kind of argument together? Here are some guidelines to help you draft your essay.
Analyzing Evidence: The Key to an Effective Argument
This is the thinking part of the process. Anyone can count stores or collect ads. What is
your point? How does the evidence you have collected actually support your claim? You
must guide readers through the evidence. Consider this example:
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134 SECTION 2 THE WORLD OF ARGUMENT
• Begin with an opening paragraph that introduces your topic in an
interesting way. Possibilities include beginning with a startling statistic
or explaining what impact the essay’s facts will have on readers.
• Devote space early in your paper to explaining your methods or pro-
cedures, probably in your second or third paragraph. For example, if
you have obtained information through questionnaires or interviews,
recount the process: the questions asked, the number of people
involved, the basis for selecting the people, and so on.
• Classify the evidence that you present. Finding a meaningful organiza-
tion is part of the originality of your study and will make your argument
more forceful. It is the way you see the topic and want readers to see it.
If you are studying existing malls, you might begin by listing all of the
malls and their locations. But then do not go store by store through each
mall. Rather, group the stores by type and provide totals.
• Consider presenting evidence in several ways, including in charts and
tables as well as within paragraphs. Readers are used to visuals, espe-
cially in essays containing statistics.
• Analyze evidence to build your argument. Do not ask your reader to do
the thinking. No data dumps! Explain how your evidence is evidence by
discussing the connection between facts and the inferences they support.
Writing an Investigative ArgumentGUIDELINES for
In a study of selling techniques used in computer ads in business magazines, a
student, Brian, found four major selling techniques, one of which he classifies as “cor-
porate emphasis.” Brian begins his paragraph on corporate emphasis thus:
In the technique of corporate emphasis, the advertiser discusses the whole
range of products and services that the corporation offers, instead of specific
elements. This method relies on the public’s positive perception of the
company, the company’s accomplishments, and its reputation.
Brian then provides several examples of ads in this category, including an IBM ad:
In one of its eight ads in the study, IBM points to the scientists on its staff
who have recently won the Nobel Prize in physics.
But Brian does not stop there. He explains the point of this ad, connecting it to the
assertion that this technique emphasizes the company’s accomplishments:
The inference we are to draw is that IBM scientists are hard at work right now
in their laboratories developing tomorrow’s technology to make the world a
better place in which to live.
Preparing Graphics for Your Essay
Tables, bar charts, and pie charts are particularly helpful ways to present statistical
evidence you have collected for an inductive argument. One possibility is to create a pie
sey16278_Ch05_116-145.indd 134 10/28/17 10:53 AM
CHAPTER 5 Reading, Analyzing, and Using Visuals and Statistics in Argument 135
chart showing your classification of ads (or stores or questions on a questionnaire) and
the relative amount of each item. For example, suppose you find four selling strategies.
You can show in a pie chart the percentage of ads using each of the four strategies.
Computers help even the technically unsophisticated prepare simple charts. You
can also do a simple table. When preparing graphics, keep these points in mind:
• Every graphic must be introduced and referred to in the text at the appropriate
place—where you are discussing the information in the visual. Graphics are not
disconnected attachments to an argument. They give a complete set of data in an
easy-to-digest form, but some of that data must be discussed in the essay.
• Every graphic (except photographs) needs a label. Use Figure 1, Figure 2, and so
forth. Then, in the text refer to each graphic by its label.
• Every graphic needs a title. Always place a title after Figure 1 (and so forth), on the
same line, at the top or bottom of your visual.
• In a technically sophisticated world, hand-drawn graphics are not acceptable.
Underline the graphic’s title line, or place the visual within a box. (Check the toolbar
at the top of your screen.) Type elements within tables. Use a ruler or compass to
prepare graphics, or learn to use the graphics programs in your computer.
A CHECKLIST FOR REVISION
Have I stated a claim that is precise and appropriate to the data I have collected?
Have I fully explained the methodology I used in collecting my data?
Have I selected a clear and useful organization?
Have I presented and discussed enough specifics to show readers how my data
support my conclusions?
Have I used graphics to present the data in an effective visual display?
Have I revised, edited, and proofread my paper?
STUDENT ESSAY
BUYING TIME
Garrett Berger
Chances are you own at least one wristwatch. Watches allow us
immediate access to the correct time. They are indispensable items in
our modern world, where, as the saying is, time is money. Today the
primary function of a wristwatch does not necessarily guide its design;
like clothes, houses, and cars, watches have become fashion
statements and a way to flaunt one’s wealth.
Introduction
connects to reader.
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136 SECTION 2 THE WORLD OF ARGUMENT
To learn how watches are being sold, I surveyed all of the
full-page ads from the November issues of four magazines. The first two,
GQ and Vogue, are well-known fashion magazines. The Robb Report is a
rather new magazine that caters to the overclass. Forbes is of course a
well-known financial magazine. I was rather surprised at the number of
advertisements I found. After surveying 86 ads, marketing 59 brands, I
have concluded that today watches are being sold through five main
strategies: DESIGN/BRAND appeal, CRAFTSMANSHIP, ASSOCIATION,
FASHION appeal, and EMOTIONAL appeal. The percentage of ads using
each of these strategies is shown in Figure 1.
In most DESIGN/BRAND appeal ads, only a picture and the brand
name are used. A subset of this category uses the same basic strategy
with a slogan or phrases to emphasize something about the brand or
product. A Mont Blanc ad shows a watch profile with a contorted metal
link band, asking the question “Is that you?” The reputation of the name
and the appeal of the design sell the watch. Rolex, perhaps the best-
known name in high-end watches, advertises, in Vogue, its “Oyster
Perpetual Lady-Datejust Pearlmaster.” A close-up of the watch face
showcases the white, mother-of-pearl dial, sapphire bezel, and
diamond-set band. A smaller, more complete picture crouches
underneath, showing the watch on its side. The model name is
FIGURE 1 Percentage of Total Ads Using Each Strategy
52.4%
18.7%
11.7%
10.6%
6.6%
Design/Brand
Fashion Statement
Emotional appeal
Craftsmanship
Association
Discussion of
first category.
Student explains
his methodology
of collecting ads.
Paragraph
concludes with
his claim.
sey16278_Ch05_116-145.indd 136 10/28/17 10:53 AM
CHAPTER 5 Reading, Analyzing, and Using Visuals and Statistics in Argument 137
displayed along a gray band that runs near the bottom. The Rolex crest
anchors the bottom of the page. Forty-five ads marketing 29 brands
use the DESIGN/BRAND strategy. A large picture of the product
centered on a solid background is the norm.
CRAFTSMANSHIP, the second strategy, focuses on the maker,
the horologer, and the technical sides of form and function. Brand
heritage and a unique, hand-crafted design are major selling points. All
of these ads are targeted at men, appearing in every magazine except
Vogue. Collector pieces and limited editions were commonly sold
using this strategy. The focus is on accuracy and technical excellence.
Pictures of the inner works and cutaways, technical information, and
explanations of movements and features are popular. Quality and
exclusivity are all-important.
A Cronoswiss ad from The Robb Report is a good example. The
top third pictures a horologer, identified as “Gerd-R Lange, master
watchmaker and founder of Cronoswiss in Munich,” directly below. The
middle third of the ad shows a watch, white-faced with a black leather
band. The logo and slogan appear next to the watch. The bottom third
contains copy beginning with the words “My watches are a hundred
years behind the times.” The rest explains what that statement means.
Mr. Lange apparently believes that technical perfection in horology has
already been attained. He also offers his book, The Fascination of
Mechanics, free of charge along with the “sole distributor for North
America” at the bottom. A “Daniel Roth” ad from the same magazine
displays the name across the top of a white page; toward the top, left-
hand corner a gold buckle and black band lead your eye to the center,
where a gold watch with a transparent face displays its inner works
exquisitely. Above and to the right, copy explains the exclusive and
unique design accomplished by inverting the movement, allowing it to
be viewed from above.
Discussion of
second category.
Detailed examples
to illustrate second
category.
sey16278_Ch05_116-145.indd 137 10/28/17 10:53 AM
138 SECTION 2 THE WORLD OF ARGUMENT
The third strategy is to sell the watch by establishing an
ASSOCIATION with an object, experience, or person, implying that its
value and quality are beyond question. In the six ads I found using this
approach, watches are associated with violins, pilots, astronauts, hot air
balloons, and a hero of the free world. This is similar to the first strategy,
but relies on a reputation other than that of the maker. The watch is
presented as being desirable for the connections created in the ad.
Parmigiani ran an ad in The Robb Report featuring a gold
watch with a black face and band illuminated by some unseen source.
A blue-tinted violin rises in the background; the rest of the page is
black. The brief copy reads: “For those who think a Stradivarius is only
a violin. The Parmigiani Toric Chronograph is only a wristwatch.”
“The Moon Watch” proclaims an Omega ad from GQ. Inset on a white
background is a picture of an astronaut on the moon saluting the
American flag. The silver watch with a black face lies across the lower
part of the page. Omega’s logo appears at the top (Figure 2).
FIGURE 2 Example of Association Advertising
Discussion of third
category.
O
m
e
g
a
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CHAPTER 5 Reading, Analyzing, and Using Visuals and Statistics in Argument 139
The fourth strategy is to present the watch simply as a FASHION
statement. In this line of attack, the ads appeal to our need to be
current, accepted, to fit in and be like everyone else, or to make a
statement, setting us apart from others as hip and cool. The product is
presented as a necessary part of our wardrobes. The watch is
fashionable and will send the “right” message. Design and style are
the foremost concerns; “the look” sells the watch.
Techno Marine has an ad in GQ which shows a large close-up of a
watch running down the entire length of the left side of the page. Two
alternate color schemes are pictured on the right, separating small bits of
copy. At the bottom on the right are the name and logo. The first words
at the top read: “Keeping time—you keep your closet up to the minute,
why not your wrist? The latest addition to your watch wardrobe should
be the AlphaSport.” Longines uses a similar strategy in Vogue. Its ad is
divided in half lengthwise. On the left is a black-and-white picture of
Audrey Hepburn. The right side is white with the Longines’ logo at the
top and two ladies’ watches in the center. Near the bottom is the phrase
“Elegance is an Attitude.” Retailers appear at the bottom. The same ad
ran in GQ, but with a man’s watch and a picture of Humphrey Bogart. A
kind of association is made, but quality and value aren’t the overriding
concerns. The point is to have an elegant attitude like these fashionable
stars did, one that these watches can provide and enhance.
The fifth and final strategy is that of EMOTIONAL appeal. The ads
using this approach strive to influence our emotional responses and
allege to influence the emotions of others towards us. Their power and
appeal are exerted through the feelings they evoke in us. Nine out of
ten ads rely on a picture as the main device to trigger an emotional link
between the product and the viewer. Copy is scant; words are used
mainly to guide the viewer to the advertiser’s desired conclusions.
Discussion of fourth
category.
Discussion of fifth
category.
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140 SECTION 2 THE WORLD OF ARGUMENT
A Frederique Constant ad pictures a man, wearing a watch, mulling
over a chess game. Above his head are the words “Inner Passion.” The
man’s gaze is odd; he is looking at something on the right side of the
page, but a large picture of a watch superimposed over the picture hides
whatever it is that he is looking at. So we are led to the watch. The
bottom third is white and contains the maker’s logo and the slogan “Live
your Passion.” An ad in GQ shows a man holding a woman. He leans
against a rock; she reclines in his arms. Their eyes are closed, and both
have peaceful, smiling expressions. He is wearing a Tommy Hilfiger
watch. The ad spans two pages; a close-up of the watch is presented on
the right half of the second page. The only words are the ones in the
logo. This is perhaps one of those pictures that are worth a thousand
words. The message is he got the girl because he’s got the watch.
Even more than selling a particular watch, all of these ads focus on
building the brand’s image. I found many of the ads extremely effective
at conveying their messages. Many of the better-known brands favor
the comparatively simple DESIGN/BRAND appeal strategy, to reach a
broader audience. Lesser-known, high-end makers contribute many of
the more specialized strategies. We all count and mark the passing
hours and minutes. And society places great importance on time,
valuing punctuality. But these ads strive to convince us that having “the
right time” means so much more than “the time.”
Courtesy of Garrett Berger
FOR READING AND ANALYSIS
EVERY BODY’S TALKING JOE NAVARRO
Joe Navarro spent more than twenty-five years in the FBI, specializing in counterintelli-
gence and profiling. He is recognized as an authority on nonverbal messages, especially
given off by those who are lying, and he continues to consult to government and
industry. He has also turned his expertise to poker and has published, with Marvin
Strong conclusion;
the effect of watch
ads.
sey16278_Ch05_116-145.indd 140 10/28/17 10:53 AM
CHAPTER 5 Reading, Analyzing, and Using Visuals and Statistics in Argument 141
Karlines, Read, Em and Reap (2006) and, on his own, What Every Body Is Saying (2008).
The following essay appeared in The Washington Post on June 24, 2008.
PREREADING QUESTIONS What does the term “counterintelligence” mean? How much
attention do you give to body language messages from others?
Picture this: I was sailing the Caribbean for three days with a group of friends
and their spouses, and everything seemed perfect. The weather was beautiful,
the ocean diaphanous blue, the food exquisite; our evenings together were full
of laughter and good conversation.
Things were going so well that one friend said to the group, “Let’s do this
again next year.” I happened to be across from him and his wife as he spoke
those words. In the cacophony of resounding replies of “Yes!” and “Absolutely!”
I noticed that my friend’s wife made a fist under her chin as she grasped her
necklace. This behavior stood out to me as powerfully as if someone had
shouted, “Danger!”
I watched the words and gestures of the other couples at the table, and
everyone seemed ecstatic—everyone but one, that is. She continued to smile,
but her smile was tense.
Her husband has treated me as a brother for more than 15 years, and
I consider him the dearest of friends. At that moment I knew that things between
him and his wife were turning for the worse. I did not pat myself on the back for
making these observations. I was saddened.
For 25 years I worked as a paid observer. I was a special agent for the FBI
specializing in counterintelligence—specifically, catching spies. For me, observ-
ing human behavior is like having software running in the background, doing its
job—no conscious effort needed. And so on that wonderful cruise, I made a
“thin-slice assessment” (that’s what we call it) based on just a few significant
behaviors. Unfortunately, it turned out to be right: Within six months of our return,
my friend’s wife filed for divorce, and her husband discovered painfully that she
had been seeing someone else for quite a while.
When I am asked what is the most reliable means of determining the health
of a relationship, I always say that words don’t matter. It’s all in the language of
the body. The nonverbal behaviors we all transmit tell others, in real time, what
we think, what we feel, what we yearn for or what we intend.
Now I am embarking on another cruise, wondering what insights I will have
about my travel companions and their relationships. No matter what, this
promises to be a fascinating trip, a journey for the mind and the soul. I am with a
handful of dear friends and 3,800 strangers, all headed for Alaska; for an
observer it does not get any better than this.
While lining up to board on our first day, I notice just ahead of me a couple
who appear to be in their early 30s. They are obviously Americans (voice, weight
and demeanor).
Not so obvious is their dysfunctional relationship. He is standing stoically,
shoulders wide, looking straight ahead. She keeps whispering loudly to him, but
she is not facing forward. She violates his space as she leans into him. Her face
is tense and her lips are narrow slivers each time she engages him with what
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
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142 SECTION 2 THE WORLD OF ARGUMENT
clearly appears to be a diatribe. He occasionally nods his head but avoids
contact with her. He won’t let his hips near her as they start to walk side by side.
He reminds me of Bill and Hillary Clinton walking toward the Marine One
helicopter immediately after the Monica Lewinsky affair: looking straight ahead,
as much distance between them as possible.
I think everyone can decipher this one from afar because we have all seen
situations like this. What most people will miss is something I have seen this
young man do twice now, which portends poorly for both of them. Every time
10
Illustrations in Joe Navarro, “Every Body’s Talking,” The Washington Post, June 24, 2008.
Illustrations by Peter Arkle. Reprinted by permission.
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CHAPTER 5 Reading, Analyzing, and Using Visuals and Statistics in Argument 143
she looks away, he “disses” her. He smirks and rolls his eyes, even as she stands
beside him. He performs his duties, pulling their luggage along; I suspect he
likes to have her luggage nearby as a barrier between them. I won’t witness the
dissolution of their marriage, but I know it will happen, for the research behind
this is fairly robust. When two people in a relationship have contempt for each
other, the marriage will not last.
When it comes to relationships and courtship behaviors, the list of useful
cues is long. Most of these behaviors we learned early when interacting with our
mothers. When we look at loving eyes, our own eyes get larger, our pupils dilate,
our facial muscles relax, our lips become full and warm, our skin becomes more
pliable, our heads tilt. These behaviors stay with us all of our lives.
I watched two lovers this morning in the dining room. Two young people,
perhaps in their late 20s, mirror each other, staring intently into each other’s
eyes, chin on hand, head slightly tilted, nose flaring with each breath. They are
trying to absorb each other visually and tactilely as they hold hands across the
table.
Over time, those who remain truly in love will show even more indicators of
mirroring. They may dress the same or even begin to look alike as they adopt
each other’s nonverbal expressions as a sign of synchrony and empathy. They
will touch each other with kind hands that touch fully, not with the fingertips of
the less caring.
They will mirror each other in ways that are almost imperceptible; they will
have similar blink rates and breathing rates, and they will sit almost identically.
They will look at the same scenery and not speak, merely look at each other and
take a deep breath to reset their breathing synchrony. They don’t have to talk.
They are in harmony physically, mentally and emotionally, just as a baby is
in exquisite synchrony with its mother who is tracing his every expression
and smile.
As I walk through the ship on the first night, I can see the nonverbals of
courtship. There is a beautiful woman, tall, slender, smoking a cigarette outside.
Two men are talking to her, both muscular, handsome, interested. She has
crossed her legs as she talks to them, an expression of her comfort. As she holds
her cigarette, the inside of her wrist turns toward her newfound friends. Her
interest and comfort with them resounds, but she is favoring one of them. As he
speaks to her, she preens herself by playing with her hair. I am not sure he is
getting the message that she prefers him; in the end, I am sure it will all get
sorted out.
At the upscale lounge, a man is sitting at the bar talking animatedly to the
woman next to him and looking at everyone who walks by. The woman has
begun the process of ignoring him, but he does not get it. After he speaks to her
a few times, she gathers her purse and places it on her lap. She has turned
slightly away from him and now avoids eye contact. He has no clue; he thinks he
is cool by commenting on the women who pass by. She is verbally and
non- verbally indifferent.
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12
13
14
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144 SECTION 2 THE WORLD OF ARGUMENT
The next night it is more of the same. This time, I see two people who just
met talking gingerly. Gradually they lean more and more into each other. She is
now dangling her sandal from her toes. I am not sure he knows it. Perhaps he
sees it all in her face, because she is smiling, laughing and relaxed. Communica-
tion is fluid, and neither wants the conversation to end. She is extremely
interested.
All of these individuals are carrying on a dialogue in nonverbals. The socially
adept will learn to read and interpret the signs accurately. Others will make false
steps or pay a high price for not being observant. They may end up like my
friend on the Caribbean cruise, who missed the clues of deceit and indifference.
This brings me back to my friend and his new wife, who are on this wonderful
voyage. They have been on board for four days, and they are a delight
individually and together. He lovingly looks at her; she stares at him with love
and admiration. When she holds his hand at dinner, she massages it ever so
gently. Theirs is a strong marriage. They don’t have to tell me. I can sense it and
observe it. I am happy for them and for myself. I can see cues of happiness, and
they are unmistakable. You can’t ask for more.
Joe Navarro, “Every Body’s Talking,” The Washington Post, 24 June 2008. Used with permission
of the author.
QUESTIONS FOR READING
1. What is Navarro’s subject? (Do not answer “taking cruises”!)
2. What clues are offered to support the conclusion that the two cruise couples’ relation-
ships are about to dissolve?
3. What are the nonverbal messages that reveal loving relationships?
4. What nonverbal messages should the man in the lounge be observing?
QUESTIONS FOR REASONING AND ANALYSIS
5. What is Navarro’s claim?
6. What kind of evidence does he provide?
7. How do the illustrations contribute to the argument? What is effective about the author’s
opening?
QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION AND WRITING
8. Has the author convinced you that nonverbal language reveals our thoughts and
feelings? Why or why not?
9. Can you “read” the nonverbal language of your instructors? Take some time to analyze
each of your instructors. What have you learned? (You might also reflect on what
messages you may be sending in class.)
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145
SUGGESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION AND WRITING
For all investigative essays—inductive arguments—follow the guidelines in this chapter and use
the student essay as your model. Remember that you will need to explain your methods for
collecting data, to classify evidence and present it in several formats, and also to explain its
significance for readers. Just collecting data does not create an argument. Here are some possible
topics to explore:
1. Study print or online ads for one type of product (e.g., cars, cosmetics, cigarettes) to draw
inferences about the dominant techniques used to sell that product. Remember that the more
ads you study, the more support you have for your inferences. You should study at least
twenty-five ads.
2. Study print or online ads for one type of product as advertised in different types of magazines
or on different types of websites clearly directed to different audiences to see how (or if)
selling techniques change with a change in audience. (Remember: To demonstrate no change
in techniques can be just as interesting a conclusion as finding changes.) Study at least
twenty-five ads, in a balanced number from the different magazines or websites.
3. Select a major figure currently in the news and conduct a study of bias in one of the
newsmagazines (e.g., Time, U.S. News & World Report, or Newsweek) or a newspaper. Use
at least eight issues of the magazine or newspaper from the last six months and study all
articles on your figure in each of those issues. To determine bias, look at the amount of
coverage, the location (front pages or back pages), the use of photos (flattering or
unflattering), and the language of the articles.
4. Conduct a study of amounts of violence on TV by analyzing, for one week, all prime-time
programs that may contain violence. (That is, eliminate sitcoms and decide whether you
want to include or exclude news programs.) Devise some classification system for types of
violence based on your prior TV viewing experience before beginning your study—but be
prepared to alter or add to your categories based on your viewing of shows. Note the number
of times each violent act occurs. You may want to consider the total length of time
(per program, per night, per type of violent act) of violence during the week you study.
Give credit to any authors in this text or other publications for any ideas you borrow from
their articles.
5. As an alternative to topic 4, study the number and types of violent acts in children’s programs
on Saturday mornings. (This and topic 4 are best handled if you can record and then replay
the programs several times.)
6. Conduct a survey and analyze the results on some campus issue or current public policy
issue. Prepare questions that are without bias and include questions to get information about
the participants so that you can correlate answers with the demographics of your participants
(e.g., age, gender, race, religion, proposed major in college, political affiliation, or whatever
else you think is important to the topic studied). Decide whether you want to survey students
only or both students and faculty. Plan how you are going to reach each group.
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Learning More about Argument:
Induction, Deduction, Analogy,
and Logical Fallacies
READ: What is the situation? What are Pig’s reactions to what he is told?
REASON: Who are the only creatures who can never lie? What is Pig’s
solution to what he has been told? Are we invited to accept Pig’s solution?
REFLECT/WRITE: What makes the cartoon amusing? What is its more
serious message?
P
E
A
R
LS
B
E
F
O
R
E
S
W
IN
E
©
2
0
10
S
te
p
h
an
P
as
tis
. U
se
d
b
y
p
e
rm
is
si
o
n
o
f
A
N
D
R
E
W
S
M
C
M
E
E
L
S
Y
N
D
IC
A
T
IO
N
.
A
ll
ri
g
h
ts
r
e
se
rv
e
d
.
CHAPTER 6
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147
You can build on your knowledge of the basics of argument, examined in Chapter 3, by understanding some traditional forms of argument: induction, deduction, and
analogy. It is also important to recognize arguments that do not meet the standards of
good logic.
INDUCTION
Induction is the process by which we reach inferences—opinions based on facts, or on a
combination of facts and less debatable inferences. The inductive process moves from
particular to general, from support to assertion. We base our inferences on the facts we
have gathered and studied. In general, the more evidence, the more convincing the
argument. No one wants to debate tomorrow’s sunrise; the evidence for counting on it is
too convincing. Most inferences, though, are drawn from less evidence, so we need to
examine these arguments closely to judge their reasonableness.
The pattern of induction looks like this:
EVIDENCE: There is the dead body of Smith. Smith was shot in his bedroom
between the hours of 11:00 a.m. and 2:00 a.m., according to the coroner.
Smith was shot by a .32-caliber pistol. The pistol left in the bedroom
contains Jones’s fingerprints. Jones was seen, by a neighbor, entering
the Smith home at around 11:00 the night of Smith’s death. A coworker
heard Smith and Jones arguing in Smith’s office the morning of the day
Smith died.
CLAIM: Jones killed Smith.
The facts are presented. The jury infers that Jones is a murderer. Unless there is a
confession or a trustworthy eyewitness, the conclusion is an inference, not a fact. This is
the most logical explanation. The conclusion meets the standards of simplicity and
frequency while accounting for all of the known evidence.
The following paragraph illustrates the process of induction. In their book
Discovering Dinosaurs, authors Mark Norell, Eugene Gaffney, and Lowell Dingus
answer the question “Did dinosaurs really rule the world?”
For almost 170 million years, from the Late Triassic to the end of the Cretaceous,
there existed dinosaurs of almost every body form imaginable: small carnivores,
such as Compsognathus and Ornitholestes, ecologically equivalent to today’s foxes
and coyotes; medium-sized carnivores, such as Velociraptor and the troödontids,
analogous to lions and tigers; and the monstrous carnivores with no living analogs,
such as Tyrannosaurus and Allosaurus. Included among the ornithischians and the
elephantine sauropods are terrestrial herbivores of diverse body form. By the end of
the Jurassic, dinosaurs had even taken to the skies. The only habitats that dinosaurs
did not dominate during the Mesozoic were aquatic. Yet, there were marine
representatives, such as the primitive toothed bird Hesperornis. Like penguins, these
birds were flightless, specialized for diving, and probably had to return to land to
reproduce. In light of this broad morphologic diversity [number of body forms],
dinosaurs did “rule the planet” as the dominant life form on Earth during most of the
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148 SECTION 2 THE WORLD OF ARGUMENT
Mesozoic [era that includes the Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous periods, 248 to 65
million years ago].1
Observe that the writers organize evidence by type of dinosaur to demonstrate the
range and diversity of these animals. A good inductive argument is based on a sufficient
volume of relevant evidence. The basic shape of this inductive argument is illustrated in
Figure 6.1.
CLAIM: Dinosaurs were the dominant life form during the Mesozoic era.
GROUNDS: The facts presented in the paragraph.
ASSUMPTION
(WARRANT): The facts are representative, revealing dinosaur diversity.
FIGURE 6.1 The Shape of an Inductive Argument
COLLABORATIVE EXERCISE: Induction
With your class partner or in small groups, make a list of facts that could be used to
support each of the following inferences:
1. Fido must have escaped under the fence during the night.
2. Sue must be planning to go away for the weekend.
3. Students who do not hand in all essay assignments fail Dr. Bradshaw’s English
class.
4. The price of Florida oranges will go up in grocery stores next year.
5. Yogurt is a better breakfast food than bread.
DEDUCTION
Although induction can be described as an argument that moves from particular to
general, from facts to inference, deduction cannot accurately be described as the
reverse. Deductive arguments are more complex. Deduction is the reasoning process
that draws a conclusion from the logical relationship of two assertions, usually one
broad judgment or definition and one more specific assertion, often an inference.
Suppose, on the way out of American history class, you say, “Abraham Lincoln
certainly was a great leader.” Someone responds with the expected question: “Why do
you think so?” You explain: “He was great because he performed with courage and a
clear purpose in a time of crisis.” Your explanation contains a conclusion and an
assertion about Lincoln (an inference) in support. But behind your explanation rests an
idea about leadership, in the terms of deduction, a premise. The argument’s basic
shape is illustrated in Figure 6.2.
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CHAPTER 6 Learning More about Argument 149
CLAIM: Lincoln was a great leader.
GROUNDS: 1. People who perform with courage and clear purpose in a
crisis are great leaders.
2. Lincoln was a person who performed with courage and a
clear purpose in a crisis.
ASSUMPTION The relationship of the two reasons leads, logically, to
(WARRANT): the conclusion.
FIGURE 6.2 The Shape of a Deductive Argument
Traditionally, the deductive argument is arranged somewhat differently from these
sentences about Lincoln. The two reasons are called premises; the broader one, called
the major premise, is written first and the more specific one, the minor premise, comes
next. The premises and conclusion are expressed to make clear that assertions are being
made about categories or classes. When all three steps are used, the structure is called a
syllogism. Syllogisms may also include more than one minor premise, but for now, we
will just focus on the three-step deductive process. To illustrate:
MAJOR PREMISE: All people who perform with courage and a clear purpose
in a crisis are great leaders.
MINOR PREMISE: Lincoln was a person who performed with courage and a
clear purpose in a crisis.
CONCLUSION: Lincoln was a great leader.
If these two premises are correctly, that is, logically, constructed, then the conclusion
follows logically, and the deductive argument is valid. This does not mean that the
conclusion is necessarily true. It does mean that if you accept the truth of the premises,
then you must accept the truth of the conclusion, because in a valid argument the
conclusion follows logically, necessarily. How do we know that the conclusion must
follow if the argument is logically constructed? Let’s think about what each premise is
saying and then diagram each one to represent each assertion visually. The first premise
says that all people who act a particular way are people who fit into the category called
“great leaders”:
Gre
at leaders
People with
courage and
clear purpose
in a crisis
The second premise says that Lincoln, a category of one, belongs in the category of
people who act in the same particular way that the first premise describes:
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150 SECTION 2 THE WORLD OF ARGUMENT
Pe
op
le w
ith courage and
cl
ea
r p
urpo
se in a crisis
Lincoln
If we put the two diagrams together, we have the following set of circles, demonstrating
that the conclusion follows from the premises:
Grea
t leaders
P
eo
pl
e w
ith courage . . .Lincoln
We can also make negative and qualified assertions in a deductive argument.
For example:
PREMISE: No cowards can be great leaders.
PREMISE: Falstaff was a coward.
CONCLUSION: Falstaff was not a great leader.
Or, to reword the conclusion to make the deductive pattern clearer: No Falstaff
(no member of this class) is a great leader. Diagramming to test for validity, we find that
the first premise says no A’s are B’s:
A B
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CHAPTER 6 Learning More about Argument 151
The second premise asserts all C’s are A’s:
A
C
Put together, we see that the conclusion follows necessarily from the premises: No C’s
can possibly be members of class B.
A B
C
Some deductive arguments merely look right, but the two premises do not lead logically
to the conclusion that is asserted. We must read each argument carefully or diagram
each one to make certain that the conclusion follows from the premises. Consider the
following argument: Unions must be communistic because they want to control wages.
The sentence contains a conclusion and one reason, or premise. From these two parts of
a deductive argument we can also determine the unstated premise, just as we could with
the Lincoln argument: Communists want to control wages. If we use circles to represent
the three categories of people in the argument and diagram the argument, we see a
different result from the previous diagrams:
Gr
oup
s that want to
con
trol wages
Unions Communists
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152 SECTION 2 THE WORLD OF ARGUMENT
Diagramming the argument reveals that it is invalid; that is, it is not logically constructed
because the statements do not require that the union circle be placed inside the
communist circle. We cannot draw the conclusion we want from any two premises, only
from those that provide a logical basis from which a conclusion can be reached.
We must first make certain that deductive arguments are properly constructed or
valid. But suppose the logic works and yet you do not agree with the claim? Your com-
plaint, then, must be with one of the premises, a judgment or inference that you do not
accept as true. Consider the following argument:
MAJOR PREMISE: (All) dogs make good pets.
MINOR PREMISE: Fido is a dog.
CONCLUSION: Fido will make a good pet.
This argument is valid. (Diagram it; your circles will fit into one another just as with the
Lincoln argument.) However, you are not prepared to agree, necessarily, that Fido will
make a good pet. The problem is with the major premise. For the argument to work, the
assertion must be about all dogs, but we know that not all dogs will be good pets.
When composing a deductive argument, your task will be to defend the truth of
your premises. Then, if your argument is valid (logically constructed), readers will have
no alternative but to agree with your conclusion. If you disagree with someone else’s
logically constructed argument, then you must show why one of the premises is not
true. Your counterargument will seek to discredit one (or both) of the premises. The
Fido argument can be discredited by your producing examples of dogs that have not
made good pets.
Sometimes, a deductive argument, or syllogism, does not include a premise. When
a premise is missing from the deductive process, the syllogism becomes an enthymeme.
Enthymemes are syllogisms that are missing a premise. A missing premise does not
necessarily make a syllogism invalid or incorrect. In fact, omitting or skipping a premise
is fairly common in everyday discourse. For instance, the syllogism above involving
dogs makes sense—if you agree with the existing premises—even if one of the premises
is omitted:
MINOR PREMISE: Fido is a dog.
CONCLUSION: Fido will make a good pet.
MISSING PREMISE (MAJOR
PREMISE):
(All) dogs make good pets.
Or
MAJOR PREMISE: (All) dogs make good pets.
CONCLUSION: Fido will make a good pet.
MISSING PREMISE (MINOR
PREMISE):
Fido is a dog.
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CHAPTER 6 Learning More about Argument 153
As we have seen, this argument, with or without all three parts, fails on its logic. But
upon first reading or hearing the enthymeme above, someone who is not paying atten-
tion might be misled.
Enthymemes are one of the most common ways people argue in conversations, and
especially online, so it is important that you pay attention to information that may be
missing. This process is known as critical thinking. If you do not use critical thinking,
you may be manipulated into agreeing with an argument that you do not really support.
A deductive argument can serve as the core of an essay, an essay that supports the
argument’s claim by developing support for each of the premises. Since the major prem-
ise is either a broad judgment or a definition, it will need to be defended on the basis of
an appeal to values or beliefs that the writer expects readers to share. The minor premise,
usually an inference about a particular situation (or person), would be supported by
relevant evidence, as with any inductive argument. You can see this process at work in
the Declaration of Independence. Questions follow the Declaration to guide your
analysis of this famous example of the deductive process.
THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE
In Congress, July 4, 1776
The unanimous declaration of the thirteen
United States of America
When in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to
dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to
assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which
the Laws of Nature and of Nature’s God entitle them, a decent respect to the
opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel
them to the separation.
We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that
they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights, that among
these are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. That to secure these rights,
governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the con-
sent of the governed. That whenever any form of government becomes destruc-
tive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to
institute new government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing
its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety
and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that governments long established
should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experi-
ence hath shown, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are
sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are
accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invari-
ably the same object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism,
it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such government, and to provide new
guards for their future security. Such has been the patient sufferance of these
Colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their
1
2
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154 SECTION 2 THE WORLD OF ARGUMENT
former systems of government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is
a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the
establishment of an absolute tyranny over these States. To prove this, let facts be
submitted to a candid world.
He has refused his assent to laws, the most wholesome and necessary for
the public good.
He has forbidden his Governors to pass laws of immediate and pressing
importance, unless suspended in their operation till his assent should be
obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them.
He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large districts
of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of representation in the
Legislature, a right inestimable to them and formidable to tyrants only.
He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable,
and distant from the depository of their public records, for the sole purpose of
fatiguing them into compliance with his measures.
He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly
firmness his invasions on the rights of the people.
He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause others to be
elected; whereby the legislative powers, incapable of annihilation, have returned
to the people at large for their exercise; the State remaining in the meantime
exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without and convulsions within.
He has endeavoured to prevent the population of these States; for that
purpose obstructing the laws of naturalization of foreigners; refusing to pass
others to encourage their migration hither, and raising the conditions of new
appropriations of lands.
He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refusing his assent to
laws for establishing judiciary powers.
He has made judges dependent on his will alone, for the tenure of their
offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries.
He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms of officers
to harass our people, and eat out their substance.
He has kept among us, in times of peace, standing armies without the
consent of our legislatures.
He has affected to render the military independent of and superior to the
civil power.
He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our
constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his assent to their acts of
pretended legislation:
For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us:
For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any murders which
they should commit on the inhabitants of these States:
For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world:
For imposing taxes on us without our consent:
For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial by jury:
For transporting us beyond seas to be tried for pretended offences:
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CHAPTER 6 Learning More about Argument 155
For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighbouring Province,
establishing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarging its boundaries so as
to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same abso-
lute rule into these Colonies:
For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, and altering
fundamentally the forms of our governments:
For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves invested
with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever.
He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out of his protection
and waging war against us.
He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, and
destroyed the lives of our people.
He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries to com-
plete the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already begun with circum-
stances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages,
and totally unworthy the head of a civilized nation.
He has constrained our fellow citizens taken captive on the high seas to
bear arms against their country, to become the executioners of their friends and
brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands.
He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavoured to
bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian savages, whose
known rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes, and
conditions.
In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned for redress in the
most humble terms; our repeated petitions have been answered only by
repeated injury. A prince whose character is thus marked by every act which
may define a tyrant is unfit to be the ruler of a free people.
Nor have we been wanting in attention to our British brethren. We have
warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to extend an un-
warrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of
our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice
and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred
to disavow these usurpations, which would inevitably interrupt our connections
and correspondence. They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of
consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces
our separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, enemies in war,
in peace friends.
We, therefore, the Representatives of the United States of America, in
General Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for
the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name, and by the authority of the good
people of these Colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these United
Colonies are, and of right ought to be Free and Independent States; that they are
absolved from all allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection
between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved;
and that as Free and Independent States, they have full power to levy war,
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156 SECTION 2 THE WORLD OF ARGUMENT
conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and to do all other acts
and things which Independent States may of right do. And for the support of this
declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, we
mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor.
QUESTIONS FOR ANALYSIS
1. What is the Declaration’s central deductive argument? State the argument in the shape
illustrated above: major premise, minor premise, conclusion. Construct a valid
argument. If necessary, draw circles representing each of the three terms in the argument
to check for validity. (Hint: Start with the claim “George III’s government should be
overthrown.”)
2. Which paragraphs are devoted to supporting the major premise? What kind of support
has been given?
3. Which paragraphs are devoted to supporting the minor premise? What kind of support
has been given?
4. Why has more support been given for one premise than the other?
EXERCISES: Completing and Evaluating Deductive Arguments
Turn each of the following statements into valid deductive arguments. (You have the
conclusion and one premise, so you will have to determine the missing premise that
would complete the argument. Draw circles if necessary to test for validity.) Then de-
cide which arguments have premises that could be supported. Note the kind of support
that might be provided. Explain why you think some arguments have insupportable
premises. Here is an example:
PREMISE: All Jesuits are priests.
PREMISE: No women are priests.
CONCLUSION: No women are Jesuits.
Since the circle for women must be placed outside the circle for priests, it must also be
outside the circle for Jesuits. Hence the argument is valid. The first premise is true by
definition; the term Jesuit refers to an order of Roman Catholic priests. The second
premise is true for the Roman Catholic Church, so if the term priest is used only to refer
to ordained people in the Roman Catholic Church, then the second premise is also true
by definition.
1. Ms. Ferguson is a good teacher because she can explain the subject matter clearly.
2. Segregated schools are unconstitutional because they are unequal.
3. Michael must be a good driver because he drives fast.
4. The media clearly have a liberal bias because they make fun of religious
fundamentalists.
■ ■
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CHAPTER 6 Learning More about Argument 157
ANALOGY
The argument from analogy is an argument based on comparison. Analogies assert that
since A and B are alike in several ways, they must be alike in another way as well. The
argument from analogy concludes with an inference, an assertion of a significant
similarity in the two items being compared. The other similarities serve as evidence in
support of the inference. The shape of an argument by analogy is illustrated in Figure 6.3.
GROUNDS: A has characteristics 1, 2, 3, and 4.
B has characteristics 1, 2, and 3.
CLAIM: B has characteristic 4 (as well).
ASSUMPTION If B has three characteristics in common with A, it must have
(WARRANT): the key fourth characteristic as well.
FIGURE 6.3 The Shape of an Argument by Analogy
Although analogy is sometimes an effective approach to an issue because clever
and imaginative comparisons are often moving, analogy is not as rigorously logical as
either induction or deduction. Frequently, an analogy is based on only two or three
points of comparison, whereas a sound inductive argument presents many examples to
support its conclusion. Further, to be convincing, the points of comparison must be
fundamental to the two items being compared. An argument for a county leash law for
cats developed by analogy with dogs may cite the following similarities:
• Cats are pets, just like dogs.
• Cats live in residential communities, just like dogs.
• Cats can mess up other people’s yards, just like dogs.
• Cats, if allowed to run free, can disturb the peace (fighting, making noise at night),
just like dogs.
Does it follow that cats should be required to walk on a leash, just like dogs? If such
a county ordinance were passed, would it be enforceable? Have you ever tried to walk a
cat on a leash? In spite of legitimate similarities brought out by the analogy, the conclu-
sion does not logically follow because the arguer is overlooking a fundamental differ-
ence in the two animals’ personalities. Dogs can be trained to a leash; most cats
(Siamese are one exception) cannot be so trained. Such thinking will produce sulking
cats and scratched owners. But the analogy, delivered passionately to the right audience,
could lead community activists to lobby for a new law.
Observe that the problem with the cat-leash-law analogy is not in the similarities
asserted about the items being compared but rather in the underlying assumption that
the similarities logically support the argument’s conclusion. A good analogy asserts
many points of comparison and finds likenesses that are essential parts of the nature
or purpose of the two items being compared. The best way to challenge another’s
analogy is to point out a fundamental difference in the nature or purpose of the
compared items. For all of their similarities, when it comes to walking on a leash, cats
are not like dogs.
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158 SECTION 2 THE WORLD OF ARGUMENT
EXERCISES: Analogy
Analyze the following analogies. List the stated and/or implied points of comparison
and the conclusion in the pattern illustrated in Figure 6.3. Then judge each argument’s
logic and effectiveness as a persuasive technique. If the argument is not logical, state the
fundamental difference in the two compared items. If the argument could be persuasive,
describe the kind of audience that might be moved by it.
1. College newspapers should not be under the supervision or control of a faculty
sponsor. Fortunately, no governmental sponsor controls The New York Times, or we
would no longer have a free press in this country. We need a free college press, too,
one that can criticize college policies when they are wrong.
2. Let’s recognize that college athletes are really professional and start paying them
properly. College athletes get a free education, and spending money from boosters.
They are required to attend practices and games, and—if they play football or bas-
ketball—they bring in huge revenues for their “organization.” College coaches are
also paid enormous salaries, just like professional coaches, and often college
coaches are tapped to coach professional teams. The only difference: The poor col-
lege athletes don’t get those big salaries and huge signing bonuses.
3. Just like any business, the federal government must be made to balance its budget.
No company could continue to operate in the red as the government does and expect
to be successful. A constitutional amendment requiring a balanced federal budget is
long overdue.
LOGICAL FALLACIES
A thorough study of argument needs to include a study of logical fallacies because so
many “arguments” fail to meet standards of sound logic and good sense. Why do people
offer arguments that aren’t sensible?
Causes of Illogic
Ignorance
One frequent cause for illogical debate is a lack of knowledge of the subject. Some
people have more information than others. The younger you are, the less you can be
expected to know about complex issues. On the other hand, if you want to debate a
complex or technical issue, then you cannot use ignorance as an excuse. Instead, read as
much as you can, listen carefully to discussions, ask questions, and select topics about
which you have knowledge or will research before writing.
Egos
Ego problems are another cause of weak arguments. Those with low self-esteem often
have difficulty in debates because they attach themselves to their ideas and then feel
personally attacked when someone disagrees with them. Remember: Self-esteem is
enhanced when others applaud our knowledge and thoughtfulness, not our irrationality.
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CHAPTER 6 Learning More about Argument 159
Prejudices
The prejudices and biases that we carry around, having absorbed them “ages ago” from family
and community, are also sources of irrationality. Prejudices range from the worst ethnic,
religious, or sexist stereotypes to political views we have adopted uncritically (Democrats are
all bleeding hearts; Republicans are all rich snobs) to perhaps less serious but equally
insupportable notions (if it’s in print, it must be right). People who see the world through
distorted lenses cannot possibly assess facts intelligently and reason logically from them.
A Need for Answers
Finally, many bad arguments stem from a human need for answers—any answers—to
the questions that deeply concern us. We want to control our world because that makes
us feel secure, and having answers makes us feel in control. This need can lead to illogic
from oversimplifying issues.
Based on these causes of illogic, we can usefully divide fallacies into (1) oversim-
plifying the issue and (2) ignoring the issue by substituting emotion for reason.
Fallacies That Result from Oversimplifying
Errors in Generalizing
Errors in generalizing include overstatement and hasty or faulty generalization. All have
in common an error in the inductive pattern of argument. The inference drawn from the
evidence is unwarranted, either because too broad a generalization is made or because
the generalization is drawn from incomplete or incorrect evidence.
Overstatement occurs when the argument’s assertion is unqualified—referring to
all members of a category. Overstatements often result from stereotyping, giving the
same traits to everyone in a group. Overstatements are frequently signaled by words
such as all, every, always, never, and none. But remember that assertions such as
“children love clowns” are understood to refer to “all children,” even though the word
all does not appear in the sentence. It is the writer’s task to qualify statements appropri-
ately, using words such as some, many, or frequently, as appropriate.
Overstatements are discredited by finding only one exception to disprove the asser-
tion. One frightened child who starts to cry when the clown approaches will destroy the
argument. Here is another example:
• Lawyers are only interested in making money.
(What about lawyers who work to protect consumers, or public defenders who
represent those unable to pay for a lawyer?)
Hasty or faulty generalizations may be qualified assertions, but they still oversimplify
by arguing from insufficient evidence or by ignoring some relevant evidence. For example:
• Political life must lead many to excessive drinking. In the last six months the paper
has written about five members of Congress who either have confessed to
alcoholism or have been arrested on DUI charges.
(Five is not a large enough sample from which to generalize about many politicians.
Also, the five in the newspaper are not a representative sample; they have made the
news because of their drinking.)
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Forced Hypothesis
The forced hypothesis is also an error in inductive reasoning. The explanation ( hypothesis)
offered is “forced,” or illogical, because either (1) sufficient evidence does not exist to
draw any conclusion or (2) the evidence can be explained more simply or more sensibly
by a different hypothesis. This fallacy often results from not considering other possible
explanations. You discredit a forced hypothesis by providing alternative conclusions that
are more sensible than or just as sensible as the one offered. Consider this example:
• Professor Redding’s students received either A’s or B’s last semester. He must be an
excellent teacher.
(The grades alone cannot support this conclusion. Professor Redding could be an excel-
lent teacher; he could have started with excellent students; he could be an easy grader.)
Non Sequitur
The term non sequitur, meaning literally “it does not follow,” could apply to all illogical
arguments, but the term is usually reserved for those in which the conclusions are not
logically connected to the reasons. In a hasty generalization, for example, there is a
connection between support (five politicians in the news) and conclusion (many
politicians with drinking problems), just not a convincing connection. With the non
sequitur there is no recognizable connection, either because (1) whatever connection
the arguer sees is not made clear to others or because (2) the evidence or reasons offered
are irrelevant to the conclusion. For example:
• Donna will surely get a good grade in physics; she earned an A in her biology class.
(Doing well in one course, even one science course, does not support the conclu-
sion that the student will get a good grade in another course. If Donna is not good
at math, she definitely will not do well in physics.)
Slippery Slope
The slippery slope argument asserts that we should not proceed with or permit A
because if we do, the terrible consequences X, Y, and Z will occur. This type of
argument oversimplifies by assuming, without evidence and usually by ignoring
historical examples, existing laws, or any reasonableness in people that X, Y, and Z will
follow inevitably from A. This kind of argument rests on the belief that most people will
not want the final, awful Z to occur. The belief, however accurate, does not provide a
sufficiently good reason for avoiding A. One of the best-known examples of slippery
slope reasoning can be found in the gun-control debate:
• If we allow the government to register handguns, next it will register hunting rifles;
then it will prohibit all citizen ownership of guns, thereby creating a police state or
a world in which only outlaws have guns.
(Surely no one wants the final dire consequences predicted in this argument.
However, handgun registration does not mean that these consequences will follow.
The United States has never been a police state, and its system of free elections
guards against such a future. Also, citizens have registered cars, boats, and planes
for years without any threat of their confiscation.)
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CHAPTER 6 Learning More about Argument 161
False Dilemma
The false dilemma oversimplifies by asserting only two alternatives when there are
more than two. The either–or thinking of this kind of argument can be an effective tactic
if undetected. If the arguer gives us only two choices and one of those is clearly unac-
ceptable, then the arguer can push us toward the preferred choice. For example:
• The Federal Reserve System must lower interest rates, or we will never pull out of
the recession.
(Clearly, staying in a recession is not much of a choice, but the alternative may not
be the only or the best course to achieve a healthy economy. If interest rates go too
low, inflation can result. Other options include the government’s creating new jobs
and patiently letting market forces play themselves out.)
False Analogy
When examining the shape of analogy, we also considered the problems with this type
of argument. (See pp. 160–61.) Remember that you challenge a false analogy by noting
many differences in the two items being compared or by noting a significant difference
that has been ignored.
Post Hoc Fallacy
The term post hoc, from the Latin post hoc, ergo propter hoc (literally, “after this, there-
fore because of it”), refers to a common error in arguments about cause. One oversim-
plifies by confusing a time relationship with cause. Reveal the illogic of post hoc
arguments by pointing to other possible causes:
• We should throw out the entire city council. Since the members were elected, the
city has gone into deficit spending.
(Assuming that deficit spending in this situation is bad, was it caused by the current
city council? Or did the current council inherit debts? Or is the entire region suffer-
ing from a recession?)
EXERCISES: Fallacies That Result from Oversimplifying
1. Here is a list of the fallacies we have examined so far. Make up or collect from your
reading at least one example of each fallacy.
a. Overstatement
b. Stereotyping
c. Hasty generalization
d. Forced hypothesis
e. Non sequitur
f. Slippery slope
g. False dilemma
h. False analogy
i. Post hoc fallacy
2. Explain what is illogical about each of the following arguments. Then name the
fallacy represented. (Sometimes an argument will fit into more than one category.
In that case name all appropriate terms.)
a. Everybody agrees that we need stronger drunk-driving laws.
b. The upsurge in crime on Sundays is the result of the reduced rate of church at-
tendance in recent years.
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162 SECTION 2 THE WORLD OF ARGUMENT
c. The government must create new jobs. A factory in Illinois has laid off half its
workers.
d. Steve has joined the country club. Golf must be one of his favorite sports.
e. Blondes have more fun.
f. You’ll enjoy your Volvo; foreign cars never break down.
g. Gary loves jokes. He would make a great comedian.
h. The economy is in bad shape because of the Federal Reserve Board. Ever since
it expanded the money supply, the stock market has been declining.
i. Either we improve the city’s street lighting, or we will fail to reduce crime.
j. DNA research today is just like the study of nuclear fission. It seems important,
but it’s just another bomb that will one day explode on us. When will we learn
that government must control research?
k. To prohibit prayer in public schools is to limit religious practice solely to internal be-
lief. The result is that an American is religiously “free” only in his or her own mind.
l. Professor Johnson teaches in the political science department. I’ll bet she’s another
socialist.
m. Coming to the aid of any country engaged in civil war is a bad idea. Next we’ll
be sending American troops, and soon we’ll be involved in another Vietnam.
n. We must reject affirmative action in hiring or we’ll have to settle for incompe-
tent employees.
Fallacies That Result from Avoiding the Real Issue
There are many ways to divert attention from the issue under debate. Of the six
discussed here, the first three try to divert attention by introducing a separate issue or
“sliding by” the actual issue. The following three divert by appealing to the audience’s
emotions or prejudices. In the first three the arguer tries to give the impression of good
logic. In the last three the arguer charges forward on emotional manipulation alone.
Begging the Question
To assume that part of your argument is true without supporting it is to beg the question.
Arguments seeking to pass off as proof statements that must themselves be supported
are often introduced with such phrases as “the fact is” (to introduce opinion),
“obviously,” and “as we can see.” For example:
• Clearly, lowering grading standards would be bad for students, so a pass/fail system
should not be adopted.
(Does a pass/fail system lower standards? No evidence has been given. If so, is that
necessarily bad for students?)
Red Herring
The red herring is a foul-smelling argument indeed. The debater introduces a side issue,
some point that is not relevant to the debate:
• The senator is an honest woman; she loves her children and gives to charities.
(The children and charities are side issues; they do not demonstrate honesty.)
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CHAPTER 6 Learning More about Argument 163
Straw Man
The straw man argument attributes to opponents incorrect and usually ridiculous views
that they do not hold so that their position can be easily attacked. We can challenge this
illogic by demonstrating that the arguer’s opponents do not hold those views or by
demanding that the arguer provide some evidence that they do:
• Those who favor gun control just want to take all guns away from responsible
citizens and put them in the hands of criminals.
(The position attributed to proponents of gun control is not only inaccurate but
actually the opposite of what is sought by gun-control proponents.)
Ad Hominem
One of the most frequent of all appeals to emotion masquerading as argument is the ad
hominem argument (literally, argument “to the man”). When someone says that “those
crazy liberals at the ACLU just want all criminals to go free,” or a pro-choice demonstrator
screams at those “self-righteous fascists” on the other side, the best retort may be silence,
or the calm assertion that such statements do not contribute to meaningful debate.
Common Practice or Bandwagon
To argue that an action should be taken or a position accepted because “everyone is
doing it” is illogical. The majority is not always right. Frequently, when someone is
defending an action as ethical on the ground that everyone does it, the action isn’t ethical
and the defender knows it isn’t. For example:
• There’s nothing wrong with fudging a bit on your income taxes. After all, the
superrich don’t pay any taxes, and the government expects everyone to cheat a little.
(First, not everyone cheats on taxes; many pay to have their taxes done correctly.
And if it is wrong, it is wrong regardless of the number who do it.)
Ad Populum
Another technique for arousing an audience’s emotions and ignoring the issue is to
appeal ad populum, “to the people,” to the audience’s presumed shared values and
beliefs. Every Fourth of July, politicians employ this tactic, appealing to God, mother,
apple pie, and “traditional family values.” Simply reject the argument as illogical.
• Good, law-abiding Americans must be sick of the violent crimes occurring in our
once godly society. But we won’t tolerate it anymore; put the criminals in jail and
throw away the key.
(This does not contribute to a thoughtful debate on criminal justice issues.)
EXERCISES: Fallacies That Result from Ignoring the Issue
1. Here is a list of fallacies that result from ignoring the issue. Make up or collect from
your reading at least one example of each fallacy.
a. Begging the question
b. Red herring
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164 SECTION 2 THE WORLD OF ARGUMENT
c. Straw man
d. Ad hominem
e. Common practice or bandwagon
f. Ad populum
2. Explain what is illogical about each of the following arguments. Then name the
fallacy represented.
a. Gold’s book doesn’t deserve a Pulitzer Prize. She had been married four times.
b. I wouldn’t vote for him; many of his programs are basically socialist.
c. Eight out of ten headache sufferers use Bayer to relieve headache pain. It will
work for you, too.
d. We shouldn’t listen to Colman McCarthy’s argument against liquor ads in col-
lege newspapers because he obviously thinks young people are ignorant and
need guidance in everything.
e. My roommate Joe does the craziest things; he must be neurotic.
f. Since so many people obviously cheat the welfare system, it should be abol-
ished.
g. She isn’t pretty enough to win the contest, and besides she had her nose “fixed”
two years ago.
h. Professors should chill out; everybody cheats on exams from time to time.
i. The fact is that bilingual education is a mistake because it encourages students
to use only their native language and that gives them an advantage over other
students.
j. Don’t join those crazy liberals in support of the American Civil Liberties Union.
They want all criminals to go free.
k. Real Americans understand that free-trade agreements are evil. Let your repre-
sentatives know that we want American goods protected.
EXERCISE: Analyzing Arguments
Option 1: The Online Post. Posting online poses one of the most serious challenges to
our communication and to our logic today. Yet, much of the information we use comes
from online sources. It is vital, therefore, that you think critically about what you post
and what you read online. Examine the following online post from a popular social me-
dia application. If you find logical fallacies, identify and explain them.
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To My Online Friends
To my online friends: Over the past few weeks, I’ve been reading
your posts about the benefits of the “environmental” regulations the
EPA passed a few years ago. YOU PEOPLE ARE IDIOTS AND YOU
DON’T KNOW WHAT YOU’RE TALKING ABOUT! Because of these
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CHAPTER 6 Learning More about Argument 165
Option 2: The Online Conversation. Online conversations can be a wonderful way to
keep in touch with friends and family and to share information with people around the
world. But as you probably already know, text messages, email, and other forms of
regulations, I no longer have a job. Due to some over-educated
scientists coming in here and finding some leaks from our plant into
the river, the power-hungry bureaucrats at the EPA in Washington,
D.C., fined us. Because of these fines, I was furloughed. Well, I got
word today that this “furlough” is now permanent. I’ve been laid off.
So now, Midville Steel is probably going to reduce production,
hundreds of people are going to lose their jobs, and the town itself is
going to crumble. It’s all the EPA’s fault, and you liberals out there don’t
even know it!
I’ve tried to be patient with all of your posts, but now I have to
explain the truth. Midville Steel has been a wonderful employer. They
have refurbished every park in town, and they built our new baseball
and softball fields. Every year, they sponsor our Fall Festival, and they
contributed to our downtown revitalization project. The company and
its employees don’t deserve the punishment that the EPA is forcing on
us. But most importantly, Midville Steel employs 2,700 people, and
hundreds of them are going to lose their jobs because of unfair EPA
regulations. The EPA just wants to impose strict regulations on
American industry to help companies in other countries.
So I hope that all of you EPA-loving tree huggers out there are
happy. And if you don’t agree with my opinions, then just unfriend me
now. Because if you don’t like my opinion, then you don’t like
me. Good Americans recognize government overreach when they see
it, and really, we only have two options here: shut down the EPA or
shut down American industry.
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166 SECTION 2 THE WORLD OF ARGUMENT
digital media are imperfect mediums of communication. Conversations can quickly spi-
ral out of control, and all involved can find themselves using insults and faulty logic to
“win” an argument, especially about contentious issues. Examine the following social
media conversation. If you find logical fallacies, identify and explain them.
Online Conversation
Kim: I just saw #algore ’s movie An Inconvenient Truth for the first time
in my composition class. I’m shocked. I really had no idea things were
so bad. If we don’t do something about pollution now, the air we
breathe is going to give us cancer, the seas are going to rise and flood
the coastlines, and our storms are just going to get worse. Maria, have
you seen the movie?
Maria: OMG that movie is so old. I can’t believe you think that stuff is
true. My cousin works for the power company, and he says that the
coal they burn isn’t that bad. It’s clean burning coal. Please don’t turn
into a tree hugging #hippie. They smell like #patchouli, get arrested
protesting my cousin’s plant, and are losers.
Kim: Wow. Chill out. Just because your cousin works at the plant
doesn’t mean he’s an expert on #climatechange. That’s probably why
he drives that huge old #gasguzzler. And just because I care about
the environment doesn’t mean I’m a tree hugging hippie. How about
you actually check your facts before getting so judgmental? We need
to reduce pollution, or we’re all going to get cancer. Don’t you care
about that?
Maria: Are you insulting my cousin? I’m unfriending you. #liberalloser !
Kim: Wtvs. Seeya. #planethater
Maria: #stinkyhippie
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CHAPTER 6 Learning More about Argument 167
FOR READING AND ANALYSIS
DECLARATION OF SENTIMENTS ELIZABETH CADY STANTON
Elizabeth Cady Stanton (1815–1902) was one of the most important leaders of the
women’s rights movement. Educated at the Emma Willard Seminary in Troy, New York,
Stanton studied law with her father before her marriage. At the Seneca Falls Convention
in 1848 (the first women’s rights convention), Stanton gave the opening speech and read
her “Declaration of Sentiments.” She founded and became president of the National
Women’s Suffrage Association in 1869.
PREREADING QUESTION As you read, think about the similarities and differences
between this document and the Declaration of Independence. What significant
differences in wording and content do you find?
When, in the course of human
events, it becomes necessary for one
portion of the family of man to assume
among the people of the earth a posi-
tion different from that which they have
hitherto occupied, but one to which the
laws of nature and of nature’s God enti-
tle them, a decent respect to the opin-
ions of mankind requires that they
should declare the causes that impel
them to such a course.
We hold these truths to be self-
evident: that all men and women are
created equal; that they are endowed
by their Creator with certain inalienable
rights; that among these are life, liberty,
and the pursuit of happiness; that to se-
cure these rights governments are instituted, deriving their just powers from the
consent of the governed. Whenever any form of government becomes destruc-
tive of these ends, it is the right of those who suffer from it to refuse allegiance to
it, and to insist upon the institution of a new government, laying its foundation on
such principles, and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem
most likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that
governments long established should not be changed for light and transient
causes; and accordingly all experience hath shown that mankind are more dis-
posed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing
the forms to which they were accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and
usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object evinces a design to reduce
them under absolute despotism, it is their duty to throw off such government, and
to provide new guards for their future security. Such has been the patient suffer-
ance of the women under this government, and such is now the necessity which
constrains them to demand the equal station to which they are entitled.
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168 SECTION 2 THE WORLD OF ARGUMENT
The history of mankind is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations on
the part of man toward woman, having in direct object the establishment of an
absolute tyranny over her. To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world.
He has never permitted her to exercise her inalienable right to the elective
franchise.
He has compelled her to submit to laws, in the formation of which she had
no voice.
He has withheld from her rights which are given to the most ignorant and
degraded men—both natives and foreigners.
Having deprived her of this first right of a citizen, the elective franchise,
thereby leaving her without representation in the halls of legislation, he has op-
pressed her on all sides.
He has made her, if married, in the eye of the law, civilly dead.
He has taken from her all right in property, even to the wages she earns.
He has made her, morally, an irresponsible being, as she can commit many
crimes with impunity, provided they be done in the presence of her husband. In
the covenant of marriage, she is compelled to promise obedience to her
husband, he becoming, to all intents and purposes, her master—the law giving
him power to deprive her of her liberty, and to administer chastisement.
He has so framed the laws of divorce, as to what shall be the proper causes,
and in case of separation, to whom the guardianship of the children shall be
given, as to be wholly regardless of the happiness of women—the law, in all
cases, going upon a false supposition of the supremacy of man, and giving all
power into his hands.
After depriving her of all rights as a married woman, if single, and the owner
of property, he has taxed her to support a government which recognizes her only
when her property can be made profitable to it.
He has monopolized nearly all the profitable employments, and from those
she is permitted to follow, she receives but a scanty remuneration. He closes
against her all the avenues to wealth and distinction which he considers most
honorable to himself. As a teacher of theology, medicine, or law, she is not
known.
He has denied her the facilities for obtaining a thorough education, all
colleges being closed against her.
He allows her in Church, as well as State, but a subordinate position, claim-
ing Apostolic authority for her exclusion from the ministry, and, with some excep-
tions, from any public participation in the affairs of the Church.
He has created a false public sentiment by giving to the world a different
code of morals for men and women, by which moral delinquencies which
exclude women from society, are not only tolerated, but deemed of little account
in man.
He has usurped the prerogative of Jehovah himself, claiming it as his right to
assign for her a sphere of action, when that belongs to her conscience and to
her God.
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CHAPTER 6 Learning More about Argument 169
He has endeavored, in every way that he could, to destroy her confidence in
her own powers, to lessen her self-respect, and to make her willing to lead a
dependent and abject life.
Now in view of this entire disfranchisement of one-half the people of this
country, their social and religious degradation—in view of the unjust laws above
mentioned, and because women do feel themselves aggrieved, oppressed, and
fraudulently deprived of their most sacred rights, we insist that they have imme-
diate admission to all the rights and privileges which belong to them as citizens
of the United States.
In entering upon the great work before us, we anticipate no small amount of
misconception, misrepresentation, and ridicule; but we shall use every instru-
mentality within our power to effect our object. We shall employ agents, circulate
tracts, petition the State and National legislatures, and endeavor to enlist the
pulpit and the press in our behalf. We hope this Convention will be followed by a
series of Conventions embracing every part of the country.
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QUESTIONS FOR READING
1. Summarize the ideas of paragraphs 1 and 2. Be sure to use your own words.
2. What are the first three facts given by Stanton? Why are they presented first?
3. How have women been restricted by law if married or owning property? How have they
been restricted in education and work? How have they been restricted psychologically?
4. What, according to Stanton, do women demand? How will they seek their goals?
QUESTIONS FOR REASONING AND ANALYSIS
5. What is Stanton’s claim? With what does she charge men?
6. Most—but not all—of Stanton’s charges have been redressed, however slowly. Which
continue to be legitimate complaints, in whole or in part?
QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION AND WRITING
7. Do we need a new declaration of sentiments for women? If so, what specific charges
would you list? If not, why not?
8. Do we need a declaration of sentiments for other groups—children, minorities, the
elderly, animals? If so, what specific charges should be listed? Select one group (that
concerns you) and prepare a declaration of sentiments for that group. If you do not think
any group needs a declaration, explain why.
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170 SECTION 2 THE WORLD OF ARGUMENT
IN DEFENSE OF POLITICS,
NOW MORE THAN EVER BEFORE PETER WEHNER
A senior fellow at the Ethics and Public Policy Center, Peter Wehner has served in the
last three Republican administrations. Wehner is the author, with Michael Gerson, of City
of Man: Religion and Politics in a New Era (2010). His articles have been published in
many newspapers and magazines, and he appears frequently on radio and TV talk
shows. This article first appeared in The New York Times in 2016.
PREREADING QUESTIONS Do you think it’s possible to defend politics? If your answer
is “Not at all,” do you recognize a fallacy in your thinking?
Members of Congress for 2015 standing on the Capitol steps.
One of John F. Kennedy’s favorite books was John Buchan’s 1940 memoir,
Pilgrim’s Way. Buchan, who served as a member of Parliament for the combined
Scottish universities, wrote, “Public life is regarded as the crown of a career, and
to young men it is the worthiest ambition.” Politics, he added, “is still the greatest
and most honorable adventure.”
These days it would be hard to find a handful of people in America who
agree with Buchan’s sentiment. According to a 2015 Pew Research Center sur-
vey, trust in government is at one of the lowest levels in a half-century. Almost
three-quarters of Americans believe elected officials put their own interests
ahead of the country’s interest. Much of the public has utter contempt for the
political class.
Some of this is justified. Politicians aren’t putting forward solutions to the
problems facing many Americans. There’s also their hypocrisy and corruption, as
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CHAPTER 6 Learning More about Argument 171
well as the triviality and rhetorical wasteland that characterizes much of public
discourse. But that is hardly the whole of it. There are very good people who are
quietly doing their jobs well and with integrity. I would hasten to point out, too,
that voters are complicit in this problem, because they choose the people who
represent them. The people who plant the flowers have some responsibility for
the condition of the garden.
Repairing our politics begins with understanding the nature of the enter-
prise. Alleviating the public’s bitter mistrust of politics requires coming to terms
with its mundane realities and limits.
If the 20th-century American theologian Reinhold Niebuhr were to comment
on the current state of affairs, he would warn us against cynicism and idealism,
writes Wilfred M. McClay, a historian at the University of Oklahoma. Our disap-
pointments arise from our excessive expectations. “We assume we are better
people than we seem to be,” according to Professor McClay, “and we assume
that our politics should therefore be an endlessly uplifting pursuit, full of joy and
inspiration and self-actualization rather than endless wrangling, head-butting,
and petty self-interest.”
Politics is less than perfect because we are less than perfect. We therefore
need to approach it with some modesty. Politics is not like mathematics, where
clear premises and deductive reasoning can lead to exact answers. We would all
do better if we took to heart the words of the political scientist Harry Clor, author
of “On Moderation.” “There are truths to be discovered,” he wrote, but they are
“complex and many-sided; the best way to get to them is by engaging contrary
ideas in a manner approximating dialogue.”
In the throes of partisan disagreements, it can be tempting to think of
American politics as a Manichaean struggle of good versus evil. As someone
who has been involved in his share of intense political debates, and has been a
senior White House aide, I’m keenly aware of how easy it is to adopt this
parochial mind-set, to feel that one is part of a tribal community.
Instead, we need the self-confidence to admit that at best we possess only a
partial understanding of the truth, which can be enlarged by refining our views in
light of new arguments, new circumstances and new insights. But this requires
us to listen to others, to weigh their arguments with care, and maybe even to
learn from them.
“You used to not be able to talk about politics at a polite dinner party because
you would probably have a fight,” Lilliana Mason, who teaches political science at
the University of Maryland, recently told The Washington Post, in a revealing
article about how most Trump voters in Virginia, where I live, don’t know any
Clinton voters and vice versa. “Increasingly, you can talk about politics at a dinner
party because most of the people at the dinner party probably agree with you.”
In creating a world that continually reinforces what we believe, it gets harder
to comprehend the attitudes animating others. The more distant our opponents
are, the more likely we are to dismiss and dehumanize them. There’s no com-
mon ground, no acknowledgment that those who hold different views from us
might have a legitimate point, an understandable grievance, a reasonable
concern. This is when politics becomes blood sport.
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172 SECTION 2 THE WORLD OF ARGUMENT
We are living through an especially partisan time now, but factionalism has
always been a problem, under every type of political system. One possible
answer comes from Montaigne, who pretty much invented the essay as we know
it: “I embark upon discussion and argument with great ease and liberty,” he
writes in “On the Art of Conversation.” “Since opinions do not find in me a ready
soil to thrust and spread their roots into, no premise shocks me, no belief hurts
me, no matter how opposite to my own they may be.”
“Whenever we meet opposition, we do not look to see if it is just, but how
we can get out of it, rightly or wrongly,” he wrote a little later in the same essay.
“Instead of welcoming arms we stretch out our claws.” Calmly, as always, he pro-
poses a solution: “When I am contradicted it arouses my attention, not my wrath.
I move toward the man who contradicts me: he is instructing me. The cause of
truth ought to be common to both of us.”
Our low regard for politics is leading us to undervalue the craft of governing,
to lose sight of the idea that there is anything at all that “ought to be common to
both of us,” never mind truth. We are attracted to political novices and so-called
outsiders, which leaves open the possibility of the rise of demagogic figures.
Such a person might say, as the Republican nominee for president has: “I’ll give
you everything. I will give you what you’ve been looking for for 50 years. I’m the
only one.”
Our democratic belief that anyone can be a political leader paradoxically
feeds into the anti-democratic belief that we should look to one person to quickly
and easily save us. No one, alone, can fix it, and in our system of government, this
authoritarian approach is a prescription for catastrophe. Our confusion about and
contempt for politics is also blinding us to the possibility that it can advance the
human good. There are those moments in American history when great issues of
justice have been at stake, from ending slavery and segregation to opposing
Communism and fascism to protecting the physically disabled and the unborn.
More often, though, politics is about making institutions work somewhat bet-
ter, helping people’s lives at the margins, giving men and women the room to
make the most of their talents and skills. It’s about making our schools better and
our communities safer. The people who give up on politics and who reflexively
denigrate those who are practitioners of it are doing a disservice to our country.
Skepticism is fine; caustic cynicism is not.
“Political activity is a type of moral activity,” the British political theorist
Bernard Crick wrote in “In Defense of Politics.” “It does not claim to settle every
problem or to make every sad heart glad,” he added, “but it can help some way
in nearly everything and, where it is strong, it can prevent the vast cruelties and
deceits of ideological rule.”
Thinking about politics as a moral activity may seem unimaginable during
this malicious and degrading political year. But doing so, in a realistic and sober
way, is the first step toward repairing America’s shattered political culture and
restoring politics to the pride of place it deserves in our national life.
Peter Wehner, “In Defense of Politics, Now More than Ever,” The New York Times, 29 Oct. 2016. Used with
permission of the author.
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CHAPTER 6 Learning More about Argument 173
QUESTIONS FOR READING
1. What is the widely held view of politicians in America today? What are some legitimate
reasons for this view? Who besides the politicians are also responsible for this problem?
2. What is a key reason that our politics often fail to meet expectations?
3. How do we need to change our thinking about who owns the “truth”? What was
Montaigne’s attitude toward those who contradicted him?
4. What can politics accomplish?
5. What are the dangers in believing that one leader can fix everything?
QUESTIONS FOR REASONING AND ANALYSIS
6. What set of views does the author seek to refute? How does he view political activity?
What, then, is his central point, the claim of his argument?
7. What does Wehner accomplish in his three-paragraph opening?
8. How does the author develop and support his claim?
QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION AND WRITING
9. Has anyone ever suggested to you that participation in public life should be viewed as
“the crown of a career”? Why do you think our times have lost awareness of this
concept?
10. What elected officials, serving currently or having recently served, do you admire?
(Take time to reflect on this question; there are good people deeply involved in public
service.) What do you admire about those on your list?
11. Do you agree with Wehner that truth is complex and many political problems lack easy
solutions? If so, why? If not, how would you refute him?
12. How close do you come to meeting Montaigne’s standard of openness to others with
opposing views? What are the challenges to engaging in meaningful debate with others?
Should we make the effort? Reflect on these issues that Wehner has raised.
CREDIT
1. Mark Norell, Eugene Gaffney, and Lowell Dingus. Discovering Dinosaurs: In the American Museum of
Natural History. Alfred A. Knopf, 1995.
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Definition Arguments
READ: How does the cat respond to the big dog’s questions?
REASON: Does the big dog expect the responses he gets to his questions?
How do you know?
REFLECT/WRITE: What is a rhetorical question? What is the risk of using one?
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177
“Define your terms!” someone yells in the middle of a heated debate. Although yelling may not be the best strategy, the advice is sound for writers of argument.
People do disagree over the meaning of words. Although we cannot let words mean
whatever we want and still communicate, we do recognize that many words have more
than one meaning. In addition, some words carry strong connotations, the emotional
associations we attach to them. For this reason, realtors never sell houses; they always
sell homes. They want you to believe that the house they are showing will become the
home in which you will feel happy and secure.
Many important arguments turn on the definition of key terms. If you can convince
others that you have the correct definition, then you are well on your way to winning
your argument. The civil rights movement, for example, really turned on a definition of
terms. Leaders argued that some laws are unjust, that because it is the law does not nec-
essarily mean it is right. Laws requiring separate schools and separate drinking foun-
tains and seats at the back of the bus for blacks were, in the view of civil rights activists,
unjust laws, unjust because they are immoral and as such diminish us as humans. If
obeying unjust laws is immoral, then it follows that we should not obey such laws. And
when we recognize that obeying such laws hurts us, we have an obligation to act to
remove unjust laws. Civil disobedience—illegal behavior to some—becomes, by defini-
tion, the best moral behavior.
Attorney Andrew Vachss has argued that there are no child prostitutes, only prosti-
tuted children. Yes, there are children who engage in sex for money. But, Vachss argues,
that is not the complete definition of a prostitute. A prostitute chooses to exchange sex
for money. Children do not choose; they are exploited by adults, beaten and in other
ways abused if they do not work for the adult controlling them. If we agree with his
definition, Vachss expects that we will also agree that the adults must be punished for
their abuse of those prostituted children.
DEFINING AS PART OF AN ARGUMENT
There are two occasions for defining words as a part of your argument:
• You need to define any technical terms that may not be familiar to readers—or that
readers may not understand as fully as they think they do. David Norman, early in
his book on dinosaurs, writes:
Nearly everyone knows what some dinosaurs look like, such as Tyrannosaurus,
Triceratops, and Stegosaurus. But they may be much more vague about the lesser
known ones, and may have difficulty in distinguishing between dinosaurs and other
types of prehistoric creatures. It is not at all unusual to overhear an adult, taking a
group of children around a museum display, being reprimanded sharply by the
youngsters for failing to realize that a woolly mammoth was not a dinosaur, or—
more forgivably—that a giant flying reptile such as Pteranodon, which lived at the
time of the dinosaurs, was not a dinosaur either.1
So what exactly is a dinosaur? And how do paleontologists decide on the groups
they belong to?
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178 SECTION 3 STUDYING SOME ARGUMENTS BY GENRE
Norman answers his questions by explaining the four characteristics that all dino-
saurs have. He provides what is often referred to as a formal definition. He places
the dinosaur in a class, established by four criteria, and then distinguishes this
animal from other animals that lived a long time ago. His definition is not open to
debate. He is presenting the definition and classification system that paleontolo-
gists, the specialists, have established.
• You need to define any word you are using in a special way. If you were to write:
“We need to teach discrimination at an early age,” you should add: “by discrimi-
nation I do not mean prejudice. I mean discernment, the ability to see differences.”
(Sesame Street has been teaching children this good kind of discrimination for
many years.) The word discrimination used to have only a positive connotation; it
referred to an important critical thinking skill. Today, however, the word has been
linked to prejudice; to discriminate is to act on one’s prejudice against some
group. Writing today, you need to clarify when you are using the word in its orig-
inal, positive meaning.
WHEN DEFINING IS THE ARGUMENT
We also turn to definition because we believe that a word is being used incorrectly or is
not fully understood. Columnist George Will once argued that we should forget values
and use instead the word virtues—that we should seek and admire virtues, not values.
His point was that the term values, given to us by today’s social scientists, is associated
with situational ethics, or with an “if it feels good, do it” approach to action. He wants
people to return to the more old-fashioned word virtues so that we are reminded that
some behavior is right and some is wrong, and that neither the situation nor how we
might “feel” about it alters those truths. In discussions such as Will’s the purpose shifts.
Instead of using definition as one step in an argument, definition becomes the central
purpose of the argument. Will rejects the idea that values means the same thing as
virtues and asserts that it is virtue—as he defines it—that must guide our behavior. An
extended definition is the argument.
STRATEGIES FOR DEVELOPING
AN EXTENDED DEFINITION
Arguing for your meaning of a word provides your purpose in writing. But it may not
immediately suggest ways to develop such an argument. Let’s think in terms of what
definitions essentially do: They establish criteria for a class or category and then exclude
other items from that category. (A pen is a writing instrument that uses ink.) Do you see
your definition as drawing a line or as setting up two entirely separate categories? For
example:
When does interrogation become torture?
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CHAPTER 7 Definition Arguments 179
One might argue that some strategies for making the person questioned uncomfort-
able are appropriate to interrogation (reduced sleep or comforts, loud noise). But at
some point (stretching on a rack or waterboarding) one crosses a line to torture. To
define torture, you have to explain where that line is—and how the actions on one side
of the line are different from those on the other side.
What are the characteristics of wisdom as opposed to knowledge?
Knowledge Wisdom
Do we cross a line from knowledge to become wise? Many would argue that
wisdom requires traits or skills that are not found simply by increasing one’s knowledge.
The categories are separate. Others might argue that, while the categories are distinct,
one does need knowledge to also be wise.
Envisioning these two approaches supports the abstract thinking that defining
requires. Then what? Use some of the basic strategies of good writing:
• Descriptive details. Illustrate with specifics. List the traits of a leader or a courageous
person. Explain the behaviors that we find in a wise person, or the behaviors that
should be called torture. Describe the situations in which liberty can flourish, or the
situations that result from unjust laws. Remember to use negative traits as well as
positive ones. That is, show what is not covered by the word you are defining.
• Examples. Develop your definition with actual or hypothetical examples. Churchill,
Lincoln, and FDR can all be used as examples of leaders. The biblical Solomon is
generally acknowledged as a good example of a wise person. You can also create a
hypothetical wise or courteous person, or a person whose behavior you would
consider virtuous.
• Comparison and/or contrast. Clarify and limit your definition by contrasting it
with words of similar—but not exactly the same—meanings. For example, what are
the differences between knowledge and wisdom or interrogation and torture? The
goal of your essay is to establish subtle but important differences so that your
readers understand precisely what you want a given word to mean. In an essay at
the end of this chapter, Robin Givhan distinguishes among glamour, charisma, and
cool as a way to develop her definition of glamour.
• History of usage or word origin. The word’s original meanings can be instructive.
If the word has changed meaning over time, explore these changes as clues to how
the word can (or should) be used. If you want readers to reclaim discrimination as
a positive trait, then show them how that was part of the word’s original meaning
before the word became tied to prejudice. Word origin—etymology—can also give
us insight into a word’s meaning. Many words in English come from another
language, or they are a combination of two words. The words liberty and freedom
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180 SECTION 3 STUDYING SOME ARGUMENTS BY GENRE
can usefully be discussed by examining etymology. Most dictionaries provide some
word origin information, but the best source is—always—the Oxford English
Dictionary.
• Use or function. A frequent strategy for defining is explaining an item’s use or
function: A pencil is a writing instrument. A similar approach can give insight into
more general or abstract words as well. For example, what do we have—or gain—
by emphasizing virtues instead of values? Or, what does a wise person do that a
non-wise person does not do?
• Metaphors. Consider using figurative comparisons. When fresh, not clichés, they
add vividness to your writing while offering insight into your understanding of the
word.
In an essay titled “Why I Blog,” Andrew Sullivan, one of the Web’s earliest
bloggers, uses many of these strategies for developing a definition of the term blog:
• Word origin. “The word blog is a conflation of two words: web and log. . . . In the
monosyllabic vernacular of the Internet, web log soon became the word blog.”
• One-sentence definition. “It contains in its four letters a concise and accurate
self-description: it is a log of thoughts and writing posted publicly on the World
Wide Web.”
• Descriptive details. “This form of instant and global self-publishing . . . allows for
no retroactive editing. . . . [I]ts truth [is] inherently transitory.”
• Contrast. “The wise panic that can paralyze a writer . . . is not available to a blog-
ger. You can’t have blogger’s block.”
• Metaphors. “A blog . . . bobs on the surface of the ocean but has its anchorage in
waters deeper than those print media is technologically able to exploit.”2
These snippets from Sullivan’s lengthy essay give us a good look at defining strat-
egies in action.
GUIDELINES for Evaluating Definition Arguments
When reading definition arguments, what should you look for? The basics of
good argument apply to all arguments: a clear statement of claim, qualified if
appropriate, a clear explanation of reasons and evidence, and enough rele-
vant evidence to support the claim. How do we recognize these qualities in a
definition argument? Use the following points as guides to evaluating:
• Why is the word being defined? Has the writer convinced you of the
need to understand the word’s meaning or change the way the word is
commonly used?
• How is the word defined? Has the writer established his or her definition,
clearly distinguishing it from what the writer perceives to be objectionable
definitions? It is hard to judge the usefulness of the writer’s position if the
differences in meaning remain fuzzy. If George Will is going to argue for
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CHAPTER 7 Definition Arguments 181
PREPARING A DEFINITION ARGUMENT
In addition to the guidelines for writing arguments presented in Chapter 4, you can use
the following advice specific to writing definition arguments.
Planning
1. Think: Why do you want to define your term? To add to our understanding of a
complex term? To challenge the use of the word by others? If you don’t have a good
reason to write, find a different word to examine.
2. Think: How are you defining the word? What are the elements/parts/steps in your
definition? Some brainstorming notes are probably helpful to keep your definition
concrete and focused.
3. Think: What strategies will you use to develop and support your definition?
Consider using several of these possible strategies for development:
• Word origin or history of usage
• Descriptive details
• Comparison and/or contrast
• Examples
• Function or use
• Metaphors
Drafting
1. Begin with an opening paragraph or two that introduces your subject in an interest-
ing way. Possibilities include the occasion that has led to your writing—explain, for
instance, a misunderstanding about your term’s meaning that you want to correct.
using virtues instead of values, he needs to be sure that readers under-
stand the differences he sees in the two words.
• What strategies are used to develop the definition? Can you recog-
nize the different types of evidence presented and see what the writer
is doing in his or her argument? This kind of analysis can aid your eval-
uation of a definition argument.
• What are the implications of accepting the author’s definition? Why
does George Will want readers to embrace virtues rather than values?
Will’s argument is not just about subtle points of language. His argu-
ment is also about attitudes that affect public policy issues. Part of any
evaluation of a definition argument must include our assessment of the
author’s definition.
• Is the definition argument convincing? Do the reasons and evidence
lead you to agree with the author, to accept the idea of the definition
and its implications as well?
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182 SECTION 3 STUDYING SOME ARGUMENTS BY GENRE
2. Do not begin by quoting or paraphrasing a dictionary definition of the term. “Ac-
cording to Webster …” is a tired approach lacking reader interest. If the dictionary
definition were sufficient, you would have no reason to write an entire essay to
define the term.
3. State your claim—your definition of the term—early in your essay, if you can do so
in a sentence or two. If you do not state a brief claim, then establish your purpose
in writing early in your essay. (You may find that there are too many parts to your
definition to combine into one or two sentences.)
4. Use several specific strategies for developing your definition. Select strategies from
the list above and organize your approach around these strategies. That is, you can
develop one paragraph of descriptive details, another of examples, another of con-
trast with words that are not exactly the same in meaning.
5. Consider specifically refuting the error in word use that led to your decision to
write your own definition. If you are motivated to write based on what you have
read, then make a rebuttal part of your definition argument.
6. Consider discussing the implications of your definition. You can give weight and
value to your argument by explaining the larger significance of your definition.
A CHECKLIST FOR REVISION
Do I have a good understanding of my purpose? Have I made this clear to readers?
Have I clearly stated my definition? Or clearly established the various parts of the
definition that I discuss in separate paragraphs?
Have I organized my argument, building the parts of my definition into a logical,
coherent structure?
Have I used specifics to clarify and support my definition?
Have I used the basic checklist for revision in Chapter 4 (see p. 107)?
STUDENT ESSAY
PARAGON OR PARASITE?
Laura Mullins
Do you recognize this creature? He is low maintenance and often
unnoticeable, a favorite companion of many. Requiring no special
attention, he grows from the soil of pride and rejection, feeding
regularly on a diet of ignorance and insecurity, scavenging for hurt
Attention-getting
introduction.
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CHAPTER 7 Definition Arguments 183
feelings and defensiveness, gobbling up dainty morsels of lust and
scandal. Like a cult leader clothed in a gay veneer, disguising himself
as blameless, he wields power. Bewitching unsuspecting but devoted
groupies, distracting them from honest self-examination, deceiving
them into believing illusions of grandeur or, on the other extreme,
unredeemable worthlessness, he breeds jealousy, hate, and fear; thus,
he thrives. He is Gossip.
One of my dearest friends is a gossip. She is an educated,
honorable, compassionate, loving woman whose character and
judgment I deeply admire and respect. After sacrificially raising six
children, she went on to study medicine and become a doctor who
graciously volunteers her expertise. How, you may be wondering,
could a gossip deserve such praise? Then you do not understand the
word. My friend is my daughter’s godmother; she is my gossip, or
godsib, meaning sister-in-god. Derived from Middle English words god,
meaning spiritual, and sip/sib/syp, meaning kinsman, this term was
used to refer to a familiar acquaintance, close family friend, or intimate
relation, according to the Oxford English Dictionary. As a male, he
would have joined in fellowship and celebration with the father of the
newly born; if a female, she would have been a trusted friend, a birth-
attendant or midwife to the mother of the baby. The term grew to
include references to the type of easy, unrestrained conversation
shared by these folks.
As is often the case with words, the term’s meaning has certainly
evolved, maybe eroded from its original idea. Is it harmless, idle chat,
innocuous sharing of others’ personal news, or back-biting, rumor-
spreading, and manipulation? Is it a beneficial activity worthy of
pursuit, or a deplorable danger to be avoided?
In her article “Evolution, Alienation, and Gossip” (for the Social
Issues Research Centre in Oxford, England), Kate Fox writes that
Clever extended
metaphor.
Subject introduced.
Etymology of gossip
and early meanings.
Good use of sources
to develop definition.
Current meanings.
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184 SECTION 3 STUDYING SOME ARGUMENTS BY GENRE
“gossip is not a trivial pastime; it is essential to human social,
psychological, and even physical well-being.” Many echo her view that
gossip is a worthy activity, claiming that engaging in gossip produces
endorphins, reduces stress, and aids in building intimate relationships.
Gossip, seen at worst as a harmless outlet, is encouraged in the
workplace. Since much of its content is not inherently critical or
malicious, it is viewed as a positive activity. However, this view does
nothing to encourage those speaking or listening to evaluate or
examine motive or purpose; instead, it seems to reflect the “anything
goes” thinking so prevalent today.
Conversely, writer and high school English and geography
teacher Lennox V. Farrell of Toronto, Canada, in his essay titled
“Gossip: An Urban Form of Sorcery,” presents gossip as a kind of
“witchcraft . . . based on using unsubstantiated accusations by those
who make them, and on uncritically accepting these by those enticed
into listening.” Farrell uses gossip in its more widely understood
definition, encompassing the breaking of confidences, inappropriate
sharing of indiscretions, destructive tale-bearing, and malicious
slander.
What, then, is gossip? We no longer use the term to refer to our
children’s godparents. Its current definition usually comes with
derogatory implications. Imagine a backyard garden: You see a variety
of greenery, recognizing at a glance that you are looking at different
kinds of plants. Taking a closer look, you will find the gossip vine;
inconspicuously blending in, it doesn’t appear threatening, but
ultimately it destroys. If left in the garden it will choke and then suck
out life from its host. Zoom in on the garden scene and follow the
creeping vine up trees and along a fence where two neighbors visit.
You can overhear one woman saying to the other, “I know I should be
Good use of metaphor
to depict gossip as
negative.
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CHAPTER 7 Definition Arguments 185
FOR ANALYSIS AND DEBATE
GLAMOUR, THAT CERTAIN SOMETHING ROBIN GIVHAN
Robin Givhan is a graduate of Princeton and holds a master’s degree in journalism from
the University of Michigan. When she was fashion editor at The Washington Post, she
won a Pulitzer Prize (2006) for criticism, the first time the prize was awarded to a fashion
writer. In 2010 she moved to The Daily Beast and Newsweek, but was laid off by these
publications in December 2012, when Newsweek gave up print journalism. Givhan’s cov-
erage of the world of fashion frequently becomes a study of culture, as we see in the fol-
lowing column, published February 17, 2008, shortly before the 2008
Academy Awards show.
PREREADING QUESTIONS What is the difference between glamour and good looks?
What famous people do you consider glamorous?
Glamour isn’t a cultural necessity, but its usefulness can’t be denied.
It makes us feel good about ourselves by making us believe that life can
sparkle. Glamorous people make difficult tasks seem effortless. They appear to
cruise through life shaking off defeat with a wry comment. No matter how hard
they work for what they have, the exertion never seems to show. Yet the cool
confidence they project doesn’t ever drift into lassitude.
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the last to tell you, but your husband is being unfaithful to me.”
(Caption from a cartoon by Alan De la Nougerede.)
The current popular movement to legitimize gossip seems an
excuse to condone the human tendency to puff-up oneself. Compared
in legal terms, gossip is to conversation as hearsay is to eyewitness
testimony; it’s not credible. Various religious doctrines abhor the idea
and practice of gossip. An old Turkish proverb says, “He who gossips
to you will gossip of you.” From the Babylonian Talmud, which calls
gossip the three-pronged tongue, destroying the one talking, the one
listening, and the one being spoken of, to the Upanishads, to the Bible,
we can conclude that no good fruit is born from gossip. Let’s tend our
gardens and check our motives when we have the urge to gossip.
Surely we can find more noble pursuits than the self-aggrandizement
we have come to know as gossip.
Conclusion states view
that gossip is to be
avoided—the writer’s
thesis.
Courtesy of Laura Mullins.
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186 SECTION 3 STUDYING SOME ARGUMENTS BY GENRE
Hollywood attracts people of glamour—as well as the misguided souls who
confuse it with mere good looks—because that is where it is richly rewarded.
And the Academy Awards are the epicenter of it all. We’ll watch the Oscars next
Sunday to delight in the stars who glide down the red carpet like graceful swans
or who swagger onto the stage looking dashing.
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Of course, we’ll watch for other reasons, too. There’s always the possibility
of a supremely absurd fashion moment or an acceptance speech during which
the winner becomes righteously indignant—Michael Moore–style—or practically
hyperventilates like Halle Berry. While Moore, a nominee, is not glamorous, he is
compelling for the sheer possibility of an impolitic eruption. Berry isn’t glamorous
either, mostly because nothing ever looks effortless with her. (She has even
expressed anguish over her beauty.) Mostly, though, we will watch in search of
“old Hollywood” glamour. But really, is there any other kind?
Among the actors who consistently manage to evoke memories of Cary
Grant or Grace Kelly are George Clooney and Cate Blanchett. There’s something
about the way they present themselves that speaks to discretion, sex appeal and
glossy perfection. As an audience, we think we know these actors but we really
don’t. We know their image, the carefully crafted personality they display to the
public. If they have been to rehab, they went quietly and without a crowd of
paparazzi.
Their lives appear to be an endless stream of lovely adventures, minor
mishaps that turn into cocktail party banter, charming romances and just enough
gravitas to keep them from floating away on a cloud of frivolity.
These actors take pretty pictures because they seem supremely comfortable
with themselves. It’s not simply their beauty we’re seeing; it’s also an unapologetic
pleasure in being who they are.
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CHAPTER 7 Definition Arguments 187
Oscar nominee Tilda Swinton has the kind of striking, handsome looks of
Anjelica Huston or Lauren Bacall. But Swinton doesn’t register as glamorous as
much as cool. She looks a bit androgynous and favors the eccentric Dutch
design team of Viktor & Rolf, which once populated an entire runway show with
Swinton doppelgangers. Coolness suggests that the person knows something or
understands something that average folks haven’t yet figured out. Cool people
are a step ahead. Glamour is firmly situated in the now.
There’s nothing particularly intimate about glamour, which is why it plays
so well on the big screen and why film actors who embody it can sometimes be
disappointing in real life. Glamour isn’t like charisma, which is typically described
as the ability to make others feel important or special.
Neither quality has much to do with a person’s inner life. Glamour is no mea-
sure of soulfulness or integrity. It isn’t about truth, but perception. Redbook
traffics in truth. Vogue promotes glamour.
Although Hollywood is the natural habitat for the glitterati, they exist
everywhere: politics, government, sports, business. Tiger Woods brought
glamour to golf with his easy confidence and his ability to make the professional
game look as simple as putt-putt. Donald Trump aspires to glamour with his
flashy properties and their gold-drenched decor. But his efforts are apparent, his
yearning obvious. The designer Tom Ford is glamorous. The man never rumples.
In the political world, Barack Obama has glamour. Bill Clinton has charisma.
And Hillary Clinton has an admirable work ethic. Bill Clinton could convince
voters that he felt their pain. Hillary Clinton reminds them detail by detail of how
she would alleviate it. Glamour has a way of temporarily making you forget about
the pain and just think the world is a beautiful place of endless possibilities.
Ronald Reagan evoked glamour. His white-tie inaugural balls and morning-
coat swearing-in were purposefully organized to bring a twinkle back to the
American psyche. George W. Bush has charisma, a.k.a. the likability factor,
although it does not appear to be helping his approval rating now. Still, he
remains a back-slapper and bestower of nicknames.
Charisma is personal. Glamour taps into a universal fairy tale. It’s
unconcerned with the nitty-gritty. Instead, it celebrates the surface gloss. And
sometimes, a little shimmer can be hard to resist.
Robin Givhan, “Glamour, That Certain Something,” The Washington Post, 17 Feb. 2008. Copyright ©2008
The Washington Post. All rights reserved. Used with permission and protected by the Copyright Laws of
the United States. The printing, copying, redistribution, or retransmission of the Material without express
written permission is prohibited. www.washingtonpost.com
QUESTIONS FOR READING
1. How does glamour make us feel?
2. Where do we usually find glamour? Why?
3. Which celebrities today best capture Hollywood’s glamour of the past?
4. What traits do the glamorous have?
5. Explain the differences among glamour, charisma, and cool.
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188 SECTION 3 STUDYING SOME ARGUMENTS BY GENRE
QUESTIONS FOR REASONING AND ANALYSIS
6. Examine the opening three sentences in paragraph 12. What makes them effective?
7. What are the specific strategies Givhan uses to develop her definition?
8. What is Givhan’s claim?
QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION AND WRITING
9. Givhan asserts that glamour is in the present but “cool people are a step ahead.” Does
this contrast make sense to you? Why or why not?
10. Do we ever really know the glamorous, charismatic, and cool celebrities? Explain.
11. Givhan provides specific examples of people with glamour. Are there others you
would add to her list? If so, explain why, based on Givhan’s definition.
12. Some young people aspire to be cool. How would you advise them? What should one
do, how should one behave, to be cool? Is “cool” a trait that we can “put on” if we wish?
Why or why not?
CROSSING THE AEGEAN IS
‘TRAUMATIC.’ YOUR BAD HAIR DAY ISN’T. NICHOLAS HASLAM
Professor and head of the School of Psychological Sciences at the University of
Melbourne, Nick Haslam received his PhD in clinical and social psychology from the
University of Pennsylvania and taught in the United States for several years before
returning to Australia. Haslam has written in his academic areas of interest, but also
frequently contributes to newspapers in several countries. His essay on trauma is
one of those op-ed articles.
PREREADING QUESTIONS How do you use the word trauma? Based on his expertise
and the title above, do you think Haslam is likely to agree with your use of the word?
These days, “trauma” seems epidemic.
A group of Columbia Law School students felt the “traumatic effects” of the
Michael Brown grand jury decision so keenly, they argued, that they needed
their finals postponed. A handful of Emory University students were “trauma-
tized” by finding “Trump 2016” chalked on campus sidewalks. A young professor
chronicled his traumatizing graduate training, which included discrimination and
job anxiety. And in an interview, a “trauma-sensitive yoga” instructor talked
through her “hair trauma”: “I grew up with really curly, frizzy hair in Miami, Florida.
When you’re 13, a bad hair day is overwhelming,” she said. “Even though I would
never compare that to someone who was abused, it’s an experience that shaped
my identity and, at the time, was intolerable.”
These aren’t isolated incidents. Trauma is being used to describe an
increasingly wide array of events. By today’s standards, it can be caused by
a microaggression, reading something offensive without a trigger warning or
even watching upsetting news unfold on television. As one blogger wrote, “Trauma
now seems to be pretty much anything that bothers anyone, in any way, ever.”
This is not a mere terminological fad. It reflects a steady expansion of the
word’s meaning by psychiatrists and the culture at large. And its promiscuous
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CHAPTER 7 Definition Arguments 189
use has worrying implications. When we describe misfortune, sadness or even
pain as trauma, we redefine our experience. Using the word “trauma” turns
every event into a catastrophe, leaving us helpless, broken and unable to
move on.
Like democracy, alarm clocks and the Olympics, we owe “trauma” to the
ancient Greeks. For them, trauma was severe physical injury; the word shares its
linguistic root with terms for breaking apart and bruising. Of course, doctors still
use “trauma” to describe physical harm. But more and more, we understand the
term in a second way—as an emotional injury rather than a physical wound.
This shift started in the late 19th century, when neurologists such as
Jean-Martin Charcot and Sigmund Freud posited that some neuroses were
caused by deeply distressing experiences. The idea was revolutionary—a
dawning recognition that shattered minds could be explained psychologically as
well as biologically.
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Ideas about psychological trauma continued to take shape in the 20th
century, but the physical sense still dominated. In 1952, the first edition of The
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, which catalogues
psychological illnesses, mentioned the term only in relation to brain injuries
caused by force or electric shock.
By 1980, that had changed. The DSM’s third edition recognized post-
traumatic stress disorder for the first time, though the definition of a “traumatic
event” was relatively focused—it had to be “outside the range of usual human
experience” and severe enough to “evoke significant symptoms of distress in
almost everyone.” The DSM-III’s authors argued that common experiences such
as chronic illness, marital conflict and bereavement did not meet the definition.
Later editions of psychiatry’s “bible”—really more like a field guide to the
species of human misery—loosened the definition further, expanding it to
incorporate indirect experiences such as violent assaults of family members and
friends, along with “developmentally inappropriate sexual experiences” and
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190 SECTION 3 STUDYING SOME ARGUMENTS BY GENRE
occasions when people witness serious injury or death. One study found that 19
events qualified as traumatic in the DSM-IV; just 14 would have qualified in the
revised edition of the DSM-III.
This broadening of the definition was justified in part by the finding that people
who were indirectly exposed to stressful events could develop PTSD symptoms.
Even so, researchers became concerned that elastic concepts of trauma “risk triv-
ializing the suffering of those exposed to catastrophic life events.” As psychologist
Stephen Joseph explained in a 2011 interview, “The DSM over-medicalizes human
experience. Things which are relatively common, relatively normal, are turned into
psychiatric disorders.”
An Army National Guard medic argued in Scientific American that “clinicians
aren’t separating the few who really have PTSD from those who are experiencing
things like depression or anxiety or social and reintegration problems, or who
are just taking some time getting over it.” This, he worried, would lead to people
being “pulled into a treatment and disability regime that will mire them in a
self-fulfilling vision of a brain rewired, a psyche permanently haunted.”
That hasn’t stopped definition expansion. The federal Substance Abuse and
Mental Health Services Administration, for example, now says trauma can involve
ongoing circumstances rather than a distinct event—no serious threat to life or
limb necessary. Trauma, by the agency’s definition, doesn’t even have to be out-
side normal experience. No wonder clinicians increasingly identify such common
experiences as uncomplicated childbirth, marital infidelity, wisdom-tooth
extraction and hearing offensive jokes as possible causes of PTSD.
This thinking has seeped into our culture as well. The word “trauma” itself
has exploded in popularity in recent decades. A search of the 500 billion words
that make up the Google Books database reveals that “trauma” appeared at four
times the rate in 2005 as in 1965. According to Google Trends, interest in the
word has grown by a third in the past five years.
How to explain this change? For one thing, the broadening of “trauma” coin-
cides with other psychological shifts, such as a sense that our life outcomes are out
of our control. According to one study, young people increasingly believe that their
destinies are determined by luck, fate or powerful people besides themselves. Peo-
ple who hold these beliefs are more likely to feel helpless and unable to manage
stress. Trauma is a way to explain life’s problems as someone else’s fault.
A second explanation can be found in my work on “concept creep.” In recent
decades, several psychological concepts have undergone semantic inflation.
The definitions of abuse, addiction, bullying, mental disorder and prejudice have
all expanded to include a broad range of phenomena. This reflects a growing
sensitivity to harm in Western societies. By broadening the reach of these
concepts—recognizing emotional manipulation as abuse, the spreading of
rumors as bullying and increasingly mild conditions as psychiatric problems—we
identify more people as victims of harm. We express a well-intentioned
unwillingness to accept things that were previously tolerated, but we also risk
over-sensitivity: defining relatively innocuous phenomena as serious problems
that require outside intervention. The expansion of the concept of trauma runs
the same risk.
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CHAPTER 7 Definition Arguments 191
All of this is problematic. The way we interpret an experience affects how we
respond to it. Interpreting adversity as trauma makes it seem calamitous and likely
to have lasting effects. When an affliction is seen as traumatic, it becomes something
overwhelming—something that breaks us, that is likely to produce post-traumatic
symptoms and that requires professional intervention. Research shows that people
who tend to interpret negative events as catastrophic and long-lasting are more
susceptible to post-traumatic reactions. Perceiving challenging life experiences as
traumas may therefore increase our vulnerability to them.
Our choice of language matters. A famous study by cognitive psychologist
Elizabeth Loftus illustrates why. Loftus showed people films of traffic accidents
and asked them to judge the speed of the cars involved, using subtly varying
instructions. Different study participants were asked how fast the cars were
going when they “smashed,” “collided,” “bumped,” “hit” or “contacted” each
other. Despite watching the very same collisions, people judged the cars to be
traveling 28 percent faster when they were described as “smashing” rather than
“contacting.”
To define all adversities as traumas is akin to seeing all collisions as smashes.
People collide with misfortune all the time: Sometimes it smashes them, but
often they merely make contact.
Another fine invention of the ancient Greeks was stoicism. Contrary to
popular opinion, the stoics did not think we should simply endure or brush off
adversity. Rather, they believed that we should confront suffering with composure
and rational judgment. We should all cultivate stoic wisdom to judge the
difference between traumas that can break us apart and normal adversities that
we can overcome.
Nick Haslam, “Crossing the Aegean is ‘Traumatic.’ Your Bad Hair Day Isn’t,” The Washington Post, 14 Aug.
2016. Used with permission of the author.
QUESTIONS FOR READING
1. What was the original meaning of the word trauma? What second meaning developed
over time? When was trauma officially accepted as a psychological disorder?
2. How has the term expanded subsequent to the 4th edition of the DSM?
3. What kinds of human experience are now described as traumatic by the Substance
Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration?
4. What causes does Haslam offer to account for the expanding meaning of trauma—and
other concepts—in our culture?
5. Why does the author find these changing views distressing? What can happen when we
see adversities as traumas?
QUESTIONS FOR REASONING AND ANALYSIS
6. What point does the author want to make about the changing definition of trauma? That
is, what is Haslam’s claim?
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192 SECTION 3 STUDYING SOME ARGUMENTS BY GENRE
7. What specific strategies for defining are used by Haslam?
8. What does the author seek to accomplish in paragraph 15? How does this discussion of
language advance his argument?
9. What is clever about Haslam’s discussion of the Greek philosophy of Stoicism in the
final paragraph?
QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION AND WRITING
10. Which defining strategies are most effectively used by Haslam? Defend your selection.
11. Do you agree with Haslam that not only has the meaning of trauma been greatly ex-
panded but also that this is a problem? If you disagree, how would you refute his argu-
ment? (Note: There is good evidence that our choice of language matters.)
12. Does your experience confirm Haslam’s analysis that we tend today, as a culture, to la-
bel many kinds of unpleasant experiences as cause for trauma? If so, what examples can
you add to this discussion?
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SUGGESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION AND WRITING
1. In the student essay, Laura Mullins defines the term gossip. Select one of the following
words to define and prepare your own extended definition argument, using at least three of
the strategies for defining described in this chapter. For each word in the list, you see a com-
panion word in parentheses. Use that companion word as a word that you contrast with the
word you are defining. (For example, how does gossip differ from conversation?) The idea
of an extended definition argument is to make fine distinctions among words similar in
meaning.
courtesy (manners) hero (star)
wisdom (knowledge) community (subdivision)
patriotism (chauvinism) freedom (liberty)
2. Select a word you believe is currently misused. It can be misused because it has taken on a
negative (or positive) connotation that it did not originally have, or because it has changed
meaning and lost something in the process. A few suggestions include awful, awesome,
fabulous, exceptional (in education), propaganda.
3. Define a term that is currently used to label people with particular traits or values.
Possibilities include nerd, yuppie, freak, jock, redneck, bimbo, wimp. Reflect, before
selecting this topic, on why you want to explain the meaning of the word you have chosen.
One purpose might be to explain the word to someone from another culture. Another might
be to defend people who are labeled negatively by a term; that is, you want to show why the
term should not have a negative connotation.
CREDITS
1. David Norman. Dinosaur! John Wiley & Sons, 1991.
2. Andrew Sullivan. “Why I Blog.” The Atlantic, Nov. 2008.
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CHAPTER 8
Evaluation Arguments
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READ: What is the situation? Where are we?
REASON: Look at the faces; what do you infer to be the attitude of the
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REASON/WRITE: What is the photo’s message?
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195
“I really love Ben’s Camaro; it’s so much more fun to go out with him than to go with Gregory in his Volvo wagon,” you confide to a friend. “On the other hand, Ben
always wants to see the latest horror movie—and boy are they horrid! I’d much rather
watch one of our teams play—whatever the season; sports events are so much more fun
than horror movies!”
“Well, at least you and Ben agree not to listen to Amy Winehouse CDs. Her life
was so messed up; why would anyone admire her music?” your friend responds.
CHARACTERISTICS OF EVALUATION ARGUMENTS
Evaluations. How easy they are to make. We do it all the time. So, surely an evaluation
argument should be easy to prepare. Not so fast. Remember at the beginning of the
discussion of argument in Chapter 3, we observed that we do not argue about personal
preferences because there is no basis for building an argument. If you don’t like horror
movies, then don’t go to them—even with Ben! However, once you assert that sporting
events are more fun than horror movies, you have shifted from personal preference to
the world of argument, the world in which others will judge the effectiveness of your
logic and evidence. On what basis can you argue that one activity is more fun than the
other? And, always more fun? And, more fun for everyone? You probably need to
qualify this claim and then you will need to establish the criteria by which you have
made your evaluation. Although you might find it easier to defend your preference for a
car for dates, you, at least in theory, can build a convincing argument for a qualified
claim in support of sporting events. Your friend, though, will have great difficulty
justifying her evaluation of Winehouse based on Winehouse’s lifestyle. An evaluation
of her music needs to be defended based on criteria about music—unless she wants to
argue that any music made by people with unconventional or immoral lifestyles will be
bad music, a tough claim to defend.
In a column for Time Magazine, Charles Krauthammer argues that Tiger Woods is
the greatest golfer ever to play the game. He writes:
How do we know? You could try Method 1: Compare him directly with the former
greatest golfer, Jack Nicklaus. … But that is not the right way to compare. You cannot
compare greatness directly across the ages. There are so many intervening variables:
changes in technology, training, terrain, equipment, often rules and customs.
How then do we determine who is greatest? Method 2: The Gap. Situate each
among his contemporaries. Who towers? … Nicklaus was great, but he ran with peers:
Palmer, Player, Watson. Tiger has none.1
Krauthammer continues with statistics to demonstrate that there is no one playing now with
Tiger who comes close in number of tournaments won, number of majors won, and number
of strokes better in these events than the next player. He then applies the Gap Method to
Babe Ruth in baseball, Wayne Gretzky in hockey, and Bobby Fischer in chess to demon-
strate that it works to reveal true greatness in competition among the world’s best.
Krauthammer clearly explains his Gap Method, his basic criterion for judging
greatness. Then he provides the data to support his conclusions about who are or were
the greatest in various fields. His is a convincing evaluation argument.
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196 SECTION 3 STUDYING SOME ARGUMENTS BY GENRE
These examples suggest some key points about evaluation arguments:
• Evaluation arguments are arguments, not statements of personal preferences.
As such, they need a precise, qualified claim and reasons and evidence for support,
just like any argument.
• Evaluation arguments are about “good” and “bad,” “best” and “worst.” These
arguments are not about what we should or should not do or why a situation is the way
it is. The debate is not whether one should select a boyfriend based on the kind of car he
drives or why horror movies have so much appeal for many viewers. The argument is
that sports events are great entertainment, or better entertainment than horror movies.
• Evaluation arguments need to be developed based on a clear statement of the
criteria for evaluating. Winehouse won Grammys for her music—why? By what
standards of excellence do we judge a singer? A voice with great musicality and
nuance? The selection of songs with meaningful lyrics? The ability to engage lis-
teners—the way the singer can “sell” a song? The number of recordings sold and
awards won? All of these criteria? Something else?
• Evaluation arguments, to be successful, may need to defend the criteria, not
just to list them and show that the subject of the argument meets those
criteria. Suppose you want to argue that sporting events are great entertainment
because it is exciting to cheer with others, you get to see thrilling action, and it is
good, clean fun. Are sports always “good, clean fun”? Some of the fighting in
hockey matches is quite vicious. Some football players get away with dirty hits.
Krauthammer argues that his Gap Method provides the better criterion for judging
greatness and then shows why it is the better method. Do not underestimate the
challenge of writing an effective evaluation argument.
TYPES OF EVALUATION ARGUMENTS
The examples we have examined above are about people or items or experiences in
our lives. Tiger Woods is the greatest golfer ever, based on the Gap Method strategy.
Sports events are more fun to attend than horror movies. We can (and do!) evaluate
just about everything we know or do or buy. This is one type of evaluation argument.
In this category we would place the review—of a book, movie, concert, or something
similar.
A second type of evaluation is a response to another person’s argument. We are not
explaining why the car or college, sitcom or singer, is good or great or the best. Instead,
we are responding to one specific argument we have read (or listened to) that we think
is flawed—flawed in many ways or in one significant way that essentially destroys the
argument. This type of evaluation argument is called a rebuttal or refutation argument.
Sometimes our response to what we consider a really bad argument is to go beyond
the rebuttal and write a counterargument. Rather than writing about the limitations and
flaws in our friend’s evaluation of Winehouse as a singer not to be listened to, we decide
to write our own argument evaluating Winehouse’s strengths as a contemporary singer.
This counterargument is best described as an evaluation argument, not a refutation.
Similarly, we can disagree with someone’s argument defending restrictions placed by
colleges on student file sharing. But if we decide to write a counterargument defending
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CHAPTER 8 Evaluation Arguments 197
students’ rights to share music files, we have moved from rebuttal to our own position
paper, our own argument based on values. Counterarguments are best seen as belonging
to one of the other genres of argument discussed in this section of the text.
PREPARING AN EVALUATION ARGUMENT
In addition to the guidelines for writing arguments presented in Chapter 4, you can use
the following advice specific to writing evaluation arguments.
Planning
1. Think: Why do you want to write this evaluation? Does it matter, or are you just
sharing your personal preferences? Select a topic that requires you to think deeply
about how we judge that item (college, book, album, etc.).
The basics of good argument apply to all arguments: a clear statement of
claim, qualified as appropriate, a clear explanation of reasons and evi-
dence, and enough relevant evidence to support the claim. When reading
evaluation arguments, use the following points as additional guides:
• What is the writer’s claim? Is it clear, qualified if necessary, and focused
on the task of evaluating?
• Has the writer considered audience as a basis for both claim and crite-
ria? Your college may be a good choice for you, given your criteria for
choosing, but is it a good choice for others? Qualifications need to be
based on audience: College A is a great school for young people in need
of B and with X amount of funds. Or: The Da Vinci Code is an entertaining
read for those with some understanding of art history and knowledge of
the Roman Catholic Church.
• What criteria are presented as the basis for evaluation? Are they
clearly stated? Do they seem reasonable for the topic of evaluation?
Are they defended if necessary?
• What evidence and/or reasons are presented to show that the item
under evaluation meets the criteria? Specifics are important in any
evaluation argument.
• What are the implications of the claim? If we accept the Gap Method for
determining greatness, does that mean that we can never compare stars
from different generations? If we agree with the rebuttal argument, does
that mean that there are no good arguments for the claim in the essay
being refuted?
• Is the argument convincing? Does the evidence lead you to agree
with the author? Do you want to buy that car, listen to that music, read
that book, see that film as a result of reading the argument?
Analyzing an
Evaluation
Argument
GUIDELINES for
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198 SECTION 3 STUDYING SOME ARGUMENTS BY GENRE
2. Think about audience: Try to imagine writing your evaluation for your class-
mates, not just your instructor. Instead of thinking about an assignment to be
graded, think about why we turn to reviews, for example. What do readers want to
learn? They want to know if they should see that film. Your job is to help them
make that decision.
3. Think: What are my criteria for evaluation? And, how will I measure my topic
against them to show that my evaluation is justified? You really must know how
you would determine a great singer or a great tennis player before you write, or you
risk writing only about personal preferences.
4. Establish a general plan: If you are writing a review, be sure to study the work
carefully. Can you write a complete and accurate summary? (It is easier to review
an album than a live concert because you can replay the album to get all the details
straight.) You will need to balance summary, analysis, and evaluation in a review—
and be sure that you do not mostly write summary or reveal the ending of a novel
or film! If you are evaluating a college or a car, think about how to order your cri-
teria. Do you want to list all criteria first and then show how your item connects to
them, point by point? Or, do you want the criteria to unfold as you make specific
points about your item?
To analyze a film, consider the plot, the characters, the actors who play the
lead characters, any special effects used, and the author’s (and director’s) “take” on
the story. If the “idea” of the film is insignificant, then it is hard to argue that it is a
great film. Analysis of style in a book needs to be connected to that book’s intended
audience. Style and presentation will vary depending on the knowledge and sophis-
tication of the intended reader. If, for example, you have difficulty understanding a
book aimed at a general audience, then it is fair to say that the author has not suc-
cessfully reached his or her audience. But if you are reviewing a book intended for
specialists, then your difficulties in reading are not relevant to a fair evaluation of that
book. You can point out, though, that the book is tough going for a nonspecialist—
just as you could point out that a movie sequel is hard to follow for those who did
not see the original film.
Drafting
1. Begin with an opening paragraph or two that engages your reader while introducing
your subject and purpose in writing. Is there a specific occasion that has led to your
writing? And what, exactly, are you evaluating?
2. Either introduce your criteria next and then show how your item for evaluation
meets the criteria, point by point, through the rest of the essay; or, decide on an
order for introducing your criteria and use that order as your structure. Put the most
important criterion either first or last. It can be effective to put the most controver-
sial point last.
3. If you are writing a review, then the basic criteria are already established. You
will need some combination of summary, analysis, and evaluation. Begin with
an attention-getter that includes a broad statement of the work’s subject or
subject category: This is a biography of Benjamin Franklin; this is a female
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CHAPTER 8 Evaluation Arguments 199
action-hero film. An evaluation in general terms can complete the opening
paragraph. For example:
Dr. Cynthia Pemberton’s new book, More Than a Game: One Woman’s Fight
for Gender Equity in Sport, is destined to become a classic in sport sociology,
sport history, and women’s studies.
4. The rest of the review will then combine summary details, analysis of presentation,
and a final assessment of the work in the concluding paragraph. From the same
review, after learning specifics of content, we read:
The target audience for this book includes educators, coaches, athletes, and
administrators at any level. Additionally, anyone interested in studying
women’s sports or pursuing a Title IX case will love this book.
5. Consider discussing the implications of your evaluation. Why is this important?
Obviously for a book or film or art show, for example, we want to know if this is a
“must read” or “must see.” For other evaluation arguments, let us know why we should
care about your subject and your perspective. Charles Krauthammer does not just argue
that Tiger Woods is the greatest golfer ever; he also argues that his Gap Method is the
best strategy for evaluation. That’s why he shows that it works not just to put Woods
ahead of Nicklaus but also to put other greats in their exalted place in other sports.
A CHECKLIST FOR REVISION
Do I have a good understanding of my purpose? Have I made my evaluation purpose
clear to readers?
Have I clearly stated my claim?
Have I clearly stated my criteria for evaluation—or selected the appropriate
elements of content, style, presentation, and theme for a review?
Have I organized my argument into a coherent structure by some pattern that readers
can recognize and follow?
Have I provided good evidence and logic to support my evaluation?
Have I used the basic checklist for revision in Chapter 4? (See p. 107.)
STUDENT REVIEW
WINCHESTER’S ALCHEMY: TWO MEN AND A BOOK
Ian Habel
One can hardly imagine a tale promising less excitement for a
general audience than that of the making of the Oxford English
Dictionary (OED). The sensationalism of murder and insanity would have
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200 SECTION 3 STUDYING SOME ARGUMENTS BY GENRE
to labor intensely against the burden of lexicography in crafting a
genuine page-turner on the subject. Much to my surprise, Simon
Winchester, in writing The Professor and the Madman: A Tale of Murder,
Insanity, and the Making of the Oxford English Dictionary, has succeeded
in producing so compelling a story that I was forced to devour it
completely in a single afternoon, an unprecedented personal feat.
The Professor and the Madman is the story of the lives of two
apparently very different men and the work that brought them
together. Winchester begins by recounting the circumstances that led
to the incarceration of Dr. W. C. Minor, a well-born, well-educated, and
quite insane American ex-Army surgeon. Minor, in a fit of delusion, had
murdered a man whom he believed to have crept into his Lambeth
hotel room to torment him in his sleep. The doctor is tried and whisked
off to the Asylum for the Criminally Insane, Broadmoor.
The author then introduces readers to the other two main
characters: the OED itself and its editor James Murray, a lowborn, self-
educated Scottish philologist. The shift in narrative focus is used to
dramatic effect. The natural assumption on the part of the reader that
these two seemingly unrelated plots must eventually meet urges us to
read on in anticipation of that connection. As each chapter switches
focus from one man to the other, it is introduced by a citation from the
OED, reminding us that the story is ultimately about the dictionary. The
citations also serve to foreshadow and provide a theme for the chapter.
For example, the OED definition of murder heads the first chapter,
relating to the details of Minor’s crime.
Winchester acquaints us with the shortcomings of seventeenth-
and eighteenth-century attempts at compiling a comprehensive
dictionary of the English language. He takes us inside the meetings of
the Philological Society, whose members proposed the compilation of
the dictionary to end all dictionaries. The OED was to include examples
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CHAPTER 8 Evaluation Arguments 201
of usage illustrating every shade of meaning for every word in the
English language. Such a mammoth feat would require enlisting
thousands of volunteer readers to comb the corpus of English
literature in search of illustrative quotations to be submitted on myriad
slips of paper. These slips of paper on each word would in turn be
studied by a small army of editors preparing the definitions.
It is not surprising that our Dr. Minor, comfortably tucked away at
Broadmoor, possessing both a large library and seemingly infinite free
time, should become one of those volunteer readers. After all, we are
still rightfully assuming some connection of the book’s two plot lines.
Yet what sets Dr. Minor apart from his fellow volunteers (aside from the
details of his incarceration) is the remarkable efficiency with which he
approached his task. Not content merely to fill out slips of paper for
submission, Minor methodically indexed every possibly useful mention
of any word appearing in his personal library. He then asked to be kept
informed of the progress of the work, submitting quotations that would
be immediately useful to editors. In this way he managed to “escape”
his cell and plunge himself into the work of contemporaries, to become
a part of a major event of his time.
Minor’s work proved invaluable to the OED’s staff of editors, led by
James Murray. With the two plot lines now intertwined, readers face
such questions as “Will they find out that Minor is insane?” “Will Minor
and Murray ever meet?” and “How long will they take to complete the
dictionary?” The author builds suspense regarding a meeting of Minor
and Murray by providing a false account of their first encounter, as
reported by the American press, only to shatter us with the fact that this
romantic version did not happen. I’ll let Winchester give you the answers
to these questions, while working his magic on you, drawing you into
this fascinating tale of the making of the world’s most famous dictionary.
Courtesy of Ian Habel.
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202 SECTION 3 STUDYING SOME ARGUMENTS BY GENRE
EVALUATING AN ARGUMENT: THE REBUTTAL
OR REFUTATION ESSAY
When your primary purpose in writing is to challenge someone’s argument rather than
to present your own argument, you are writing a rebuttal or refutation. A good refuta-
tion demonstrates, in an orderly and logical way, the weaknesses of logic or evidence in
the argument. Study the following guidelines to prepare a good refutation essay and
then study the sample refutation that follows. It has been annotated to show you how the
author has structured his rebuttal.
1. Read accurately. Make certain that you have understood your opponent’s
argument. If you assume views not expressed by the writer and accuse the
writer of holding those illogical views, you are guilty of the straw man fallacy,
of attributing and then attacking a position that the person does not hold.
Look up terms and references you do not know and examine the logic and
evidence thoroughly.
2. Pinpoint the weaknesses in the original argument. Analyze the argument
to determine, specifically, what flaws the argument contains. If the argument
contains logical fallacies, make a list of the ones you plan to discredit. Exam-
ine the evidence presented. Is it insufficient, unreliable, or irrelevant? De-
cide, before drafting your refutation, exactly what elements of the argument
you intend to challenge.
3. Write your claim. After analyzing the argument and deciding on the weak-
nesses to be challenged, write a claim that establishes that your disagree-
ment is with the writer’s logic, assumptions, or evidence, or a combination of
these.
4. Draft your essay, using the following three-part organization:
a. The opponent’s argument. Usually you should not assume that your
reader has read or remembered the argument you are refuting. Thus at
the beginning of your essay, you need to state, accurately and fairly, the
main points of the argument to be refuted.
b. Your claim. Next make clear the nature of your disagreement with the
argument you are rebutting.
c. Your refutation. The specifics of your rebuttal will depend on the nature of
your disagreement. If you are challenging the writer’s evidence, then you
must present the evidence that will show why the evidence used is
unreliable or misleading. If you are challenging assumptions, then you
must explain why they do not hold up. If your claim is that the piece is filled
with logical fallacies, then you must present and explain each fallacy.
GUIDELINES Preparing a Refutation or Rebuttal Argumentfor
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CHAPTER 8 Evaluation Arguments 203
GLOBALIZATION
SHOULDN’T BE A DIRTY WORD DOUGLAS HOLTZ-EAKIN
Recognized as a scholar of applied economic policy, Douglas Holtz-Eakin served,
between 2001 and 2008, in a number of government positions, including director of the
Congressional Budget Office. He is currently president of the American Action Forum.
His essay on globalization appeared in 2016.
PREREADING QUESTIONS Given the article’s title and opening paragraph, what purpose
do you expect the author to have? What does the term globalization mean to you?
Robots reduce factory jobs—but someone designed the robot and some company now
makes them!
”Globalization”—broadly defined as market-driven, cross-national flows of
goods, services and investments—has become a dirty word. It is derided by U.S.
presidential candidates, feared and rejected by the public, and evidently headed
to the dustbin of policy ideals. This, despite its contributions in the past two
decades to dramatically reducing poverty in developing countries and improving
productivity and standards of living in the developed world. What can get global-
ization back on track?
First, tell the truth about the successes and failures of globalization. The North
American Free Trade Agreement was a success, both economically and strategi-
cally. In purely economic terms, it benefited Canada, Mexico and (modestly) the
United States. It also solidified a democratic neighbor on the southern border.
It was a success and should not be mischaracterized for cheap political gain.
1 Attention-getting
opening.
1st point of
refutation:
Globalization
has been
mischaracterized.
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204 SECTION 3 STUDYING SOME ARGUMENTS BY GENRE
The entry of China and India into the world trading system was also an enor-
mously successful global anti-poverty program. But it is also true that its effect on
global wage scales was far greater than anticipated, and Western policy
responses were inadequate to deal with the fallout. Globalization is neither a
resounding success nor an unmitigated disaster; the truth lies in between.
Second, stop further deterioration. The toughest moment for globalization—
the entrance of China and India—is in the rear-view mirror and won’t be repeated.
The greatest danger of this moment is not that additional steps on the path to
globalization—the TPP or the Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership—
will not go forward. Rather, the greatest danger is self-inflicted wounds—actively
protectionist tariffs; retaliation and trade wars; and resulting global economic
downdrafts. Preventing these will be the biggest test of near-term political
leadership.
Third, improve the macro environment in which any future globalization
discussion takes place. Everyday Americans recognize the post-World War II
gains that accrued from aggregate growth north of 3 percent. They will similarly
be acutely aware of the slow pace of economic advance that comes with our
current 2 percent economic growth. Any notion that this “new normal” is
somehow acceptable should be immediately discarded. Structural reforms to
entitlements, the tax code, the regulatory state and education systems are
necessary complements to trade agreements and globalization. Trade economics
is not a zero-sum game, but the faster the economic growth, the more the
general public will believe this.
Fourth, we must address the aftereffects. Shifts in the patterns of trade are
accompanied by shifts in the pattern of employment, which may require more
robust transition assistance in the form of income support or training. But this is
just as true of shifts in domestic trade as it is international trade. Broadly
supporting workers through job transitions will ease the fears of globalization.
Finally, we must broaden the discussion. Any discussion of future trade
agreements should openly feature their strategic importance. Just as the General
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade knitted together the Western alliance and NAFTA
strengthened North American democracy, agreements such as the TPP are just
as important in terms of the U.S.-China strategic rivalry as they are for dollars and
cents.
Douglas Holtz-Eakin, “‘Globalization’ Shouldn’t Be a Dirty Word,” The Washington Post, 20 Oct.
2016. Used with permission of the author.
3
42nd point:
Isolationism will
hurt the U.S.
economically.
53rd point: Clearly
state the steps
needed to make
globalization
a success.
64th point: Be
honest about
the effects of
globalization.
5th point: Stress
the relationship
between trade
agreements and
U.S. strategic
goals.
7
QUESTIONS FOR READING
1. What does globalization mean?
2. What successes has this economic activity produced in the last two decades? What
problem has it caused?
3. What can be done to stop further problems from globalization in the U.S.?
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CHAPTER 8 Evaluation Arguments 205
4. What will improve the macroeconomic environment? What do shifts in trade
policies produce?
5. In what larger context should global trade agreements be discussed?
QUESTIONS FOR REASONING AND ANALYSIS
6. What is the author’s claim? (Don’t repeat the title; it is clever but not precise.)
7. Economic issues can be complex; how does Holtz-Eakin help readers follow his
analysis?
8. What does the author mean when he writes that trade economics is “not a zero-sum
game”?
QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION AND WRITING
9. The author connects negative attitudes toward globalization with a lackluster
economy. If we saw an increase in gross domestic production to 3 percent, would
that help Americans see the advantages of globalization? Could you now explain to
friends with this negative attitude why 3 percent growth should make them change
their views?
10. Have you objected to globalization as producing nothing but trouble? If so, has
Holtz-Eakin changed your thinking? If so, why? If not, why not?
FOR ANALYSIS AND DEBATE
CHRISTMAS-TREE TOTALITARIANS THOMAS SOWELL
A former professor of economics with a PhD from the University of Chicago, Thomas
Sowell is currently a senior fellow at the Hoover Institution at Stanford University. He is the
author of numerous books and articles, including Intellectuals and Society (2009). The
following column was published on December 25, 2012, in the National Review Online.
PREREADING QUESTIONS Does the title give you any clue as to the subject of Sowell’s
essay—beyond connecting it to its publication date? What might be his general
subject or approach?
When I was growing up, an older member of the family used to say, “What
you don’t know would make a big book.” Now that I am an older member of the
family, I would say to anyone, “What you don’t know would fill more books than
the Encyclopaedia Britannica.” At least half of society’s trouble come from know-
it-alls, in a world where nobody knows even 10 percent of it all.
Some people seem to think that, if life is not fair, then the answer is to turn
more of the nation’s resources over to politicians—who will, of course, then
spend these resources in ways that increase the politicians’ chance of getting
reelected.
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206 SECTION 3 STUDYING SOME ARGUMENTS BY GENRE
The annual outbursts of intolerance toward any display of traditional
Christmas scenes, or even daring to call a Christmas tree by its name, show that
today’s liberals are by no means liberal. Behind the mist of their lofty words, the
totalitarian mindset shows through.
If you don’t want to have a gun in your
home or in your school, that’s your choice. But
don’t be such a damn fool as to advertise to
the whole world that you are in “a gun-free
environment” where you are a helpless target
for any homicidal fiend who is armed. Is it
worth a human life to be a politically correct
moral exhibitionist?
The more I study the history of intellectu-
als, the more they seem like a wrecking crew,
dismantling civilization bit by bit—replacing
what works with what sounds good.
Some people are wondering what takes so
long for the negotiations about the “fiscal cliff.”
Maybe both sides are waiting for supplies.
Democrats may be waiting for more cans to
kick down the road. Republicans may be wait-
ing for more white flags to hold up in surrender.
If I were rich, I would have a plaque made up, and sent to every judge in
America, bearing a statement made by Adam Smith more than two-and-a-half
centuries ago: “Mercy to the guilty is cruelty to the innocent.”
If someone wrote a novel about a man who was raised from childhood to
resent the successful and despise the basic values of America—and who then went
on to become president of the United States—that novel would be considered too
unbelievable, even for a work of fiction. Yet that is what has happened in real life.
Many people say, “War should be a last resort.” Of course it should be a last
resort. So should heart surgery, divorce, and many other things. But that does
not mean that we should just continue to hope against hope indefinitely that
things will work out, somehow, until catastrophe suddenly overtakes us.
Everybody is talking about how we are going to pay for the huge national
debt, but nobody seems to be talking about the runaway spending that created
that record-breaking debt. In other words, the big spenders get political benefits
from handing out goodies, while those who resist giving them more money to
spend will be blamed for sending the country off the “fiscal cliff.”
When Barack Obama refused to agree to a requested meeting with Israeli
prime minister Benjamin Netanyahu—the leader of a country publically and
repeatedly threatened with annihilation by Iran’s leaders, as the Iranians move
toward creating nuclear bombs—I thought of a line from the old movie classic
Citizen Kane: “Charlie wasn’t cruel. He just did cruel things.”
There must be something liberating about ignorance. Back when most
members of Congress had served in the military, there was a reluctance of
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CHAPTER 8 Evaluation Arguments 207
politicians to try to tell military leaders how to run
the military services. But, now that few members
of Congress have ever served in the military,
they are ready to impose all sorts of fashionable
notions on the military.
After watching a documentary about the
tragic story of Jonestown, I was struck by the ut-
terly unthinking way that so many people put
themselves completely at the mercy of a glib
and warped man, who led them to degradation
and destruction. And I could not help thinking of
the parallel with the way we put a glib and
warped man in the White House.
There are people calling for the banning of
assault weapons who could not define an “as-
sault weapon” if their lives depended on it. Yet the ignorant expect others to take
them seriously.
Thomas Sowell, “Christmas-Tree Totalitarians,” National Review Online, 25 Dec. 2012. Reprinted by per-
mission of Thomas Sowell and Creators Syndicate, Inc. © 2012 Creators Syndicate, Inc.
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QUESTIONS FOR READING
1. Who, in Sowell’s view, are totalitarians?
2. Who are “politically correct moral exhibitionist[s]”?
3. What action leads the author to write that Obama does “cruel things”? What else
does Sowell call Obama?
QUESTIONS FOR REASONING AND ANALYSIS
4. Sowell writes about Christmas trees, the fiscal cliff, Obama, guns, and the national
debt; how do these topics connect to give Sowell his general subject?
5. What, then, is the author’s claim? Do you see a general theme that unites the many
issues Sowell includes?
6. How does the author develop and support his claim?
7. Examine Sowell’s style and tone. How would you characterize his tone? Is his
approach likely to be effective for his primary audience? Explain.
QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION AND WRITING
8. Do you find any logical fallacies in Sowell’s argument? If so, how would you
challenge them?
9. Has Sowell supported his general claim and specific generalizations to your
satisfaction? Why or why not?
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208
SUGGESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION AND WRITING
1. Think about sports stars you know. Write an argument defending one player as the best in his
or her field of play. Think about whether you want to use Krauthammer’s “Method 1” or
“Method 2” or your own method for your criteria. (Remember that you can qualify your
argument; you could write about the best college football player this year, for example.)
2. If you like music, think about what you might evaluate from this field. Who is the best rock
band? Hip-hop artist? Country-western singer? And so forth. Be sure to make your criteria
for evaluation clear.
3. You have had many instructors—and much instruction—in the last twelve-plus years. Is
there one teacher who is/was the best? If so, why? Is there a teaching method that stands out
in your memory for the excellence of its approach? Find an evaluation topic from your
educational experiences.
4. Select an editorial, op-ed column, letter to the editor, or one of the essays in this text as an
argument with which you disagree. Prepare a refutation of the work’s logic or evidence or
both. Follow the guidelines for writing a refutation or rebuttal in this chapter.
5. What is your favorite book? Movie? Television show? Why is it your favorite? Does it
warrant an argument that it is really good, maybe even the best, in some way or in some
category (sitcoms, for example)? Write a review, following the guidelines for this type of
evaluation argument given in this chapter.
CREDIT
1. Charles, Krauthammer, “The Greatness Gap,” Time magazine, 1 July 2002.
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The Position Paper:
Claims of Values
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READ: The Bill of Rights, pictured above, was written to amend a very
important document in U.S. history. What document does the Bill of Rights
amend? Why was the Bill of Rights written?
REASON: What does the Bill of Rights establish for U.S. citizens? Why
do you think the Bill of Rights is included as the picture representing this
chapter?
REFLECT/WRITE: The original fourteen copies of the Bill of Rights
were handwritten for distribution. What are the advantages of distributing
a document like the Bill of Rights through today’s mass media technol-
ogy? What are the disadvantages?
CHAPTER 9
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210
A s we established in Chapter 4, all arguments involve values. Evaluation arguments require judgment—thoughtful judgment, one hopes, based on criteria—but
judgment nonetheless. If you believe that no one should spend more than $25,000 for a
car, then you will not appreciate the qualities that attract some people to Mercedes.
When one argues that government tax rates should go up as income goes up, it is
because one believes that it is right for government to redistribute income to some
degree: The rich pay more in taxes, the poor get more in services. When countries ban
the importing of ivory, they do so because they believe it is wrong to destroy the
magnificent elephant just so humans can use their ivory tusks for decorative items.
(Observe that the word magnificent expresses a value.)
Some arguments, though, are less about judging what is good or best, or less about
how to solve specific problems, than they are about stating a position on an issue. An
argument that defends a general position (segregated schools are wrong) may imply
action that should result (schools should be integrated), but the focus of the argument is
first to state and defend the position. It is helpful to view these arguments, based heavily
on values and a logical sequencing of ideas with less emphasis on specifics, as a sepa-
rate type—genre—of argument. These claims of values are often called position papers.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE POSITION PAPER
The position paper, or claim of values, may be the most difficult of arguments simply
because it is often perceived to be the easiest. Let’s think about this kind of argument:
• A claim based on values and argued more with logic than specifics is usually more
general or abstract or philosophical than other types of argument. Greenpeace
objects to commercial fishing that uses large nets that ensnare dolphins along with
commercial fish such as tuna. Why? Because we ought not to destroy such beautiful
and highly developed animals. Because we ought not to destroy more than we need,
to waste part of nature because we are careless or in a hurry. For Greenpeace, the
issue is about values—though it may be about money for the commercial fishermen.
• The position paper makes a claim about what is right or wrong, good or bad, for us
as individuals or as a society. Topics can range from capital punishment to pornog-
raphy to reducing the amount of trash we toss.
• Although a claim based on values is often developed in large part by a logical
sequencing of reasons, support of principles also depends on relevant facts.
Remember the long list of specific abuses listed in the Declaration of Independence
(see pp. 153–156). If Greenpeace can show that commercial fisheries can be
successful using a different kind of net or staying away from areas heavily populated
by dolphins, it can probably get more support for its general principles.
• A successful position paper requires more than a forceful statement of personal
beliefs. If we can reason logically from principles widely shared by our audience,
we are more likely to be successful. If we are going to challenge their beliefs or
values, then we need to consider the conciliatory approach as a strategy for getting
them to at least listen to our argument.
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CHAPTER 9 The Position Paper: Claims of Values 211
When reading position papers, what should you look for? Again, the
basics of good argument apply here as well as with definition arguments.
To analyze claims of values specifically, use these questions as guides:
• What is the writer’s claim? Is it clear?
• Is the claim qualified if necessary? Some claims of value are broad
philosophical assertions (“Capital punishment is immoral and bad pub-
lic policy”). Others are qualified (“Capital punishment is acceptable only
in crimes of treason”).
• What facts are presented? Are they credible? Are they relevant to the
claim’s support?
• What reasons are given in support of the claim? What assumptions
are necessary to tie reasons to claim? Make a list of reasons and
assumptions and analyze the writer’s logic. Do you find any fallacies?
• What are the implications of the claim? For example, if you argue for
the legalization of all recreational drugs, you eliminate all “drug prob-
lems” by definition. But what new problems may be created by this
approach? Consider more car accidents and reduced productivity for
openers.
• Is the argument convincing? Does the evidence provide strong sup-
port for the claim? Are you prepared to agree with the writer, in whole
or in part?
GUIDELINES for Analyzing a
Claim of Value
PREPARING A POSITION PAPER
In addition to the guidelines for writing arguments presented in Chapter 4, you can use
the following advice specific to writing position papers or claims of value.
Planning
1. Think: What claim, exactly, do you want to support? Should you qualify your first
attempt at a claim statement?
2. Think: What grounds (evidence) do you have to support your claim? You may
want to make a list of the reasons and facts you would consider using to defend
your claim.
3. Think: Study your list of possible grounds and identify the assumptions (warrants)
and backing for your grounds.
4. Think: Now make a list of the grounds most often used by those holding views that
oppose your claim. This second list will help you prepare counterarguments to
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212 SECTION 3 STUDYING SOME ARGUMENTS BY GENRE
possible rebuttals, but first it will help you test your commitment to your position.
If you find the opposition’s arguments persuasive and cannot think how you would
rebut them, you may need to rethink your position. Ideally, your two lists will
confirm your views but also increase your respect for opposing views.
5. Consider: How can I use a conciliatory approach? With an emotion-laden or
highly controversial issue, the conciliatory approach can be an effective strategy.
Conciliatory arguments include
• the use of nonthreatening language,
• the fair expression of opposing views, and
• a statement of the common ground shared by opposing sides.
You may want to use a conciliatory approach when (1) you know your views will
be unpopular with at least some members of your audience; (2) the issue is highly emo-
tional and has sides that are “entrenched” so that you are seeking some accommodations
rather than dramatic changes of position; (3) you need to interact with members of your
audience and want to keep a respectful relationship going. The sample student essay on
gun control (at the end of this chapter) illustrates a conciliatory approach.
Drafting
1. Begin with an opening paragraph or two that introduces your topic in an interesting
way. Possibilities include a statement of the issue’s seriousness or reasons why the
issue is currently being debated—or why we should go back to reexamine it. Some
writers are spurred by a recent event that receives media coverage; recounting such
an event can produce an effective opening. You can also briefly summarize points
of the opposition that you will challenge in supporting your claim. Many counter-
arguments are position papers.
2. Decide where to place your claim statement. Your best choices are either early in
your essay or at the end of your essay, after you have made your case. The second
approach can be an effective alternative to the more common pattern of stating
one’s claim early.
3. Organize evidence in an effective way. One plan is to move from the least import-
ant to the most important reasons, followed by rebuttals to potential counterargu-
ments. Another possibility is to organize by the arguments of the opposition,
explaining why each of their reasons fails to hold up. A third approach is to orga-
nize logically. That is, if some reasons build on the accepting of other reasons,
you want to begin with the necessary underpinnings and then move forward from
those.
4. Maintain an appropriate level of seriousness for an argument of principle. Of
course, word choice must be appropriate to a serious discussion, but in addition be
sure to present reasons that are also appropriately serious. For example, if you are
defending the claim that music albums should not be subject to content labeling
because such censorship is inconsistent with First Amendment rights, do not trivi-
alize your argument by including the point that young people are tired of adults
controlling their lives. (This is another issue for another paper.)
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CHAPTER 9 The Position Paper: Claims of Values 213
5. Provide a logical defense of or specifics in support of each reason. You have not
finished your task by simply asserting several reasons for your claim. You also
need to present facts or examples for or a logical explanation of each reason. For
example, you have not defended your views on capital punishment by asserting that
it is right or just to take the life of a murderer. Why is it right or just? Executing the
murderer will not bring the victim back to life. Do two wrongs make a right? These
are some of the thoughts your skeptical reader may have unless you explain and
justify your reasoning. Remember: Quoting another writer’s opinion on your topic
does not provide proof for your reasons. It merely shows that someone else agrees
with you.
A CHECKLIST FOR REVISION
Do I have a clear statement of my claim? Is it qualified, if appropriate?
Have I organized my argument, building the parts of my support into a clear and
logical structure that readers can follow?
Have I avoided logical fallacies?
Have I found relevant facts and examples to support and develop my reasons?
Have I paid attention to appropriate word choice, including using a conciliatory
approach if that is a wise strategy?
Have I used the basic checklist for revision in Chapter 4 (see p. 107)?
STUDENT ESSAY
EXAMINING THE ISSUE OF GUN CONTROL
Chris Brown
The United States has a long history of compromise. Issues such
as representation in government have been resolved because of
compromise, forming some of the bases of American life. Americans,
however, like to feel that they are uncompromising, never willing to
surrender an argument. This attitude has led to a number of issues in
modern America that are unresolved, including the issue of gun
control. Bickering over the issue has slowed progress toward
legislation that will solve the serious problem of gun violence in
America, while keeping recreational use of firearms available to
responsible people. To resolve the conflict over guns, the arguments of
Introduction connects
ambivalence in
American character
to conflict over gun
control.
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214 SECTION 3 STUDYING SOME ARGUMENTS BY GENRE
both sides must be examined, with an eye to finding the flaws in both.
Then perhaps we can reach some meaningful compromises.
Gun advocates have used many arguments for the continued
availability of firearms to the public. The strongest of these defenses
points to the many legitimate uses for guns. One use is protection
against violence, a concern of some people in today’s society. There
are many problems with the use of guns for protection, however, and
these problems make the continued use of firearms for protection
dangerous. One such problem is that gun owners are not always able
to use guns responsibly. When placed in a situation in which personal
injury or loss is imminent, people often do not think intelligently.
Adrenaline surges through the body, and fear takes over much of the
thinking process. This causes gun owners to use their weapons, firing
at whatever threatens them. Injuries and deaths of innocent people,
including family members of the gun owner, result. Removing guns
from the house may be the best solution to these sad consequences.
Responding to this argument, gun advocates ask how they are to
defend themselves without guns. But guns are needed for protection
from other guns. If there are no guns, people need only to protect
themselves from criminals using knives, baseball bats, and other
weapons. Obviously the odds of surviving a knife attack are greater
than the odds of surviving a gun attack. One reason is that a gun is an
impersonal weapon. Firing at someone from fifty feet away requires
much less commitment than charging someone with a knife and
stabbing repeatedly. Also, bullet wounds are, generally, more severe
than knife wounds. Guns are also more likely to be misused when a
dark figure is in one’s house. To kill with the gun requires only to point
Student organizes
by arguments for
no gun control.
1. Guns for
protection.
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CHAPTER 9 The Position Paper: Claims of Values 215
and shoot; no recognition of the figure is needed. To kill with a knife,
by contrast, requires getting within arm’s reach of the figure, and
knowing, for sure, the identity of your presumed opponent.
There are other uses of guns, including recreation. Hunting and
target shooting are valid, responsible uses of guns. How do we keep
guns available for recreation? The answer is in the form of gun clubs
and hunting clubs. Many are already established; more can be
constructed. These clubs can provide recreational use of guns for
responsible people while keeping guns off the streets and out of the
house.
The last argument widely used by gun advocates is the
constitutional right to bear arms. The fallacies in this argument are that
the Constitution was written in a vastly different time. This different
time had different uses for guns, and a different type of gun. Firearms
were defended in the Constitution because of their many valid uses
and fewer problems. Guns were mostly muskets, guns that were not
very accurate beyond close range. Also, guns took more than thirty
seconds to load in the eighteenth century and could fire only one shot
before reloading. These differences with today’s guns affect the
relative safety of guns then and now. In addition, those who did not
live in the city at the time used hunting for food as well as for
recreation; hunting was a necessary component of life. That is not true
today. Another use of guns in the eighteenth century was as protection
from animals. Wild animals such as bears and cougars were much
more common. Settlers, explorers, and hunters needed protection
from these animals in ways not comparable with modern life.
Finally, Revolutionary America had no standing army. Defense of the
nation and of one’s home from other nations relied on local militia. The
right to bear arms granted in the Constitution was inspired by the need for
2. Recreational
uses.
3. Second
Amendment
rights.
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216 SECTION 3 STUDYING SOME ARGUMENTS BY GENRE
national protection as well as by the other outdated needs previously
discussed. Today America has a standing army with enough weaponry to
adequately defend itself from outside aggressors. There is no need for
every citizen to carry a musket, or an AK-47, for the protection of the
nation. It would seem, then, that the Second Amendment does not fully
apply to modern society. While it justifies gun ownership, it is open to
restrictions and controls based on the realities of today’s world.
To reach a compromise, we also have to examine the other side
of the issue. Some gun-control advocates argue that all guns are
unnecessary and should be outlawed. The problem with this argument
is that guns will still be available to those who do not mind breaking
the law. Until an economically sound and feasible way of controlling
illegal guns in America is found, guns cannot be totally removed, no
matter how much legislation is passed. This means that if guns are to
be outlawed for other than recreational uses, a way must be found to
combat the illegal gun trade that will evolve. Tough criminal laws and a
large security force are all that can be offered to stop illegal uses of
guns until better technology is available. This means that, perhaps, a
good resolution would involve gradual restrictions on guns, until
eventually guns were restricted only to recreational uses in a
controlled setting for citizens not in the police or military.
Both sides on this issue have valid points. Any middle ground
needs to offer something to each side. It must address the reasons
people feel they need guns for protection and allow for valid
recreational use, but keep military-style guns off the street, except
when in the hands of properly trained police officers. Time and money
will be needed to move toward the removal of America’s huge gun
arsenal. But sooner or later a compromise on the issue of gun control
must be made to make America a safer, better place to live.
Student
establishes a
compromise
position.
Conclusion
restates student’s
claim.
Courtesy of Chris Brown.
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CHAPTER 9 The Position Paper: Claims of Values 217
ENDING INTOLERANCE
TOWARD MINORITY COMMUNITIES:
HATE ATTACKS ON SIKH AMERICANS ZAINAB CHAUDRY
Born in Pakistan, fluent in five languages, Zainab Chaudry is the Maryland outreach man-
ager for CAIR, the Council on American-Islamic Relations. At night she writes, using her
blog The Memorist, to reflect on life and politics. The article below was written for CAIR
August 11, 2014.
PREREADING QUESTIONS Who or what is a Sikh? (If you do not know, look it up before
reading the essay.) What are some examples of hate attacks?
Two years after the senseless shooting at a Sikh temple in Oak Creek,
Wisconsin that claimed six innocent lives, the challenges facing the Sikh
American community have only been compounded.
Members of this religious minority continue to be subjected to hate and bias
attacks from racists due to their physical appearance and traditional attire.
Last Thursday, a Sikh man walking with his mother was approached by three
teenagers who yelled racial and ethnic slurs at his mom before calling him
“Osama bin Laden” and physically assaulting him.
Only a few days before that, a 29-year-old father of two, Sandeep Singh,
was also victimized in a brutal hate crime. As he walked home with friends, a
man in a truck began shouting racial slurs and abuse at Singh, who wears a
turban. When Singh confronted him, the man reportedly mowed him down with
his truck. Singh is now hospitalized, struggling to recover from the extensive
injuries he sustained.
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218 SECTION 3 STUDYING SOME ARGUMENTS BY GENRE
Physically, both of these victims are expected to recuperate; however, the
mental and emotional trauma they have endured will take much longer to heal.
This most recent wave of attacks has heightened tensions in an already mar-
ginalized community that has suffered tremendous backlash in post-9/11 America.
These incidents fueled by bigotry and hatred must stop.
It is unconscionable, unjustifiable, and un-American to verbally or physically
assault anyone based on their race, religion, ethnicity, gender, or sexual orienta-
tion.
Hate is divisive and robs us of compassion and understanding. Intolerance
blinds us to the vast diversity that strengthens and beautifies our nation.
The Sikh community is compassionate, and proud. Many Sikhs in America
have shared heartbreaking stories of their struggle to reconcile their religious
beliefs with their American identity.
It is unacceptable that they—or members of any ethnic or religious group—
feel fearful of practicing their religion.
As a civil rights activist committed to advancing justice for all people, I
strongly believe that if we are not a part of the solution, then we are part of the
problem.
Martin Luther King, Jr., rightfully said: “Injustice anywhere is a threat to jus-
tice everywhere.” We cannot afford to idly sit back and ignore the threat bigotry
and racism pose in our society; we must unequivocally condemn it.
Groups in both public and private sectors must work together to combat
these issues that overshadow the discourse in marginalized communities across
the nation.
Faith in our justice system must be restored. Law enforcement officials must
take appropriate steps to discourage repeat attacks; they must conduct
thorough, fair investigations and they must be held accountable in making sure
justice is served.
And, perhaps most importantly, victims like Sandeep Singh and their families
must be made to feel safe again in an environment that appears increasingly
hostile towards all they represent.
Only when we unite as Americans to send a strong, clear message that
racism and bigotry are unacceptable, can we effectively work to cure the
intolerance that infects our society.
Zainab Chaudry, “Ending Intolerance Toward Minority Communities: Hate Attacks on Sikh Americans,”
altmuslimah.com, 11 Aug. 2014, www.altmuslimah.com Used with permission of the author.
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QUESTIONS FOR READING
1. What examples are provided of hate attacks on Sikhs? What does the author tell readers
about Sikhs?
2. What reasons does Chaudry offer to develop her subject?
3. What solutions to the problem of hate attacks are offered by the author?
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CHAPTER 9 The Position Paper: Claims of Values 219
QUESTIONS FOR REASONING AND ANALYSIS
4. Although Chaudry appears to be writing about hate attacks on Sikh Americans, what is
her broader subject? What, then, is her main point, her claim?
5. Examine the author’s reasons, her value statements; which are most effective in your
view? Why?
6. Chaudry lists our justice system as one solution to reducing hate attacks; what other
solutions does she present?
QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION AND WRITING
7. Why is “injustice anywhere” a “threat to justice everywhere”? Explain why this should
be so.
8. Chaudry argues that not only is hate divisive but it also “robs us of compassion and
understanding.” Does this assertion about human psychology make sense to you? If you
disagree with the assertion, how would you refute it?
9. Have you thought about trying to be part of the solution to bigotry and hate? If so, what
would you recommend that we do to address this problem in American society? If you
don’t think we should try to be part of the solution, how would you defend that
position?
A NEVER ENDING WAR KAYE WISE WHITEHEAD
Karsonya (Kaye) Wise Whitehead is an associate professor of communication and
African and African American Studies in the Department of Communication at Loyola
University Maryland. A former Baltimore City middle school teacher, she is the founding
executive director of the Black Feminist Writer’s Project. She is also the author of four
books, the most recent of which is RaceBrave: New and Selected Works. Her
commentary below was published in The Baltimore Sun in 2014.
PREREADING QUESTIONS Knowing that the author is an associate professor of
communication who studies race, class, and gender, what do you expect Whitehead’s
subject to be? What makes Whitehead’s title catchy and compelling?
In the days leading up to the end of the Michael Dunn “loud music” case—in
which a white Florida man shot and killed a 17-year-old black teen after getting
into an argument over the boy’s so-called “thug” music—I was overwhelmed with
feelings of restlessness, worry, frustration and fear.
They were the same feelings I had at the end of the George Zimmerman trial.
The same ones I have when I think about the day when my sons will be old
enough to drive or walk to the store by themselves. I worry so much about what
could happen to them simply because they are black and male. I feel like my
husband and I are in the midst of this never-ending war, the same war that my
parents and my grandparents fought. It is the same war that black people have
been fighting in this country since American slavery was first legalized. This war
is simply to keep our boys safe in a society that devalues them, suspects them,
fears them and often dismisses them. It is a war that I now fear I am losing.
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220 SECTION 3 STUDYING SOME ARGUMENTS BY GENRE
When my sons were first born, we held them in our arms and promised them
that we would love and protect them. When they learned how to crawl, we ran
around the house moving things out of their way. When they learned how to
toddle, we walked behind them, always ready to catch them right before they
fell. When they started school, we used to check in with their teachers every day
to make sure that they were comfortable and safe and happy. We taught them
how to say please and thank you, how to raise their hands in school before they
spoke and how to wait their turn. We taught them to be respectful and polite. We
spent hours reading to and with them, taking them to the library, to the museums
and to see Shakespeare in the Park. We saved our money, moved into a safe
neighborhood and sacrificed so that they could attend the best schools, take
piano and play sports. We took them to church and made sure that they learned
their scriptures and prayed before they ate their food. We really believed that we
were doing everything that we could do to keep them safe, to beat the odds and
to win this war. There was a moment when Barack Obama was first elected
president that I thought that the war had finally ended and that we had won. We
celebrated because we believed that the work that had been done to create a
fair and just society. We believed that America was finally colorblind and post
racial. We have come to realize that we were wrong.
We are still living in a country where our sons will be judged by the color of
their skin and not the content of their character. I believe that it does not matter
how much education they have or how polite they are or how much money we
make or that they can play the piano and fence and swim. In this country, no
matter where they are or what they are doing, they will still be seen as threats
and thugs and criminals. They will be seen as disposable.
Karsonya Wise Whitehead, “A Never Ending War,” The Baltimore Sun, 18 Feb. 2014. Used with permission
of the author.
QUESTIONS FOR READING
1. What caused the author to feel restless, worried, frustrated, and fearful?
2. What steps has the author taken to try to keep her sons safe?
3. What war is the author referring to?
QUESTIONS FOR REASONING AND ANALYSIS
4. What leads the author to think that America was “finally colorblind”?
5. What is the ethical issue the author is trying to understand and deal with in her op-ed?
6. What position does she reach on the issue? Does she offer a specific claim statement or
imply one?
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CHAPTER 9 The Position Paper: Claims of Values 221
QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION AND WRITING
7. What kind of evidence does Whitehead use to support her claims? Do you think
her evidence is legitimate? Do you think her claims are effective? Why or why not?
Explain.
8. Do you think that people of color, especially males, are at greater risk when they wear
a hoodie or listen to loud music in their cars? Be prepared to defend your view.
9. Many states have “stand-your-ground” laws that allow people to use deadly force in
self-defense if they feel their lives are threatened. Are stand-your-ground laws neces-
sary and moral? Are they effective in reducing crime? How might these laws be manip-
ulated in cases where self-defense is not clear? Be prepared to discuss or write about
this issue.
ON ASSISTED SUICIDE,
GOING BEYOND “DO NO HARM” HAIDER JAVED WARRAICH
Haider Javed Warraich is a graduate of Aga Khan University Medical College in Pakistan
and took his residency at Harvard Medical School. He is now a fellow in cardiovascular
medicine at the Duke University Medical Center and the author of Modern Death: How
Medicine Changed the End of Life. This op-ed essay was published in 2016 in The New
York Times.
PREREADING QUESTIONS How does one go beyond doing no harm? What do you
expect the author’s focus to be?
Durham, N.C.—Out of nowhere, a patient I recently met in my clinic told me,
“If my heart stops, doctor, just let me go.”
“Why?” I asked him.
Without hesitating, he replied, “Because there are worse states than death.”
Advances in medical therapies, in addition to their immense benefits, have
changed death to dying—from an instantaneous event to a long, drawn-out
process. Death is preceded by years of disability, countless procedures and
powerful medications. Only one in five patients is able to die at home. These
days many patients fear what it takes to live more than death itself.
That may explain why this year, behind the noise of the presidential cam-
paign, the right-to-die movement has made several big legislative advances. In
June, California became the fifth and largest state to put an assisted suicide law
into effect; this week the District of Columbia Council passed a similar law. And
on Tuesday voters in Colorado will decide whether to allow physician-assisted
suicide in their state as well.
Yet even as assisted suicide has generated broader support, the group most
vehemently opposed to it hasn’t budged: doctors.
That resistance is traditionally couched in doctors’ adherence to our under-
standing of the Hippocratic oath. But it’s becoming harder for us to know what is
meant by “do no harm.” With the amount of respirators and other apparatus at
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222 SECTION 3 STUDYING SOME ARGUMENTS BY GENRE
our disposal, it is almost impossible for most patients to die unless doctors’ or
patients’ families end life support. The withdrawal of treatment, therefore, is now
perhaps the most common way critically ill patients die in the hospital.
While “withdrawal” implies a passive act, terminating artificial support feels
decidedly active. Unlike assisted suicide, which requires patients to be screened
for depression, patients can ask for treatment withdrawal even if they have major
depression or are suicidal. Furthermore, withdrawal decisions are usually made
for patients who are so sick that they frequently have no voice in the matter.
Some doctors skirt the question of assisted suicide through opiate prescrip-
tions, which are almost universally prescribed for patients nearing death. Even
though these medications can slow down breathing to the point of stoppage,
doctors and nurses are very comfortable giving them, knowing that they might
hasten a “natural” death.
In extreme cases, when even morphine isn’t enough, patients are given
anesthesia to ease their deaths. The last time I administered what is
called terminal sedation, another accepted strategy, was in the case of a patient
with abdominal cancer whose intestines were perforated and for whom surgery
was not an option. The patient, who had been writhing uncontrollably in pain,
was finally comfortable. Yet terminal sedation, necessary as it was, felt closer to
active euthanasia than assisted suicide would have.
While the way people die has changed, the arguments made against
assisted suicide have not. We are warned of a slippery slope, implying that
legalization of assisted suicide would eventually lead to eugenic sterilization
reminiscent of Nazi Germany. But no such drift has been observed in any of the
countries where it has been legalized.
We are cautioned that legalization would put vulnerable populations like the
uninsured and the disabled at risk; however, years of data from Oregon demon-
strate that the vast majority of patients who opt for it are white, affluent and
highly educated.
We are also told that assisted suicide laws will allow doctors and nurses to
avoid providing high-quality palliative care to patients, but the data suggests
the opposite: A strong argument for legalization is that it sensitizes doctors about
ensuring the comfort of patients with terminal illnesses; if suicide is an option,
they’ll do what they can to preclude it.
And, again, we are counseled that physicians should do no harm. But
medical harm is already one of the leading causes of death—and in any case,
isn’t preventing patients from dying on their terms its own form of medical harm?
With the right safeguards in place, assisted suicide can help give terminally
ill patients a semblance of control over their lives as disease, disability and the
medical machine tries to wrest it away from them. In Oregon, of the exceed-
ingly few patients who have requested a lethal prescription—1,545 in 18 years—
about 35 percent never uses it; for them, it is merely a means to self-affirmation,
a reassuring option.
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CHAPTER 9 The Position Paper: Claims of Values 223
Instead of using our energies to obfuscate and obstruct how patients might
want to end their lives when faced with life-limiting disease, we physicians need
to reassess how we can help patients achieve their goals when the end is near.
We need to be able to offer an option for those who desire assisted suicide, so
that they can openly take control of their death.
Instead of seeking guidance from ancient edicts, we need to re-evaluate just
what patients face in modern times. Even if it is a course we personally wouldn’t
recommend, we should consider allowing it for patients suffering from debilitat-
ing disease. How we die has changed tremendously over the past few
decades—and so must we.
Haider Warrach, “On Assisted Suicide, Going Beyond ‘Do No Harm,’” The New York Times, 4 Nov. 2016.
Used with permission of the author.
QUESTIONS FOR READING
1. How has “death” changed today?
2. How do many critically ill patients now die in the hospital?
3. What are the usual arguments against assisted suicide?
4. In Warraich’s view, what does assisted suicide give to dying patients?
QUESTIONS FOR REASONING AND ANALYSIS
5. What is Warraich’s position on assisted suicide?
6. Who appears to be the author’s primary audience for this argument? Why, then, does he
publish his argument in a general newspaper? What other audience does he wish to
reach and convince?
7. What does the author gain by including the standard arguments against his position?
8. Evaluate Warraich’s introduction.
QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION AND WRITING
9. Which of the arguments against assisted suicide do you think are the most powerful?
Why?
10. Which of the author’s arguments for assisted suicide are the most effective? Why?
11. Has Warraich changed your thinking on this subject in any way? Why or why not?
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SUGGESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION AND WRITING
1. Chris Brown, in the student essay, writes a conciliatory argument seeking common ground
on the volatile issue of gun control. Write your own conciliatory argument on this issue,
offering a different approach than Brown, but citing Brown for any ideas you borrow from
his essay. Alternatively, write a counterargument of his essay.
2. There are other “hot issues,” issues that leave people entrenched on one side or the other,
giving expression to the same arguments again and again without budging many, if any,
readers. Do not try to write on any one of these about which you get strongly emotional.
Select one that you can be calm enough over to write a conciliatory argument, seeking to
find common ground. Some of these issues include same-sex marriage, legalizing
recreational drugs, capital punishment, mainstreaming students with disabilities, the use of
torture to interrogate terrorists. Exclude abortion rights from the list—it is too controversial
for most writers to handle successfully.
3. Other issues that call for positions based on values stem from First Amendment rights.
Consider a possible topic from this general area. Possibilities include:
Hate speech should (or should not) be a crime.
Obscenity and pornography on the Web should (or should not) be restricted.
Hollywood films should (or should not) show characters smoking.
4. Consider issues related to college life. Should all colleges have an honor code—or should
existing codes be eliminated? Should students be automatically expelled for plagiarism or
cheating? Should college administrators have any control over what is published in the
college newspaper?
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Arguments about Cause
READ: What can you conclude about the occupation of the figure in the
ad?
REASON: What argument does the ad make? What visual strategies
are used? What assumption about the audience is made?
REFLECT/WRITE: Is the ad effective? Why or why not?
CHAPTER 10
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226
Because we want to know why things happen, arguments about cause are both numerous and important to us. We begin asking why at a young age, pestering
adults with questions such as “Why is the sky blue?” and “Why is the grass green?”
And, to make sense of our world, we try our hand at explanations as youngsters, decid-
ing that the first-grade bully is “a bad boy.” The bully’s teacher, however, will seek a
more complex explanation because an understanding of the causes is the place to start
to guide the bully to more socially acceptable behavior.
As adults we continue the search for answers. We want to understand past events:
Why was President Kennedy assassinated? We want to explain current situations: Why
do so many college students binge drink? And of course we also want to predict the
future: Will the economy improve if there is a tax cut? All three questions seek a causal
explanation, including the last one. If you answer the last question with a yes, you are
claiming that a tax cut is a cause of economic improvement.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CAUSAL ARGUMENTS
Causal arguments vary not only in subject matter but in structure. Here are the four most
typical patterns:
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CHAPTER 10 Arguments about Cause 227
These models lead to several key points about causal arguments:
• Most causal arguments are highly complex. Except for some simple chemical
reactions, most arguments about cause are difficult, can involve many steps, and are
often open to challenge. Even arguments based in science lead to shrill exchanges.
Think, then, how much more open to debate are arguments about economic
fluctuations around the world or arguments about human behavior. Many people
think that “it’s obvious” that violent TV and video games lead to more aggressive
behavior. And yet, psychologists, in study after study, have not demonstrated
conclusively that there is a clear causal connection. One way to challenge this causal
argument is to point to the majority of people who do not perform violent acts even
though they have watched television and played video games while growing up.
• Because of the multiple and intertwined patterns of causation in many complex
situations, the best causal arguments keep focused on their purpose. For
example, you are concerned with global warming. Cows contribute to global warm-
ing. Are we going to stop cattle farming? Not likely. Factories contribute to global
warming. Are we going to tear down factories? Not likely—but we can demand
that smokestacks have filters to reduce harmful emissions. Focus your argument on
the causes that readers are most likely to accept because they are most likely to
accept the action that the causes imply.
• Learn and use the specific terms and concepts that provide useful guides to
thinking about cause. First, when looking for the cause of an event, we look for an
agent—a person, situation, another event that led to the effect. For example, a lit
cigarette dropped in a bed caused the house fire—the lit cigarette is the agent. But
why, we ask, did someone drop a lit cigarette on a bed? The person, old and ill,
took a sleeping pill and dropped the cigarette when he fell asleep. Where do we
stop in the chain of causes?
Second, most events do not occur in a vacuum with a single cause. There are
conditions surrounding the event. The man’s age and health were conditions. Third,
we can also look for influences. The sleeping pill certainly influenced the man to
drop the cigarette. Some conditions and influences may qualify as remote causes.
Proximate causes are more immediate, usually closer in time to the event or
situation. The man’s dozing off is a proximate cause of the fire. Finally, we come to
the precipitating cause, the triggering event—in our example, the cigarette’s
igniting the combustible mattress fabric. Sometimes we are interested primarily in
the precipitating cause; in other situations, we need to go further back to find the
remote causes or conditions that are responsible for what has occurred.
• Be alert to the difference between cause and correlation. First, be certain that
you can defend your pattern of cause and effect as genuine causation, not as
correlation only. Married people are better off financially, are healthier, and report
happier sex lives than singles or cohabiting couples. Is this a correlation only? Or
does marriage itself produce these effects? Linda Waite is one sociologist who
argues that marriage is the cause. Another example: Girls who participate in
after-school activities are much less likely to get pregnant. Are the activities a cause?
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228 SECTION 3 STUDYING SOME ARGUMENTS BY GENRE
Probably not. But there are surely conditions and influences that have led to both the
decision to participate in activities and the decision not to become pregnant.
An Example of Causal Complexity: Lincoln’s Election
and the Start of the Civil War
If Stephen Douglas had won the 1860 presidential election instead of Abraham Lincoln,
would the Civil War have been avoided? An interesting question posed to various
American history professors and others, including Waite Rawls, president of the
Museum of the Confederacy. Their responses were part of an article that appeared in
The Washington Post on November 7, 2010.
Obviously, this is a question that cannot be answered, but it led Rawls to discuss the
sequence of causes leading to the breakout of the war. Rawls organizes his brief causal
analysis around a great metaphor: the building and filling and then lighting of a keg of
powder. Let’s look at his analysis.
Existing Conditions
“The wood for the keg was shaped by the inability of the founding fathers to solve the
two big problems of state sovereignty and slavery in the shaping of the Constitution.”
More Recent Influences
1. “[T]he economics of taxes and the politics of control of the westward expansion
were added to those two original issues as the keg was filled with powder.”
2. “By the time of the creation of the Republican Party in 1856, the powder keg was
almost full and waiting for a fuse. And the election of any candidate from the
Republican Party—a purely sectional party—put the fuse in the powder keg, and
the Deep South states seceded. But there was still no war.”
Proximate Causes
“Two simultaneous mistakes in judgment brought the matches out of the pocket—the
Deep South mistakenly thought that Lincoln, now elected, would not enforce the Union,
and Lincoln mistakenly thought that the general population of the South would not
follow the leadership” of the Deep South states.
Precipitating Causes
1. “Lincoln struck the match when he called the bluff of the South Carolinians and
attempted to reinforce Fort Sumter, but that match could have gone out without an
explosion.”
2. “Lincoln struck a second, more fateful match, when he called for troops to put
down the ‘insurrection.’ That forced the Upper South and Border States into a
conflict that they had vainly attempted to avoid.” (Blog from The Washington Post,
November 7, 2010. Reprinted by permission of Waite Rawls.)
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CHAPTER 10 Arguments about Cause 229
Rawls concludes that the election of Lincoln did not start the war; it was only one step
in a complex series of causes that led to America’s bloodiest war. His analysis helps us
see the complexity of cause/effect analysis.
Mill’s Methods for Investigating Causes
John Stuart Mill, a 19th-century British philosopher, explained in detail some important
ways of investigating and demonstrating causal relationships: commonality, difference,
and process of elimination. We can benefit in our study of cause by understanding and
using his methods.
1. Commonality. One way to isolate cause is to demonstrate that one agent is common
to similar outcomes. For instance, twenty-five employees attend a company
luncheon. Late in the day, ten report to area hospitals, and another four complain
the next day of having experienced vomiting the night before. Public health officials
will soon want to know what these people ate for lunch. Different people during the
same twelve-hour period had similar physical symptoms of food poisoning. The
common factor may well have been the tuna salad they ate for lunch.
2. Difference. Another way to isolate cause is to recognize one key difference. If two
situations are alike in every way but one, and the situations result in different
outcomes, then the one way they differ must have caused the different outcome.
Studies in the social sciences are often based on the single-difference method.
To test for the best teaching methods for math, an educator could set up an
experiment with two classrooms similar in every way except that one class devotes
fifteen minutes three days a week to instruction by drill. If the class receiving the
drill scores much higher on a standard test given to both groups of students, the
educator could argue that math drills make a measurable difference in learning
math. But the educator should be prepared for skeptics to challenge the assertion of
only one difference between the two classes. Could the teacher’s attitude toward the
drills also make a difference in student learning? If the differences in student scores
are significant, the educator probably has a good argument.
3. Process of elimination. We can develop a causal argument around a technique we
all use for problem solving: the process of elimination. When something happens,
we examine all possible causes and eliminate them, one by one, until we are
satisfied that we have isolated the actual cause (or causes).
When the Federal Aviation Administration has to investigate a plane crash, it
uses this process, exploring possible causes such as mechanical failure, weather,
human error, or terrorism. Sometimes the process isolates more than one cause or
points to a likely cause without providing absolute proof.
EXERCISE: Understanding Causal Patterns
From the following events or situations, select the one you know best and list as many
conditions, influences, and causes—remote, proximate, precipitating—as you can think
■ ■
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230 SECTION 3 STUDYING SOME ARGUMENTS BY GENRE
of. You may want to do this exercise with your class partner or in small groups. Be pre-
pared to explain your causal pattern to the class.
1. Decrease in marriage rates in the United States
2. Arctic ice melt
3. Increase in the numbers of women elected to public office
4. High salaries of professional athletes
5. Increased interest in soccer in the United States
6. Comparatively low scores by U.S. students on international tests in math and
science
■ ■
When analyzing causal arguments, what should you look for? The basics of
good argument apply to all arguments: a clear statement of claim, qualified if
appropriate; a clear explanation of reasons and evidence; and enough relevant
evidence to support the claim. How do we recognize these qualities in a causal
argument? Use these points as guides to analyzing:
• Does the writer carefully distinguish among types of causes? Word choice
is crucial. Is the argument that A and A alone caused B or that A was one of
several contributing causes?
• Does the writer recognize the complexity of causation and not rush to
assert only one cause for a complex event or situation? The credibility of
an argument about cause is quickly lost if readers find the argument
oversimplified.
• Is the argument’s claim clearly stated, with qualifications as appropriate?
If the writer wants to argue for one cause, not the only cause, of an event or
situation, then the claim’s wording must make this limited goal clear to
readers. For example, one can perhaps build the case for heavy television
viewing as one cause of stereotyping, loss of sensitivity to violence, and
increased fearfulness. But we know that the home environment and
neighborhood and school environments also do much to shape attitudes.
• What reasons and evidence are given to support the argument? Can you
see the writer’s pattern of development? Does the reasoning seem logical?
Are the data relevant? This kind of analysis of the argument will help you
evaluate it.
• Does the argument demonstrate causality, not just a time relationship or
correlation? A causal argument needs to prove agency: A is the cause of B,
not just something that happened before B or something that is present when
B is present. March precedes April, but March does not cause April to arrive.
• Does the writer present believable causal agents, agents consistent with
our knowledge of human behavior and scientific laws? Most educated
people do not believe that personalities are shaped by astrological signs or
Analyzing Causal ArgumentsGUIDELINES for
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CHAPTER 10 Arguments about Cause 231
PREPARING A CAUSAL ARGUMENT
In addition to the guidelines for writing arguments presented in Chapter 4, you can use
the following advice specific to writing causal arguments.
Planning
1. Think: What are the focus and limits of your causal argument? Do you want to
argue for one cause of an event or situation? Do you want to argue for several
causes leading to an event or situation? Do you want to argue for a cause that others
have overlooked? Do you want to show how one cause is common to several
situations or events? Diagramming the relationship of cause to effect may help you
see what you want to focus on.
2. Think: What reasons and evidence do you have to support your tentative claim?
Consider what you already know that has led to your choice of topic. A brainstorming
list may be helpful.
3. Think: How, then, do you want to word your claim? As we have discussed, wording
is crucial in causal arguments. Review the discussion of characteristics of causal
arguments if necessary.
4. Reality check: Do you have a claim worth defending in a paper? Will readers care?
5. Think: What, if any, additional evidence do you need to develop a convincing
argument? You may need to do some reading or online searching to obtain data to
strengthen your argument. Readers expect relevant, reliable, current statistics in
most arguments about cause. Assess what you need and then think about what
sources will provide the needed information.
6. Think: What assumptions (warrants) are you making in your causal reasoning?
Are these assumptions logical? Will readers be likely to agree with your assump-
tions, or will you need to defend them as part of your argument? For example: One
reason to defend the effects of heavy TV watching on viewers is the commonsense
argument that what humans devote considerable time to will have a significant
effect on their lives. Will your readers be prepared to accept this commonsense
reasoning, or will they remain skeptical, looking for stronger evidence of a cause/
effect relationship?
that scientific laws are suspended in the Bermuda Triangle, allowing
planes and ships to vanish or enter a fourth dimension.
• What are the implications for accepting the causal argument? If A
and B clearly are the causes of C, and we don’t want C to occur, then
we presumably must do something about A and B—or at least we must
do something about either A or B and see if reducing or eliminating
one of the causes significantly reduces the incidence of C.
• Is the argument convincing? After analyzing the argument and
answering the questions given in the previous points, you need to
decide if, finally, the argument works.
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232 SECTION 3 STUDYING SOME ARGUMENTS BY GENRE
Drafting
1. Begin with an opening paragraph or two that introduces your topic in an interesting
way. Lester Thurow in “Why Women Are Paid Less Than Men” writes:
In the 40 years from 1939 to 1979 white women who work full time have with
monotonous regularity made slightly less than 60 percent as much as white men.
Why?
This opening establishes the topic and Thurow’s purpose in examining causes.
The statistics get the reader’s attention.
2. Do not begin by announcing your subject. Avoid openers such as: In this essay
I will explain the causes of teen vandalism.
3. Decide where to place your claim statement. You can conclude your opening
paragraph with it, or you can place it in your conclusion, after you have shown
readers how best to understand the causes of the issue you are examining.
4. Present reasons and evidence in an organized way. If you are examining a series of
causes, beginning with background conditions and early influences, then your basic
plan will be time sequence. Readers need to see the chain of causes unfolding. Use
appropriate terms and transitional words to guide readers through each stage in the
causal pattern. If you are arguing for an overlooked cause, begin with the causes
that have been put forward and show what is flawed in each one. Then present and
defend your explanation of cause. This process of elimination structure works well
when readers are likely to know what other causes have been offered in the past.
You can also use one of Mill’s other two approaches, if one of them is relevant to
your topic.
5. Address the issue of correlation rather than cause, if appropriate. After presenting
the results of a study of marriage that reveals many benefits (emotional, physical,
financial) of marriage, Linda Waite examines the question that she knows skeptical
readers may have: Does marriage actually cause the benefits, or is the relationship
one of correlation only—that is, the benefits of marriage just happen to come with
being married; they are not caused by being married.
6. Conclude by discussing the implications of the causal pattern you have argued
for, if appropriate. Lester Thurow ends by asserting that if he is right about the
cause of the gender pay gap, then there are two approaches society can take to
remove the pay gap. If, in explaining the causes of teen vandalism, you see one
cause as “group behavior,” a gang looking for something to do, it then follows
that you can advise young readers to stay out of gangs. Often with arguments
about cause, there are personal or public policy implications in accepting the
causal explanation.
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CHAPTER 10 Arguments about Cause 233
A CHECKLIST FOR REVISION
Do I have a clear statement of my claim? Is it appropriately qualified and focused?
Is it about an issue that matters?
Have I organized my argument so that readers can see my pattern for examining cause?
Have I used the language for discussing causes correctly, distinguishing among
conditions and influences and remote and proximate causes? Have I selected the
correct word—either affect or effect—as needed?
Have I avoided the post hoc fallacy and the confusing of correlation and cause?
Have I carefully examined my assumptions and convinced myself that they are
reasonable and can be defended? Have I defended them when necessary to clarify
and thus strengthen my argument?
Have I found relevant facts and examples to support and develop my argument?
Have I used the basic checklist for revision in Chapter 4 (see p. 107)?
FOR ANALYSIS AND DEBATE
“DARING TO DISCUSS WOMEN IN
SCIENCE”: A RESPONSE TO JOHN TIERNEY CAROLINE SIMARD
Caroline Simard is a board member of the Ada Initiative and research consultant to
the Anita Borg Institute for Women and Technology, at the Stanford University School of
Medicine. She holds a PhD in communication and social science and works to find ways
to increase the number of women and underrepresented minorities in science, technology,
engineering, and mathematics (STEM), and business fields. Simard’s essay, a response to
an article by John Tierney, was posted to the Huffington Post on June 9, 2010.
PREREADING QUESTIONS What type of argument do you anticipate, given the title and
headnote information? What other type of argument should you anticipate, given the
essay’s location in this text?
On Monday [June 2010], John Tierney of The New York Times published a
provocative article, “Daring to Discuss Women in Science,” in which he argues
that biology may be a factor to explain why women are not reaching high-level
positions. He suggests that boys are innately more gifted at math and science
and that the dearth of women in science may point to simple biological
differences. If this is the case, why would we waste our time trying to get more
women in science?
Mr. Tierney, let’s indeed discuss women in science.
First, let me start by saying that I applaud the discussion—all potential
explanations for a complex issue and all evidence need to be considered, even
the ones that are not popular in the media or not “politically correct.” I also
believe that Larry Summers’s now infamous comments about the possibility that
biological differences account for the dearth of women scientists and
technologists was, similarly, in the spirit of intellectual debate.
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234 SECTION 3 STUDYING SOME ARGUMENTS BY GENRE
The problem with the biology argument that “boys are just more likely to be
born good at math and science” isn’t that it’s not “politically correct”—it’s that it
assumes that we can take away the power of societal influences, which have much
more solid evidence than the biology hypothesis. Tierney makes the point himself in
his article—in order to provide evidence for biological differences, he cites a
longitudinal Duke [University] study which shows that the highest achievers in SAT
math tests (above 750), which counted 13 boys for every girl in the early 80s, became
a ratio of 4 boys to 1 girl in 1991, “presumably because of sociocultural factors.” Hmm,
isn’t this actual evidence that biology is not what is at play here? If it is possible to
reduce the gender achievement gap in math by 3 thanks to “sociocultural factors,”
I rest my case. Sociocultural factors are indeed extremely powerful.
The Duke study also notes that the 4/1 achievement gap at the highest score
hasn’t changed in the last 20 years despite ongoing programs to encourage girls
in math and science, whereas the highest achievers in writing ability (SAT
above 700) shows a ratio of 1.2 girls for every boy, slightly favoring girls. However,
if the premise is that boys are inherently “better” at math, and girls are inherently
better at writing, why would the achievement gap be so large in math and negligible
in writing? The stagnant 4 to 1 ratio is not evidence that there is an innate biological
difference in math aptitude, but rather confirmation that persistent sociocultural
barriers remain—that is, science and math are still thought of as male domains.
Research shows that math and science
are indeed thought of as stereotypically male
domains. Project Implicit at Harvard University
studied half a million participants in 34 coun-
tries and found that 70 percent of respon-
dents worldwide have implicit stereotypes
associating science with male more than with
female. Years of research by Claude Steele
and Joshua Aronson and their colleagues
show that implicit stereotypes affect girls’
performance in math—a phenomenon called
“stereotype threat.” When girls receive cues
that “boys are better at math,” their scores in
math suffer. One study in a classroom setting
showed that the difference in performance
between boys and girls in math SAT scores
was eliminated by simply having a mentor
telling them that math is learned over time rather than “innate.”
The problem is, girls are routinely getting the message that they don’t
belong in math and science, further undermining their performance (and Mr.
Tierney’s article isn’t exactly helping in changing the stereotype for the general
public). The result of this implicit (unconscious) stereotype is that parents,
teachers, and school counselors are less likely to encourage girls to pursue math
and science than they are boys. These girls are then less likely to seek advanced
math classes and would be unlikely, without those opportunities, to make it to
the above 700 SAT math score regardless of ability.
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CHAPTER 10 Arguments about Cause 235
Anecdotally, I had this experience with my daughter a couple of years ago.
At age 10, she had somehow decided that she wasn’t good at math (despite
being raised in a household with 2 PhDs). With her self-confidence plummeting,
math homework became very painful in our household. When I dug deeper,
I found that she mistakenly believed that you were either born with math ability
or you weren’t—that this was an innate biological ability as opposed to something
you could learn, and that somehow she hadn’t been “born with it.” Once I actively
dispelled that notion and provided her with additional mentoring, her math
performance significantly improved. I never hear her say that she isn’t good at
math anymore, and her math homework is flawless.
The Duke article, and Tierney, raises an important question about preference,
however, that research suggests that boys are more interested in “things” and girls
are more interested in “people” and thus gravitate towards fields reflecting that
interest. In this research too, there is debate about what in this difference is
“nature” versus “nurture”—there are powerful socialization forces at play.
Regardless, we have to dispel the notion that science is only about “things” and not
about people or somehow disconnected from all social relevance. Indeed, some of
the most successful interventions to increase girls’ interest in math and science
have been to reframe the curriculum to provide examples and projects that are
grounded in the interests of a diverse population of students. The EPICS program
at Purdue University is a great example of grounding engineering disciplines in
socially relevant contexts and has been shown to engage a diversity of students.
What we need, to put this debate to rest, is to replicate these findings in a
country where science and math are not viewed as stereotypically male. The
most recent cross-national comparison study, published in 2010 in Psychological
Bulletin by Nicole Else-Quest and her colleagues and comparing 43 countries,
shows that the achievement difference in math between girls and boys varies
broadly across countries.
Their research shows that country-by-country variation is correlated with
gender differences in self-confidence in math, which is compounded by
stereotype threat. One of the strongest predictors of the gender gap in math
achievement is a given country’s level of gender equity in science jobs,
consistent with socialization arguments: “if girls’ mothers, aunts, and sisters do
not have STEM careers, they will perceive that STEM is a male domain and thus
feel anxious about math, lack the confidence to take challenging math courses,
and underachieve on math tests.”
Until girls stop getting the signal that math is for boys, the 4 to 1 gender gap
in highest achievement categories of math and science will persist. This has
nothing to do with innate ability.
Mr. Tierney, I look forward to your subsequent articles on this issue. Let’s
indeed dare to discuss women in science and continue to bring to bear the most
relevant research on this issue.
Caroline Simard, “’Daring to Discuss Women in Science’: A Response to John Tierney,” HuffPostTech,
9 June 2010. www.huffingtonpost.com/caroline-simard/daring-to-discuss-women-i_b_605303.html
Used with permission of the author.
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236 SECTION 3 STUDYING SOME ARGUMENTS BY GENRE
QUESTIONS FOR READING
1. What is the occasion for Simard’s posting? What is her topic?
2. What is Tierney’s position on the issue?
3. What sociocultural factors are the causes of the gender gap in math and science, in
Simard’s view?
QUESTIONS FOR REASONING AND ANALYSIS
4. What is Simard’s claim? (Try to state it with precision.)
5. What kinds of grounds does Simard present? What point about Tierney’s warrant does
the author want to make with the evidence she includes?
6. Examine Simard’s style and tone; how do they help her argument?
QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION AND WRITING
7. In the debate over women in science, there are two related assumptions: (1) Math ability
is inborn and (2) Boys are innately better at math than girls. Have you heard either
one—or both—of these views? Has Simard convinced you that the evidence challenges
these ideas? Why or why not?
8. Why can stereotypes be a “threat”? How can ideas “threaten” us? Explain and illustrate
to answer these questions.
A NEW WAVE OF EQUALITY DAVID A. STRAUSS
David Strauss is professor of law and faculty director of the Jenner and Block
Supreme Court and Appellate Clinic at the University of Chicago Law School. He is a
graduate of Harvard College, Oxford University, and Harvard Law School. Prior to joining
academia, Strauss worked at the Justice Department. He has argued eighteen cases
before the U.S. Supreme Court and is the author of The Living Constitution (2010). His
specialty in constitutional law shows through in his essay here, first published in 2015.
PREREADING QUESTIONS Does the title intrigue you? Any idea what wave of equality
Strauss is referring to?
Both sides seem to want to strike a pose of wounded innocence in the
dispute about laws passed by Indiana and Arkansas to exempt religious believers
from legal requirements that conflict with their beliefs. Supporters of the laws
insist that they have nothing to do with same-sex marriage or the rights of gay
people. The laws, we’re supposed to believe, are simply about religious freedom,
which everyone likes, or big government, which no one does.
But the opponents of those laws, while not as disingenuous, are faking it,
too. They are scrambling to find differences between what Indiana and Arkansas
have passed and the similar federal and state laws that have been on the books
for years. That way the opponents can avoid saying what they actually believe:
When it comes to same-sex marriage, the law should sometimes forbid people
from acting even on their sincere religious beliefs.
2
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CHAPTER 10 Arguments about Cause 237
That’s what this controversy is really about. It’s not a misunderstanding that
can be “clarified” by some technical amendment, as Indiana attempted to do. It
is a big and illuminating moment in history—a conflict between the demands of
religion and the demands of society. Such conflicts can sometimes be a terrible
thing, but they can also be a source of great moral progress.
In this kind of conflict, religion is not always the bad guy, but it is also not always
the good guy, and it does not always lose or always win. Religion and society mold
each other. Sometimes religion forces itself on society and on the state in ways that
we should all be thankful for. Religious groups played a crucial role in the abolition
of slavery, and they were hugely important in the struggle for civil rights in the
mid-20th century. Religious groups have often been the most important advocates
of doing more for the poor and for society’s outcasts. In all those ways and many
others, religious groups have made a recalcitrant society conform to a vision rooted
in religious belief, and we are immeasurably better off for it.
On the other hand, for centuries, freedom to act on one’s conscientious
religious beliefs would have meant, for many, the freedom to kill heretics and
infidels. Pressure from the state and society forced religious adherents to behave
better, and over time—this is the important part—the religions themselves
changed their doctrines and belief systems to conform to society’s demands.
Religions that not so long ago preached intolerance now condemn persecution
and embrace the diversity of religious belief. More recently, we have seen
religious believers abandon white supremacy as a creed and, more recently still
(and, in many cases, not completely), accept that women should have the same
freedom as men to choose their own destiny. The religious doctrines changed for
many reasons, but change they did, and that was partly because the larger society
insisted that discriminatory behavior change. The change in belief followed.
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238 SECTION 3 STUDYING SOME ARGUMENTS BY GENRE
The defenders of laws such as Indiana’s don’t like to talk about this. They act
as if no one’s conscientious religious beliefs ever dictated discrimination. The
defenders of these laws don’t want to acknowledge—what is surely true—that
even today there are employers who do not want to hire women because their
sincere religious belief is that women should keep the home and raise the
children. The government does not allow those people to act on their religious
beliefs. There is a sense in which that kind of coercion is tragic, but it is also
progress. You can, legalistically, insist that the government’s interest in preventing
race and sex discrimination is, in the language of those laws, a “compelling”
interest that overcomes the religious obligation, but when did it become so
compelling? Beliefs such as those, about women, would have seemed thoroughly
mainstream just a few decades ago. They are not mainstream anymore, because
they changed under pressure from society and the law.
That is what we are seeing now: one of those moments in history when
pressure from the larger society pushes against religious belief and insists that
believers, at least when doing business with the public, not act even on sincere
objections to same-sex marriage. Already we have seen those religious
objections diminish as religions accommodate themselves to the principle that
gay people should not be discriminated against. But the process is incomplete.
Of course there is room for debate about the pace of change, and there is always
an imperative to act respectfully toward those with whom one disagrees. But this
is a difficult, challenging conflict, the birth pangs of a new wave of equality. We
should not expect it to be easy, and we should recognize it for the momentous
event that it is.
David Strauss, “A New Wave of Equality,” The Washington Post, 11 Apr. 2015. Used with permission of
the author.
QUESTIONS FOR READING
1. Who are the “two sides”?
2. What is each side pretending the conflict is about? What is it actually about, in the
author’s view?
3. In what way was religion a cause for social change?
4. What previous religious beliefs did society change?
5. What more recent changes have society and the law produced in spite of religious
opposition?
QUESTIONS FOR REASONING AND ANALYSIS
6. What is Strauss’s claim?
7. Does your sentence reveal that this is a causal argument? If not, reword and/or expand
your claim statement to clarify the essay’s causal nature.
8. Strauss is examining sensitive issues. Examine his style and tone. List specific ways in
which he seeks to conciliate readers with varying views.
6
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CHAPTER 10 Arguments about Cause 239
9. Strauss acknowledges that laws opposing discrimination against women and gays have
come rather quickly, leading to conflicts within our society. What might help to explain
the current pace of social change?
QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION AND WRITING
10. The author accepts that current legal conflicts can be “terrible,” even “tragic,” but he
still asks readers to see this new wave of equality as a great moment. Do you agree with
the author? If so, why? If not, how would you seek to refute Strauss’s argument?
11. Some people devote their lives to creating the changes that surprise—and at times
distress—others. How do you account for such different responses to change?
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240
SUGGESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION AND WRITING
1. Think about your educational experiences as a basis for generating a topic for a causal
argument. For example: What are the causes of writer’s block? Why do some apparently
good students (based on class work, grades, etc.) do poorly on standardized tests? How
does pass/fail grading affect student performance? What are the causes of high tuition and
fees? What might be some of the effects of higher college costs? What are the causes of
binge drinking among college students? What are the effects of binge drinking?
2. Star Trek, in its many manifestations, continues to play on television and in movies—why?
What makes it so popular? Why are horror movies popular? What are the causes for the
great success of the Harry Potter books? If you are familiar with one of these works, or
another work that has been amazingly popular, examine the causes for that popularity.
3. The gender pay gap (see Figure 5.3 in Chapter 5) reflects earnings differences between all
working men and all working women. It is not a comparison of earnings by job. What
might be some of the causes for women continuing to earn less than men—in spite of the
fact that more women than men now earn BA degrees? Consider what you know about
women in the workforce who work full time. (The pay gap is also not about full- versus
part-time work; both men and women work part time as well as full time.) Look at other
graphics in Chapter 5 and think about what you have learned from Caroline Simard re-
garding women in STEM fields. Be prepared to discuss some causes of the pay gap or
prepare an essay on the topic. (Be sure to qualify your claim as appropriate, based on what
you know.)
CREDIT
1. Lester Thurow, “Why Women Are Paid Less Than Men,” The New York Times, 8 Mar. 1981.
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Presenting Proposals: The
Problem/Solution Argument
READ: What is the subject of this cartoon?
REASON: How does the cartoon visualize the subject? What do you see
between the primary sign and the “exit” sign?
REFLECT/WRITE: Toles illustrates a problem but not solutions. What have
some states done to address the problem? What solutions can you suggest?
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CHAPTER 11
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242
You think that there are several spots on campus that need additional lighting at night. You are concerned that the lake near your hometown is green, with algae
floating on it. You believe that cyclists on the campus need to have paths and a bike lane
on the main roads into the college. These are serious local issues; you should be
concerned about them. And, perhaps it is time to act on your concerns—how can you do
that? You can write a proposal, perhaps a letter to the editor of your college or hometown
newspaper.
These three issues invite a recommendation for change. And to make that recom-
mendation is to offer a solution to what you perceive to be a problem. Public policy
arguments, whether local and specific (lampposts or bike lanes) or more general and
far-reaching (e.g., the federal government must stop the flow of illegal drugs into the
country), can best be understood as arguments over solutions to problems. If there are
only ten students on campus who bike to class or only 200 Americans wanting to buy
cocaine, then most people would not agree that we have two serious problems in need of
debate over the best solutions. But when the numbers become significant, we see a
problem and start seeking solutions.
Consider some of these issues stated as policy claims:
• The college needs bike lanes on campus roads and more bike paths across the
campus.
• We need to spend whatever is necessary to stop the flow of drugs into this country.
Each claim offers a solution to a problem, as we can see:
• Cyclists will be safer if there are bike lanes on main roads and more bike paths
across the campus.
• The way to address the drug problem in this country is to eliminate the supply of
drugs.
The basic idea of policy proposals looks like this:
Somebody should (or should not) do X—because:
(Individual, organization, government) (solve this problem)
Observe that proposal arguments recommend action. They look to the future. And
they often advise the spending of someone’s time and/or money.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PROBLEM/
SOLUTION ARGUMENTS
• Proposal arguments may be about local and specific problems or about broader,
more general public policy issues. We need to “think globally” these days, but we
still often need to “act locally,” to address the problems we see around us in our
classrooms, offices, and communities.
• Proposal arguments usually need to define the problem. How we define a problem
has much to do with what kinds of solutions are appropriate. For example, many
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CHAPTER 11 Presenting Proposals: The Problem/Solution Argument 243
people are concerned about our ability to feed a growing world population. Some
will argue that the problem is not an agricultural one—how much food we can
produce. The problem is a political one—how we distribute the food, at what cost,
and how competent or fair some governments are in handling food distribution. If
the problem is agricultural, we need to worry about available farmland, water
supply, and farming technology. If the problem is political, then we need to concern
ourselves with price supports, distribution strategies, and embargoes for political
leverage. To develop a problem/solution argument, you first need to define the
problem.
• How we define the problem also affects what we think are the causes of the problem.
Cause is often a part of the debate, especially with far-reaching policy issues, and
may need to be addressed, particularly if solutions are tied to eliminating what we
consider to be the causes. Why are illegal drugs coming into the United States?
Because people want those drugs. Do you solve the problems related to drug
addicts by stopping the supply? Or do you address the demand for drugs in the first
place?
• Proposal arguments need to be developed with an understanding of the processes
of government, from college administrations to city governments to the federal
bureaucracy. Is that dying lake near your town on city property or state land? Are
there conservation groups in your area who can be called on to help with the
process of presenting proposals to the appropriate people?
• Proposal arguments need to be based on the understanding that they ask for
change—and many people do not like change, period. Probably all but the
wealthiest Americans recognize that our health-care system needs fixing. That
doesn’t change the fact that many working people struggling to pay premiums are
afraid of any changes introduced by the federal government.
• Successful problem/solution arguments offer solutions that can realistically be
accomplished. Consider Prohibition, for example. This was a solution to problem
drinking—except that it did not work, could not be enforced, because the majority
of Americans would not abide by the law.
When analyzing problem/solution arguments, what should you look for? In
addition to the basics of good argument, use these points as guides to
analyzing:
• Is the writer’s claim not just clear but also appropriately qualified and
focused? For example, if the school board in the writer’s community is
not doing a good job of communicating its goals as a basis for its
funding package, the writer needs to focus just on that particular
school board, not on school boards in general.
Analyzing
Problem/
Solution
Arguments
GUIDELINES for
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244 SECTION 3 STUDYING SOME ARGUMENTS BY GENRE
Read and study the following annotated argument. Complete your analysis by
answering the questions that follow.
WANT MORE SCIENTISTS? TURN
GRADE SCHOOLS INTO LABORATORIES PRIYA NATARAJAN
A professor in both the astronomy and physics departments at Yale University, Priya
Natarajan is a theoretical astrophysicist. She was educated first in Delhi and then at MIT.
Natarajan’s areas of investigation include black hole physics and gravitational lensing.
Interested as well in enhancing general science literacy, Natarajan serves on the
Advisory Board of NOVA ScienceNow, speaks at conferences, and writes newspaper
articles. The following op-ed essay was published on February 5, 2012.
PREREADING QUESTIONS When you were in grade school, did you like to “discover
things” in the natural world? How would you encourage early study of science?
“What’s your major?” Ask a college freshman this question, and the answer
may be physics or chemistry. Ask a sophomore or a junior, however, and you’re
less likely to hear about plans to enter the “STEM” fields—science, technology,
engineering and mathematics. America’s universities are not graduating nearly
enough scientists, engineers and other skilled professionals to keep our country
globally competitive in the decades ahead.
Author states
problem.
1
• Does the writer show an awareness of the complexity of most public
policy issues? There are many different kinds of problems with American
schools and many more causes for those problems. A simple solution—a
longer school year, more money spent, vouchers—is not likely to solve the
mixed bag of problems. Oversimplified arguments quickly lose credibility.
• How does the writer define and explain the problem? Is the way the prob-
lem is stated clear? Does it make sense to you? If the problem is being
defined differently than most people have defined it, has the writer argued
convincingly for looking at the problem in this new way?
• What reasons and evidence are given to support the writer’s solutions?
Can you see how the writer develops the argument? Does the reasoning
seem logical? Are the data relevant? This kind of analysis will help you eval-
uate the proposed solutions.
• Does the writer address the feasibility of the proposed solutions? Does
the writer make a convincing case for the realistic possibility of achieving
the proposed solutions?
• Is the argument convincing? Will the solutions solve the problem as it has
been defined? Has the problem been defined accurately? Can the solutions
be achieved?
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CHAPTER 11 Presenting Proposals: The Problem/Solution Argument 245
And this is despite evidence such as a recent Center on Education and the
Workforce report that forecasts skill requirements through 2018 and clearly
shows the importance of STEM fields. The opportunities for those with just a high
school education are restricted, it says—many high-paying jobs are open only to
people with STEM college degrees.
These young scientists are excited by what they are learning.
Still, as many as 60 percent of students who enter college with the intention
of majoring in science and math change their plans. Because so many students
intend to major in a STEM subject but don’t follow through, many observers have
assumed that universities are where the trouble starts. I beg to differ.
I am a professor of astronomy and physics at Yale University, where I teach an
introductory class in cosmology. I see the deficiencies that first-year students
show up with. My students may have dexterity with the equations they’re required
to know, but they lack the capacity to apply their knowledge to real-life problems.
This critical shortcoming appears in high school and possibly in elementary
grades—long before college. If we want more Americans to pursue careers in
STEM professions, we have to intervene much earlier than we imagined.
Many efforts are underway to get younger students interested in science
and math. One example is the Tree of Life’s online “treehouse” project, a collec-
tion of information about biodiversity compiled by hundreds of experts and
amateurs. Students can use this tool to apply what they are learning in the
classroom to the world around them. Starting early in children’s education, we
need to provide these types of engaging, interactive learning environments that
link school curricula to the outside world.
My own schooling is an example. Growing up in Delhi, India, I did puzzles,
explored numbers and searched for patterns in everyday settings long before
2 States
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246 SECTION 3 STUDYING SOME ARGUMENTS BY GENRE
I ever saw an equation. One assignment I vividly remember asked us to find
examples of hexagons. I eagerly pointed out hexagons everywhere: street tiles,
leaves, flowers, signs, buildings. I was taught equations only after I learned what
they meant and how to think about them. As a result, I enjoyed math, and
I became good at it.
Not all American children have this experience, but they can. The Khan
Academy, for example, has pioneered the use of technology to encourage un-
structured learning outside the classroom and now provides teaching supple-
ments in 36 schools around the country. For instance, recent reports describe a
San Jose charter school using Khan’s instructional videos in ninth-grade math
classes to tailor lessons to each student’s pace.
Perhaps more than English or history, STEM subjects require an enormous
amount of foundational learning before students can become competent.
Students usually reach graduate school before they can hope to make an original
contribution. They can experiment in high school labs, but the U.S. schools’
approach to math and science lacks, in large part, a creative element. We
need to help students understand that math and science are cumulative
disciplines, and help them enjoy learning even as they gradually build a base of
knowledge.
One way to do this is to encourage students to engage in self-guided or
collaborative research projects—something the Internet has made much more
feasible. An example from my own field is Zooniverse, a collection of experimental
projects in which students can classify galaxies and search for new planets or
supernovae using real data collected by NASA. Taking part in such explorations
early will help students understand that science and math aren’t just abstract
equations, but tools we use to understand our world. By the time they get to
college, they will have mastered the rhythm of the scientific method—learn,
apply, learn, apply—and enjoy the process.
Six years ago, I had a student in an introductory cosmology class for non–
science majors who had entered Yale as an economics major, a choice based
primarily on pressure from his parents. After one summer researching gamma-ray
bursts—the most energetic explosions in the universe—he is currently finishing
up a PhD in physics at Berkeley. He was hooked by the opportunity to apply
what he learned in the classroom to a challenging scientific problem. He loved
the thrill of figuring something out.
Without firsthand experience of the scientific method and its eventual payoff,
students will continue to flock to other majors when their science and math
courses become too demanding. If we want more scientists and engineers later,
we need to teach children about the joys of hard work and discovery now.
Priya Natarajan, “Want More Scientists? Turn Grade Schools into Laboratories,” The Washington Post,
5 Feb. 2012. Reprinted by permission of the author.
8
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Author states
her claim.
11
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CHAPTER 11 Presenting Proposals: The Problem/Solution Argument 247
QUESTIONS FOR READING
1. What are the STEM fields? Why are these fields important?
2. What percentage of college students planning to major in math or science end up
changing fields?
3. What do many college students lack that leads them to have trouble in advanced STEM
courses?
QUESTIONS FOR REASONING AND ANALYSIS
4. What is the problem Natarajan examines? What has caused this problem, in the author’s
view? What, then, is her claim?
5. How does the author support her claim?
QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION AND WRITING
6. Few would question the reality of the problem Natarajan addresses; the issue is how to
solve it. Do you agree that at least much of the cause rests with the early teaching of
math and science? If yes, why? If no, why not?
7. From your experience, can you suggest other ways to improve early education in math
and science?
AFTER ARMSTRONG’S FALL, THE
CASE FOR PERFORMANCE ENHANCEMENT BRADEN ALLENBY
President’s Professor and Lincoln Professor of Engineering and Ethics in the School of
Sustainable Engineering at Arizona State University, Braden Allenby holds a PhD in
environmental sciences from Rutgers University in addition to a law degree. He entered
academia after twenty years as counsel to AT&T. He is the coauthor, with Daniel Serewitz,
of The Techno-Human Condition (2011) and author of Reconstructing Earth: Technology
and Environment in the Age of Humans (2005).
PREREADING QUESTIONS Is there a case for performance enhancement? How do you
expect Allenby to develop his argument?
In the past month, cyclist Lance Armstrong has been stripped of his seven
Tour de France titles. His commercial sponsors, including Nike, have fled. He has
resigned as chairman of Livestrong, the anti-cancer charity he founded. Why?
Because the U.S. Anti-Doping Agency and the International Cycling Union say he
artificially enhanced his performance in ways not approved by his sport and
helped others on his team do the same.
This may seem like justice, but that’s an illusion. Whether Armstrong cheated
is not the core consideration. Rather, his case shows that enhancement is here to
stay. If everyone’s enhancing, it’s a reality that we should embrace.
Look at any sport. People are running, swimming and biking faster and
farther; linemen are bulkier than ever; sluggers have bigger muscles and hit
more home runs. This might be due to better nutrition. Perhaps it is a result of
1
2
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248 SECTION 3 STUDYING SOME ARGUMENTS BY GENRE
legally prescribed drugs. Heck, it might simply be because of better training. But
illegal enhancement has never been more evident or more popular.
Moreover, enhancement science—pharmacology, nanotechnology, biotech-
nology and genetics—is more sophisticated than ever. A recent Nature article,
for example, discusses oxygen-carrying particles that could be inserted in
athletes’ blood and DNA therapies that could enhance muscle performance.
In an earlier time, rules limiting the use of such technology may have been a
brave attempt to prevent cheating. Now, they are increasingly ineffectual.
Humans are becoming a design space. That athletes are on the cutting edge of
this engineering domain is neither a prediction nor a threat. It is the status quo.
Get over it.
Professional athletes didn’t always make big bucks, so when enhancement
techniques were primitive, the payoff wasn’t necessarily worth the health risks.
And with less demand, there were fewer nerds in fewer laboratories creating
enhancement technologies. Anabolic steroids, for example, weren’t developed
until the 1930s. Can you imagine Babe Ruth using a low-oxygen chamber that
simulated a high-altitude environment to increase his red-blood-cell count and
improve his respiration system’s efficiency? That’s just one new way a player can
get an edge.
4
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Lance Armstrong in a happier mood before his medals are
taken from him for doping.
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CHAPTER 11 Presenting Proposals: The Problem/Solution Argument 249
Today, the gap between superstar athletes and almost-stars is rapidly
growing. The benefits of being at the top of your game—money, sponsors, cars,
houses, movie careers, book deals and groupies—have never been clearer. After
all, how many lucrative marketing contracts go to bronze medalists?
To perform consistently, 21st-century athletes enhance legally with better
gear, specialized diets, physical trainers, vitamin B, and energy drinks and gels.
Why not add drugs and other technologies to the list of legal enhancements,
especially when most of us are enhancing our workplace concentration with a
morning coffee or energy shot?
In my engineering and sustainability classes, I ask my students how many
have played sports in high school or college. Usually, at least half raise their
hands. Then I ask how many know people who enhanced illegally. The hands
stay up, even if I limit the question to high school athletes. Enhancement—legal
or illegal, according to confused, arbitrary and contradictory criteria—is perva-
sive. Indeed, surveys show that significant numbers of non-athletes, especially in
high school and college, use steroids to try to improve their appearance rather
than to augment their play on the field. This should not be surprising, given the
popularity of other cosmetic-enhancement techniques such as discretionary
plastic surgery, even among young people.
Armstrong’s alleged doping in the Tour de France is just more evidence that
human excellence is increasingly a product of enhancement.
Mischaracterizing a fundamental change in sports as merely individual viola-
tions of the rules has serious consequences. For example, this thinking has led
to inadequate research on the risks of enhancement technologies, especially
new ones. Why research something that can’t be used? My anecdotal class
surveys show that students have significant skepticism about the reported side
effects of such treatments and drugs, as well as perceptions of bias among
regulators against enhancement. As a result of such attitudes, there’s a tendency
to play down the risks of some technologies. Call it the “Reefer Madness”
response—ignoring real risks because you think the danger is exaggerated. This
is ignorance born of prohibition.
What should be done? Past a certain age, athletes should be allowed to use
whatever enhancements they think appropriate based on objective data.
Providing reliable information about the full range of technologies should
become the new mission of a (renamed) Anti-Doping Agency, one not driven by
an anti-enhancement agenda. It wouldn’t have to be a free-for-all: Age limits and
other appropriate regulations could limit dangerous enhancements for
non-professionals; those that are too risky could be restricted or, yes, banned.
How? Perhaps the Food and Drug Administration could take over these
duties from the Anti-Doping Agency, using its own calculus. Is the proposed
enhancement technology effective? Does it hurt more than it helps? It’s doubtful
that a genetic enhancement, for example, would be allowed. The field is too
new. However, some supplements such as creatine, alphalipoic acid and at least
some currently banned steroids would probably be acceptable.
In professional sports, normal people do not compete normally. We watch
athletes who are enhanced—through top-notch training, equipment and
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250 SECTION 3 STUDYING SOME ARGUMENTS BY GENRE
sometimes illegal substances—compete for our amusement. And, despite our
sanctimonious claims that this is wrong, we like it that way. So we do athletes a
deep disservice by clinging to our whimsical illusion of reality at the cost of their
livelihood. If we allow football players to take violent hits and suffer concussions
so that we might be entertained, why not allow them to use substances that
might cause them health problems? It’s their decision.
If you yearn to watch “purer” athletes, check out a Division III football game.
Visit the minor league ballpark near you. Set up an amateur league. Better yet,
train for a marathon sans enhancement.
But don’t force the Tour de France to cling to outdated ideas of how athletes
pedaling for their professional lives should behave. Cyclists have enhanced, are
enhancing now and will continue to enhance. In his stubborn refusal to admit
guilt in the face of the evidence, maybe this is what Armstrong is trying to tell us.
Braden Allenby, “After Armstrong’s Fall, the Case for Performance Enhancement,” The Washington Post,
28 Oct., 2012. Reprinted by permission of the author.
QUESTIONS FOR READING
1. What are some of the ways that athletes are enhancing their performance?
2. How has enhancement science changed?
3. Why has enhancement become so appealing to athletes?
4. What is a consequence of continuing to try to stop illegal doping?
5. How are our expectations of professional athletes different from that of amateurs?
QUESTIONS FOR REASONING AND ANALYSIS
6. What is Allenby’s claim? How does he defend and support it?
7. In two paragraphs, the author discusses some specifics of managing sports with
enhancement rules lifted. First, how does this discussion aid his argument? Second, do
his suggestions seem sensible and feasible? Why or why not?
QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION AND WRITING
8. Allenby suggests that since everybody is doing it, we should “get over it” and accept the
reality of enhancement. This is a pragmatic approach to the problem; are you content
with a pragmatic approach to doping in sports? Why or why not?
9. To what extent are we, the spectators, to blame for illegal doping?
10. Why do we play (and watch) competitive sports? Be prepared to discuss or write about
questions 9 and 10.
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CHAPTER 11 Presenting Proposals: The Problem/Solution Argument 251
PREPARING A PROBLEM/SOLUTION ARGUMENT
In addition to the guidelines for writing arguments presented in Chapter 4, you can use
the following advice specific to defending a proposal.
Planning
1. Think: What should be the focus and limits of your argument? There’s a big differ-
ence between presenting solutions to the problem of physical abuse of women by
men and presenting solutions to the problem of sexual assault on your college cam-
pus. Select a topic that you know something about, one that you can realistically
handle.
2. Think: What reasons and evidence do you have to support your tentative claim?
Think through what you already know that has led you to select your particular
topic. Suppose you want to write on the issue of sexual assault. Is this choice due to
a recent event on the campus? Was this event the first in many years or the last in a
trend? Where and when are the assaults occurring? A brainstorming list may be
helpful.
3. Reality check: Do you have a claim worth defending? Will readers care? Binge
drinking and the polluting of the lake near your hometown are serious problems.
Problems with your class schedule may not be—unless your experience reveals a
college-wide problem.
4. Think: Is there additional evidence that you need to obtain to develop your
argument? If so, where can you look for that evidence? Are there past issues of the
campus paper in your library? Will the campus police grant you an interview?
5. Think: What about the feasibility of each solution you plan to present? Are you
thinking in terms of essentially one solution with several parts to it or several
separate solutions, perhaps to be implemented by different people? Will
coordination be necessary to achieve success? How will this be accomplished? For
the problem of campus rape, you may want to consider several solutions as a
package to be coordinated by the counseling service or an administrative vice
president.
Drafting
1. Begin by either reminding readers of the existing problem you will address or
arguing that a current situation should be recognized as a problem. In many cases,
you can count on an audience who sees the world as you do and recognizes the
problem you will address. But in some cases, your first task will be to convince
readers that a problem exists that should worry them. If they are not concerned,
they won’t be interested in your solutions.
2. Early in your essay define the problem—as you see it—for readers. Do not assume
that they will necessarily accept your way of seeing the issue. You may need to
defend your understanding of the problem before moving on to solutions.
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252 SECTION 3 STUDYING SOME ARGUMENTS BY GENRE
3. If appropriate, explain the cause or causes of the problem. If your proposed solution
is tied to removing the cause or causes of the problem, then you need to establish
cause and prove it early in your argument. If cause is important, argue for it; if it is
irrelevant, move to your solution.
4. Explain your solution. If you have several solutions, think about how best to order
them. If several need to be developed in a sequence, then present them in that nec-
essary sequence. If you are presenting a package of diverse actions that together
will solve the problem, then consider presenting them from the simplest to the more
complex. With the problem of campus sexual assault, for example, you may want to
suggest better lighting on campus paths at night plus a safety escort service for
women who are afraid to walk home alone, and sensitivity training. Adding more
lampposts may be easier than coordinating campus-wide harassment training.
5. Explain the process for achieving your solution. If you have not thought through the
political or legal steps necessary to implement your solution, then this step cannot
be part of your purpose in writing. However, anticipating a skeptical audience that
says “How are we going to do that?” you would be wise to have precise steps to
offer your reader. You may have obtained an estimate of costs for new lighting on
your campus and want to suggest specific paths that need the lights. You may have
investigated safety escort services at other colleges and can spell out how such a
service can be implemented on your campus. Showing readers that you have
thought ahead to the next steps in the process can be an effective method of
persuasion.
6. Support the feasibility of your solution. Be able to estimate costs. Show that you
know who would be responsible for implementation. Specific information strength-
ens your argument.
7. Show how your solution is better than others. Anticipate challenges by including
reasons for adopting your program rather than another program. Explain how your
solution will be more easily adopted or more effective when implemented than
other possibilities. Of course, a less practical but still viable defense is that your
solution is the right thing to do. Values also belong in public policy debates, not
just issues of cost and acceptability.
A CHECKLIST FOR REVISION
Do I have a clear statement of my policy claim? Is it appropriately qualified and
focused?
Have I clearly explained how I see the problem to be solved? If necessary, have I
argued for seeing the problem my way?
Have I presented my solutions—and argued for them—in a clear and logical
structure? Have I explained how these solutions can be implemented and why they
are better than other solutions that have been suggested?
Have I used data that are relevant and current?
Have I used the basic checklist for revision in Chapter 4? (See p. 107.)
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CHAPTER 11 Presenting Proposals: The Problem/Solution Argument 253
FOR ANALYSIS AND DEBATE
MY FIGHT AGAINST SEXUAL HARASSMENT GRETCHEN CARLSON
A graduate of Stanford University and a child prodigy on the violin, Gretchen Carlson
was the first Miss America to win as a classical violinist. Her career as a news anchor,
primarily on Fox News, is well known. Carlson has also been an advocate for workplace
equality and is now, as a result of her experience with harassment at Fox News, “the
face” in the battle for safe work environments for women. She is the author of a candid
memoir, Getting Real (2015). Her essay below appeared in 2016.
PREREADING QUESTIONS How widespread do you think sexual harassment is? How
serious is this problem?
I’ve never been a good sleeper, but now more than ever, after having lost my job
as a news anchor this past summer, I find myself lying awake at night thinking about
my daughter—and your daughters, too. I’ve been asking myself this simple question:
Will our girls finally be the ones to have workplaces free from sexual harassment?
This question became even more compelling during the presidential race, where
offensive comments about women were dismissed as “locker room talk.”
I want to do everything I can to end sexual harassment in the workplace.
I didn’t expect to be cast in this role. But as a result of the news reports concerning
my departure from Fox News, letters, emails and texts from victims of harassment
have poured in to me, and I can’t
turn away.
Just a few weeks ago, the
comedian Heather McDonald,
inspired by my story, publicly
spoke about the time her boss just
came out and asked if he could
hold her breasts, as if that were
a normal part of a working
relationship. A former flight
attendant wrote to tell me that her
boss routinely harassed her
sexually, and when she complained
to human resources, they told her
that she was the one who needed
sexual harassment training. A
tenured teacher at a religious
school told me she had to quit her
job. An Iraq war veteran, who
e n d u r e d r e p e a t e d s e x u a l
harassment in the Army, returned
to civilian life only to find even
greater abuse on Wall Street.
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Gretchen Carlson.
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254 SECTION 3 STUDYING SOME ARGUMENTS BY GENRE
Since my story went public, I’ve been cast as a victim—another role I never
thought I’d have to play. My parents raised me with a never-give-up attitude, tell-
ing me I could be anything I wanted to be. I was a serious violinist and a valedic-
torian of my high school class. I knew all about hard work.
But within months of my first job in television, I found myself alone in the
news van with a cameraman I barely knew, and our conversation went from nor-
mal chitchat to something much more sinister. He wanted to know how I felt
when he put the microphone under my shirt and touched my breasts.
That wasn’t the first time I’d been sexually harassed. After being crowned
Miss America in 1989, I experienced sexual harassment twice. On one occasion,
a well-known television executive stuck his tongue down my throat in the back
seat of a car we were sharing. And just a few weeks later, a famous publicist in
Los Angeles shoved my head into his crotch so forcefully I couldn’t breathe.
But at that first job, I was in the workplace, so the cameraman’s actions filled
me with a terrible dread that my career could be in jeopardy. Even though I knew
what he did wasn’t right, I didn’t want to tell a soul. I was afraid that his actions
would reflect badly on me.
According to the National Women’s Law Center, almost half of all women
have been sexually harassed at work. And those are the ones who have been
brave enough to reveal it. Why don’t women tell?
That is the question we hear all the time. If it was so bad, why didn’t they just
find another job? That’s what President-elect Donald J. Trump suggested when
asked what his daughter should do if she encountered sexual harassment.
Here’s why women don’t come forward. We don’t want to be labeled
troublemakers. We don’t want to put our careers at risk. And in the end, one of
our greatest fears is that we won’t be believed. “He said, she said” is still a
convenient phrase that equates victims with harassers. It trivializes workplace
harassment and has become synonymous with “Don’t take that risk; they won’t
believe you anyway.”
So how do we fix this? It’s not going to happen because we’re talking about
it more. I’m hopeful that more women will now feel able to come forward to say,
“this is not O.K.,” but they need our support.
First, companies should not be allowed to force employees to sign contracts
that include arbitration clauses under which all discrimination disputes, including
sexual harassment claims, can be resolved only in a secret proceeding. Women
who are unaware that other women have come forward are less likely to speak
up themselves. Secrecy silences women and leaves harassers free from
accountability.
Also, arbitration rarely favors the accuser. Victims of harassment deserve
access to public courts, access to information as provided by the rules of
evidence and civil procedure (which do not apply to arbitration), and the right of
appeal if legal errors are made (there is no appeal from unjust results in
arbitration). I plan to testify before Congress to help fight forced arbitration.
We also need to revisit the issue of whether human resources departments
are the right places for victims to go to lodge a complaint. Can women feel safe
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CHAPTER 11 Presenting Proposals: The Problem/Solution Argument 255
telling their stories to H.R. employees who are hired by the same company
executives who may be implicated in the harassment?
Next, we should reassess sexual harassment training at companies across
the country. Certainly, some programs are positive forums for raising awareness.
But others may be corporate facades designed to create the illusion of compli-
ance with anti-harassment laws and policies. At the very least there should be a
standard by which the effectiveness of these programs can be measured.
Finally, I believe a fundamental factor is the way we choose to raise our kids.
Let’s teach our girls and boys how to show the same respect to their colleagues
in the workplace they show their moms and sisters at home.
The most important part of this, in my mind, is men and women working
together. This is not only a women’s issue. It’s a societal issue.
Men need to hire more women and put them in higher positions of power
within organizations. Despite his earlier comments, Mr. Trump has said that he,
more than anyone, respects women. It’s my hope that he will now place well-
qualified women in positions of real authority in his new administration.
Men also need to stop enabling harassers by egging them on or covering up
or excusing their bad behavior. Women shouldn’t be expected to solve this issue
alone. We need men to be onboard, too.
Gretchen Carlson, “My Fight Against Sexual Harassment,” The New York Times, 12 Nov. 2016. Used with
permission.
QUESTIONS FOR READING
1. Who is Gretchen Carlson? What are her accomplishments?
2. Why is she “famous” now?
3. Why don’t many women report harassment at work?
4. What needs to happen to fix this problem?
QUESTIONS FOR REASONING AND ANALYSIS
5. Write a statement of Carlson’s claim that reveals her essay as a problem/solution type of
argument.
6. What kind of essay do the opening paragraphs seem to suggest? What does the author
gain by her choice of opening?
7. Carlson’s essay is clearly organized. What does she do first, second, and third?
8. The author recommends several specific solutions: what are they? Evaluate them for
feasibility and effectiveness.
QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION AND WRITING
9. Have you been involved in sexual harassment at school or work? If so, how did you
respond? Do you have any regrets? Any advice for others?
10. Look again at Carlson’s recommended solutions. Which action is the most important, in
your view? Why?
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256 SECTION 3 STUDYING SOME ARGUMENTS BY GENRE
A MODEST PROPOSAL JONATHAN SWIFT
For Preventing the Children of Poor People in Ireland from Being a Burden
to Their Parents or Country, and for Making Them Beneficial to the Public
Born in Dublin, Jonathan Swift (1667–1745) was ordained in the Anglican Church and
spent many years as dean of St. Patrick’s in Dublin. Swift was also involved in the
political and social life of London for some years, and throughout his life he kept busy
writing. His most famous imaginative work is Gulliver’s Travels (1726). Almost as well
known is the essay that follows, published in 1729. Here you will find Swift’s usual biting
satire but also his concern to improve humanity.
PREREADING QUESTIONS Swift was a minister, but he writes this essay as if he were in
a different job. What “voice” or persona do you hear? Does Swift agree with the
views of this persona?
It is a melancholy object to
those who walk through this
great town1 or travel in the
country, where they see the
streets, the roads, and cabin
doors crowded with beggars of
the female sex, followed by
three, four, or six children, all in
rags, and importuning every
passenger for an alms. These
mothers, instead of being able to
work for their honest livelihood,
are forced to employ all their
time in strolling to beg
sustenance for their helpless
infants, who, as they grow up,
either turn thieves for want of
work, or leave their dear native
country to fight for the pretender2
in Spain or sell themselves to the
Barbados.
I think it is agreed by all
parties that this prodigious number of children in the arms, or on the backs, or at
the heels of their mothers, and frequently of their fathers, is in the present de-
plorable state of the kingdom a very great additional grievance; and therefore,
whoever could find out a fair, cheap, and easy method of making these children
sound and useful members of the commonwealth would deserve so well of the
public as to have his statue set up for a preserver of the nation.
But my intention is very far from being confined to provide only for the
children of professed beggars; it is of a much greater extent, and shall take in the
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1 Dublin.—Ed.
2 James Stuart, claimant to the British throne lost by his father, James II, in 1688.—Ed.
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CHAPTER 11 Presenting Proposals: The Problem/Solution Argument 257
whole number of infants at a certain age who are born of parents in effect as
little able to support them as those who demand our charity in the streets.
As to my own part, having turned my thoughts for many years upon this
important subject, and maturely weighed the several schemes of other projec-
tors,3 I have always found them grossly mistaken in the computation. It is true a
child just dropped from its dam may be supported by her milk for a solar year
with little other nourishment; at most not above the value of two shillings, which
the mother may certainly get, or the value in scraps, by her lawful occupation of
begging; and, it is exactly at one year that I propose to provide for them in such
a manner as instead of being a charge upon their parents or the parish, or want-
ing food and raiment for the rest of their lives, they shall on the contrary contrib-
ute to the feeding, and partly to the clothing, of many thousands.
There is likewise another great advantage in my scheme, that it will prevent
those voluntary abortions, and that horrid practice of women murdering their
bastard children, alas, too frequent among us, sacrificing the poor innocent
babes, I doubt, more to avoid the expense than the shame, which would move
tears and pity in the most savage and inhuman breast.
The number of souls in this kingdom being usually reckoned one million and
a half, of these I calculate there may be about two hundred thousand couples
whose wives are breeders; from which number I subtract thirty thousand couples
who are able to maintain their own children, although I apprehend there cannot
be so many, under the present distress of the kingdom; but this being granted,
there will remain a hundred and seventy thousand breeders. I again subtract fifty
thousand for those women who miscarry, or whose children die by accident or
disease within the year. There only remain a hundred and twenty thousand
children of poor parents annually born. The question therefore is, how this
number shall be reared and provided for, which, as I have already said, under the
present situation of affairs, is utterly impossible by all the methods hereto
proposed. For we can neither employ them in handicraft or agriculture; we
neither build houses (I mean in the country) nor cultivate land. They can very
seldom pick up a livelihood by stealing until they arrive at six years old, except
where they are of towardly parts4; although I confess they learn the rudiments
much earlier, during which time they can, however, be properly looked upon only
as probationers, as I have been informed by a principal gentleman in the country
of Cavan, who protested to me that he never knew above one or two instances
under the age of six, even in the part of the kingdom renowned for the quickest
proficiency in that art.
I am assured by our merchants that a boy or girl before twelve years old is
no saleable commodity; and even when they come to this age they will not yield
above three pounds, or three pounds and a half a crown at most, on the
exchange; which cannot turn to account either to the parents or the kingdom,
the charge of nutriment and rags having been at least four times that value.
I shall now therefore humbly propose my own thoughts, which I hope will not
be liable to the least objection.
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3 Planners.—Ed.
4 Innate abilities.—Ed.
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258 SECTION 3 STUDYING SOME ARGUMENTS BY GENRE
I have been assured by a very knowing American of my acquaintance in
London that a young healthy child well nursed is at a year old a most delicious,
nourishing, and wholesome food, whether stewed, roasted, baked, or boiled;
and I make no doubt that it will equally serve in a fricassee or ragout.
I do therefore humbly offer it to public consideration that of the hundred and
twenty-thousand children, already computed, twenty thousand may be reserved
for breed, whereof only one fourth part to be males, which is more than we allow
to sheep, black cattle, or swine; and my reason is that these children are seldom
the fruits of marriage, a circumstance not much regarded by our savages,
therefore one male will be sufficient to serve four females. That the remaining
hundred thousand may at a year old be offered in sale to the persons of quality
and fortune, through the kingdom, always advising the mother to let them suck
plentifully in the last month, so as to render them plump and fat for the table.
A child will make two dishes at an entertainment for friends; and when the family
dines alone, the fore or hind quarter will make a reasonable dish, and seasoned
with a little pepper or salt will be very good boiled on the fourth day, especially
in winter.
I have reckoned upon a medium that a child just born will weigh twelve
pounds, and in a solar year if tolerably nursed increaseth to twenty-eight pounds.
I grant this food will be somewhat dear, and therefore very proper for
landlords, who, as they have already devoured most of the parents, seem to
have the best title to the children.
Infant’s flesh will be in season throughout the year, but more plentiful in
March, and a little before and after. For we are told by a grave author, an eminent
French physician,5 that fish being a prolific diet, there are more children born in
Roman Catholic countries about nine months after Lent than at any other season;
therefore reckoning a year after Lent, the markets will be more glutted than
usual, because the number of Popish infants is at least three to one in this
kingdom; and therefore it will have one other collateral advantage, by lessening
the number of Papists among us.
I have already computed the charge of nursing a beggar’s child (in which list
I reckon all cottagers, laborers, and four-fifths of the farmers) to be about two
shillings per annum, rags included; and I believe no gentleman would repine to
give ten shillings for the carcass of a good fat child, which, as I have said, will
make four dishes of excellent nutritive meat, when he hath only some particular
friend or his own family to dine with him. Thus the squire will learn to be a good
landlord, and grow popular among his tenants; the mother will have eight
shillings net profit, and be fit for work until she produces another child.
Those who are more thrifty (as I must confess the times require) may flay the
carcass; the skin of which artificially dressed will make admirable gloves for
ladies and summer boots for fine gentlemen.
As to our city of Dublin, shambles6 may be appointed for this purpose, in the
most convenient parts of it, and butchers we may be assured will not be wanting;
although I rather recommend buying the children alive, and dressing them hot
from the knife as we do roasting pigs.
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5 François Rabelais.—Ed.
6 Butcher shops.—Ed.
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CHAPTER 11 Presenting Proposals: The Problem/Solution Argument 259
A very worthy person, a true lover of his country, and whose virtues I highly
esteem, was lately pleased in discoursing on this matter to offer a refinement upon
my scheme. He said that many gentlemen of this kingdom, having of late destroyed
their deer, he conceived that the want of venison might be well supplied by the
bodies of young lads and maidens, not exceeding fourteen years of age nor under
twelve, so great a number of both sexes in every county being now ready to starve
for want of work and service; and these to be disposed of by their parents, if alive,
or otherwise by their nearest relations. But with due deference to so excellent a
friend and so deserving a patriot, I cannot be altogether in his sentiments. For as to
the males, my American acquaintance assured me from frequent experience that
their flesh was generally tough and lean, like that of our school-boys, by continual
exercise, and their taste disagreeable; and to fatten them would not answer the
charge. Then as to the females, it would, I think with humble submission, be a loss
to the public, because they soon would become breeders themselves; and
besides, it is not probable that some scrupulous people might be apt to censure
such a practice (although indeed very unjustly) as a little bordering upon cruelty;
which, I confess, hath always been with me the strongest objection against any
project, how wellsoever intended.
But in order to justify my friend, he confessed that this expedient was put
into his head by the famous Psalmanazar,7 a native of the island Formosa who
came from thence to London above twenty years ago, and in conversation told
my friend that in his country when any young person happened to be put to
death, the executioner sold the carcass to persons of quality as a prime dainty;
and that in his time the body of a plump girl of fifteen, who was crucified for an
attempt to poison the emperor, was sold to his Imperial Majesty’s prime minister
of state, and other great mandarins of the court, in joints from the gibbet, at four
hundred crowns. Neither indeed can I deny that if the same use were made of
several plump young girls in this town, who without one single groat to their
fortunes cannot stir abroad without a chair, and appear at the playhouse and
assemblies in foreign fineries which they never will pay for, the kingdom would
not be the worse.
Some persons of a desponding spirit are in great concern about that vast
number of poor people who are aged, diseased, or maimed, and I have been
desired to employ my thoughts what course may be taken to ease the nation of
so grievous an incumbrance. But I am not in the least pain upon that matter,
because it is very well known that they are every day dying and rotting by cold
and famine, and filth and vermin, as fast as can be reasonably expected. And as
to the younger laborers, they are now in almost as hopeful a condition. They
cannot get work, and consequently pine away for want of nourishment to a
degree that if at any time they are accidentally hired to common labor, they have
not strength to perform it; and thus the country and themselves are in a fair way
of being soon delivered from the evils to come.
I have too long digressed, and therefore shall return to my subject. I think
the advantages by the proposal which I have made are obvious and many, as
well as of the highest importance.
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7 A known imposter who was French, not Formosan as he claimed.—Ed.
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260 SECTION 3 STUDYING SOME ARGUMENTS BY GENRE
For, first, as I have already observed, it would greatly lessen the number of
Papists, with whom we are yearly overrun, being the principal breeders of the
nation as well as our most dangerous enemies; and who stay at home on
purpose with a design to deliver the kingdom to the pretender, hoping to take
their advantage by the absence of so many good Protestants, who have chosen
rather to leave their country than stay at home and pay tithes against their
conscience to an idolatrous Episcopal curate.
Secondly, the poorer tenants will have something valuable of their own,
which by law may be made liable to distress,8 and help their landlord’s rent; their
corn and cattle being already seized, and money a thing unknown.
Thirdly, whereas the maintenance of a hundred thousand children, from two
years old upwards, cannot be computed at less than ten shillings a piece per
annum, the nation’s stock will be thereby increased fifty thousand pounds per
annum, besides the profit of a new dish introduced to the tables of all gentlemen
of fortune in the kingdom who have any refinement in taste. And the money will
circulate among ourselves, the goods being entirely of our own growth and
manufacture.
Fourthly, the constant breeders, besides the gain of eight shillings sterling
per annum by the sale of their children, will be rid of the charge of maintaining
them after the first year.
Fifthly, this food would likewise bring great custom to taverns, where the
vintners will certainly be so prudent as to procure the best receipts for dressing
it to perfection, and consequently have their houses frequented by all the fine
gentlemen, who justly value themselves upon their knowledge in good eating;
and a skillful cook, who understands how to oblige his guests, will contrive to
make it as expensive as they please.
Sixthly, this would be a great inducement to marriage, which all wise nations
have either encouraged by rewards or enforced by laws and penalties. It would
increase the care and tenderness of mothers towards their children, when they
were sure of a settlement for life to the poor babes, provided in some sort by the
public, to their annual profit instead of expense. We should soon see an honest
emulation among the married women, which of them could bring the fattest child
to the market. Men would become as fond of their wives during the time of their
pregnancy as they are now of their mares in foal, their cows in calf, or sows when
they are ready to farrow; nor offer to beat or kick them (as is too frequent a
practice) for fear of a miscarriage.
Many other advantages might be enumerated. For instance, the addition of
some thousand carcasses in our exportation of barrelled beef, the propagation
of swine’s flesh, and improvement in the art of making good bacon, so much
wanted among us by the great destruction of pigs, too frequent at our tables,
which are no way comparable in taste or magnificence to a well-grown fat,
yearling child, which roasted whole will make a considerable figure at a lord
mayor’s feast or any other public entertainment. But this and many others I omit,
being studious of brevity.
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8 Can be seized by lenders.—Ed.
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CHAPTER 11 Presenting Proposals: The Problem/Solution Argument 261
Supposing that one thousand families in this city would be constant
customers for infants’ flesh, besides others who might have it at merry meetings,
particularly weddings and christenings, I compute that Dublin would take off
annually about twenty thousand carcasses, and the rest of the kingdom (where
probably they will be sold somewhat cheaper) the remaining eighty thousand.
I can think of no one objection that will possibly be raised against this
proposal, unless it should be urged that the number of people will be thereby
much lessened in the kingdom. This I freely own, and it was indeed one principal
design in offering it to the world. I desire the reader will observe that I calculate
my remedy for this one individual kingdom of Ireland and for no other that ever
was, is, or I think ever can be upon earth. Therefore let no man talk to me of
other expedients: of taxing our absentees at five shillings a pound: of using
neither clothes nor household furniture except what is of our own growth and
manufacture: of utterly rejecting the materials and instruments that promote
foreign luxury: of curing the expensiveness or pride, vanity, idleness, and gaming
in our women: of introducing a vein of parsimony, prudence and temperance: of
learning to love our country, wherein we differ even from Laplanders and the
inhabitants of Topinamboo9: of quitting our animosities and factions, nor act any
longer like the Jews, who were murdering one another at the very moment their
city was taken10: of being a little cautious not to sell our country and consciences
for nothing: of teaching landlords to have at least one degree of mercy towards
their tenants. Lastly, of putting a spirit of honesty, industry, and skill into our
shopkeepers; who, if a resolution could now be taken to buy only our native
goods, would immediately unite to cheat and exact upon us in the price, the
measure, and the goodness, nor could ever yet be brought to make one fair
proposal of just dealing, though often and earnestly invited to it.
Therefore I repeat, let no man talk to me of these and the like expedients, till
he hath at least a glimpse of hope that there will ever be some hearty and sincere
attempt to put them in practice.
But as to myself, having been wearied out for many years with offering vain,
idle, visionary thoughts, and at length utterly despairing of success, I fortunately
fell upon this proposal, which, as it is wholly new, so it hath something solid and
real, of no expense and little trouble, full in our own power, and whereby we can
incur no danger in disobliging England. For this kind of commodity will not bear
exportation, the flesh being of too tender a consistence to admit a long
continuance in salt, although perhaps I could name a country which would be
glad to eat up our whole nation without it.
After all, I am not so violently bent upon my own opinion as to reject any offer
proposed by wise men, which shall be found equally innocent, cheap, easy, and
effectual. But before something of that kind shall be advanced in contradiction to
my scheme, and offering a better, I desire the author, or authors, will be pleased
maturely to consider two points. First, as things now stand, how they will be able
to find food and raiment for a hundred thousand useless mouths and backs. And
secondly, there being a round million of creatures in human figure throughout this
kingdom, whose whole subsistence put into a common stock would leave them in
28
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9 An area in Brazil.—Ed.
10 Some Jews were accused of helping the Romans and were executed during the Roman siege of Jerusalem
in a.d. 70—Ed.
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262 SECTION 3 STUDYING SOME ARGUMENTS BY GENRE
debt two million of pounds sterling, adding those who are beggars by profession
to the bulk of farmers, cottagers, and laborers, with their wives and children who
are beggars, in effect; I desire those politicians who dislike my overture, and may
perhaps be so bold to attempt an answer, that they will first ask the parents of
these mortals whether they would not at this day think it a great happiness to
have been sold for food at a year old in the manner I prescribe, and thereby have
avoided such a perpetual scene of misfortunes as they have since gone through
by the oppression of landlords, the impossibility of paying rent without money or
trade, the want of common sustenance, with neither house nor clothes to cover
them from the inclemencies of weather, and the most inevitable prospect of
entailing the like or greater miseries upon their breed forever.
I profess, in the sincerity of my heart, that I have not the least personal
interest in endeavoring to promote this necessary work, having no other motive
than the public good of my country, by advancing our trade, providing for infants,
relieving the poor, and giving some pleasure to the rich. I have no children by
which I can propose to get a single penny, the youngest being nine years old,
and my wife past childbearing.
Jonathan Swift, “A Modest Proposal,” (1729).
QUESTIONS FOR READING
1. How is the argument organized? What is accomplished in paragraphs 1–7? In para-
graphs 8–16? In paragraphs 17–19? In paragraphs 20–28? In paragraphs 29–33?
2. What specific advantages does the writer offer in defense of his proposal?
QUESTIONS FOR REASONING AND ANALYSIS
3. What specific passages and connotative words make us aware that this is a satirical
piece using irony as its chief device?
4. After noting Swift’s use of irony, what do you conclude to be his purpose in writing?
5. What can you conclude to be some of the problems in 18th-century Ireland? Where
does Swift offer direct condemnation of existing conditions in Ireland and attitudes of
the English toward the Irish?
6. What actual reforms would Swift like to see?
QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION AND WRITING
7. What are some of the advantages of using irony? What does Swift gain by this
approach? What are possible disadvantages in using irony? Reflect on irony as a
persuasive strategy.
8. What are some current problems that might be addressed by the use of irony? Make a
list. Then select one and think about what “voice” or persona you might use to bring
attention to that problem. Plan your argument with irony as a strategy.
33
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263
SUGGESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION AND WRITING
1. Think of a problem on your campus or in your community for which you have a workable
solution. Organize your argument to include all relevant steps as described in this chapter.
Although your primary concern will be to present your solution, depending on your topic
you may need to begin by convincing readers of the seriousness of the problem or the causes
of the problem—if your solutions involve removing those causes.
2. Think of a problem in education—K–12 or at the college level—that you have a solution for
and that you are interested in. You may want to begin by brainstorming to develop a list of
possible problems in education about which you could write—or look through Chapter 19
for ideas. Be sure to qualify your claim and limit your focus as necessary to work with a
problem that is not so broad and general that your “solutions” become general and vague
comments about “getting better teachers.” (If one problem is a lack of qualified teachers,
then what specific proposals do you have for solving that particular problem?) Include as
many steps as are appropriate to develop and support your argument.
3. Think of a situation that you consider serious but that apparently many people do not take
seriously enough. Write an argument in which you emphasize, by providing evidence, that
the situation is a serious problem. You may conclude by suggesting a solution, but your chief
purpose in writing will be to alert readers to a problem.
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Locating, Evaluating, and
Preparing to Use Sources
CHAPTER 12
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267
We do research all the time. You would not select a college or buy a car without doing research: gathering relevant information, analyzing that information, and drawing
conclusions from your study. You may already have done some research in this course,
using sources in this text or finding data online to strengthen an argument. Then you
acknowledged your sources either informally in your essay or formally, following the
documentation guidelines in this section. So, when you are assigned a more formal
research essay, remember that you are not facing a brand-new assignment. You are just
doing a longer paper with more sources, and you have this section to guide you to success.
SELECTING A GOOD TOPIC
To get started you need to select and limit a topic. One key to success is finding a work-
able topic. No matter how interesting or clever the topic, it is not workable if it does not
meet the guidelines of your assignment. Included in those guidelines may be a required
length, a required number of sources, and a due date. Understand and accept all of these
guidelines as part of your writing context.
What Type of Paper Am I Preparing?
Study your assignment to understand the type of project. Is your purpose to write a
report essay, an analytical essay, or an argumentative essay? Using these three catego-
ries, how would you classify each of the following topics?
1. Explain the chief solutions proposed for increasing the Southwest’s water supply.
2. Compare the Freudian and behavioral models of mental illness.
3. Find the best solutions to a current environmental problem.
4. Consider: What twentieth-century invention has most dramatically changed our
personal lives?
Did you recognize that the first topic calls for a report? The second topic requires an
analysis of two schools of psychology, so you cannot report on only one, but you also
cannot argue that one model is better than the other. Both topics 3 and 4 require an
argumentative paper: You must select and defend a claim.
Who Is My Audience?
If you are writing in a specific discipline, imagine your instructor as a representative of
that field, a reader with knowledge of the subject area. If you are in a composition
course, your instructor may advise you to write to a general reader, someone who reads
newspapers but may not have the exact information and perspective you have. For a
general reader, specialized terms and concepts need definition.
NOTE: Consider the expectations of your readers. A research essay is not a
personal essay. It is not about you; it is about a subject. Keep yourself in the
background and carefully evaluate any use of the personal pronoun “I.”
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268 SECTION 4 THE RESEARCHED AND FORMALLY DOCUMENTED ARGUMENT
How Can I Select a Good Topic?
Choosing from assigned topics. At times students are unhappy with topic restriction. Looked
at another way, your instructor has eliminated a difficult step in the research process and has
helped you avoid the problem of selecting an unworkable topic. If topics are assigned, you
will still have to choose from the list and develop your own claim and approach.
Finding a course-related topic. This guideline gives you many options and requires
more thought about your choice. Working within the guidelines, try to write about what
interests you. Here are examples of assignments turned into topics of interest to the student:
ASSIGNMENT INTEREST TOPIC
1. Trace the influence of any
twentieth-century event,
development, invention.
Music The influence of the Jazz
Age on modern music
2. Support an argument on
some issue of pornography
and censorship.
Computers Censorship of
pornography on the Web
3. Demonstrate the popularity of
a current myth and then
discredit it.
Science fiction The lack of evidence for
the existence of UFOs
Selecting a topic without any guidelines. When you are free to write on any topic, you
may need to use some strategies for topic selection.
• Look through your text’s table of contents or index for subject areas that can be
narrowed or focused.
• Look over your class notes and think about subjects covered that have interested
you.
• Consider college-based or local issues.
• Do a subject search in a database to see how a large topic can be narrowed—for
example, type in “dinosaur” and observe such subheadings as dinosaur behavior
and dinosaur extinction.
• Use one or more invention strategies to narrow and focus a topic:
– Freewriting
– Brainstorming
– Asking questions about a broad subject, using the journalist’s questions who,
what, where, when, why and how.
What Kinds of Topics Should I Avoid?
Here are several kinds of topics that are best avoided because they usually produce
disasters, no matter how well the student handles the rest of the research process:
1. Topics that are irrelevant to your interests or the course. If you are not interested in
your topic, you will not produce a lively, informative paper. If you select a topic far
removed from the course content, you may create some hostility in your instructor,
who will wonder why you are unwilling to become engaged in the course.
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CHAPTER 12 Locating, Evaluating, and Preparing to Use Sources 269
2. Topics that are broad subject areas. These result in general surveys that lack
appropriate detail and support.
3. Topics that can be fully researched with only one source. You will likely produce a
summary, not a research paper.
4. Biographical studies. Short undergraduate papers on a person’s life usually turn out
to be summaries of one or two major biographies.
5. Topics that produce a strong emotional response in you. If there is only one “right”
answer to the abortion issue and you cannot imagine counterarguments, don’t
choose to write on abortion. Probably most religious topics are best avoided.
6. Topics that are too technical for you at this point in your college work. If you do not
understand the complexities of the federal tax code, then arguing for a reduction in
the capital gains tax may be an unwise topic choice.
WRITING A TENTATIVE CLAIM OR
RESEARCH PROPOSAL
Once you have selected and focused on a topic, write a tentative claim, research
question, or research proposal. Some instructors will ask to see a statement—from a
sentence to a paragraph long—to be approved before you proceed. Others may require
a one-page proposal that includes a tentative claim, a basic organizational plan, and a
description of types of sources to be used. Even if your instructor does not require
anything in writing, you need to write something for your benefit—to direct your
reading and thinking. Here are two possibilities:
1. SUBJECT: Smartphones
TOPIC: The impact of smartphones on the twenty-first
century
CLAIM: Smartphones have had the greatest impact of any
technological development in the twenty-first
century.
RESEARCH PROPOSAL: I propose to show that smartphones have had the
greatest impact of any technological development
in the twenty-first century. I will show the influence
of smartphones on the economy, on social
networking, and on cultural issues to emphasize
the breadth of influence. I will argue that other
possibilities (such as the laptop computer) did not
have the same impact as smartphones. I will check
the library’s book catalog and databases for sources
on technological developments and on smartphones
specifically. I will also interview a family friend
who works for a company that makes smartphones.
This example illustrates several key ideas. First, the initial subject is both too broad and
unfocused (What about smartphones?). Second, the claim is more focused than the topic
statement because it asserts a position, a claim the student must support. Third, the
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270 SECTION 4 THE RESEARCHED AND FORMALLY DOCUMENTED ARGUMENT
research proposal is more helpful than the claim only because it includes some thoughts
on developing the thesis and finding sources.
2. Less sure of your topic? Then write a research question or a more open-ended
research proposal. Take, for example, a history student studying the effects of
Prohibition. She is not ready to write a thesis, but she can write a research
proposal that suggests some possible approaches to the topic:
TOPIC: The effects of Prohibition
RESEARCH QUESTION: What were the effects of Prohibition on the
United States?
RESEARCH PROPOSAL: I will examine the effects of Prohibition on the
United States in the 1920s (and possibly consider
some long-term effects, depending on the amount
of material on the topic). Specifically, I will look
at the varying effects on urban and rural areas and
on different classes in society.
PREPARING A WORKING BIBLIOGRAPHY
To begin this next stage of your research, you need to know three things:
• Your search strategy. If you are writing on a course-related topic, your starting place
may be your textbook for relevant sections and possible sources (if the text contains a
bibliography). For this course, you may find some potential sources among the read-
ings in this text. Think about what you already know or have in hand as you plan your
search strategy. As part of your research strategy, you may also want to record your
tasks and how long your tasks take to complete in a log. Tracking research tasks and
time will help you set short- and long-term goals and manage your project.
• A method for recording bibliographic information. You have two choices: the
always reliable 3 × 5 index cards or a bibliography file in your personal computer.
• The documentation format you will be using. You may be assigned the Modern
Language Association (MLA) format, or perhaps given a choice between MLA
and the American Psychological Association (APA) documentation styles. Once
you select the documentation style, skim the appropriate pages in Chapter 14 to
get an overview of both content and style.
A list of possible sources is only a working bibliography because you do not yet know
which sources you will use. (Your final bibliography will include only those sources you
cite—actually refer to—in your paper.) A working bibliography will help you see what is
available on your topic, note how to locate each source, and contain the information needed
to document. Whether you are using cards or computer files, follow these guidelines:
1. Check all reasonable catalogs and indexes for possible sources. (Use more than one
reference source even if you locate enough sources there; you are looking for the
best sources, not the first ones you find.)
2. Complete a card or prepare an entry for every potentially useful source. You won’t
know what to reject until you start a close reading of sources.
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CHAPTER 12 Locating, Evaluating, and Preparing to Use Sources 271
3. Copy (or download from an online catalog) all information needed to complete a
citation and to locate the source, including the DOI (digital object identifier) or
URL if the source is online. (When using an index that does not give all needed
information, leave a space to be filled in when you actually read the source.)
4. Put bibliographic information in the correct format for every possible source; you
will save time and make fewer errors. Do not mix or blend styles. When searching
for sources, have your text handy and use the appropriate models as your guide.
The following brief guide to correct form will get you started. Illustrations are for
cards, but the information and order will be the same in your PC file. (Guidelines are for
MLA style.)
Basic Form for Books
As Figure 12.1 shows, the basic MLA form for books includes the following informa-
tion in this pattern:
1. The author’s full name, last name first.
2. The title (and subtitle if there is one) of the book, in italics (underlined in hand-
writing).
3. The facts of publication: the city of publication (followed by a colon), the publisher
(followed by a comma), and the date of publication.
4. DOI, URL, permalink, or access number.
classification
number
facts of
publication
author
title and subtitle
publication
medium
FIGURE 12.1 Bibliography Card for a Book
Note that periods are placed after the author’s name, after the title, and at the end of
the citation. Other information, when appropriate (e.g., the number of volumes), is added
to this basic pattern. (See pp. 325–37 for many sample citations.) Include, in your working
bibliography, the book’s classification number so that you can find it in the library.
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Basic Form for Articles
Figure 12.2 shows the simplest form for magazine articles. Include the following infor-
mation, in this pattern:
1. The author’s full name, last name first.
2. The title of the article, in quotation marks.
3. The facts of publication: the title of the periodical in italics (underlined in hand-
writing), the volume number (if the article is from a scholarly journal), the date
(followed by a colon), and inclusive page numbers.
4. DOI, URL, permalink, or access number.
FIGURE 12.2 Bibliography Card for a Magazine Article
You will discover that indexes rarely present information in MLA format. Here, for
example, is a source on problems with zoos, found in a database:
BAD DAY AT THE ZOO.
Wooten, Anne. Popular Science, Sep 2007, Vol. 271 Issue 3, p. 14–15, 2p.
If you read the article in the magazine itself, then the correct citation, for MLA,
will look like that in the sample bibliography card in Figure 12.2. (Because Popular
Science is a magazine, not a scholarly journal, you provide month and year but not
volume and issue numbers.) However, if you obtain a copy of the article from one of
your library’s databases, then your citation will need additional information to identify
your actual source of the article:
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CHAPTER 12 Locating, Evaluating, and Preparing to Use Sources 273
Note that the MLA now requires either a DOI, URL, or permalink. If a DOI is not
available, or if the URL or permalink are too long to use, you may also use an access
number (shown). The name of the database is italicized as if it were a book containing
the article.
Wooten, Anne. “Bad Day at the Zoo.” Popular Science, Sept. 2007, pp. 14–15.
Academic Search Complete, Access no: 25999296, 10 Oct. 2016.
NOTE: A collection of printouts, slips of paper, and backs of envelopes is not
a working bibliography! You may have to return to the library for missing
information, and you risk making serious errors in documentation. Know the
basics of your documentation format and follow it faithfully when collecting
possible sources.
LOCATING SOURCES
All libraries contain books and periodicals and a system for accessing them. A library’s
book collection includes the general collection, the reference collection, and the reserve
book collection. Electronic materials such as tapes and CDs will also be included in the
general “book” collection. The periodicals collection consists of popular magazines,
scholarly journals, and newspapers. Electronic databases with texts of articles provide
alternatives to the print periodicals collection.
REMEMBER: All works, regardless of their source or the format in which you
obtain them—and this includes online sources—must be fully documented in
your paper.
The Book Catalog
Your chief guide to books and audiovisual materials is the library catalog, usually an
electronic database accessed from computer stations in the library or, with an
appropriate password, from your personal computer.
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274 SECTION 4 THE RESEARCHED AND FORMALLY DOCUMENTED ARGUMENT
One of the famous lions sitting in front of the New York Public Library.
In the catalog there will be at least four ways to access a specific book: the author
entry, the title entry, one or more subject entries, and a keyword option. When you pull
up the search screen, you will probably see that the keyword option is the default. If you
know the exact title of the work you want, switch to the title option, type it in, and hit
submit. If you want a list of all of the library’s books on Hemingway, though, click on
author and type in “Hemingway.” Keep these points in mind:
• With a title search, do not type any initial article (a, an, the). To locate The Great
Gatsby, type in “Great Gatsby.”
• Use correct spelling. If you are unsure of spelling, use a keyword instead of an
author or title search.
• If you are looking for a list of books on your subject, do a keyword or subject
search.
• When screens for specific books are shown, either print screens of potential
sources or copy all information needed for documentation—plus the call number
for each book.
The Reference Collection
The research process often begins with the reference collection. You will find atlases,
dictionaries, encyclopedias, general histories, critical studies, and biographies. In addi-
tion, various reference tools such as bibliographies and indexes are part of the reference
collection.
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CHAPTER 12 Locating, Evaluating, and Preparing to Use Sources 275
Many tools in the reference collection that were once found only in print are now
also online. Some are now only online. Yet online is not always the way to go. Let’s
consider some of the advantages of each of the formats:
Advantages of the Print Reference Collection
1. The reference tool may be only in print—use it.
2. The print form covers the period you are studying. (Most online indexes and
abstracts cover only from 1980 to the present.)
3. In a book, with a little scanning of pages, you can often find what you need without
getting spelling or commands exactly right.
4. If you know the best reference source to use and are looking for only a few items,
the print source can be faster than the online source.
Advantages of Online Reference Materials
1. Online databases are likely to provide the most up-to-date information.
2. You can usually search all years covered at one time.
3. Full texts (with graphics) are sometimes available, as well as indexes with detailed
summaries of articles. Both can be printed or emailed to your PC.
4. Through links to the Web, you have access to an amazing amount of material.
(Unless you focus your keyword search, however, you may be overwhelmed.)
Before using any reference work, take a few minutes to check its date, purpose, and
organization. If you are new to online searching, take a few minutes to learn about each
reference tool by working through the online tutorial.
A Word about Wikipedia
Many researchers go first to a general encyclopedia, in the past in print in the reference
collection, today more typically online. This is not always the best strategy. Often you
can learn more about your topic from a current book or a more specialized reference
source—which your reference librarian can help you find. Both may give you additional
sources for your project. If—or when—you turn to a general encyclopedia, make it a
good one that is available online through your library. Some colleges have told their
students that Wikipedia is not an acceptable source for college research projects.
Databases
You will probably access databases by going to your library’s home page and then
clicking on the appropriate term or icon. (You may have found the book catalog by
clicking on “library catalog”; you may find the databases by clicking on “library
resources” or some other descriptive label.) You will need to choose a particular
database and then type in your keyword for a basic search or select “advanced search”
to limit that search by date or periodical or in some other way. Each library will create
somewhat different screens, but the basic process of selecting among choices provided
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276 SECTION 4 THE RESEARCHED AND FORMALLY DOCUMENTED ARGUMENT
and then typing in your search commands remains the same. Figure 12.3 shows a partial
list of articles that resulted from a keyword search for “zoos and animal rights.”
FIGURE 12.3 Partial List of Articles Found on Search Topic
GUIDELINES Using Online Databases
Keep these points in mind as you use online databases:
• Although some online databases provide full texts of all articles, others
provide full texts of only some of the articles indexed. The articles not in
full text will have to be located in a print collection of periodicals.
• Articles indexed but not available in full text often come with a brief sum-
mary or abstract. This allows you to decide whether the article looks useful
for your project. Do not treat the abstract as the article. Do not use material
from it and cite the author. If you want to use the article, find it in your
library’s print collection or obtain it from another library.
• The information you need for documenting material used from an article
is not in correct format for any of the standard documentation styles. You
will have to reorder the information and use the correct style for writing
titles. If your instructor wants to see a list of possible sources in MLA format,
do not hand in a printout of articles from an online database.
• Because no single database covers all journals, you may want to search
several databases that seem relevant to your project. Ask your reference
librarian for suggestions of various databases in the sciences, social sci-
ences, public affairs, and education.
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CHAPTER 12 Locating, Evaluating, and Preparing to Use Sources 277
The Web
In addition to using electronic databases to find sources, you can search the Web
directly.
Keep in mind these facts about the Web:
• The Web is both disorganized and huge, so you can waste time trying to find infor-
mation that is easily obtained in a library reference book or database.
• The Web is best at providing current information, such as news and movie reviews.
It is also a great source of government information.
• Because anyone can create a website and put anything on it, you will have to be
especially careful in evaluating web resources. Remember that articles in
magazines and journals have been selected by editors and are often peer reviewed
as well, but no editor selects or rejects material on a personal website.
The Web will provide useful sources for many research projects. It will be
much less useful than books or online databases for others. One task of
the good researcher is to think about the best places to go to get the best
material for a specific project. If you think the Web will be useful for you,
keep these general guidelines in mind to aid your research:
• Bookmark sites you expect to use often so that you do not have to
remember a complex URL or do another Google search.
• Make your research terms as precise as possible to avoid getting over-
whelmed with hits.
• If you are searching for a specific phrase, put quotation marks around
the words. This will reduce the number of hits and lead to more useful
sites. Example: “Rainforest depletion.” Without the quotation marks,
you will get a lot of information about rainforests, but not necessarily
about their depletion. You will also get information on the concept of
depletion that has nothing to do with rainforests.
• Complete a bibliography card or a listing in your research file on your
PC—including the date you accessed the source—for each separate
site from which you take material (see Chapter 14 for documentation
guidelines).
• Review your online materials carefully to make sure that they are
credible sources of information. Some sources are more credible than
others. For instance, sites that use .edu (education institutions) and
.gov (government organizations) at the end of their URLs may be more
appropriate for your project than nonprofits. Lastly, URLs that end with
.com are usually for-profit organizations and may or may not be
credible sources for your research. (See the Evaluating Sources
Guidelines later in this chapter for details.)
GUIDELINES for Searching the
Web
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278 SECTION 4 THE RESEARCHED AND FORMALLY DOCUMENTED ARGUMENT
FIELD RESEARCH
Field research can enrich many projects. The following sections offer some suggestions.
Federal, State, and Local Government Documents
In addition to federal documents you may obtain through PAIS or GPO Access,
department and agency websites, or the Library of Congress’s good legislative
site Thomas (http://thomas.loc.gov), consider state and county archives, maps, and other
published materials. Instead of selecting a national or global topic, consider examining
the debate over a controversial bill introduced in your state legislature. Use online
databases to locate articles on the bill and the debate and interview legislators and
journalists who participated in or covered the debates or served on committees that
worked with the bill.
You can also request specific documents from appropriate state or county agencies
and nonprofit organizations. One student, given the assignment of examining solutions
to an ecological problem, decided to study the local problem of preserving the
Chesapeake Bay. She obtained issues of the Chesapeake Bay Foundation newsletter and
brochures prepared by them advising homeowners about hazardous household waste
materials that end up in the bay. Added to her sources were bulletins on soil conservation
and landscaping tips for improving the area’s water quality. Local problems can lead to
interesting research topics because they are current and relevant to you and because they
involve uncovering different kinds of source materials.
Correspondence
Business and government officials are usually willing to respond to written requests for
information. Make sure your correspondence is brief and well written. Either include a
self-addressed, stamped envelope for the person’s convenience or email your request. If
you are not emailing, write as soon as you discover the need for information and be pre-
pared to wait several weeks for a reply. It is appropriate to indicate your deadline and ask
for a timely response. Three guidelines for either letters or emails to keep in mind are:
1. Explain precisely what information you need.
2. Do not request information that can be found in your library’s reference collection.
3. Explain how you plan to use the information. Businesses especially are understand-
ably concerned with their public image and will be disinclined to provide informa-
tion that you intend to use as a means of attacking them.
Use reference guides to companies and government agencies or their websites to
obtain addresses and the person to whom your letter or email should be sent.
Interviews
Some experts are available for personal interviews. Call or write for an appointment as
soon as you recognize the value of an interview. Remember that interviews are more
likely to be scheduled with state and local officials than with the president of General
Motors. If you are studying a local problem, also consider leaders of the civic association
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CHAPTER 12 Locating, Evaluating, and Preparing to Use Sources 279
with an interest in the issue. In many communities, the local historian or a librarian will
be a storehouse of information about the community. Your former teachers can be
interviewed for papers on education. Interviews with doctors or nurses can add a special
dimension to papers on medical issues.
If an interview is appropriate for your topic, follow these guidelines:
1. Prepare specific questions in advance.
2. Arrive on time, properly dressed, and behave in a polite, professional manner.
3. Take notes, asking the interviewee to repeat key statements so that your notes are
accurate.
4. Take a digital recorder or your smartphone with you and use a voice memo, but ask
permission to use it before taping.
5. If you quote any statements in your paper, quote accurately, eliminating only such
minor speech habits as “you know’s” and “uhm’s.” (See Chapter 14 for proper doc-
umentation of interviews.)
6. Direct the interview with your prepared questions, but also give the interviewee the
chance to approach the topic in his or her own way. You may obtain information or
views that had not occurred to you.
7. Do not get into a debate with the interviewee. You are there to learn.
8. Afterward, send your interviewee a thank you email and ask if you may follow up
if you have any further questions.
Lectures
Check the appropriate information sources at your school to keep informed of visiting
speakers. If you are fortunate enough to attend a lecture relevant to a current project,
take careful, detailed notes. Because a lecture is a source, use of information or ideas
from it must be presented accurately and then documented. (See Chapter 14 for
documentation format.)
Films, DVDs, Television
Your library will have audiovisual materials that provide good sources for some kinds
of topics. For example, if you are studying Death of a Salesman, view a videotaped or
digital version of the play. Also pay attention to documentaries on public television and
to the many news and political talk shows on both public and commercial channels. In
many cases, transcripts of shows can be obtained from the TV station. Alternatively,
record the program while watching it so that you can view it several times. The
documentation format for such nonprint sources is illustrated in Chapter 14.
Surveys, Questionnaires, and Original Research
Depending on your paper, you may want to conduct a simple survey or write and
administer a questionnaire. Surveys can be used for many campus and local issues, for
topics on behavior and attitudes of college students and/or faculty, and for topics on
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280 SECTION 4 THE RESEARCHED AND FORMALLY DOCUMENTED ARGUMENT
consumer habits. Explore www.surveymonkey.com for help administering an online
survey. Simple ones are free! Remember: Surveying fifty of your Facebook friends will
not produce a random sample. When writing questions, keep these guidelines in mind:
• Use simple, clear language.
• Devise a series of short questions rather than only a few that have several parts to
them. (You want to separate information for better analysis.)
• Phrase questions to avoid wording that seeks to control the answer. For example,
do not ask “Did you perform your civic duty by voting in the last election?” This
is a loaded question.
In addition to surveys and questionnaires, you can incorporate some original
research. As you read sources on your topic, be alert to reports of studies that you could
redo and update in part or on a smaller scale. Many topics on advertising and television
give opportunities for your own analysis. Local-issue topics may offer good
opportunities for gathering information on your own, not just from your reading. One
student, examining the controversy over a proposed new shopping mall on part of the
Manassas Civil War Battlefield in Virginia, made the argument that the mall served no
practical need in the community. He supported his position by describing existing malls,
including the number and types of stores each contained and the number of miles each
was from the proposed new mall. How did he obtain this information? He drove around
the area, counting miles and stores. Sometimes a seemingly unglamorous approach to a
topic turns out to be an imaginative one.
EVALUATING SOURCES, MAINTAINING
CREDIBILITY
As you study your sources, keep rethinking your purpose and approach. Test your
research proposal or tentative claim against what you are learning. Remember: You can
always change the direction and focus of your paper as new approaches occur to you,
and you can even change your position as you reflect on what you are learning.
You will work with sources more effectively if you keep in mind why you are using
them. What you are looking for will vary somewhat, depending on your topic and
purpose, but there are several basic approaches:
1. Acquiring information and viewpoints firsthand. Suppose that you are concerned
about the mistreatment of animals kept in zoos. You do not want to just read what
others have to say on this issue. First, visit a zoo, taking notes on what you see.
Second, before you go, plan to interview at least one person on the zoo staff,
preferably a veterinarian who can explain the zoo’s guidelines for animal care. Only
after gathering and thinking about these primary sources do you want to add to
your knowledge by reading articles and books—secondary sources. Many kinds of
topics require the use of both primary and secondary sources. If you want to study
violence in children’s TV shows, for example, you should first spend some time
watching specific shows and taking notes.
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CHAPTER 12 Locating, Evaluating, and Preparing to Use Sources 281
2. Acquiring new knowledge. Suppose you are interested in breast cancer research and
treatment, but you do not know much about the choices of treatment and, in general,
where we are with this medical problem. You will need to turn to sources first to
learn about the topic. Begin with sources that will give you an overview, perhaps a
historical perspective. Begin with sources that provide an overview of how
knowledge and treatment have progressed in the last thirty years. Similarly, if your
topic is the effects of Prohibition in the 1920s, you will need to read first for
knowledge but also with an eye to ways to focus the topic and organize your paper.
3. Understanding the issues. Suppose you think that you know your views on illegal
immigration, so you intend to read only to obtain some useful statistical informa-
tion to support your argument. Should you scan sources quickly, looking for facts
you can use? This approach may be too hasty. As explained in Chapter 3, good
arguments are built on a knowledge of counterarguments. You are wise to study
sources presenting a variety of attitudes on your issue so that you understand—and
can refute—the arguments of others. Remember: With controversial issues often the
best argument is a conciliatory one that presents a middle ground and seeks to
bring people together.
When you use facts and opinions from sources, you are saying to readers that the
facts are accurate and the ideas credible. If you do not evaluate your sources before
using them, you risk losing your credibility as a writer. (Remember Aristotle’s idea of
ethos, how your character is judged.) Just because they are in print does not mean that a
writer’s “facts” are reliable or ideas worthwhile. Judging the usefulness and reliability
of potential sources is an essential part of the research process.
Today, with access to so much material online, the need to evaluate is
even more crucial. Here are some strategies for evaluating sources, with
special attention to online sources:
• Locate the author’s credentials. Periodicals often list their writers’
degrees, current position, and other publications; books, similarly, contain
an “about the author” section. If you do not see this information, check
various biographical dictionaries (Biography Index, Contemporary Authors)
or look for the author’s website for information. For articles on the Web,
look for the author’s email address or a link to a home page. Never use a
Web source that does not identify the author or the organization
responsible for the material. Critical question: Is this author qualified to
write on this topic? How do I know?
• Judge the credibility of the work. For books, read how reviewers
evaluated the book when it was first published. For articles, judge the
respectability of the magazine or journal. Study the author’s use of
documentation as one measure of credibility. Scholarly works cite
sources. Well-researched and reliable pieces in quality popular
GUIDELINES for Evaluating
Sources
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282 SECTION 4 THE RESEARCHED AND FORMALLY DOCUMENTED ARGUMENT
PREPARING AN ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
An annotated bibliography is a list of sources on a topic that includes a summary of
each source. As part of your research process, you may be required to prepare either a
partial or a complete annotated bibliography. Instructors include this assignment to keep
you moving forward in your study of sources; it is a way of checking that you have
found and read useful sources in good time to complete your project. Annotating each
source also demands careful reading and analysis; it provides a check against skimming
a source for some information without taking time to read and understand the context in
which the information is presented and the author’s position on the topic. You may find
that your research paper is more focused and better written if you take the time to write
a brief summary statement about each source you plan to use, even if an annotated
bibliography is not required.
When preparing an annotated bibliography, list sources alphabetically and in
correct MLA (or APA) format (see Chapter 14). Then, immediately after each citation,
place a two-to-five-sentence summary of that source. Use hanging indentation, just as
you would for your list of works cited at the end of your paper. Warning: Do not confuse
magazines will also make clear the sources of any statistics used or the
credentials of any authority who is quoted. One good rule: Never use
undocumented statistical information. Another judge of credibility is the
quality of writing. Do not use sources filled with grammatical and
mechanical errors. For online sources, find out what institution hosts the
site. If you have not heard of the company or organization, find out more
about it. Critical question: Why should I believe information/ideas from this
source?
• Select only those sources that are at an appropriate level for your
research. Avoid works that are either too specialized or too elementary
for college research. You may not understand the former (and thus could
misrepresent them in your paper), and you gain nothing from the latter.
Critical question: Will this source provide a sophisticated discussion for
educated adults?
• Understand the writer’s purpose. Consider the writer’s intended
audience. Be cautious using works designed to reinforce biases already
shared by the intended audience. Is the work written to persuade rather
than to inform and analyze? Examine the writing for emotionally charged
language. For online sources, ask yourself why this person or institution
decided to have a website or contribute to a newsgroup. Critical question:
Can I trust the information from this source, given the apparent purpose of
the work?
• In general, choose current sources. Some studies published years ago
remain classics, but many older works are outdated. In scientific and
technical fields, the “information revolution” has outdated some works
published only five years ago. So look at publication dates (When was the
website last updated?) and pass over outdated sources in favor of current
studies. Critical question: Is this information still accurate?
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CHAPTER 12 Locating, Evaluating, and Preparing to Use Sources 283
an annotated bibliography with a Works Cited list. When you complete your research
essay, list all sources used without the summaries.
A partial annotated bibliography follows, based on the sample student research
essay in Chapter 13. Use this as your model.
Tell Us What You Really Are: The Debate over
Labeling Genetically Modified Food
Selected Annotated Bibliography
David Donaldson
Brackett, Robert E. “Bioengineered Foods.” Statement of Robert E.
Brackett to the Senate Committee on Agriculture, Nutrition, and
Forestry. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 14 June 2005.
www.fda.gov./newsevents/testimony/ucm112927.htm. Robert E.
Brackett’s statement to the Senate Committee on Agriculture,
Nutrition, and Forestry is a lengthy, detailed review of the FDA’s
responsibilities in determining food safety in general and its specific
procedures for approving foods developed by hybridization and
bioengineering. Brackett explains that GM foods could conceivably
create one of three problems: cause new allergies, cause toxicity, or
produce anti-nutrients (e.g., result in a decrease in Vitamin C). The
FDA has the power to screen new foods for all three potential
problems and to disapprove or require labeling, as appropriate.
Brackett assures the Committee that the FDA works closely with
companies developing GM foods and that they carefully test for all
three potential problems to maintain a safe food supply for
consumers.
MacDonald, Chris, and Melissa Whellams. “Corporate Decisions about
Labeling Genetically Modified Foods.” Journal of Business Ethics, vol.
75, no. 2, 2007, pp. 181–89. JSTOR. doi:10.1007/s10551-006-9245-8.
MacDonald and Whellams examine the ethical obligation of
companies to label genetically modified foods. The authors explain
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284 SECTION 4 THE RESEARCHED AND FORMALLY DOCUMENTED ARGUMENT
that there is no evidence that such products pose a health risk and
that the FDA sees no reason to require special labeling. The authors
explain that such labeling would impose a hardship on the
companies preparing GM foods. Although the authors assert that
they do not necessarily oppose required labeling, they conclude that
food companies are not ethically obligated to voluntarily label GM
foods.
U.S. Chamber of Commerce. “Precautionary Principle.” U.S. Chamber of
Commerce. 2011. www.uschamber.com/precautionary-principle. The
U.S. Chamber of Commerce has posted on its website a statement
regarding the “precautionary principle.” The Chamber asserts that it
has always supported regulatory decisions based on good science
and sound risk assessment. The Chamber opposes the use of the
“precautionary principle”—assume the worst and regulate risks that
are uncertain or unknown—as a guide for U.S. regulatory decisions.
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Writing the Researched
Essay
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CHAPTER 13
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286
You have agonized over your topic choice, searched for good sources, read and thought about your topic, seeking a way to put together a compelling argument—
while not forgetting documentation. Whew! Don’t rush now. Study this chapter’s writ-
ing points and apply the guidelines to the writing of a convincing essay. Here are some
general guidelines for studying sources.
1. Read first; take notes later. First, do background reading, selecting the
most general sources that provide an overview of the topic.
2. Skim what appear to be your chief sources. Learn what other writers on
the topic consider the important facts, issues, and points of debate.
3. Annotate photocopies—do not highlight endlessly. Instead, carefully
bracket material you want to use. Then write a note in the margin indicating
how and where you might use that material.
4. Either download online sources or take careful notes on the material.
Before preparing a note on content, be sure to copy all necessary informa-
tion for documenting the material—including the date you accessed the
website.
5. Initially mark key passages in books with Post-its. Write on the Post-it how
and where you might use the material. Alternatively, photocopy book pages
and then annotate them. Be sure to record for yourself the source of all
copied pages.
6. As you study and annotate, create labels for source materials that will
help you organize your essay. For example, if you are writing about the
problem of campus sexual assault, you might label passages as: “facts
showing there is a problem,” “causes of the problem,” and “possible solu-
tions to the problem.”
7. Recognize that when you are working with many sources, note taking
rather than annotating copies of sources is more helpful. Notes, whether
on cards or typed on separate sheets of paper, provide an efficient method
for collecting and organizing lots of information.
Studying SourcesGUIDELINES for
AVOIDING PLAGIARISM
Documenting sources accurately and fully is required of all researchers. Proper documen-
tation distinguishes between the work of others and your ideas, shows readers the breadth
of your research, and strengthens your credibility. In Western culture, copyright laws
support the ethic that ideas, new information, and wording belong to their author. To
borrow these without acknowledgment is against the law and has led to many celebrated
lawsuits. For students who plagiarize, the consequences range from an F on the paper to
suspension from college. Be certain, then, that you know what the requirements for correct
documentation are; accidental plagiarism is still plagiarism and will be punished.
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CHAPTER 13 Writing the Researched Essay 287
In sum, you are required to document the following:
• Direct quotations from sources
• Paraphrased ideas and opinions from sources
• Summaries of ideas from sources
• Factual information, except common knowledge, from sources
Understand that putting an author’s ideas in your own words in a paraphrase or sum-
mary does not eliminate the requirement of documentation. To illustrate, consider the
following excerpt from Thomas R. Schueler’s report Controlling Urban Runoff
(Washington Metropolitan Water Resources Planning Board, 1987: pp. 3–4) and a
student paragraph based on the report.
SOURCE
The aquatic ecosystems in urban headwater streams are particularly
susceptible to the impacts of urbanization. . . . Dietemann (1975), Ragan
and Dietemann (1976), Klein (1979) and WMCOG (1982) have all tracked
trends in fish diversity and abundance over time in local urbanizing
streams. Each of the studies has shown that fish communities become
less diverse and are composed of more tolerant species after the sur-
rounding watershed is developed. Sensitive fish species either disap-
pear or occur very rarely. In most cases, the total number of fish in
urbanizing streams may also decline.
Similar trends have been noted among aquatic insects which are the
major food resource for fish. . . . Higher post-development sediment
and trace metals can interfere in their efforts to gather food. Changes in
water temperature, oxygen levels, and substrate composition can
further reduce the species diversity and abundance of the aquatic
insect community.
NOTE: MLA documentation requires precise page references for all ideas,
opinions, and information taken from sources—except for common
knowledge. Author and page references provided in the text are supported
by complete bibliographic citations on the Works Cited page.
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288 SECTION 4 THE RESEARCHED AND FORMALLY DOCUMENTED ARGUMENT
PLAGIARIZED STUDENT PARAGRAPH
Studies have shown that fish communities become less diverse as
the amount of runoff increases. Sensitive fish species either disappear
or occur very rarely, and, in most cases, the total number of fish de-
clines. Aquatic insects, a major source of food for fish, also decline be-
cause sediment and trace metals interfere with their food-gathering
efforts. Increased water temperature and lower oxygen levels can
further reduce the species diversity and abundance of the aquatic in-
sect community.
The student’s opening words establish a reader’s expectation that the student
has taken information from a source, as indeed the student has. But where is
the documentation? The student’s paraphrase is a good example of plagia-
rism: an unacknowledged paraphrase of borrowed information that even col-
lapses into copying the source’s exact wording in two places. For MLA style,
the author’s name and the precise page numbers are needed throughout the
paragraph. Additionally, most of the first sentence and the final phrase must
be put into the student’s own words or placed within quotation marks. The
following revised paragraph shows an appropriate acknowledgment of the
source used.
REVISED STUDENT PARAGRAPH TO REMOVE PLAGIARISM
In Controlling Urban Runoff, Thomas Schueler explains that studies
have shown “that fish communities become less diverse as the amount
of runoff increases” (3). Sensitive fish species either disappear or occur
very rarely, and, in most cases, the total number of fish declines.
Aquatic insects, a major source of food for fish, also decline because
sediment and trace metals interfere with their food-gathering efforts.
Increased water temperature and lower oxygen levels, Schueler
concludes, “can further reduce the species diversity and abundance
of the aquatic insect community” (4).
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CHAPTER 13 Writing the Researched Essay 289
What Is Common Knowledge?
In general, common knowledge includes
• undisputed dates,
• well-known facts, and
• generally known facts, terms, and concepts in a field of study when you are
writing in that field.
So, do not cite a source for the dates of the American Revolution. If you are writing
a paper for a psychology class, do not cite your text when using terms such as ego
or sublimation. However, you must cite a historian who analyzes the causes of
England’s loss to the Colonies or a psychologist who disputes Freud’s ideas.
Opinions about well-known facts must be documented. Discussions of debatable
dates, terms, or concepts must be documented. When in doubt, defend your integrity
and document.
USING SIGNAL PHRASES TO AVOID CONFUSION
If you are an honest student, you do not want to submit a paper that is plagiarized, even
though that plagiarism was unintentional on your part. What leads to unintentional
plagiarism?
• A researcher takes careless notes, neglecting to include precise page numbers on
the notes, but uses the information anyway, without documentation.
• A researcher works in material from sources in such a way that, even with page
references, readers cannot tell what has been taken from the sources.
Good note-taking strategies will keep you from the first pitfall. Avoiding the sec-
ond problem means becoming skilled in ways to include source material in your
writing while still making your indebtedness to sources absolutely clear to readers.
The way to do this: Give the author’s name in the essay. You can also include,
when appropriate, the author’s credentials (“According to Dr. Hays, a geologist
with the Department of Interior, …”). These introductory tags or signal phrases
give readers a context for the borrowed material, as well as serving as part of the
required documentation of sources. Make sure that each signal phrase clarifies
rather than distorts an author’s relationship to his or her ideas and your relation-
ship to the source.
NOTE: Putting a parenthetical page reference at the end of a paragraph
is not sufficient if you have used the source throughout the paragraph. Use
introductory tags or signal phrases to guide the reader through the material.
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290 SECTION 4 THE RESEARCHED AND FORMALLY DOCUMENTED ARGUMENT
SOURCE
Although most citizens support such measures as owner screening,
public opinion is sharply divided on laws that would restrict the
ownership of handguns to persons with special needs. If the U.S. does
not reduce handguns and current trends continue, it faces the prospect
that the number of handguns in circulation will grow from 35 million to
more than 50 million within 50 years. A national program limiting the
availability of handguns would cost many billions of dollars and meet
EXERCISES: Acknowledging Sources to Avoid Plagiarism
1. The following paragraph (from Franklin E. Zimring’s “Firearms, Violence and Public
Policy” [Scientific American, Nov. 1991]) provides material for the examples that
follow of adequate and inadequate acknowledgment of sources. After reading
Zimring’s paragraph, study the three examples with these questions in mind: (1)
Which example represents adequate acknowledgment? (2) Which examples do not
represent adequate acknowledgment? (3) In exactly what ways is each plagiarized
paragraph flawed?
■ ■
GUIDELINES Appropriately Using Sources
Here are three guidelines to follow to avoid misrepresenting borrowed
material:
• Pay attention to verb choice in signal phrases. When you vary such stan-
dard wording as “Smith says” or “Jones states,” be careful that you do not
select verbs that misrepresent “Smith’s” or “Jones’s” attitude toward his or
her own work. Do not write “Jones wonders” when in fact Jones has strongly
asserted her views. (See pp. 299–300 for a discussion of varying word
choice in signal phrases.)
• Pay attention to the location of signal phrases. If you mention Jones after
you have presented her views, be sure that your reader can tell precisely
which ideas in the passage belong to Jones. If your entire paragraph is a
paraphrase of Jones’s work, you are plagiarizing to conclude with “This idea
is presented by Jones.” Which of the several ideas in your paragraph comes
from Jones? Your reader will assume that only the last idea comes from
Jones.
• Paraphrase properly. Be sure that paraphrases are truly in your own words.
To use Smith’s words and sentence style in your writing is to plagiarize.
for
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CHAPTER 13 Writing the Researched Essay 291
much resistance from citizens. These costs would likely be greatest in
the early years of the program. The benefits of supply reduction would
emerge slowly because efforts to diminish the availability of handguns
would probably have a cumulative impact over time. (page 54)
STUDENT PARAGRAPH 1
One approach to the problem of handgun violence in America is to
severely limit handgun ownership. If we don’t restrict ownership and
start the costly task of removing handguns from our society, we may
end up with around 50 million handguns in the country by 2040.
The benefits will not be apparent right away but will eventually appear.
This idea is emphasized by Franklin Zimring (54).
STUDENT PARAGRAPH 2
One approach to the problem of handgun violence in America is to
restrict the ownership of handguns except in special circumstances. If
we do not begin to reduce the number of handguns in this country, the
number will grow from 35 million to more than 50 million within fifty
years. We can agree with Franklin Zimring that a program limiting
handguns will cost billions and meet resistance from citizens (54).
STUDENT PARAGRAPH 3
According to law professor Franklin Zimring, the United States needs to
severely limit handgun ownership or face the possibility of seeing handgun
ownership increase “from 35 million to more than 50 million within 50
years” (54). Zimring points out that Americans disagree significantly on re-
stricting handguns and that enforcing such laws would be very expensive.
He concludes that the benefits would not be seen immediately but that the
restrictions “would probably have a cumulative impact over time” (54). Al-
though Zimring paints a gloomy picture of high costs and little immediate
relief from gun violence, he also presents the shocking possibility of 50
million guns by the year 2040. Can our society survive so much firepower?
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292 SECTION 4 THE RESEARCHED AND FORMALLY DOCUMENTED ARGUMENT
Clearly, only the third student paragraph demonstrates adequate acknowledgment of
the writer’s indebtedness to Zimring. Notice that the placement of the last paren-
thetical page reference acts as a visual closure to the student’s borrowing. She then
turns to her response to Zimring and her own views on the problem of handguns.
2. Read the following passage and then the three plagiarized uses of it. Explain why
each one is plagiarized and how it can be corrected.
Original Text: Stanley Karnow, Vietnam, A History. The First Complete
Account of Vietnam at War. Viking Books, 1983, p. 319.
Lyndon Baines Johnson, a consummate politician, was a kaleidoscopic
personality, forever changing as he sought to dominate or persuade or
placate or frighten his friends and foes. A gigantic figure whose extrava-
gant moods matched his size, he could be cruel and kind, violent and
gentle, petty, generous, cunning, naïve, crude, candid, and frankly dis-
honest. He commanded the blind loyalty of his aides, some of whom
worshipped him, and he sparked bitter derision or fierce hatred that he
never quite fathomed.
a. LBJ’s vibrant and changing personality filled some people with adoration and
others with bitter derision that he never quite fathomed (Karnow 319).
b. LBJ, a supreme politician, had a personality like a kaleidoscope, continually
changing as he tried to control, sway, appease, or intimidate his enemies and
supporters (Karnow 319).
c. Often, figures who have had great impact on America’s history have been dy-
namic people with powerful personalities and vibrant physical presence. LBJ, for
example, was a huge figure who polarized those who worked for and with him.
“He commanded the blind loyalty of his aides, some of whom worshipped him,
and he sparked bitter derision or fierce hatred” from many others (Karnow 319).
3. Read the following passage and then the four sample uses of it. Judge each of the uses
for how well it avoids plagiarism and if it is documented correctly. Make corrections
as needed.
Original Text: Stanley Karnow, Vietnam, A History. The First Complete
Account of Vietnam at War. Viking Books, 1983, p. 327.
On July 27, 1965, in a last-ditch attempt to change Johnson’s mind,
[Senators] Mansfield and Russell were to press him again to “concentrate
on finding a way out” of Vietnam—“a place where we ought not be,” and
where “the situation is rapidly going out of control.” But the next day,
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CHAPTER 13 Writing the Researched Essay 293
Johnson announced his decision to add forty-four American combat
battalions to the relatively small U.S. contingents already there. He had
not been deaf to Mansfield’s pleas, nor had he simply swallowed the
Pentagon’s plans. He had waffled and agonized during his nineteen
months in the White House, but eventually this was his final judgment.
As he would later explain: “There are many, many people who can
recommend and advise, and a few of them consent. But there is only one
who has been chosen by the American people to decide.”
a. Karnow writes that senators Mansfield and Russell continued to try to convince
President Johnson to avoid further involvement in Vietnam, “a place where we
ought not to be,” they felt. (327).
b. Though Johnson received advice from many, in particular senators Mansfield
and Russell, he believed the weight of the decision to become further engaged
in Vietnam was solely his as the one “ ‘chosen by the American people to de-
cide’ ” (Karnow 327).
c. On July 28, 1965, Johnson announced his decision to add forty-four battalions
to the troops already in Vietnam, ending his waffling and agonizing of the past
nineteen months of his presidency. (Karnow 357)
d. Karnow explains that LBJ took his responsibility to make decisions about Viet-
nam seriously (327). Although Johnson knew that many would offer suggestions,
only he had “ ‘been chosen by the American people to decide’ ” (Karnow 327).
ORGANIZING THE PAPER
Armed with an understanding of writing strategies to avoid plagiarism, you are now
almost ready to draft your essay. Follow these steps to get organized to write:
1. Arrange notes (or your annotated sources) by the labels you have used and read them
through. You may discover that some notes or marked sections of sources now seem
irrelevant. Set them aside, but do not throw them away yet. Some further reading and
note taking may also be necessary to fill in gaps that have become apparent.
2. Reexamine your tentative claim or research proposal. As a result of reading and
reflection, do you need to alter or modify your claim in any way? Or if you began
with a research question, what now is your answer to the question? For example, is
TV violence harmful to children?
3. Decide on the claim that will direct your writing. To write a unified essay with a
“reason for being,” you need a claim that meets these criteria:
• It is a complete sentence, not a topic or statement of purpose.
TOPIC: Sexual assault on college campuses.
CLAIM: There are steps that both students and administrators can
take to reduce incidents of campus sexual assault.
■ ■
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294 SECTION 4 THE RESEARCHED AND FORMALLY DOCUMENTED ARGUMENT
• It is limited and focused.
UNFOCUSED: Prohibition affected the 1920s in many ways.
FOCUSED: Prohibition was more acceptable to rural than urban areas
because of differences in values, social patterns, cultural
backgrounds, and the economic result of prohibiting liquor sales.
• It establishes a new or interesting approach to the topic that makes your research
meaningful.
NOT
INVENTIVE:
A regional shopping mall should not be built next to the
Manassas Battlefield.
INVENTIVE: Putting aside an appeal to our national heritage, one can say,
simply, that there is no economic justification for the building
of a shopping mall next to the Manassas Battlefield.
4. Write down the organization that emerges from your labels and grouping of
sources, and compare this with your preliminary plan. If there are differences,
justify those changes to yourself. Consider: Does the new, fuller plan provide a
complete and logical development of your claim? And, will it guide you to an essay
that meets your research assignment?
DRAFTING THE ESSAY
Plan Your Time
How much time will you need to draft your essay? Working with sources and taking
care with documentation make research paper writing more time consuming than
writing an undocumented essay. You also need to allow time between completing the
draft and revising. Do not try to draft, revise, and proof an essay all in one day.
Handle In-Text Documentation as You Draft
The Modern Language Association (MLA) recommends that writers prepare their
Works Cited page(s) before drafting their essay. With this important information
prepared correctly and next to you as you draft, you will be less likely to make errors in
documentation that will result in a plagiarized essay. Although you may believe that
stopping to include parenthetical documentation as you write will cramp your writing,
you really cannot try to insert the documentation after completing the writing. The risk
of failing to document accurately is too great to chance. Parenthetical documentation is
brief; listen to the experts and take the time to include it as you compose.
You saw some models of documentation in Chapter 12. In Chapter 14, you have
complete guidelines and models for in-text (parenthetical) documentation and then
many models for the complete citations of sources. Study the information in Chapter 14
and then draft your Works Cited page(s) as part of your preparation for writing.
Choose an Appropriate Writing Style
Specific suggestions for composing the parts of your paper follow, but first here are
some general guidelines for research essay style.
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CHAPTER 13 Writing the Researched Essay 295
Use the Proper Person
Research papers are written primarily in the third person (she, he, it, they) to create objectivity
and to direct attention to the content of the paper. The question is over the appropriateness of
the first person (I, we). Although you want to avoid writing “as you can see,” do not try to
avoid the use of I if you need to distinguish your position from the views of others. It is better
to write “I” than “it is the opinion of this writer” or “the researcher learned” or “this project
analyzed.” On the other hand, avoid qualifiers such as “I think.” Just state your ideas.
Use the Proper Tense
When you are writing about people, ideas, or events of the past, the appropriate tense is
the past tense. When writing about current times, the appropriate tense is the present.
Both tenses may occur in the same paragraph, as the following paragraph illustrates:
Fifteen years ago “personal” computers were all but unheard of.
Computers were regarded as unknowable, building-sized mechanized
monsters that required a precise 68 degree air-conditioned environment
and eggheaded technicians with thick glasses and white lab coats scurry-
ing about to keep the temperamental and fragile egos of the electronic
brains mollified. Today’s generation of computers is accessible, affordable,
commonplace, and much less mysterious. The astonishing progress made
in computer technology in the last few years has made computers practical,
attainable, and indispensable. Personal computers are here to stay.
In the above example, when the student moves from computers in the past to
computers in the present, he shifts tenses accurately.
When writing about sources, the convention is to use the present tense even for
works or authors from the past. The idea is that the source, or the author, continues to
make the point or use the technique into the present—that is, every time there is a
reader. So, write “Lincoln selects the biblical expression ‘Fourscore and seven years
ago’ ” and “King echoes Lincoln when he writes ‘five score years ago.’ ”
Avoid Excessive Quoting
Many students use too many direct quotations. Plan to use your own words most of the
time for these good reasons:
• Constantly shifting between your words and the language of your sources (not to
mention all those quotation marks) makes reading your essay difficult.
• This is your paper and should sound like you.
• When you take a passage out of its larger context, you face the danger of
misrepresenting the writer’s views.
• When you quote endlessly, readers may begin to think either that you are lazy or
that you don’t really understand the issues well enough to put them in your own
words. You don’t want to present either image to your readers.
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• You do not prove any point by quoting another person’s opinion. All you indicate is that
there is someone else who shares your views. Even if that person is an expert on the topic,
your quoted material still represents the view of only one person. You support a claim
with reasons and evidence, both of which can usually be presented in your own words.
When you must quote, keep the quotations brief, weave them carefully into your own
sentences, and be sure to identify the author in a signal phrase. Study the guidelines for
handling quotations on pages 23–26 for models of correct form and style.
Write Effective Beginnings
The best introduction is one that presents your subject in an interesting way to gain the
reader’s attention, states your claim, and gives the reader an indication of the scope and
limits of your paper. In a short research essay, you may be able to combine an
attention-getter, a statement of subject, and a claim in one paragraph. More typically,
especially in longer papers, the introduction will expand to two or three paragraphs. In the
physical and social sciences, the claim may be withheld until the conclusion, but the
opening introduces the subject and presents the researcher’s hypothesis, often posed as a
question. Since students sometimes have trouble with research paper introductions in spite
of knowing these general guidelines, several specific approaches are illustrated here:
1. In the opening to her study of car advertisements, a student, relating her topic to
what readers know, reminds readers of the culture’s concern with image:
Many Americans are highly image conscious. Because the “right”
look is essential to a prosperous life, no detail is too small to overlook.
Clichés about first impressions remind us that “you never get a second
chance to make a first impression,” so we obsessively watch our
weight, firm our muscles, sculpt our hair, select our friends, find the per-
fect houses, and buy our automobiles. Realizing the importance of
image, companies compete to make the “right” products, that is, those
that will complete the “right” image. Then advertisers direct specific
products to targeted groups of consumers. Although targeting may be
labeled as stereotyping, it has been an effective strategy in advertising.
2. Terms and concepts central to your project need defining early in your paper,
especially if they are challenged or qualified in some way by your study. This
opening paragraph demonstrates an effective use of definition:
William Faulkner braids a universal theme, the theme of initiation,
into the fiber of his novel Intruder in the Dust. From ancient times to the
present, a prominent focus of literature, of life, has been rites of
passage, particularly those of childhood to adulthood. Joseph
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CHAPTER 13 Writing the Researched Essay 297
Campbell defines rites of passage as “distinguished by formal, and
usually very severe, exercises of severance.” A “candidate” for initiation
into adult society, Campbell explains, experiences a shearing away of
the “ attitudes, attachments and life patterns” of childhood (9). This
severe, painful stripping away of the child and installation of the adult is
presented somewhat differently in several works by American writers.
3. Begin with a thought-provoking question. A student, arguing that the media both
reflect and shape reality, started with these questions:
Do the media just reflect reality, or do they also shape our percep-
tions of reality? The answer to this seemingly “chicken-and-egg”
question is: They do both.
4. Beginning with important, perhaps startling, facts, evidence, or statistics is an
effective way to introduce a topic, provided the details are relevant to the topic.
Observe the following example:
Teenagers are working again, but not on their homework. Over
40 percent of teenagers have jobs by the time they are juniors (Samuelson
A22). And their jobs do not support academic learning since almost
two-thirds of teenagers are employed in sales and service jobs that entail
mostly carrying, cleaning, and wrapping (Greenberger and Steinberg
62–67), not reading, writing, and computing. Unfortunately, the negative
effect on learning is not offset by improved opportunities for future careers.
Avoid Ineffective Openings
Follow these rules for avoiding openings that most readers find ineffective or annoying.
1. Do not restate the title or write as if the title were the first sentence in paragraph 1.
It is a convention of writing to have the first paragraph stand independent of the title.
2. Do not begin with “clever” visuals such as artwork or fancy lettering.
3. Do not begin with humor unless it is part of your topic.
4. Do not begin with a question that is just a gimmick, or one that a reader may
answer in a way you do not intend. Asking “What are the advantages of solar
energy?” may lead a reader to answer “None that I can think of.” A straightforward
research question (“Is Death of a Salesman a tragedy?”) is appropriate.
5. Do not open with an unnecessary definition quoted from a dictionary. “According
to Webster, solar energy means …” is a tired, overworked beginning that does not
engage readers.
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6. Do not start with a purpose statement: “This paper will examine …” Although a
statement of purpose is a necessary part of a report of empirical research, a report
still needs an interesting introduction.
Compose Solid, Unified Paragraphs
As you compose the body of your paper, keep in mind that you want to (1) maintain
unity and coherence, (2) guide readers clearly through source material, and
(3) synthesize source material and your own ideas. Do not settle for paragraphs in which
facts from notes are just loosely run together. Review the following discussion and study
the examples to see how to craft effective body paragraphs.
Provide Unity and Coherence
You achieve paragraph unity when every sentence in a paragraph relates to and develops
the paragraph’s main idea. Unity, however, does not automatically produce coherence;
that takes attention to wording. Coherence is achieved when readers can follow the
connection between one sentence and another and between each sentence and the main
idea. Strategies for achieving coherence include repetition of key words, the use of
pronouns that clearly refer to those key words, and the use of transition and connecting
words. Observe these strategies at work in the following paragraph:
Perhaps the most important differences between the initiations of
Robin and Biff and that experienced by Chick are the facts that Chick’s
epiphany does not come all at once and it does not devastate him.
Chick learns about adulthood —and enters adulthood —piecemeal and
with support. His first eye-opening experience occurs as he tries to pay
Lucas for dinner and is rebuffed (15–16). Chick learns, after trying again
to buy a clear conscience, the impropriety and affront of his actions
(24). Lucas teaches Chick how he should resolve his dilemma by set-
ting him “free” (26–27). Later, Chick feels outrage at the adults crowd-
ing into the town, presumably to see a lynching, then disgrace and
shame as they eventually flee (196–97, 210).
Coherence is needed not only within paragraphs but between paragraphs as well. You
need to guide readers through your paper, connecting paragraphs and showing relationships
by the use of transitions. The following opening sentences of four paragraphs from a paper
on solutions to sexual assault on the college campus illustrate smooth transitions:
¶ 3 Specialists have provided a number of reasons why people
commit sexual assault.
¶ 4 Some of the causes of sexual assault on the college campus originate
with the colleges themselves and with how they handle the problem.
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CHAPTER 13 Writing the Researched Essay 299
¶ 5 Just as there are a number of causes for campus sexual assaults, there
are a number of ways to help solve the problem of these sexual assaults.
¶ 6 If these seem like commonsense solutions, why, then, is it so difficult
to significantly reduce the number of sexual assaults on campus?
Without awkwardly writing “Here are some of the causes” and “Here are some of the
solutions,” the student guides her readers through a discussion of causes for and
solutions to the problem of campus sexual assault.
Guide Readers through Source Material
To understand the importance of guiding readers through source material, consider first
the following paragraph from a paper on the British coal strike in the 1970s:
The social status of the coal miners was far from good. The country
blamed them for the dimmed lights and the three-day workweek. They
had been placed in the position of social outcasts and were beginning
to “consider themselves another country.” Some businesses and shops
had even gone so far as to refuse service to coal miners (Jones 32).
Who has learned that the coal miners felt ostracized or that the country blamed them?
As readers we cannot begin to judge the validity of these assertions without some con-
text provided by the writer. Most readers are put off by an unattached direct quotation
or some startling observation that is documented correctly but given no context within
the paper. Using signal phrases that identify the author of the source and, when useful,
the author’s credentials helps guide readers through the source material. The following
revision of the paragraph above provides not only context but also sentence variety:
The social acceptance of coal miners, according to Peter Jones, British
correspondent for Newsweek, was far from good. From interviews both in
London shops and in pubs near Birmingham, Jones concluded that Brit-
ishers blamed the miners for the dimmed lights and three-day workweek.
Several striking miners, in a pub on the outskirts of Birmingham, asserted
that some of their friends had been denied service by shopkeepers and
that they “consider[ed] themselves another country” (32).
Select Appropriate Signal Phrases
When you use signal phrases, try to vary both the words you use and their place in the
sentence. Look, for example, at the first sentence in the sample paragraph above.
The signal phrase is placed in the middle of the sentence and is set off by commas.
The sentence could have been written two other ways:
The social acceptance of coal miners was far from good, according to
Peter Jones, British correspondent for Newsweek.
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300 SECTION 4 THE RESEARCHED AND FORMALLY DOCUMENTED ARGUMENT
Readers need to be told how to respond to the sources used. They need to know
which sources you accept as reliable and which you disagree with, and they need you to
distinguish clearly between fact and opinion. Ideas and opinions from sources need
signal phrases and then some discussion from you.
Synthesize Source Material and Your Own Ideas
A smooth synthesis of source material is aided by signal phrases and parenthetical
documentation because they mark the beginning and ending of material taken from a
source. But a complete synthesis requires something more: your ideas about the source
and the topic. To illustrate, consider the problems in another paragraph from the British
coal strike paper:
Some critics believed that there was enough coal in Britain to
maintain enough power to keep industry at a near-normal level for
thirty-five weeks (Jones 30). Prime Minister Heath, on the other hand,
had placed the country’s usable coal supply at 15.5 million tons
(Jones 30). He stated that this would have fallen to a critical 7 million tons
within a month had he not declared a three-day workweek (Jones 31).
This paragraph is a good example of random details strung together for no apparent
purpose. How much coal did exist? Whose figures were right? And what purpose do
these figures serve in the paper’s development? Note that the entire paragraph is
NOTE: Not all the words in this list are synonyms; you cannot substitute
confirms for believes. First, select the verb that most accurately conveys the
writer’s relationship to his or her material. Then, when appropriate, vary word
choice as well as sentence structure.
OR
According to Peter Jones, British correspondent for Newsweek, the
social acceptance of coal miners was far from good.
Whenever you provide a name and perhaps credentials for your source, you have these
three sentence patterns to choose from. Make a point to use all three options in your
paper. Word choice can be varied as well. Instead of writing “Peter Jones says” through-
out your paper, consider some of these verb choices:
Jones asserts Jones contends Jones attests to
Jones states Jones thinks Jones points out
Jones concludes Jones stresses Jones believes
Jones presents Jones emphasizes Jones agrees with
Jones argues Jones confirms Jones speculates
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CHAPTER 13 Writing the Researched Essay 301
developed with material from one source. Do sources other than Jones offer a different
perspective? This paragraph is weak for several reasons: (1) It lacks a controlling idea
(topic sentence) to give it purpose and direction; (2) it relies for development entirely on
one source; (3) it lacks any discussion or analysis by the writer.
By contrast, the following paragraph demonstrates a successful synthesis:
Of course, the iridium could have come from other extraterrestrial
sources besides an asteroid. One theory, put forward by Dale Russell, is
that the iridium was produced outside the solar system by an exploding
star (500). Such an explosion, Russell states, could have blown the iridium
either off the surface of the moon or directly from the star itself (500–01),
while also producing a deadly blast of heat and gamma rays (Krishtalka 19).
This theory seems to explain the traces of iridium in the mass extinction,
but it does not explain why smaller mammals, crocodiles, and birds sur-
vived (Wilford 220). So the supernova theory took a backseat to the other
extraterrestrial theories: those of asteroids and comets colliding with the
Earth. The authors of the book The Great Extinction, Michael Allaby and
James Lovelock, subtitled their work The Solution to … the Disappear-
ance of the Dinosaurs. Their theory: an asteroid or comet collided with
Earth around sixty-five million years ago, killing billions of organisms, and
thus altering the course of evolution (157). The fact that the theory of colli-
sion with a cosmic body warrants a book calls for some thought: Is the as-
teroid or comet theory merely sensationalism, or is it rooted in
fact? Paleontologist Leonard Krishtalka declares that few paleontologists
have accepted the asteroid theory, himself calling “some catastrophic the-
ories … small ideas injected with growth hormone” (22). However, other
scientists, such as Allaby and Lovelock, see the cosmic catastrophic
theory as a solid one based on more than guesswork (10–11).
This paragraph’s synthesis is accomplished by several strategies: (1) The paragraph has
a controlling idea; (2) the paragraph combines information from several sources; (3) the
information is presented in a blend of paraphrase and short quotations; (4) information
from the different sources is clearly indicated to readers; and (5) the student explains
and discusses the information.
You might also observe the different lengths of the two sample paragraphs just pre-
sented. Although the second paragraph is long, it is not unwieldy because it achieves unity
and coherence. By contrast, body paragraphs of only three sentences are probably in trouble.
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Write Effective Conclusions
Sometimes ending a paper seems even more difficult than beginning one. You know
you are not supposed to just stop, but every ending that comes to mind sounds more
corny than clever. If you have trouble, try one of these types of endings:
1. Do not just repeat your claim exactly as it was stated in paragraph 1, but expand on
the original wording and emphasize the claim’s significance. Here is the conclusion
of the solar energy paper:
The idea of using solar energy is not as far-fetched as it seemed years
ago. With the continued support of government plus the enthusiasm of
research groups, environmentalists, and private industry, solar energy may
become a household word quite soon. With the increasing cost of fossil
fuel, the time could not be better for exploring this use of the sun.
2. End with a quotation that effectively summarizes and drives home the point of your
paper. Researchers are not always lucky enough to find the ideal quotation for
ending a paper. If you find a good one, use it. Better yet, present the quotation and
then add your comment in a sentence or two. The conclusion to a paper on the
dilemma of defective newborns is a good example:
Dr. Joseph Fletcher is correct when he says that “every advance in
medical capabilities is an increase in our moral responsibility” (48). In a
world of many gray areas, one point is clear. From an ethical point of
view, medicine is a victim of its own success.
3. If you have researched an issue or problem, emphasize your proposed solutions in
the concluding paragraph. The student opposing a mall adjacent to the Manassas
Battlefield concluded with several solutions:
Whether the proposed mall will be built is clearly in doubt at the mo-
ment. What are the solutions to this controversy? One approach is, of
course, not to build the mall at all. To accomplish this solution, now, with the
re-zoning having been approved, probably requires an act of Congress to
buy the land and make it part of the national park. Another solution, one that
would please the county and the developer and satisfy citizens objecting to
traffic problems, is to build the needed roads before the mall is completed.
A third approach is to allow the office park of the original plan to be built, but
not the mall. The local preservationists had agreed to this original develop-
ment proposal, but now that the issue has received national attention, they
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CHAPTER 13 Writing the Researched Essay 303
may no longer be willing to compromise. Whatever the future of the William
Center, the present plan for a new regional mall is not acceptable.
Avoid Ineffective Conclusions
Follow these rules to avoid conclusions that most readers consider ineffective and annoying.
1. Do not introduce a new idea. If the point belongs in your paper, you should have
introduced it earlier.
2. Do not just stop or trail off, even if you feel as though you have run out of steam.
A simple, clear restatement of the claim is better than no conclusion.
3. Do not tell your reader what you have accomplished: “In this paper I have explained
the advantages of solar energy by examining the costs …” If you have written well,
your reader knows what you have accomplished.
4. Do not offer apologies or expressions of hope. “Although I wasn’t able to find as much
on this topic as I wanted, I have tried to explain the advantages of solar energy, and I
hope that you will now understand why we need to use it more” is a disastrous ending.
Choose an Effective Title
Give some thought to your paper’s title since that is what your reader sees first and what
your work will be known by. A good title provides information and creates interest.
Make your title informative by making it specific. If you can create interest through
clever wording, so much the better. But do not confuse “cutesiness” with clever wording.
Review the following examples of acceptable and unacceptable titles:
VAGUE: A Perennial Issue Unsolved
(There are many; which one is this paper about?)
BETTER: The Perennial Issue of Press Freedom versus Press Responsibility
TOO BROAD: Earthquakes
(What about earthquakes? This title is not informative.)
BETTER: The Need for Earthquake Prediction
TOO BROAD: The Scarlet Letter
(Never use just the title of the work under discussion; you can use
the work’s title as a part of a longer title of your own.)
BETTER: Color Symbolism in The Scarlet Letter
CUTESY: Babes in Trouble
(The slang “Babes”makes this title seem insensitive rather than
clever.)
BETTER: The Dilemma of Defective Newborns
REVISING THE PAPER: A CHECKLIST
After completing a first draft, catch your breath and then gear up for the next step in the
writing process: revision. Revision actually involves three separate steps: rewriting—
adding or deleting text, or moving parts of the draft around; editing—a rereading to
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304 SECTION 4 THE RESEARCHED AND FORMALLY DOCUMENTED ARGUMENT
correct errors from misspellings to incorrect documentation format; and then
proofreading the typed copy. If you treat these as separate steps, you will do a more
complete job of revision—and get a better grade on your paper!
Rewriting
Read your draft through and make changes as a result of answering the following questions:
Purpose and Audience
Does my draft meet all of the assignment requirements and my purpose?
( Double-check your writing prompt.)
Are terms defined and concepts explained appropriately for my audience?
Content
Do I have a clearly stated thesis—the claim of my argument?
Have I presented sufficient evidence to support my claim?
Are there any irrelevant sections that should be deleted?
Structure
Have I ordered my paragraphs to develop my topic logically?
Does the content of each paragraph help develop my claim?
Is everything in each paragraph on the same subtopic to create paragraph unity?
Do body paragraphs have a balance of information and analysis, of source material
and my own ideas?
Are there any paragraphs that should be combined? Are there any very long
paragraphs that should be divided? (Check for unity.)
Editing
Make revisions in response to your application of the rewriting questions. When you are
satisfied with your basic content and structure, it is time to edit. This time, pay close
attention to sentences, words, and documentation format. Use the following questions to
guide editing.
Document Design
Have I followed MLA requirements for a 1-inch margin and 12 point Times New
Roman or similar professional font?
Have I double-spaced throughout, including the Works Cited pages?
Coherence
Have I used connecting words and have I repeated key terms to produce paragraph
coherence?
Have I used transitions to show connections between paragraphs?
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CHAPTER 13 Writing the Researched Essay 305
Sources
Have I paraphrased instead of quoted whenever possible?
Have I used signal phrases to create a context for source material?
Have I documented all borrowed material, whether quoted or paraphrased?
Are parenthetical references properly placed after borrowed material?
Style
Have I varied sentence length and structure?
Have I avoided long quotations?
Do I have correct form for quotations? For titles?
Is my language specific and descriptive?
Have I avoided inappropriate shifts in tense or person?
Have I removed any wordiness, deadwood, trite expressions, or clichés?
Have I used specialized terms correctly?
Have I avoided contractions as too informal for most research papers?
Have I maintained an appropriate style and tone for academic work?
Proofreading
When your edits are complete, check that your paper format matches the guidelines
described and illustrated in the research paper below. Print a copy of your paper for final
proofreading and make corrections as needed. Correct all errors and keep a file of your
paper before submitting a copy to your instructor.
THE COMPLETED PAPER
Your research paper should be double-spaced throughout (including the Works Cited page)
with 1-inch margins on all sides. Your project will contain the following parts, in this order:
1. A title page, (if needed) with your title, your name, your instructor’s name, the
course name or number, and the date, neatly centered, if an outline follows. If there
is no outline, place this information at the top left of the first page.
2. An outline, or statement of purpose, if required.
3. The body or text of your paper. Number all pages consecutively, including pages of
works cited, using arabic numerals. Place numbers in the upper right-hand corner
of each page. Include your last name before each page number.
4. A list of works cited, beginning on a separate page, follows the text. Title the first
page “Works Cited.” (Do not use the title “Bibliography.”)
SAMPLE STUDENT ESSAY IN MLA STYLE
The following paper illustrates an argumentative essay using sources documented in
MLA style.
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306 SECTION 4 THE RESEARCHED AND FORMALLY DOCUMENTED ARGUMENT
Donaldson 1
David Donaldson
Professor Princiotto-Gorrell/Professor Stevens
English 203U—Research Process
7 July 2011
Tell Us What You Really Are: The Debate over
Labeling Genetically Modified Food
The decision to eat—or not to eat—genetically modified (GM)
food is a relatively new dilemma for consumers. People have been
going to the grocery store for years, and up until the mid-1990s there
was little question as to what they were buying. Consumers knew that
when they picked up a tomato, that product was in fact a tomato, not a
tomato that had been spliced, or merged, with the genes of some
other organism in an attempt to get it to behave like an entirely
different fruit. There were most definitely food additives, preservatives,
and other questionable ingredients up until then, but before 1994, a
tomato was still a tomato. Food additives, preservatives, potentially
allergenic ingredients, and possibly toxic ingredients must be labeled
on each product. Until GM food is proven to be safe it is essential that
the federal government also require labeling to denote the presence
of genetically modified organisms (GMOs). Safety is not the only factor
in the GM food debate. Religious and cultural concerns, as well as the
consumer’s freedom of choice, must be considered when deciding
whether to label GM foods.
The genetic modification of food is defined by MacDonald and
Whellams as “any change to the heritable traits of an organism
achieved by intentional manipulation” (181). Or, more specifically,
defined by Sarah Kirby as “the process of removing individual genes
from one organism and transplanting them into another organism,” it is
the basis of contemporary bioengineering (352). Although there are
Provide last name
with page number
at top right of each
page.
Use heading on top
left when a separate
title page is not used.
Center title.
Indent paragraphs 5
spaces.
Double-space
throughout.
Clear opening leads
to student’s thesis.
Key term defined.
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CHAPTER 13 Writing the Researched Essay 307
scientists and government officials who want to equate genetic
modification with genetic hybridization, the definitions given for
genetic modification do not match the definition of genetic
hybridization.
It is true that plant and animal hybridization has been going on
for a long time. That is how many of the flora and fauna here today
were conceived. They did not just show up as they are today; rather,
over time they evolved into what they are now due to progressive
variations in their genes. As explained by Gudorf and Huchingson,
scientists used selective breeding to achieve a desired trait, or to
suppress a trait deemed undesirable (233). Kirby expands on Gudorf
and Huchingson’s idea by adding that selective breeding was more
natural since “it was restricted to two organisms that are able to breed
together” (352). In “A Defense of the U.S. Position on Labeling
Genetically Modified Organisms,” Sally Kirsch adds that the United
States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) even cites the longevity of
selective breeding to justify their stance that nothing is wrong or
unsafe about GM food (25).
Bioengineering has been seen as the answer to many of the
environmental issues related to climate change, to help feed growing
populations in developing countries. Scientists have created “drought
resistant corn and soybeans,” rice with increased nutrients, and “pest
resistant plants” (Kirsch 21). However, for more cosmetic reasons, they
have also created the FLAVR SAVR™ tomato. This tomato would
eventually become the first GM food available to consumers. The Gale
Encyclopedia of Science article “Plant Breeding” explains that it was
not until 1992 that “a tomato with delayed ripening became the first
genetically modified (GM) commercial food crop” (3375). Two years
Donaldson 2
Paragraph developed
using paraphrase and
direct quotations
from several sources.
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308 SECTION 4 THE RESEARCHED AND FORMALLY DOCUMENTED ARGUMENT
later, the company Calgene received approval from the FDA to sell
their FLAVR SAVR™ tomatoes (Martineau 189). Kirsch notes that there
was a lukewarm public greeting for Calgene’s tomato, and the
underwhelming sales further emphasized that the general public was
apprehensive about GM food (21). However, in their article “‘Does
Contain’ vs. ‘Does Not Contain’: Does it Matter Which GMO Label Is
Used?” Crespi and Marette argue that “Americans are much more
accepting of GMOs than the rest of the world” (328).
This is no longer a process simply by which plants are being spliced
with plant genes and animals are being spliced with animal genes. Today,
bioengineers can create a plant that has been spliced with animal genes
(Kirby 357). The health and safety results of the GM process are still
relatively unknown as this technology is still new. The uncertainty of this
process is fueling the public outcry for GMO labeling in the United States.
Anne MacKenzie builds on Kirby’s point, arguing that because consumers
have become more knowledgeable about food and health, more
concerned about the safety of the food supply, have developed a greater
desire to know about how their food is made, and have mounted a
growing distrust of biotech companies and the government, they want
more information about what is going into their food (52).
The most noted possible health hazard linked to GM foods is the
potential for new or heightened food allergies. MacKenzie, Gudorf and
Huchingson, and Kirby all mention new food allergies as one of the
more obvious reasons to require the mandatory labeling of GM food.
MacKenzie states: “Allergenicity is an important consideration for foods
derived through biotechnology because of the possibility that a new
protein introduced into a food could be an allergen” (51). She adds
that when a food such as soy, a common allergen, is used in the
Student establishes
difference between
hybridization and
genetic modification.
Here and below stu-
dent examines possi-
ble problems with GM
foods.
Donaldson 3
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CHAPTER 13 Writing the Researched Essay 309
genetic modification process, “life-threatening” results are more likely
to occur (51). Gudorf and Huchingson suggest that GM food could be
held responsible for the increase in the number of people who have
developed food-related allergies in the last decade (233). They also
point out that, for example, people do not know specifically which
peanut gene may spark their allergy (233). It could be the gene for
color, the gene for oil production, or the gene that makes peanuts
viable underground that contains the protein that sets off their allergy.
If a scientist wants to make a strawberry that grows underground, and
inserts that gene from the peanut into a strawberry’s DNA, the same
individuals who are allergic to peanuts could now become allergic to
that particular strawberry (Gudorf and Huchingson 233).
Kirby acknowledges that GM foods may “set off” allergies, but she
adds that genetic modification could also “produce dangerous toxins,
increase cancer risks, produce antibiotic-resistant pathogens, and
damage food quality” (359). Specifically related to allergies, Kirby
explains that “people have never before been exposed to several of the
foreign proteins currently being genetically spliced into foods” (360).
Conversely, Robert Brackett, Director of the Center for Food Safety and
Applied Nutrition, testified before the FDA that if the genetic modification
process were to merge one organism with an organism that is
considered a common food allergen, soy, milk, egg, etc., then that
product would indeed be labeled as containing a common food allergen
as is required by law (FDA). Otherwise, Brackett says, “GM food is safe
and no different than its conventionally grown counterpart,” which
echoes the FDA spokesman quoted by MacDonald and Whellams (FDA).
Aside from health concerns, there are also religious and cultural
motives that should be considered when deciding whether to label GM
Donaldson 4
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310 SECTION 4 THE RESEARCHED AND FORMALLY DOCUMENTED ARGUMENT
food. Theologically speaking, Christianity does not necessarily reject
GM food. In “Some Christian Reflections on GM Food,” Donald Bruce
suggests that the concern within Christianity is more a moral obligation
to God’s creation rather than a dietary issue (119). However, multiple
interpretations are present. Genesis 1: 26–28 basically states that
“Christian thinking has generally seen intervention in the natural world
as ordained by God in the creation of ordinances that grant humans
dominion over all the rest of creation” (Bruce 119). Conversely, there are
also Christians who think that GM food is the result of humans “playing
God in wrongly changing what God has created” (Bruce 121). For
Christians who believe that genetically modifying food is wrong,
mandatory labeling of GM food would guide them in their food choices.
For those of the Muslim or Jewish faith, GM food presents dietary
concerns as well as potential moral objections. Ebrahim Moosa cites
the splicing of animal genes into plants as one of the biggest worries
Muslims face from GM food (135). He says that “a tomato containing a
gene harvested from a flounder may not generate repugnance in an
observant Muslim, since fish is permissible for adherents of this
tradition, but a potato with a pig gene may well trigger visceral
repugnance” (135). This is the same reason cited by Kirby (357). To
emphasize his point, Moosa tells a story of Muhammad when he lived
in Medina. In the story, Muhammad comes across farmers splicing
different species of date-palm seedlings to increase their crop yields.
Muhammad asks why they did it that way, and they reply: “That was the
way they had always done it.” The prophet then replies: “Well, perhaps,
it would be better if you did not” (138). Kirby suggests that animal-to-
plant genetic splicing is also the reason for those of the Jewish faith, or
any vegetarian or vegan, to be concerned about the absence of
Donaldson 5
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CHAPTER 13 Writing the Researched Essay 311
mandatory GM food labeling (357). Peter Sand concurs, stating that
providing consumers with information “irrespective of health concerns,”
such as labeling halal or kosher food, is essential in allowing
consumers to have genuine freedom of choice (190).
Currently, although about “80% of processed food in the United
States has a component from a genetically modified crop, a new survey
finds that only 26% of Americans think they have ever eaten such food”
(Krebs). This same United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) poll
found that 94% of respondents felt that labeling items that contained
GMOs would be a good idea (Krebs). This figure is up from a 2000
MSNBC poll that shows that “81% of people who responded were in
favor of labeling genetically engineered products” (Kirsch 21). Kirsch
follows that statement by confirming that the FDA and the biotech
industry feel the opposite (21). Kirby repeats this view, adding that the
FDA recognizes “no material difference in nutrition, composition, or
safety between genetically modified food and food that has not been
genetically modified” (qtd. in Kirby 353). Additionally, as long as the
plant or animal that DNA is taken from and the plant or animal that the
DNA is being spliced into are generally recognized as safe (GRAS), then
the product is not subject to any sort of review prior to being released to
consumers (Kirby 354). The FDA assumes that all products in the current
food supply are GRAS. However, the current system does not take into
account that the end result of tomato DNA and trout DNA is not simply a
“tomato fish,” but rather an entirely new entity that could bring with it
unforeseen health risks ranging from food allergies to death.
Currently, according to Crespi and Marette, the United States has
no mandatory GMO labeling requirement (328). Sand adds that the
United States is not alone (187). He lists Canada and Argentina
Current FDA
position on GM foods.
Donaldson 6
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312 SECTION 4 THE RESEARCHED AND FORMALLY DOCUMENTED ARGUMENT
specifically, because combined the three countries are responsible for
approximately 80% of the world’s GM crops (187). Crespi and Marette
add that much of the rest of the world currently recognizes the
“precautionary principle,” and the potentially deleterious effects of
GMOs, and those governments do not want their citizens to be
exposed to what might result from the consumption of GMOs (328).
To date, there have been no documented health risks related to
GM foods. Proponents of GM food, such as the FDA, use this as the
basis for their argument that GM foods pose no threat to consumers,
and why mandatory labeling of GM food is unnecessary. An FDA
spokesman says: “We have seen no evidence that the bioengineered
foods now on the market pose any human health concerns or that they
are in any way less safe than crops produced through traditional
breeding” (qtd. in MacDonald and Whellams 184–185). While the tone
throughout their article suggests that they disagree, MacDonald and
Whellams argue that there is nothing unethical about GM foods that
should result in mandatory labeling (184). Anne MacKenzie, the
Associate Vice-President of Science Evaluation for The Canadian Food
Inspection Agency, concurs by saying that regulators have not yet
noticed a “significant toxic or allergenic harm” (52). However, as stated
by MacDonald and Whellams, many other countries choose to adopt
the “precautionary principle” (185). This principle states that if
something, like GM food, presents a potential threat to health or the
environment, it is best to be cautious and to take action even if science
hasn’t demonstrated harmful effects (MacDonald and Whellams 185).
Because there may be serious, long-term negative implications
on consumer health as a result of the continued consumption of GMOs,
biotech companies, governments, and consumers should all be more
Donaldson 7
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CHAPTER 13 Writing the Researched Essay 313
wary of GM foods (MacDonald and Whellams 185). The “precautionary
principle” is law in the European Union, as they consider unknown risk
sufficient to require further study before approval. The United States
takes the position that if something is not demonstrated to be harmful,
then there is no problem in moving forward with implementation
(“Precautionary Principle”). There is strong opposition from the United
States’s Chamber of Commerce to the Precautionary Principle; the
Chamber argues that potential but unknown risk should not stand in
the way of progress (“Precautionary Principle”).
The United States currently operates under a voluntary labeling
program (Sand 187), including labeling of foods with GMOs and those
without GMOs. However, when Marion Nestle searched for labeling of
foods with GMOs, she was not surprised that her search was
unsuccessful. Nestle states: “Scientifically based or not, the motivation
of the biotechnology companies for opposing labeling is obvious: if
the foods are labeled as GM, you might choose not to buy them” (57).
The FDA’s voluntary labeling program for products that do not contain
GMOs can be seen at the grocery store today in products that carry a
GMO-free label. The question that remains is whether “GMO-free”
labels offer consumers a fully informed choice.
The lack of a mandatory labeling system in the U.S. is not
because no one has tried. In 1999, Congressman Dennis Kucinich
(D-OH) introduced into Congress the “Genetically Engineered Food
Right to Know Act” (Kirsch 26–27). The aim of this bill was to require
food that contained GM material, or was comprised of GM material, to
be labeled as such (Kirsch 27). Kirby explains that this bill would have
required that “food produced with GM material be labeled at each
stage of the food production process,” in order to mitigate cross
Attempts to get GM
foods labeled.
Donaldson 8
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314 SECTION 4 THE RESEARCHED AND FORMALLY DOCUMENTED ARGUMENT
contamination (367). This bill would have made it necessary to put a
label on GM products that reads: “GENETICALLY ENGINEERED
UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT NOTICE: THIS PRODUCT CONTAINS
A GENETICALLY ENGINEERED MATERIAL OR WAS PRODUCED WITH
A GENETICALLY ENGINEERED MATERIAL” (Kirsch 27). Heather Carr
adds that Congressman Kucinich has introduced this bill into multiple
sessions of Congress, including as recently as 2010, never to make it
out of committee. Although support increased in the House of
Representatives, it has never been enough to move the bill through.
In 2000, Senator Barbara Boxer (D-CA) introduced a similar bill that
would have required a label stating: “GENETICALLY ENGINEERED. THIS
PRODUCT CONTAINS A GENETICALLY ENGINEERED MATERIAL” (Kirsch
27). Like the House bill, this bill never came to fruition. The FDA maintains
that GM food is safe, and because of this, biotech companies say that
there is no need to liken their products to potentially dangerous products
(such as cigarettes or alcohol) with what resembles a warning label.
Anne MacKenzie disagrees with the biotech companies, arguing
that “consumers have a right to know” what they are eating, and how it
was made (50). She suggests that mandatory consumer-friendly
labeling be used, but that the labels should communicate in a way that
does not mislead consumers into thinking that GM food is any different
from non-GM food (50–52). She also asserts that the label “should not
imply that the consumption of food derived through biotechnology has
implications for public health,” since currently there is no concrete
evidence that GM food is either good or bad for human consumption
(52). MacDonald and Whellams proffer that if this were done properly,
it would be possible to label GM food while at the same time
Donaldson 9
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CHAPTER 13 Writing the Researched Essay 315
addressing the biotech companies’ concern that GM food labels would
“be seen as a warning” (183).
While MacKenzie is in favor of mandatory labeling, Lars Bracht
Andersen remains apprehensive. Andersen, while supporting a
consumer’s right to know, also understands the biotech industry’s view
that “mandatory labeling, given predominantly negative consumer
perceptions, is likely to effectively remove GM foods from the market”
(143). He argues for voluntary labeling, stating that it would have the
“least negative impact on the diversity of the market” (143). However,
since voluntary labeling alone seems unlikely to protect consumers
and provide adequate choice, mandatory labeling of GMO-free
products and of those products that contain GMOs is essential.
Student rejects
voluntary labeling
and repeats his thesis
that GM foods need
mandatory labeling.
Donaldson 10
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316 SECTION 4 THE RESEARCHED AND FORMALLY DOCUMENTED ARGUMENT
Works Cited
Andersen, Lars Bracht. “The EU Rules on Labeling of Genetically
Modified Foods: Mission Accomplished?” European Food & Feed
Law Review, vol. 5, no. 3, 2010, pp. 136–43. Academic Search
Complete, eds.a.ebscohost.com.
Brackett, Robert E. “Bioengineered Foods.” Statement to the Senate
Committee on Agriculture, Nutrition, and Forestry. U.S. Food and
Drug Administration, 14 June 2005, www.fda.gov/newsevents/
testimony/ucm/112927.htm.
Bruce, Donald. “Some Christian Reflections on GM Food.” Boundaries:
Religious Traditions and Genetically Modified Foods, edited by
Conrad G. Brunk and Harold Coward. State U of New York at
Albany P, 2009.
Carr, Heather. “Genetically Engineered Organism Liability Act of 2010
H.R. 5579.” Eat Drink Better, Important Media Network, 4 Aug.
2010, eatdrinkbetter.com/2010/08/04/genetically-engineered-
organism-liability-act-of-2010-h-r-5579/. Accessed 18 June 2011.
Clemmitt, Marcia. “Global Food Crisis: What’s Causing the Rising Prices?”
CQ Researcher, vol. 18, no. 24, 2008, pp. 553–76. Library.cqpress.
com/cqresearcher/ document.php?id=cqresrre2008062700&typ=hitlist
&num=0. Accessed 29 May 2011.
Crespi, John M., and Stephan Marette. “ ‘Does Contain’ vs. ‘Does Not
Contain’: Does It Matter Which GMO Label Is Used?” European
Journal of Law and Economics, vol. 16, no. 3, 2003, pp. 327–44.
SpringerLink, Library.cqpress.com/cqresearcher/ document.
php?id=cqresrre2008062700&typ=hitlist&num=0. Accessed 12
June 2011.
Davison, John. “GM Plants: Science, Politics, and EC Regulations.”
Plant Science, vol. 178, no. 2, 2010, 94–98. ScienceDirect.
Continue to number
pages consecutively.
Start a new page for
Works Cited.
Donaldson 11
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CHAPTER 13 Writing the Researched Essay 317
sciencedirect.com/science?ob= ArticleListURL&_method=list&_
ArticleListID= 1063694497. Accessed 8 June 2011.
Gudorf, Christine E., and James E. Huchingson. Boundaries: A
Casebook in Environmental Ethics. Georgetown UP, 2010.
Kirby, Sarah. “Genetically Modified Foods: More Reasons to Label
Than Not.” Drake Journal of Agricultural Law, vol. 6, no. 2, 2001,
pp. 351–68. HeinOnline. Accessed 12 June 2011.
Kirsch, Sally R. “A Defense of the U.S. Position on Labeling Genetically
Modified Organisms.” International and Comparative
Environmental Law, vol. 1, no. 1, 2000, pp. 21–28.
HeinOnline. Accessed 9 June 2011.
Krebs, Al. “New Poll—94% of Americans Want Labels on GE Food.”
Organic Consumers Association, 19 Oct. 2003, www.
organicconsumers.org/old_articles/ge/newpoll102303.php.
Accessed 9 June 2011.
MacDonald, Chris, and Melissa Whellams. “Corporate Decisions about
Labeling Genetically Modified Foods.” Journal of Business Ethics, vol.
75, no. 2, 2007, pp. 181–89. JSTOR. doi:10.1007/s10551-006-9245-8.
Mackenzie, Anne A. “International Efforts to Label Food Derived
through Biotechnology,” Governing Food: Science, Safety, and
Trade, edited by Peter W. B. Phillips and Robert Wolfe.
McGill–Queen’s UP, 2001.
Martineau, Belinda. First Fruit: The Creation of the Flavr Savr™ Tomato
and the Birth of Genetically Engineered Food. McGraw-Hill, 2001.
Moosa, Ebrahim. “Genetically Modified Foods and Muslim Ethics.”
Boundaries: Religious Traditions and Genetically Modified
Foods, edited by Conrad G. Brunk and Harold Coward. State U of
New York at Albany P, 2009.
Nestle, Marion. What to Eat. North Point Press, 2006.
Double-space
throughout.
List sources
alphabetically.
Use hanging
indentation.
Donaldson 12
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318 SECTION 4 THE RESEARCHED AND FORMALLY DOCUMENTED ARGUMENT
“Plant Breeding.” The Gale Encyclopedia of Science, edited by K. Lee
Lerner and Brenda Wilmoth Lerner. 4th ed. vol. 4, pp. 3370–75.
Gale Publishing, 2008. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Accessed
29 May 2011.
Sand, Peter H. “Labelling Genetically Modified Food: The Right to Know.”
Review of European Community & International Environmental Law,
vol. 15, no. 2, July 2006, pp. 185–92. Wiley Online Library, doi:
10.1111/j.1467-9388.2006.00520.x. Accessed 9 June 2011.
U.S. Chamber of Commerce. “Precautionary Principle,” 4 Aug. 2010.
www.uschamber.com/precautionary-principle.
Weasel, Lisa H. Food Fray. AMACOM Publishing, 2009.
Courtesy of David Donaldson.
Donaldson 13
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Formal Documentation:
MLA Style, APA Style
CHAPTER 14
©
G
o
o
d
sh
o
t/
P
u
n
ch
st
o
ck
R
F
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320 SECTION 4 THE RESEARCHED AND FORMALLY DOCUMENTED ARGUMENT
M
LA
S
tyle
In Chapter 12 you were shown, in sample bibliography cards, what information about a source you need to prepare the documentation for a researched essay. In Chapter 13
you were shown in-text documentation patterns as part of the discussion of avoiding
plagiarism and writing effective paragraphs. The format shown is for MLA (Modern
Language Association) style, the documentation style used in most of the humanities
disciplines. APA (American Psychological Association) style is used in the social
sciences. The sciences and other disciplines also have style sheets, but the most common
documentation patterns used by undergraduates are MLA and APA, the two patterns
explained in this chapter.
Remember that MLA recommends that writers prepare their Works Cited list—a
list of all sources they have used—before drafting the essay. This list can then be used
as an accurate guide to the in-text/parenthetical documentation that MLA requires
along with the Works Cited list at the end of the essay. Heed this good advice. This
chapter begins with guidelines for in-text documentation and then provides many mod-
els of full documentation for a Works Cited list. Never guess at documentation! Always
consult this chapter to make each in-text citation and your Works Cited page(s)
absolutely correct.
As you now know, MLA documentation style has two parts: in-text references to
author and page number and then complete information about each source in a Works
Cited list. Because parenthetical references to author and page are incomplete—readers
could not find the source with such limited information—all sources referred to by
author and (usually) page number in the essay require the full details of publication in a
Works Cited list that concludes the essay. General guidelines for in-text citations are
given below.
NOTE: You need a 100 percent correspondence between the sources listed
in your Works Cited and the sources you actually cite (refer to) in your essay.
Do not omit from your Works Cited any sources you refer to in your essay. Do
not include in your Works Cited any sources not referred to in your paper.
• The purpose of documentation is to make clear exactly what material in
a passage has been borrowed and from what source the borrowed
material has come.
• Parenthetical in-text documentation requires specific page references for
borrowed material—unless the source is not a print one.
• Parenthetical documentation is required for both quoted and para-
phrased material and for both print and nonprint sources.
• Parenthetical documentation provides as brief a citation as possible
consistent with accuracy and clarity.
Using Parenthetical DocumentationGUIDELINES for
M
LA
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tyle
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CHAPTER 14 Formal Documentation: MLA Style, APA Style 321
M
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tyle
THE SIMPLEST PATTERNS OF PARENTHETICAL
DOCUMENTATION
The simplest in-text citation can be prepared in one of three ways:
1. Give the author’s last name (full name in your first reference to the writer) in the
text of your essay and put the appropriate page number(s) in parentheses following
the borrowed material.
Frederick Lewis Allen observes that, during the 1920s, urban tastes
spread to the country (146).
2. Place the author’s last name and the appropriate page number(s) in parentheses
immediately following the borrowed material.
During the 1920s, “not only the drinks were mixed, but the company as
well” (Allen 82).
3. On the rare occasion that you cite an entire work rather than borrowing from a
specific passage, give the author’s name in the text and omit any page numbers.
Leonard Sax explains, to both parents and teachers, the specific ways
in which gender matters.
Each one of these in-text references is complete only when the full citation is placed
in the Works Cited section of your paper:
Allen, Frederick Lewis. Only Yesterday: An Informal History of the
Nineteen-Twenties. Harper and Row, 1931.
Sax, Leonard. Why Gender Matters. Random House, 2005.
The three patterns just illustrated should be used in each of the following situations:
1. The source referred to is not anonymous—the author is known.
2. The source referred to is by one author.
3. The source cited is the only work used by that author.
4. No other author in your list of sources has the same last name.
5. The source has page numbers.
PLACEMENT OF PARENTHETICAL
DOCUMENTATION
The simplest placing of an in-text reference is at the end of the sentence before the
period. When you are quoting, place the parentheses after the final quotation mark but
still before the period that ends the sentence.
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322 SECTION 4 THE RESEARCHED AND FORMALLY DOCUMENTED ARGUMENT
M
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During the 1920s, “not only the drinks were mixed, but the company as
well” (Allen 82).
NOTE: Do not put any punctuation between the author’s name and the page
number.
If the borrowed material forms only a part of your sentence, place the parenthetical
reference after the borrowed material and before any subsequent punctuation. This
placement more accurately shows readers what is borrowed and what are your own
words.
Sport, Allen observes about the 1920s, had developed into an obsession
(66), another similarity between the 1920s and the 1980s.
If a quoted passage is long enough to require setting off in display form (block quota-
tion), then place the parenthetical reference at the end of the passage, after the
final period. Remember: Long quotations in display form do not have quotation marks.
It is hard to believe that when he writes about the influence of science
Allen is describing the 1920s, not the 1980s:
The prestige of science was colossal. The man in the street and the
woman in the kitchen, confronted on every hand with new machines
and devices which they owed to the laboratory, were ready to believe
that science could accomplish almost anything. (164)
And to complete the documentation for all three examples:
Works Cited
Allen, Frederick Lewis. Only Yesterday: An Informal History of the
Nineteen-Twenties. Harper and Row, 1931.
PARENTHETICAL CITATIONS
OF COMPLEX SOURCES
Not all sources can be cited in one of the three patterns illustrated above, for not all meet
the five criteria listed on p. 321. Works by two or more authors, for example, will need
somewhat fuller references. Each sample form of in-text documentation given below
must be completed with a full Works Cited reference, as shown above.
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Two Authors, Mentioned in the Text
Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray contend that it is “consistently
. . . advantageous to be smart” (25).
Two Authors, Not Mentioned in the Text
The advantaged smart group forms a “cognitive elite” in our society
(Herrnstein and Murray 26–27).
A Book in Two or More Volumes
Sewall analyzes the role of Judge Lord in Dickinson’s life (2: 642–47).
OR
Judge Lord was also one of Dickinson’s preceptors (Sewall 2: 642–47).
NOTE: The number before the colon always signifies the volume number.
The number(s) after the colon represents the page number(s).
A Book Listed by Title—Author Unknown
According to The Concise Dictionary of American Biography, William
Jennings Bryan’s 1896 campaign stressed social and sectional
conflicts (117).
The New York Times’ editors were not pleased with some of the
changes in welfare programs (“Where” 4: 16).
Always cite the title of the article, not the title of the journal, if the author is unknown.
With no opening noun or noun phrase, abbreviate the title with the first word. This is
sufficient to guide readers to the correct Works Cited item.
William Jennings Bryan’s 1986 campaign stressed social and sectional
conflicts (Concise Dictionary 117).
If the title begins with a noun or noun phrase (noun plus adjective), shorten the title
as shown.
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A Work by a Corporate Author
A report by the Institute of Ecology’s Global Ecological Problems
Workshop argues that the civilization of the city can lull us into
forgetting our relationship to the total ecological system on which
we depend (13).
Although corporate authors may be cited with the page number within the parentheses,
your writing will be more graceful if corporate authors are introduced in the sentence.
Then only page numbers go in parentheses.
Two or More Works by the Same Author
During the 1920s, “not only the drinks were mixed, but the company as
well” (Allen, Only Yesterday 82).
Frederick Lewis Allen contends that the early 1900s were a period of
complacency in America (Big Change 4–5).
In The Big Change, Allen asserts that the early 1900s were a period of
complacency (4–5).
If your list of sources contains two or more works by the same author, the fullest
parenthetical citation includes the author’s last name, followed by a comma; the work’s
title, shortened if possible; and the page number. If the author’s name appears in the
text—or the author and title both appear as in the third example above—omit these
items from the parenthetical citation. When you have to include the title to distinguish
among sources, it is best to put the author’s name in the text.
Two or More Works in One Parenthetical Reference
Several writers about the future agree that big changes will take place
in work patterns (Toffler 384–87; Naisbitt 35–36).
Separate each author with a semicolon. But if the parenthetical reference becomes
disruptively long, cite the works in a “See also” note rather than in the text.
A Source without Page Numbers
It is usually a good idea to name the nonprint source within your sentence so that
readers will not expect to see page numbers.
Although some still disagree, the Oxford English Dictionary Online
defines global warming as “thought to be caused by various
side-effects of modern energy consumption.”
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Complete Publication Information in Parenthetical Reference
At times you may want to give complete information about a source within parentheses
in the text of your essay. Then a Works Cited list is not used. Use square brackets for
parenthetical information within parentheses. This approach may be a good choice
when you use only one source that you refer to several times. Literary analyses are one
type of essay for which this approach to citation may be a good choice. For example:
Edith Wharton establishes the bleakness of her setting, Starkfield, not
just through description of place but also through her main character,
Ethan, who is described as “bleak and unapproachable” (Ethan Frome
[Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1911, Print] 3. All subsequent references are to
this edition). Later Wharton describes winter as “shut[ting] down on
Starkfield” and negating life there (7).
Additional-Information Footnotes or Endnotes
At times you may need to provide additional information that is not central to your
argument. These additions belong in a content note. However, use these sparingly and
never as a way of advancing your thesis. Many instructors object to content notes and
prefer only parenthetical citations.
“See Also” Footnotes or Endnotes
More acceptable is the note that refers to other sources of evidence for or against the
point to be established. These notes are usually introduced with “See also” or
“Compare,” followed by the citation. For example:
Chekhov’s debt to Ibsen should be recognized, as should his debt to
other playwrights of the 1890s who were concerned with the inner life
of their characters.1
1. See also Eric Bentley, In Search of Theater (Vintage, 1959) 330; Walter Bruford, Anton Chekhov (Yale
UP, 1957) 45.
PREPARING MLA CITATIONS FOR
A WORKS CITED LIST
The partial in-text citations described and illustrated above must be completed by a full
reference in a list given at the end of the essay. To prepare your Works Cited list, alpha-
betize, by author last name, the sources you have actually referred to in your paper and
complete each citation according to the forms explained and illustrated below. (Guide-
lines for formatting a finished Works Cited page are found on p. 305.)
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You can search the examples that follow to find the appropriate model for each of
your sources, but you are less likely to make errors when you also understand the basic
pieces of information—and the order of their presentation—essential to every citation.
Remember the purpose of your list: to provide the information that will let your
readers locate each source you used. For example, if you used a book in a revised
edition, readers must know that. Or if you used articles initially published in a magazine
that you found in this textbook, then you must provide that additional information. The
additional information is essential to identifying the actual source you used. MLA
invites researchers to think in terms of a “container”—or a series of containers—for
each source. A book has as its container the name of its publisher and the date of
publication.
However, an article in this textbook would have two containers. First, the initial
facts of publication for the magazine article followed by all of the details that identify
Read, Reason, Write, namely author, title, publisher and date (this book’s container)
plus the page numbers on which the article appears here. Articles you find and use from
an online database would also have two containers. The articles you actually used were
originally published elsewhere and then reproduced in the database.
Books require the following information, in the order given, with periods after each
of the four major elements:
• Author, last name first.
• Title—and subtitle if there is one—all in italics.
• The publisher’s name, followed by a comma, and the date of publication, followed
by a period.
Author Title Facts of Publication
Bellow, Saul. A Theft. Viking Books, 1989.
Forms for Books: Citing the Complete Book
A Book by a Single Author
Seyler, Dorothy U. The Obelisk and the Englishman: The Pioneering
Discoveries of Egyptologist William Bankes. Prometheus Books, 2015.
The subtitle is included, preceded by a colon, even if there is no colon on the book’s title
page.
A Book by Two or Three Authors
Brizee, Allen, and Jaclyn M. Wells. Partners in Literacy: A Writing Center
Model for Civic Engagement. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2016.
Second (and third) authors’ names appear in normal signature order.
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A Book with Three or More Authors
Baker, Susan P., et al. The Injury Fact Book. Oxford UP, 1992.
Use the name of the first person listed on the title page followed by a comma and “et al.”
Shorten “University Press” to “UP.”
Two or More Works by the Same Author
Goodall, Jane. In the Shadow of Man. Houghton Mifflin, 1971.
—. Through a Window: My Thirty Years with the Chimpanzees of
Gombe. Houghton Mifflin, 1990.
Give the author’s full name with the first entry. For the second (and additional works),
begin the citation with three hyphens followed by a period. Alphabetize the entries by
the books’ titles.
A Book Written Under a Pseudonym with Name Supplied
Wrighter, Carl P. [Paul Stevens]. I Can Sell You Anything. Ballantine
Books, 1972.
An Anonymous Book
Beowulf: A New Verse Translation. Translated by Seamus Heaney.
Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2000.
An Edited Book
Hamilton, Alexander, et al. The Federalist Papers. Edited by Isaac
Kramnick. Viking Books, 1987.
Lynn, Kenneth S., editor. Huckleberry Finn: Text, Sources, and
Critics. Harcourt Brace, 1961.
If you cite the author’s work, put the author’s name first and the editor’s name after the
title. If you cite the editor’s work (an introduction or notes), then place the editor’s name
first, followed by a comma and “editor.”
A Translation
Schulze, Hagen. Germany: A New History. Translated by Deborah
Lucas Schneider. Harvard UP, 1998.
Cornford, Francis MacDonald, translator. The Republic of Plato.
Oxford UP, 1945.
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If you cite the author’s work, place the author’s name first and the translator’s name
after the title. If the translator’s work is the important element, place the translator’s
name first. If the author’s name does not appear in the title, give it after the title. For
example: By Plato.
A Book in Two or More Volumes
Spielvogel, Jackson J. Western Civilization. West Publishers, 1991. 2 vols.
A Book in Its Second or Subsequent Edition
O’Brien, David M. Storm Center: The Supreme Court and American
Politics. 2nd ed. W. W. Norton, 1990.
A Book in a Series
Parkinson, Richard. The Rosetta Stone. British Museum, 2005. British
Museum Objects in Focus.
Provide the series title—and number if there is one—after publication
information. Capitalize but do not italicize the series name.
A Reprint of an Earlier Work
Twain, Mark. Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. 1885. Centennial
Facsimile Edition. Introduction by Hamlin Hill. Harper & Row, 1962.
Faulkner, William. As I Lay Dying. 1930. Vintage Books/Random
House, 1964.
Provide the original publication date as well as the facts of publication for the reprinted
version. Indicate any new material, as in the first example. The second example illus-
trates the paperback reprint by the original publisher.
A Book with Two or More Publishers
Green, Mark, et al. Who Runs Congress? Bantam Books/Grossman
Publishers, 1972. Ralph Nader Congress Project.
Separate the publishers with a forward slash.
A Corporate or Governmental Author
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Chesapeake Bay: Introduction
to an Ecosystem. Government Printing Office, 2012.
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American Indian Education Handbook. California Department of
Education Unit, 1991.
When the author and the publisher are the same, begin with the title; do not repeat
author and publisher.
Religious Texts
The Holy Bible [Usually refers to the King James Version.]
The Reader’s Bible: A Narrative. Edited with introduction by Roland
Mushat Frye. Princeton UP, 1965.
Provide facts of publication for versions not well known. In the text, capitalize religious
texts such as the Bible or the Koran, but do not use italics except in the Works Cited.
Forms for Books: Citing Part of a Book
A Preface, Introduction, Foreword, or Afterword
Sagan, Carl. Introduction. A Brief History of Time: From the Big Bang
to Black Holes. By Stephen Hawking. Bantam Books, 1988, pp. ix–x.
Use this form if you are citing the author of the introduction, preface, etc. Provide an
identifying word after the author’s name and give inclusive page numbers for the part of
the book you are citing.
An Encyclopedia Article
Ostrom, John H. “Dinosaurs.” McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science
and Technology. 1957 edition.
“Benjamin Franklin.” Concise Dictionary of American Biography.
Edited by Joseph E. G. Hopkins. Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1964.
One or More Volumes in a Multivolume Work
James, Henry. The Portrait of a Lady. Vols. 3 and 4 of The Novels and
Tales of Henry James. Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1908.
A Work in an Anthology or Collection
Hurston, Zora Neale. The First One. Black Female Playwrights: An
Anthology of Plays Before 1950. Edited by Kathy A. Perkins.
Indiana UP, 1989, pp. 80–88.
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Comstock, George. “The Medium and the Society: The Role of
Television in American Life.” Children and Television: Images in a
Changing Sociocultural World. Edited by Gordon L. Berry and Joy
Keiko Asamen. Sage Publications, 1993, pp. 117–31.
Give inclusive page numbers for the particular work you have used.
An Article in a Collection, Casebook, or Sourcebook
Knapp, Alex. “Five Leadership Lesson from James T. Kirk.” Forbes.
5 Mar. 2012. Reprinted in Read, Reason, Write: An Argument Text and
Reader, 11th ed. By Dorothy U. Seyler. McGraw-Hill, 2012, pp. 28–32.
Many articles in collections have been previously published, so you must provide the
original facts of publication (excluding page numbers if they are not readily available),
and then the facts of publication for the collection. End with inclusive page numbers for
that part of the book that you used.
Cross-References
If you are citing several articles from one collection, you can provide a citation for the
entire book and then provide just the author, title, and page numbers for each specific
article used. Include a cross-reference to the editor(s) of the collection with each specific
article you cite.
Head, Suzanne, and Robert Heinzman, editors. Lessons of the
Rainforest. Sierra Club, 1990.
Bandyopadhyay, J., and Vandana Shiva. “Asia’s Forest, Asia’s
Cultures.” Head and Heinzman, pp. 66–77.
Forms for Periodicals: Articles in Magazines, Journals,
and Newspapers
Articles from the various forms of periodicals, when read in their print format, require
the following information, in the order given:
• Author, last name first, followed by a period.
• Title of the article, in quotation marks, followed by a period inside the final
quotation mark.
• Facts of publication, which usually include the title of the periodical in italics
followed by a comma, the volume number or volume and issue number followed
by a comma, the date of publication followed by a comma, inclusive page num-
bers for the article preceded by p. or pp., and then a period.
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For articles accessed in their print format, think of the facts of publication—the details
about the specific periodical—as the article’s container. Articles, unlike books, are not
published separately; they are “contained” within a periodical or in a book collection of
articles. Articles of various kinds can also be found on a website, in which cases the
website becomes the container. Identifying facts of the website must be supplied for
your readers to find the work you are citing.
Article in a Journal Paged by Year
Brown, Jane D., and Carol J. Pardun. “Little in Common: Racial and
Gender Differences in Adolescents’ Television Diets.” Journal of
Broadcasting and Electronic Media, vol. 48, no. 2, 2004, pp. 266–78.
Article in a Journal Paged by Issue
Lewis, Kevin. “Superstardom and Transcendence.” Arete: The Journal
of Sport Literature, vol. 2, no. 2, 1985, pp. 47–54.
If the journal uses both volume and issue numbers, provide both regardless of the
journal’s choice of paging.
Article in a Monthly Magazine
Wegner, Mary-Ann Pouls. “Gateway to the Netherworld.” Archaeology
Jan./Feb. 2013, pp. 50–53.
Do not use volume or issue numbers with popular magazines. Cite the month(s) and
year of publication and inclusive page numbers. Abbreviate all months except May,
June, and July.
Article in a Weekly Magazine
Stein, Joel. “Eat This, Low Carbers.” Time, 15 Aug. 2005, p. 78.
Provide the complete date, using the order of day, month, year.
An Anonymous Article
“Death of Perestroika.” The Economist, 2 Feb. 1991, pp. 12–13.
The missing name indicates that the article is anonymous. Alphabetize under D.
A Published Interview
Angier, Natalie. “Ernst Mayr at 93.” Interview. Natural History Magazine,
May 1997, pp. 8–11.
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Follow the pattern for a published article, but add the descriptive label “Interview”
(followed by a period) after the article’s title.
A Review
Whitehead, Barbara D. “The New Segregation.” Review of Coming
Apart: The State of White America, 1960–2010, by Charles Murray.
Commonweal, 4 May 2012.
If the review is signed, begin with the author’s name and then the title of the review
article. Also provide the title of the work being reviewed and its author, preceded by
“Review of.” For reviews of art shows, videos, or computer software, provide place and
date or descriptive label to make the citation clear.
Forms for Periodicals: Articles in Newspapers Accessed in Print
Article in a Newspaper
Arguila, John. “What Deep Blue Taught Kasparov—and Us.” Christian
Science Monitor, 16 May 1997, p. 18.
A newspaper’s title should be cited as it appears on the masthead.
Article in a Newspaper with Lettered Sections
Taub, Amanda. “Why Some Wars Get More Attention Than Others.”
The New York Times, 2 Oct. 2016, p. A8.
Place the section letter immediately before the page number without any spacing. If the
paging of the article is not consecutive, give the first page and the plus (+) sign.
An Article in a Newspaper with a Designated Edition
Pereria, Joseph. “Women Allege Sexist Atmosphere in Offices
Constitutes Harassment.” The Wall Street Journal, eastern ed.
10 Feb. 1988, p. 23.
Cite the edition used after the title of the newspaper.
An Editorial
“Japan’s Two Nationalisms.” Editorial. The Washington Post, 4 June
2000: B6.
Add the descriptive label “Editorial” after the article title.
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A Letter to the Editor
Wiles, Yoko A. “Thoughts of a New Citizen.” Letter. The Washington
Post, 27 Dec. 1995: A22.
A Review
Doerr, Anthony. “Running through Time.” Review of Time Travel: A
History by James Gleick. The New York Times Book Review, 2 Oct.
2016, pp. 1+.
If the review is signed, begin with the author’s name and then the title of the review
article. Then provide the title of the work being reviewed and its author, preceded by
“Review of.” For reviews of art shows, videos, or computer software, provide place and
date or descriptive label to make the citation clear.
Forms for Digital Sources
Remember that the purpose of a citation is to lead readers to the exact source you have
used. This means that if you access an article in a digital database that was initially
published in a print source, you must include this additional container, the information
about the database. Researchers also use other kinds of online sources, and citations for
these usually require more information than for printed sources. Include as many of the
items listed below, in the order given here, as are relevant—and available—for each
source. Take the time to search a website’s home page to locate as much of the informa-
tion as possible.
• Author (or editor, compiler, translator), last name first, ending in a period.
• Title of the work, in quotation marks if it is part of a site, in italics if it is a complete
and separate work, such as an online novel, ending in a period.
• Facts of publication of the print version if the item was originally published in
print, ending in a period.
• Title of the website, in italics—unless it is the same as the title of the work.
• Publisher of the site—organization or person who owns or sponsors the site.
• Date of publication.
• Digital object identifier (DOI), if any, or URL, preferably a stable URL, followed
by a period.
• Your date of access only if the source is undated, likely to change, or likely to be
removed.
NOTE: MLA recommends including DOIs and/or URLs, but you should omit
them if your instructor prefers that you do so. Also, some articles in library
databases with DOIs may not be accessible online.
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Study this annotated citation as a general model:
A Published Article in an Online Database
Shin, Michael S. “Redressing Wounds: Finding a Legal Framework to
Remedy Racial Disparities in Medical Care.” California Law Review,
vol. 90, no. 6, 2002, pp. 2047–2100. JSTOR. www.jstor.org/
stable3481439.
Kumar, Sanjay. “Scientists Accuse Animal Rights Activists of Stifling
Research.” British Medical Journal 23 Nov. 2002: 1192. EBSCOhost,
doi: 10.1136/bmj.325. 7374.1192/d.
No access date is used with databases of printed articles.
An Article in a Reference Source
“Prohibition.” Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. 11 June 2014.
www.britannica.com/topic/prohibition-alcohol-interdict.
An Online News Source
Associated Press. “Russia Voted Off UN Human Rights Council.”
wtop.com 28 Oct. 2016, hwtop.com/europe/2016/10/russia-voted-
off-un-human-rights-council/. Accessed 30 Oct. 2016.
An Article in an Online Magazine
Kinsley, Michael. “Politicians Lie. Numbers Don’t.” Slate, 16 Sept. 2008.
www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/readme/2008/09/
politicians_lie_numbers_dont.html.
A Poem in a Scholarly Project
Keats, John. “Ode to a Nightingale.” Poetical Works of John Keats.
1884. Bartleby.com, www.bartleby.com/126/40.html.
Yancy, George. “I Am a Dangerous Professor.” nytimes.com. The New York Times.
30 Nov. 2016, www.nytimes.com/2016/11/30/opinion/i-am-a-dangerous-
title of work title of website sponsor of website
author
website URLdate of publication
professor.html?ref=opinion&_r=0.
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Information from a Government Site
“The 2008 HHS Poverty Guidelines.” ASPE, U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services, 23 Jan. 2008, aspe.hhs.gov/
2008-hhs-poverty-guidelines.
Information from a Professional Site
“Music Instruction Aids Verbal Memory.” Press Release. American
Psychological Association. Reported by Agnes S. Chan, 7 July 2003,
www.apa.org/news/press releases/2003/07/music-memory.aspx.
Information from a Professional Home Page or Blog
Leta, Vicky, et al. “Women Inventors Whose Contributions Still Bless
Us Today.” Mashable, 24 Mar. 2016. mashable.com/2016/03/24/
women-inventors/?utm_cid=hp-hh-sec#yLcwQAqKgkqT.
For information from an untitled personal home page, use the label “Home page” (but
not in italics or quotation marks).
Home Page for a Course or Academic Department
Loyola University Maryland Writing Department. Home page,
www.loyola.edu/academics/writing. Accessed 30 Oct. 2016.
Forms for Other Print and Nonprint Sources
The materials in this section, although often important to research projects, do not
always lend themselves to documentation by the forms illustrated above. Follow the
basic order of author, title, and facts of publication as much as possible. Add more
information as needed to make the citation clear and useful to a reader.
An Article Published in Print and on CD or DVD
Detweiler, Richard A. “Democracy and Decency on the Internet.”
Chronicle of Higher Education, 28 June 1996, p. A40. General
Periodicals Ondisc. UMI-ProQuest. 1997. CD.
A Work or Part of a Work on CD-ROM, DVD-ROM, Etc.
Eseiolonis, Karyn. “Giorgio de Chirico’s Mysterious Bathers.” A
Passion for Art: Renoir, Cezanne, Matisse, and Dr. Barnes.
Corbis Productions, 1995. CD.
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Kloss, William. “Donatello and Padua.” Great Artists of the Italian
Renaissance. The Teaching Company, 2004. DVD.
Audio (or Video) from a Website
Vachss, Andrew. “Dead and Gone.” Interview by Bill Thompson. Aired
on Eye on Books, 24 Oct. 2000. The Zero. Home page,
www.vachss.com/index.html. Accessed 25 Sept. 2008.
A Recording
Stein, Joseph. Fiddler on the Roof. Jerry Bock, composer. Original-Cast
Recording with Zero Mostel. Original cast recording. RCA, 1964.
The conductor and/or performers help identify a specific recording.
Plays or Concerts
Waiting for Godot by Samuel Beckett. Performers Ian McKellen and
Patrick Stewart. Directed by Sean Mathias. Cort Theatre, New York
City. Nov. 2013.
Principal actors, singers, musicians, and/or the director can be added as appropriate.
A Television or Radio Program
Breakthrough: Television’s Journal of Science and Medicine. PBS
series hosted by Ron Hendren. 10 June 1997. Television.
An Interview
Plum, Kenneth. Personal Interview, 5 Mar. 2012.
A Lecture
Bateson, Mary Catherine. “Crazy Mixed-Up Families.” Northern
Virginia Community College, 26 Apr. 1997.
A Personal Letter or E-mail
Usick, Patricia. “Bankes’ Chapel.” E-mail to the author. 3 Aug. 2015.
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Maps and Charts
Hampshire and Dorset. Map. Geographers’ A–Z.
Cartoons and Advertisements
Halleyscope. “Halleyscopes Are for Night Owls.” Advertisement.
Natural History, Dec. 1985, p. 15.
United Airlines Advertisement. ESPN. 8 Aug. 2008. Television.
A Published Dissertation
Brotton, Joyce D. Illuminating the Present through Literary Dialogism:
From the Reformation through Postmodernism. Dissertation.
George Mason U, 2002. UMI, 2002.
Government Documents
United States. Environmental Protection Agency. The Challenge of
the Environment: A Primer on EPA’s Statutory Authority.
Government Printing Office, 1972.
If the author is not given, cite the name of the government first followed by the name of
the department or agency. If the author is known, give the author’s name first, followed
by the title, and then appropriate facts for accessing the material.
Geller, William. Deadly Force. U.S. Department of Justice National
Institute of Justice Crime File Study Guide. U.S. Department of
Justice, www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/ 100734NCJRS .
Accessed 24 Mar. 2016.
Legal Documents
U.S. Constitution. Article 1, section 3.
The Constitution is referred to by article and section. Do not use italics. When citing a
court case, give the name of the case, the volume, page of the report, and the date.
Italicize the name of the case in your paper but not in the Works Cited.
Turner v. Arkansas. 407 U.S. 366. 1972.
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APA STYLE
The APA system identifies a source by placing the author’s last name and the publication
year of the source within parentheses at the point in the text where the source is cited.
The in-text citations are supported by complete citations in a list of sources at the end of
the paper. Most disciplines in the social sciences use APA style. The guidelines given
here follow the style of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological
Association (6th ed., 2010).
APA Style: In-Text Citations
The simplest parenthetical reference can be presented in one of three ways:
1. Place the year of publication within parentheses immediately following the author’s
name in the text.
In a typical study of preference for motherese, Fernald (1985)
used an operant auditory preference procedure.
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Within the same paragraph, additional references to the source do not need to repeat the
year, if the researcher clearly establishes that the same source is being cited.
Because the speakers were unfamiliar subjects, Fernald’s work
eliminates the possibility that it is the mother’s voice per se that
accounts for the preference.
2. If the author is not mentioned in the text, place the author’s last name followed by
a comma and the year of publication within parentheses after the borrowed
information.
The majority of working women are employed in jobs that are at
least 75 percent female (Lawrence & Matsuda, 1997).
3. Cite a specific passage by providing the page, chapter, or figure number following
the borrowed material. Always give specific page references for quoted material.
• A brief quotation:
Deuzen-Smith (1988) believes that counselors must be involved
with clients and “deeply interested in piecing the puzzle of life
together” (p. 29).
• A quotation in display form:
Bartlett (1932) explains the cyclic process of perception:
Suppose I am making a stroke in a quick game, such as tennis
or cricket. How I make the stroke depends on the relating of
certain new experiences, most of them visual, to other
immediately preceding visual experiences, and to my posture,
or balance of posture, at the moment. (p. 201)
Use this style with a quotation of forty words or more. Indent a block quotation five
spaces from the left margin, do not use quotation marks, and double-space throughout.
To show a new paragraph within the block quotation, indent the first line of the new
paragraph an additional five spaces. Note the placing of the year after the author’s
name, and the page number at the end of the direct quotation.
More complicated in-text citations should be handled as follows:
Two Authors, Mentioned in the Text
Kuhl and Meltzoff (1984) tested 4- to 5-month-olds in an experiment . . .
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Two Authors, Not Mentioned in the Text
. . . but are unable to show preference in the presence of two mis-
matched modalities (e.g., a face and a voice; see Kuhl & Meltzoff, 1984).
Give both authors’ last names each time you refer to the source. Connect their names
with “and” in the text. Use an ampersand (&) in the parenthetical citation.
More Than Two Authors
For works coauthored by three, four, or five people, provide all last names in the first
reference to the source. Thereafter, cite only the first author’s name followed by “et al.”
As Price-Williams, Gordon, and Ramirez have shown (1969), . . .
OR
Studies of these children have shown (Price-Williams, Gordon, &
Ramirez, 1969) . . .
THEN
Price-Williams et al. (1969) also found that . . .
If a source has six or more authors, use only the first author’s last name followed by
“et al.” every time the source is cited.
Corporate Authors
In general, spell out the name of a corporate author each time it is used. If a corporate
author has well-known initials, the name can be abbreviated after the first citation.
FIRST IN-TEXT CITATION: (National Institutes of Health [NIH], 1989)
SUBSEQUENT CITATIONS: (NIH, 1989)
Two or More Works within the Same Parentheses
When citing more than one work by the same author in a parenthetical reference, use the
author’s name only once and arrange the years mentioned in order; thus:
Several studies of ego identity formation (Marcia, 1966, 1983) . . .
When an author, or the same group of coauthors, has more than one work published in
the same year, distinguish the works by adding the letters a, b, c, and so on, as needed,
to the year. Give the last name only once, but repeat the year, each one with its
identifying letter; thus:
Several studies (Smith, 1990a, 1990b, 1990c) . . .
When citing several works by different authors within the same parentheses, list the
authors alphabetically; alphabetize by the first author when citing coauthored works.
Separate authors or groups of coauthors with semicolons; thus:
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Although many researchers (Archer & Waterman, 1983; Grotevant,
1983; Grotevant & Cooper, 1986; Sabatelli & Mazor, 1985) study
identity formation . . .
Personal Communication
Cite information obtained via interview, phone, letter, and e-mail communication.
According to Sandra Haun (personal interview, September 7, 2008) . . .
Because readers cannot retrieve information from these personal sources, do not include
a citation in your list of references.
Secondary Sources
Make every effort to find, read, and cite original works. When this is not possible—the
work is now out of print or the writer is quoting someone from a speech or per-
sonal communication—cite the secondary source this way:
Jennings disputes Smith’s claims by recounting what she said in a
recent radio interview: “I will not be running for re-election in the
House” (as cited in Kim, 2017).
APA STYLE: PREPARING A LIST
OF REFERENCES
All sources cited parenthetically in your paper—except for all types of personal
communication—need a complete citation. These complete citations are placed on a
separate page (or pages) after the text of the paper and before any appendices included
in the paper. Sources are arranged alphabetically, and the first page is titled “References.”
Begin each source flush with the left margin and indent second and subsequent lines
five spaces. Double-space throughout the list of references. Follow these rules for
alphabetizing:
1. Organize two or more works by the same author, or the same group of coauthors,
chronologically.
Beck, A. T. (1991).
Beck, A. T. (1993).
2. Place single-author entries before multiple-author entries when the first of the
multiple authors is the same as the single author.
Grotevant, H. D. (1983).
Grotevant, H. D., & Cooper, C. R. (1986).
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3. Organize multiple-author entries that have the same first author but different second
or third authors alphabetically by the name of the second author or third and so on.
Gerbner, G., & Gross, L.
Gerbner, G., Gross, L., Jackson-Beeck, M., Jeffries-Fox, S., & Signorielli, N.
Gerbner, G., Gross, L., Morgan, M., & Signorielli, N.
4. Organize two or more works by the same author(s) published in the same year al-
phabetically by title.
Form for Books
A book citation contains these elements in this form:
Authors
Give all authors’ names, last name first, and initials. Separate authors with commas, use
the ampersand (&) before the last author’s name, and end with a period. For edited books,
place the abbreviation “Ed.” or “Eds.” in parentheses following the last editor’s name.
Date of Publication
Place the year of publication in parentheses followed by a period.
Title
Capitalize only the first word of the title and of the subtitle, if there is one, and any
proper nouns. Italicize the title and end with a period. Place additional information such
as number of volumes or an edition in parentheses after the title, before the period.
Burleigh, N. (2007). Mirage: Napoleon’s scientists and the unveiling
of Egypt.
Publication Information
Cite the city of publication; add the state (using the Postal Service abbreviation) or
country if necessary to avoid confusion; then give the publisher’s name, after a colon,
eliminating unnecessary terms such as Publisher, Co., and Inc. End the citation with a
period.
Mitchell, J. V. (Ed.). (1985). The ninth mental measurements yearbook.
Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
publisherauthor date title place of
publication
Seligman, (M. E. P.) (1991). Learned optimism. New York: Knopf.
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National Institute of Drug Abuse. (1993, April 13). Annual national high
school senior survey. Rockville, MD: Author.
Newton, D. E. (1996). Violence and the media. Santa Barbara, CA:
ABC-Clio.
Give a corporate author’s name in full. When the organization is both author and
publisher, place the word Author after the place of publication.
Form for Articles
An article citation contains these elements in this form:
Date of Publication
Place the year of publication for articles in scholarly journals in parentheses, followed
by a period. For articles in newspapers and popular magazines, give the year followed
by month and day (if appropriate).
(1997, March).
Title of Article
Capitalize only the title’s first word, the first word of any subtitle, and any proper nouns.
Place any necessary descriptive information in square brackets immediately after the title.
Scott, S. S. (1984, December 12). Smokers get a raw deal [Letter to the
Editor].
Publication Information
Cite the title of the journal in full, capitalizing according to conventions for titles.
Italicize the title and follow it with a comma. Give the volume number, italicized,
followed by a comma, and then inclusive page numbers followed by a period. If a
journal begins each issue with a new page 1, then also cite the issue number in
parentheses immediately following the volume number. Do not use “p.” or “pp.” before
page numbers when citing articles from scholarly journals; do use “p.” or “pp.” in
citations to newspaper and magazine articles.
Martin, C. L., Wood, C. H., & Little, J. K. (1990). The development of
gender stereotype components. Child Development, 61, 1891–1904.
Leakey, R. (2000, April/May). Extinctions past and present. Time, p. 35.
date
Changeaux, J.P. (1993). Chemical signaling in the brain. Scientific American,
269, 58–62.
author title of article title of journal
volume page
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An Article or Chapter in an Edited Book
Goodall, J. (1993). Chimpanzees—bridging the gap. In P. Cavalieri &
P. Singer (Eds.), The great ape project: Equality beyond humanity
(pp. 10–18). New York: St. Martin’s.
Cite the author(s), date, and title of the article or chapter. Then cite the name(s) of the
editor(s) in signature order after “In,” followed by “Ed.” or “Eds.” in parentheses; the
title of the book; the inclusive page numbers of the article or chapter, in parentheses,
followed by a period. End with the city of publication and the publisher of the book.
A Report
U.S. Merit Systems Protection Board. (1988). Sexual harassment in the
federal workplace: An update. Washington, DC: U.S. Government
Printing Office.
Form for Electronic Sources
As a minimum, an APA reference for any type of online source should include the
following information: a document title or description, the date of publication, a way to
access the document online, and, when possible, an author name.
When the online address (URL) is likely to be stable, you can cite that address. For
example: www.nytimes.com. However, a good source that you find during your research
may not be found later by your readers with the URL that you used. APA recommends,
therefore, that such sources be documented with the item’s DOI (digital object identifier)
instead of its URL.
Do not place URLs within angle brackets (< >). Do not place a period at the end of
the URL, even though it concludes the citation. If you have to break a URL at the end of
a line, break only after a slash. Introduce the URL at the end of the citation this way:
Retrieved from www.nytimes.com
DOIs are a series of numbers and letters that provide a link to a specific item, and
this link does not change with time. Although DOIs are often on the first page of a
document, they can, at times, be hard to locate. APA prefers that you always choose a
source’s DOI over its URL, if you can find it. Place the DOI at the end of the citation,
and introduce the number thus: doi: [number]. Do not end the citation with a period.
Here are a few examples of citations for Web sources:
Journal Article Retrieved Online, with DOI Information
Habermas, Jürgen. (2006). Political communication in media society.
Communication Theory 16(4), 411–426. doi: 10.1111/j. l468-2885
.2006.00280.x
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Gardiner, K., Herault, Y., Lott, I., Antonarakis, S., Reeves, R., &
Dierssen, M. (2010). Down syndrome: From understanding the
neurobiology to therapy. Journal of Neuroscience 30(45), 14943–
14945. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3728-10.2010
Electronic Daily Newspaper Article Available by Search
Schwartz, J. (2002, September 13). Air pollution con game.
Washington Times. Retrieved from www.washtimes.com
Journal Article Available from a Periodical Database
Note that no URL is necessary; just provide the name of the database.
Dixon, B. (2001, December). Animal emotions. Ethics & the
Environment, 6(2), 22. Retrieved from Academic Search Premier
database/EBSCOhost Research Databases.
U.S. Government Report on a Government Website
U.S. General Accounting Office. (2002, March). Identity theft: Preva-
lence and cost appear to be growing. Retrieved from www.gao.gov/
new.items/d02363
Cite a message posted to a newsgroup or electronic mailing list in the reference list. Cite
an e-mail from one person to another only in the essay, not in the list of references.
SAMPLE STUDENT ESSAY IN APA STYLE
The following student essay illustrates APA style. Use 1-inch margins and double-space
throughout, including any block quotations. Block quotations should be indented five
spaces from the left margin (in contrast to the ten spaces required by MLA style).
Observe the following elements: title page, running head, abstract, author/year in-text
citations, subheadings within the text, and a list of references.
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Running Head: DEPRESSION AND MARITAL STATUS 1
The Relationship Between Depression and Marital Status
Carissa Ervine
Sociology of Mental Disorder: SOC 4714
Virginia Tech
Note placement of
running head and
page number.
Sample title page for a
paper in APA style.
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DEPRESSION AND MARITAL STATUS 2
Abstract
Many studies have examined the relationship between mental
disorders, specifically depression, and marital status. From the studies,
several theories have developed to explain this relationship. An
examination of the studies’ findings and of the theories tested
demonstrates that no one theory accounts for all patterns of marital
status and mental health or disorder.
Keywords: depression, marital status
Papers in APA
style usually
begin with
an abstract.
Place keywords
below the
abstract.
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DEPRESSION AND MARITAL STATUS 3
Many studies have evaluated the relationship between mental
disorders, more specifically depression, and marital status. These
studies consistently find that people who are divorced or have never
been married have more depressive symptoms than those who are
married. This paper explores both the causes of and the theories that
seek to explain these findings.
Definition and Description of Depression
Depression is a mood disorder in which individuals experience
loss of interest or of pleasure in nearly all activities. They feel extreme
sadness, despair, and hopelessness. These feelings lead to a lack of
motivation to do simple, daily tasks. Many people with depression also
have low self-esteem. According to the Diagnostic and Statistical
Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), a person must experience at least
four of the symptoms listed in order to have depression: changes in
appetite or weight, sleep, or psychomotor activity; decreased energy;
feelings of worthlessness or guilt; difficulty concentrating or making
decisions; or recurrent thoughts of death or suicide ideas or attempts.
Prevalence of Depression According to Marital Status
Throughout epidemiological research, studies have consistently
shown that those who are married have fewer depressed symptoms than
those who are not married (Kim & McKenry, 2005; Wade & Pevalin, 2004),
and many studies have sought to find the reasons. Some think it is
because marriage offers certain benefits; therefore, married people have
better overall health and less depression (Kim & McKenry, 2002). When a
marriage dissolves, so does that person’s mental health. Marital disruption
causes a significant increase in depression, even three years after a
divorce (Aseltine & Kessler, 1993). It has also been found that people who
are depressed before marriage have improved mental health once they
are married (Lucas et al., 2003). Those who do get divorced have more
depressive symptoms that may or may not disappear over time (Kim &
McKenry, 2002; Lucas et al., 2003). Kim and McKenry (2002) demonstrate,
though, that getting remarried after a divorce leads to a decrease in
depressive symptoms.
Subheadings are
often used in
papers in the
social sciences.
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DEPRESSION AND MARITAL STATUS 4
Studies have also evaluated whether people in marriages were
happier because those who were not married, or who became
divorced, got selected out of marriage due to psychological problems
that make them undesirable partners. This idea is referred to as the
social selection theory. Four years prior to getting divorced, people
show higher rates of psychological problems than those who stayed
married, although those who were widowed did not (Wade & Pevalin,
2004). People who get married and stay married have fewer
depressive symptoms and better psychological well-being years before
they ever got married (Lucas et al., 2003).
Some researchers assert that marriage itself is good for mental
health, but that it is the quality of the marriage that matters. High
marital stress causes depressive symptoms that tend to dissipate after
divorce (Aseltine & Kessler, 1993; Johnson & Wu, 2002). Gove, Hughes,
and Style (1983) demonstrated that marital quality and happiness are
strong predictors of mental health. Actually, remaining unmarried can
be more beneficial to one’s psychological health than being in a
continuously unhappy marriage.
Last, some studies suggest that marriage does not increase
psychological well-being at all. These studies suggest that life
satisfaction does change when major events ensue, and then people
gradually adapt over time until their psychological health reaches their
baseline (Lucas et al., 2003). Initially, people react strongly to both good
and bad events, but as time passes, their emotional reactions lessen,
and they return to normal (Lucas et al., 2003). Booth and Amato (1991)
found that before a divorce occurs there is a rise in stress, but then
stress levels return to normal two years after the divorce.
Use ampersand within
parentheses; use “and”
in sentences.
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Evaluation of the Evidence
All these findings play some part in explaining why the married
tend to have fewer depressive symptoms than their counterparts, but
some studies were better conducted than others and used longitudinal
data to explain some of the differences found. The fact that married
people have better health because they get benefits from marriage
seems to be the best explanation. In many instances, the social selection
perspective did not hold up. For example, some studies showed that the
psychological health of divorced persons improved once they remarried
(Johnson & Wu, 2002). If the selection perspective held, those who
remarried would not likely experience a decrease in depressive
symptoms. The selection perspective would support the idea that those
selected out of marriage would not even be likely to remarry. Johnson
and Wu’s (2002) results consistently show that marriage is better for
people because of the benefits they receive from it.
Frech and Williams (2007) found that those who were depressed
before marriage had a decrease in depressive symptoms once they
were married, supporting the idea that marriage offers benefits. This
may occur because marriage provides economic and psychosocial
benefits. Those who are married may have two incomes, resulting in
less stress over financial matters. Marriage also offers day-to-day
companionship, decreasing social isolation (Frech & Williams, 2007).
These benefits do not support the fact that marital quality matters,
because they are based on marital status per se.
Some researchers who favor the social selection theory believe
that high rates of distress prior to a divorce indicate psychological
problems in the individual (Wade & Pevalin, 2004), although this may
not necessarily be the case. Higher stress levels are common in the
DEPRESSION AND MARITAL STATUS 5
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years preceding a divorce. After all, divorce is not a discrete event;
many problems lead up to it. Higher levels of distress in the years
before a divorce may reflect anticipation of the marital disruption
(Mastekaasa, 1995). While marriage can bring many benefits, the
quality of the marriage is important. High stress levels because of an
unhappy marriage are likely to explain the higher stress levels leading
up to divorce.
Booth and Amato (1991) also found a pre-divorce rise in stress,
but then they also found that levels of stress in the individuals return to
normal two years after the divorce. While this finding does appear to
challenge the selection perspective, it is not consistent with many
other findings that marriage is better for psychological well-being.
Johnson and Wu (2002) used the same waves of people in their study;
they did not find that those remaining divorced experienced a
decrease in depressive symptoms over time. Nor did satisfaction levels
return to the original baselines after divorce. This difference in findings
is likely to be caused by a difference in the number of times the
participants were studied. Booth and Amato studied their respondents
only every three years, whereas Johnson and Wu studied them more
often. Johnson and Wu did not find that those remaining divorced
experienced a decrease in depressive symptoms over time. Lucas
(2005) argues that although some adaption does occur, normally it is
not complete. Many people are likely to establish new baselines of
psychological well-being that are slightly lower than they were before
they were divorced (Lucas et al., 2003).
While many studies find fewer depressive symptoms in married
people, discrepancies in explanations still exist. The strongest
evidence indicates that married people have less depression because
marriage offers many benefits and social supports that the unmarried
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do not have. But marital quality is just as important as marital status,
and this can account for why distress levels go up right before divorce
occurs. A bad marriage creates stress, and distress levels increase
because of this, not because of poor psychological health that an
individual brings to a marriage.
Review of Theories Relating to Marital Status and Depression
As noted, several theories explain why people who are married
have better mental health than those who are not. First, the social
selection theory asserts that those who are married have better
psychological well-being than those who do not and that the unmarried
have been “selected” out of marriage. That is, those who aren’t
married have more mental illness, such as depression, so they are not
considered to be suitable mates (Johnson & Wu, 2002). These people
either never marry or get married and then divorce. Their psychological
characteristics predispose them to divorce (Mastekaasa, 1992).
The crisis theory asserts that having a divorce is a life crisis that
temporarily changes mental health. People encounter many stressors
while going through a divorce. One of these is the adjustment to role
changes. Once the transition is completed, stress levels go down and
psychological well-being returns to normal (Booth & Amato, 1991).
Lucas et al. (2003) also found that after the marital transition of
divorce, people adapted to their new set of circumstances. Depression
went down and their psychological well-being returned.
Last, role theory asserts that the stress that the divorced
experience is chronic. The new social role they must take on will cause
them higher levels of distress because they have less social support,
more economic responsibilities, and possibly more stress associated
with raising children alone (Johnson & Wu, 2002). This theory also
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asserts that these chronic stress levels will not go down as long as the
divorced remain single. If a divorced person decides to remarry, then
his or her stress levels begin to dissipate because there are now fewer
stressful roles to fulfill. The social causation perspective also ties into
this. With fewer stressful roles to take on, married people can enjoy
many of the benefits that marriage offers. When a marriage dissolves,
however, they no longer have these benefits.
Evaluation of Theories
Role theory gives a good explanation of why married people
have better psychological well-being and fewer depressive symptoms.
It is well known that stress increases the likelihood that someone will
have a mental illness. It is also true that levels of depression increase
when marital disruption occurs (Wade & Pevalin, 2004). The divorced
are used to having a partner who can offer benefits such as greater
financial security and a strong social network. With fewer resources to
draw upon and more roles to take on, the divorced person is
susceptible to depressive symptoms (Kim & McKerry, 2002). However,
symptoms of distress and depression do decrease once a divorced
person remarries and undergoes another role transition. With the new
marriage, the number of required roles decreases and the increased
resources of the new marriage ease depression.
In contrast, crisis theory asserts that depressive symptoms and
distress decrease with time after a divorce. But crisis theory does not
seem to hold up, since studies demonstrate that marriage and
remarriage increase psychological well-being. The fact that remarriage
increases psychological well-being also contradicts the social selection
perspective. If social selection did occur, people would be selected out
from remarrying at all. None of these theories, however, effectively
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examines the effect of marital quality, an issue important to
understanding the relationship between depression and marital status.
The best conclusion is that no one theory is complex enough to
explain the relationship between marital status and mental health. It is
likely that all theories have valid points and that the reason married
people experience better mental health stems from a combination of
causes. Further research should focus on finding a theory that can
account for more, if not all, of the forces shaping the mental health of
married people.
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References
Aseltine, R. H., & Kessler, R.C. (1993). Marital disruption and
depression in a community sample. Journal of Health and
Social Behavior, 34, 237–251.
Booth, A., & Amato, P. (1991). Divorce and psychological stress.
Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 32, 396–407.
Frech, A., & Williams, K. (2007). Depression and the psycholog-
ical benefits of entering marriage. Journal of Health and
Social Behavior, 48, 149–163.
Gove, W. R., Hughes, M., & Style, B. S. (1983). Does marriage
have positive effects on the psychological well-being of the
individual? Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24,
122–131.
Johnson, D. R., & Wu, J. (2002). An empirical test of crisis,
social selection, and role explanations of the relationship
between marital disruption and psychological distress: A
pooled time-series analysis of four wave panel data. Journal
of Marriage and Family, 64, 211–224.
Kim, K. H., & McKenry, P. C. (2002). The relationship between
marriage and psychological well-being. Journal of Family
Issues, 23(8), 885–911.
Lucas, R. E. (2005). Time does not heal all wounds: A
longitudinal study of reaction and adaption to divorce.
Psychological Science, 16(12), 945–950.
Lucas, R. E., Clark, A. E., Georgellis, Y., & Diener, E. (2003).
Reexamining adaptation and the set point model of
happiness: Reactions to changes in marital status. Journal
of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(3), 527–538.
DEPRESSION AND MARITAL STATUS 10
Title the page
“References.”
Double-space
throughout. In
each citation,
indent all lines,
after the first,
five spaces.
Note APA style
in placing dates.
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Mastekaasa, A. (1992). Marriage and psychological well-being:
Some evidence on selection into marriage. Journal of
Marriage and the Family, 54, 901–911.
Mastekaasa, A. (1995). Marital dissolution and subjective
distress: Panel evidence. European Sociological Review,
11(20), 173–185.
Wade, T. J., & Pevalin, D. J (2004). Marital transitions and
mental health. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 45,
155–170.
DEPRESSION AND MARITAL STATUS 11
Courtesy of Carissa Ervine.
For two or more
sources by the
same author,
order by the year
of publication.
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A Collection of Readings
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This section is divided into seven chapters, each one on a
current topic or set of interrelated issues open to debate. The
chapters contain five or six articles to remind us that complex
issues cannot be divided into simple “for” or “against” positions.
This point remains true even for chapters on a specific topic.
It is not sound critical thinking to be simply for or against any
complicated public policy initiative. No one is “for” or “against”
protecting our environment, for example. The debate begins
with restrictions on the use of fossil fuels or energy use or
elephant poaching. It is only when we get into policy decisions—
and ways of funding those decisions or strategies for enforcing
those decisions—that citizens have opposing views.
Questions follow each article to aid reading, analysis, and
critical responses. In addition, each chapter opens with a
visual both to enjoy and to consider seriously as a contribution
to the issues discussed in the chapter. Following each opening
image is a brief introduction to the chapter and several general
questions to focus your thinking as you read.
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The Media: Image and Reality
READ: What is the situation? Who speaks the lines?
REASON: Who, presumably, are the guys in suits sitting in front of the desk?
Who, according to Wiley, must be controlling TV scheduling?
REFLECT/WRITE: What is Wiley’s view of reality shows? Do you agree?
Why or why not?
CHAPTER 15
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Although we may not agree with Marshall McLuhan that the medium itself IS the message, we still recognize that the various media influence us. They stir emotions,
shape our vision of the world, and dramatically present a message designed to alter our
lives. The essays in this chapter explore the effects of music and film, of advertising and
television talk shows, and of course the press on the ways we “see” the world and con-
struct our lives from those images. Note that the chapter opens with a popular medium:
the cartoon. Cartoons are not just a laugh; they present a view of life and seek to shape
our thinking. Be sure to take some time to study and reflect on the cartoons throughout
this text.
Surely we are influenced by media messages, by the “reality” they present to us.
How extensive is this influence? Most of us make purchases that have been determined
at least to some extent by advertising. And we know that news sites online created for
the purpose of spreading misinformation have led people to act on this fake news. Is this
a problem—or an inescapable part of life? Is there anything that can—or should—be
done in response to the media’s desire to shape our thoughts and engage our emotions?
PREREADING QUESTIONS
1. How “real” are “reality” shows? Does it matter if they are scripted?
2. How do films reflect our world and also shape our ideas of that world?
3. What do the various forms of music (jazz, rock, rap) tell us about ourselves and our
world? What does your music preference tell us about you?
4. How does advertising shape our images of the world? How realistic are these images? Do
we want ads to be “realistic”? Have ads become too invasive in our lives?
5. How accurate is our press coverage? Media outlets around the world do not “see” and
show the same worldview; is this a problem? What is one obvious solution for individ-
uals who want to understand a complex world?
6. What standards of reliability, objectivity, and fairness should be set for the media?
Should these differ from one medium to another?
OFF TO SEE THE WIZARD: FINDING
THE VIRTUES OF HOMER, PLATO,
AND JESUS IN TECHNICOLOR OZ MARK EDMUNDSON
Mark Edmundson is a professor of English at the University of Virginia. Awarded
numerous honors and awards—including NEH Distinguished Teaching Professor
recognition and a Guggenheim Fellowship—Edmundson has written essays and books
on a wide range of topics. In addition to Why Read? (2004) and Why Teach? (2013),
he has published a biography of Freud and Self and Soul: A Defense of Ideals (2015).
The following essay was published in The American Scholar in spring 2016.
PREREADING QUESTIONS Have you seen The Wizard of Oz? If so, think about your
responses to the film. If you have not seen it, read a brief synopsis of this classic.
My mother wasn’t prone to idealizing her childhood. She was born in 1928,
the year before the great stock market crash, and she thought of herself as
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CHAPTER 15 The Media: Image and Reality 361
a child of the Depression. Most of her early memories were sad. The one that
seemed strongest was of her dear and usually stoical father in tears, the day he
lost his job.
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Dorothy and her friends are on their way to the Emerald City.
But there was one very bright memory that my mother brought up again and
again: the day she saw The Wizard of Oz. She found the opening phase of the
film slow enough, she told me. She did not much care for the black-and-white
segment, set in dreary Kansas.
But when the movie went to Oz and exploded in Technicolor, my mother was
thrilled. She had never seen a color film before. She, like millions of other people
who’ve loved it, felt the greatest pleasure in being transported beyond her own
world, a black-and-white world if there ever was one, into a more colorful land
alive with delight and danger.
It’s also a world alive with meaning. People in Oz have strong identities: the
Wicked Witch, the Wizard, the Tin Man, the Cowardly Lion, the scatterbrained
Scarecrow, and even the Munchkins, with their officers and their guilds. Then
there’s Dorothy, whom my mother loved most: an unformed, kindly American girl
who, it happens, can sing like an angel.
In Oz, people want things: and if they persevere, they can get them. The Tin
Man wants a heart; the Cowardly Lion wants courage (he’s prone to tears); the
Scarecrow could use a brain (he’d like to be “another Lincoln”); and Dorothy
wants to go home. Or that’s what she says. I suspect she does want to go home,
but as someone different from the goodhearted, commonplace girl she is.
Watching her genial friends struggle in their sad and comic and touching
ways for what they need, she learns about what’s worth striving for in life. She
sees that to have a brain, you’ve got to struggle to think; that to have courage
you must fight for it; and that to have a heart, you’ve got to greet others with love
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362 SECTION 5 A COLLECTION OF READINGS
and hope for the best. By the end of the movie, Dorothy is smarter, kinder, and
braver than she was.
The virtues on display in the movie have an ancient and venerable lineage.
I’m not sure L. Frank Baum, who wrote the novel the movie is based on, or the
hundreds of people who created this wonderful film, knew or cared about that
fact, but it’s true. Courage, compassion, and wisdom are the three primary ideals
of the ancient world. You can learn about courage from Homer, wisdom from
Plato, and compassion from Jesus of Nazareth—and also from Confucius and
Buddha.
Homer teaches us about heroic bravery. He dramatizes the two archetypes
of the warrior hero. The first is Achilles, the man-god who fears nothing and is
determined to become the greatest warrior who ever lived. Achilles is always
ready to die to make his name. The second is Hector, the archetype of the citizen
soldier. He’s not a natural warrior—he says he has had to learn to be a soldier.
But he fights bravely and eventually dies defending Troy.
All philosophy, we hear, is a footnote to Plato, and indeed Plato is the arche-
typal philosopher. Plato sought absolute knowledge: he wanted to grasp truths
that would be true for all time. And in his masterwork, The Republic, he believes
that he has.
Love your neighbor as yourself, says Jesus. He tells the tale of a man who is
beaten and thrown in a ditch. Travelers pass him by without stopping. But a
Samaritan, a man who comes from another tribe, stops and binds the injured
man’s wounds and takes him to an inn and sees to his care. That is what a
neighbor does; that is how a man or woman of compassion behaves.
Ideals remind us that there is more to life than serving ourselves. They offer
us the chance to do something for others. Ideals also promise unity and focus
and the chance to live fully in the present.
Both Baum and the film’s makers divine the centrality of ideals to human life,
and then bring them down to earth. The Wizard of Oz makes ideals accessible in
a form that’s unintimidating and even comic. In the most light-handed way, it
shows how much ideals can matter to a little American girl with some growing up
to do.
At the climax of the movie, the Witch, having cornered the friends in her
castle, says she’s going to do away with them all, and Toto (“your mangy little
dog”), too. Dorothy, the Witch says, will be the last one to go. She lights her
broom on a torch and sets the poor Scarecrow on fire. He’s about to burn to
death. The Cowardly Lion and the Tin Man freeze, but Dorothy, who is a little
less afraid than the rest, has the brains to pick up a bucket of water and douse
her friend, whom she loves and dearly wants to save. Some guts, a little quick
thinking, a lot of kindness: Dorothy summons each of the ideals when the chips
are down.
The water from her bucket flies beyond the Scarecrow and soaks the Witch,
who cries out the immortal words: “I’m melting, melting. . . . Who would have
thought a good little girl like you could destroy my beautiful wickedness.” What
the Witch doesn’t know is that after her adventures in Oz, Dorothy is more than
just an everyday “good little girl.” When you’ve acquired some guts and brains
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CHAPTER 15 The Media: Image and Reality 363
and heart, you can make a little luck for yourself. Then all good things become
possible, including the defeat of a wicked witch or any other worrisome antago-
nist who might cross your path.
The Wizard of Oz is a movie you can laugh with (and occasionally at), and
still learn from. I wager it’s been an installment in the education of plenty of kids.
And it was part of my mother’s education, too. Child of the Depression, she
needed a measure of all those ideal qualities, which she developed over time.
And The Wizard of Oz helped her do it.
Mark Edmundson, “Off to See the Wizard”. Reprinted from The American Scholar, vol. 85, no. 2, Spring
2016. Copyright ©2016 by Mark Edmundson.
QUESTIONS FOR READING
1. What did the author’s mother like about the movie? Why could she also benefit from
the film’s messages?
2. What does each one of Dorothy’s three friends want?
3. What are the sources of the three ideals celebrated in the film? What can we learn from
Homer, Plato, and Jesus?
4. How does Dorothy demonstrate that she’s learned something about these ideals?
QUESTIONS FOR REASONING AND ANALYSIS
5. Edmundson is not reviewing the film as it is released; rather he is analyzing a classic
work that he expects his readers to know. What is the claim of his argument?
6. The author begins and ends with his mother. What does he gain from using this frame?
How does he connect his mother’s life to the message from Oz?
7. What does Edmundson accomplish by connecting the virtues he finds in Oz with their
origins in the literature of the past?
8. Does Edmundson think the film is perfect? How do you know?
QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION AND WRITING
9. The author asserts that ideals help us understand that life is not just about us, an
important value Dorothy learns. Do you agree with Edmundson? If so, why? If not,
why not?
10. What are the elements that shape and define a culture? (When you make a list, don’t
forget the visual arts.) Many would include Oz in their list of the ten most important
American films. What are some of the reasons for this ranking? Has Edmundson added
to the list for you? Explain.
11. Reflect on movies you have seen. Is there one that stands out as delivering some key
messages about living meaningfully? Prepare an analysis of your choice for class
discussion or consider developing your analysis into an essay.
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364 SECTION 5 A COLLECTION OF READINGS
Walker 1
Sienna Walker
Professor Erik Nielson
FYS 100 Rap Music
12 September 2012
Big Pun’s Prophesy
Like many rap artists in the late 1990s, Big Punisher, also known
as “Big Pun,” documented the challenges of life in the inner city. He
did so most notably in his track titled “Capital Punishment” featuring
Prospect, the New York City ghetto which he describes as a place of
diminishing potential. Big Punisher depicts urban life as abandoned by
an unjust political system, denying its responsibility to serve the
people while systematically crushing opportunities for the city’s
disadvantaged residents, and he calls for the minority citizens to
abandon governmental constraints by representing themselves
through class action. The extended metaphor of capital punishment,
the image of the judge, and various stylistic techniques including
delivery and rhyme scheme are the primary means by which Big
Punisher expresses his criticism of the political system’s failure to
address the needs of the people and his encouragement of collective
response from the inner city.
Big Punisher harshly criticizes the government and its policies
from the start. In the third line, he claims that he has seen young
citizens “led astray by the liars, death glorifiers observin’ us,” portraying
“the Man,” or any governmental authority, as dishonest and almost
satanic. Additionally, from the first few lines of the first verse, the
distinction between “they,” presumably the establishment, and “us,” the
resilient minorities plagued by the struggles of street life, become
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CHAPTER 15 The Media: Image and Reality 365
Walker 2
apparent and will resurface throughout the track. Subsequently in the
first verse, Big Pun rattles off the wrongs inflicted on his people, ranging
from “purposely overtaxing” to “burning down the churches” to “million
dollar bails,” implying that the government is a ruthlessly oppressive and
money-hungry establishment that intentionally neglects its citizens. Last,
the most explicit attacks come from lines such as “God ‘f’ the
government and its fuckin’ capital punishment” and the choral refrain,
“disable the Republicans.” Moreover, Big Punisher uses the death
sentence to further depict the metaphorical death of opportunity for
inner city dwellers at the hands of the tyrannical government.
One of the principal techniques Big Punisher employs in “Capital
Punishment” is the metaphor of “death by gavel” to reinforce the idea
that the governing system, by its employment of the death penalty, is
deliberately suffocating street life. The repetition of the song’s title
“Capital Punishment” blankets the track. In both the chorus and the
verses, the phrase is chanted over and over, inundating the audience’s
consciousness much like the death sentence would hang over the head
of a guilty perpetrator. Big Punisher attacks capital punishment
because, even today, it represents the utmost extent to which judicial
law can be exercised. This acute judicial power juxtaposed with the raw
powerlessness that pervades the inner city creates distance between
the two parties as expectations on both ends fail to be met. In verse
three, Big Punisher raps “the Man’s claws are diggin’ in my back / I’m
tryin’ to hit him back,” arguing that it is this almighty “Man,” flexing his
muscles in the courthouse and neglecting his supportive civic duties,
who should be held responsible for a fair share of the overwhelming
hardship in the streets. The image of claws in a human’s back visually
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366 SECTION 5 A COLLECTION OF READINGS
Walker 3
captures the minorities’ struggles with the vicious, backstabbing
authorities, represented much like a surprise attack where one
opponent has an unfair advantage over another. These callous
characterizations of the institution become more fully manifested
through Big Punisher’s use of the image of the judge.
The image of the judge adds to the theme of discriminatory
punishment debilitating any urban prospects of success. Big Punisher
does not limit the corruption to the streets, claiming “everybody gettin’
they hustle on/judge singin’ death penalty like it’s his favorite fuckin’
song.” Instead, the way the lines are distinctly paired suggests that the
“hustlin’” established on the streets seeps its way into the political
system as well, corroding its responsibility to provide for its
constituents. Furthermore, the judge is described with “the hammer in
the palm, never shaky,” also physically suggesting a rigid removal from
the adversities of street life and underscoring Big Pun’s previous
indications of the intolerance of judicial discretion.
In addition to the content, Big Punisher’s style, consisting of
intricate rhyme schemes and fast-paced delivery, also contributes to
the thematic prevalence of oppression which permeates the track.
From the opening verse, the audience is exposed to Big Punisher’s
generous lyrical presentation, occasionally fitting 18 syllables in a
single line. His breathless flow typifies the imaginable exhaustion of
complying with the looming government, day in and day out. The
institution’s constant presence, “watching us close,” may create the
tendency to nervously rush out of view of the public eye, reminiscent
of Big Punisher’s fast-paced delivery. His rapid elocution can also be
applied to the theme of the resiliency of the minority masses whose
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CHAPTER 15 The Media: Image and Reality 367
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upbeat spirit cannot be suppressed. What is more, Big Punisher raps,
“I’m stressin’ the issue here/so we can cross the fiscal year/tired of
gettin’ fired and hired as a pistoleer” in which the end and internal
rhymes illustrate the complexity and interconnectedness that
characterize the government-citizen relationship. Similarly, the
percussive emphasis on “fired” then “hired” within the larger end
rhyme pattern beginning with “here,” reflects the inner turmoil that
inevitably accompanies corruption both in the streets and in the
government. These stylistic sonic and literary devices serve to
reinforce the underlying themes of “Capital Punishment.”
However, in the midst of all the dark, oppressive policies
imposed by the government, Big Punisher counters the idea of “the
government tryin’ to take out our sons” by declaring “we benefit the
Earth with infinite worth.” Although he accounts for the inevitable
adversities of big city life with lines like “listen to me, shit is rough in
the ghetto,” his real aggression in the song is channeled not through
accusing the government of its overbearing regulations and
impossible standards, but through a forceful calling for change.
Juxtaposed with the suicide of his cousin Juje who “lost it and turned
on the oven,” Big Punisher praises his sister who “just bought a home
without a loan.” Thus, he narrates the unbearable burdens of the
deadly streets while raising up the success stories of his people,
however infrequent. This praise also embraces Big Pun when he raps
“we laid in the slums, made a cake out of crumbs.” These examples
pronounce the irrepressible ambition of the people. After considering
that his people, or inner-city minorities, are entrepreneurial (“open our
own labels”) and charged (“my battery never die”), Big Punisher calls
them to counteract.
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368 SECTION 5 A COLLECTION OF READINGS
Walker 4
Altogether, through the extended metaphor of the death penalty,
the image of the unfazed judge, and various literary and sonic devices,
Big Punisher describes the government as unjust and as targeted to
bring about the demise of the project’s masses. “Capital Punishment”
renders the “Man” incapable of serving inner-city residents and thus
transfers the responsibilities of the government from the authorities
and into the hands of the people. Big Punisher’s call to action directed
to those citizens living in the margins of society may have implications
beyond the ghetto and into the present, raising the question of justice
here and now.
. . .
Work Cited
Big Punisher, “Capital Punishment.” Capital Punishment. Terror Squad,
Loud Records, 1998. MP3.
Courtesy of Sienna Walker.
QUESTIONS FOR READING
1. What is Walker’s subject?
2. What is Big Pun’s attitude toward government?
3. How are inner-city minorities depicted?
4. What does Big Pun want his listeners to do?
QUESTIONS FOR REASONING AND ANALYSIS
5. What is Walker’s purpose in writing? What is her claim?
6. What strategies does she analyze?
7. How does the death penalty serve as an extended metaphor?
QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION AND DEBATE
8. Evaluate Walker’s analysis: Is it specific? Is it clear? Does it connect elements of the
rap song to the song’s theme?
9. Do you like rap? If so, why? If not, why not?
10. Has rap made a contribution to modern music? If yes, how? If no, why not?
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CHAPTER 15 The Media: Image and Reality 369
COCA-COLA–TASTE THE CHANGE STUART ELLIOTT
Stuart Elliott, a graduate of the Medill School of Journalism at Northwestern University,
may be one of the most influential journalists writing about the advertising industry
today. Currently, he writes for MediaVillage.com but has had a long career publishing
marketing and media analysis in newspapers like The New York Times, USA Today,
and The Detroit Free Press. He has also appeared on national television shows, been
featured on cable programs, and has spoken on panels. The following article was
published on January 27, 2016.
PREREADING QUESTIONS Why would a veteran journalist like Stuart Elliott write an
article about Coca-Cola’s new marketing campaign? What is so important about
Coke ads?
After seven years of using “Open happiness” as the theme of campaigns for
its flagship soft drink, the Coca-Cola Company is switching to a new slogan,
“Taste the feeling,” as well as broadening the ads to include all variants of the
Coca-Cola trademark, such as Diet Coke, Coke Light, Coke Zero and Coke Life.
Four agencies initially are working on the “Taste the feeling” campaign, the
company disclosed last week, with six more to join in as the ads roll out globally
this year.
If “Taste the feeling” sounds familiar, it may be because it echoes a previous
Coca-Cola slogan, “You can’t beat the feeling,” from 1988. But when you’ve been
selling sugar water for almost 130 years, you’re likely to repeat a theme now and
again. For instance, “taste” was used in 1957, when the pitch was “Sign of good
taste,” and “Life tastes good” had a brief run as a slogan in 2001. The word “real”
was employed at least five times down through the decades, as in “It’s the real
thing” (1969) and “You can’t beat the real thing” (1990).
“Taste the feeling” also evokes an expression in vogue among younger
consumers, “the feels,” as in something that elicits a wave of intense, heartfelt
emotion. That’s acknowledged in the introduction to a website devoted to the
campaign, which begins: “Coca-Cola gives us all the feels. How does it make
you feel?”
The bad news is that of late, Coca-Cola has been making fewer people
feel as if they want to open happiness, embrace the real thing or enjoy the
pause that refreshes. The Coke brand is struggling to connect with consumers
who increasingly are turning away from carbonated sodas, especially colas, in
favor of a multiplicity of other beverages from flavored waters to coffee to
energy drinks. As a result, Coke—the most popular soft drink in the United
States and most other countries—has been suffering declines in sales and
market share.
So “Taste the feeling” will be focused more on the functional and emotional
benefits of Coke the product: The uncomplicated instances of delight derived
from drinking an icy cold Coca-Cola. By comparison, “Open happiness” evolved
into something loftier, concentrating on the positives of Coke the brand and
celebrating its role as a social facilitator and a symbol of peace, love, friendship
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and brotherhood (shades of Don Draper’s favorite spot, “I’d Like to Teach the
World to Sing”).
“We’ve found over time that the more we position Coke as an icon, the
smaller we become,” said Marcos de Quinto, the company’s new chief marketing
officer.“The bigness of Coca-Cola resides in the fact that it’s a simple pleasure—
so the humbler we are, the bigger we are.”
“We want to help remind people why they love the product as much as they
love the brand,” he said.
Or, to explain what de Quinto meant in the parlance of Norma Desmond, the
larger-than-life star in the movie Sunset Boulevard, Coke is still big—it’s the cam-
paigns that got small.
That’s all well and good, but I’m wondering if ads that play up what’s inside
the bottle will overlook the specialness of the bottle and the other unique
qualities and attributes of Coca-Cola that have contributed to its status as
perhaps the world’s best-known (and most-liked) brand. People drink Coke,
I believe, partly because it has portrayed itself as more important than Pepsi-Cola
or other soft drinks—a thirst-quencher, yes, but also an intrinsic element of
American popular culture and a symbol of American life.
To be sure, Coca-Cola’s appeal stems from how it tastes and how it
feels to drink one on a hot day. But Coke is also the shape of the contour
bottle . . . the nostalgia invoked by a vintage ad or Coke machine . . . the
“sharing is caring” message of the Mean Joe Greene Super Bowl commer-
cial . . . the prominent roles the brand has played in hit songs such as “Rum
and Coca-Cola” and movies like The Coca-Cola Kid, The Gods Must Be
Crazy and One, Two, Three . . . and the Coca-Cola Santa, the version of
St. Nicholas by the artist Haddon Sundblom that has appeared in Coke ads
since the 1930s.
The first commercials in the “Taste the feeling” campaign indicate that, at
least initially, the company and the agencies understand they must do more than
peddle a product. For instance, in one spot, when a young guy orders a
Coca-Cola, the man behind the counter lists some of its less tangible benefits:
“to make you smile, to break the ice . . . to cool things down, to refresh your
memory, to share, to revive a spark or to say, ‘Today I’ll do it’ . . .”
The first commercials also address another need in life besides refreshment:
They are liberally peppered with sex. In one, a couple meets, flirts, gets busy and
argues over many bottles of Coke, with their breakup personified by a bottle
shattering as it falls to the floor. In the end, a Coke helps bring them back
together.
Coca-Cola is among the brands that plan to run commercials during Super
Bowl 50 on Feb. 7 [2017]. Once again, Coke will face off against Pepsi, which is
also sponsoring the halftime show.
Which cola will taste the feeling of victory and which the feeling of defeat?
Stay tuned.
Stuart Elliott, “Coca-Cola—Taste the Change,” MediaVillage.com, 27 Jan. 2016.
Copyright © MyersBizNet Inc. Used with permission.
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QUESTIONS FOR READING
1. What has happened that compels Elliott to write about Coca-Cola’s new marketing
campaign?
2. What is the difference between Coke’s new marketing approach and their old one?
3. Elliott covers considerable ground in his article, discussing Coke’s history, the impact
of American pop culture, and even Coke’s primary rival, Pepsi. What specifically is
Elliott’s subject if he’s writing about so many different things?
4. What are some past ad campaigns from Coke that have been successful?
5. What is the problem Elliott sees in Coke’s new marketing campaign?
QUESTIONS FOR REASONING AND ANALYSIS
6. Elliott’s main argument is subtle, so on your first reading you may not notice it. As you
reread the article, underline his thesis statement. Why do you believe that what you’ve
identified is his thesis? Can you have an argument without a thesis statement?
7. How does Elliott go about analyzing Coke’s new marketing campaign? What are his
conclusions?
8. Do you agree with the author’s position, analysis, and conclusions? Why or why not?
QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION AND WRITING
9. Looking back at Super Bowl LI in 2017, who won the contest of ads between Coke and
Pepsi? How do you know? Why do you think the winning brand succeeded?
10. Elliott has made a career out of analyzing marketing campaigns and media. Why is it
important to think critically about marketing and media? What impact do marketing
and media have on our daily lives? Our culture?
11. Do a little research on marketing and media analysis. Then pick a brand you love and
write a paragraph analyzing that brand’s newest marketing campaign.
MOTHER NATURE IS BROUGHT TO YOU BY… TIM WU
Tim Wu, a native Washingtonian, is a professor at Columbia Law School. A graduate of
Harvard Law School, Wu clerked for Justice Stephen Breyer. He has published widely in
newspapers and magazines, including The New Republic, Slate, and The New Yorker.
Wu is the author of The Master Switch and is best known for creating the term “net
neutrality.” His most recent book is The Attention Merchants: The Epic Scramble to Get
inside Our Heads (2016), a study of the many ways that businesses seek to reach us
with ads.
PREREADING QUESTIONS Based on Wu’s essay title, what do you expect his subject
to be? Based on what you have learned from the biographical headnote, what else
might you expect the essay to explore?
This year, parks in several states including Idaho and Washington, and the
National Park Service, will be blazing a new trail, figuratively at least, as they
begin offering opportunities to advertisers within their borders.
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372 SECTION 5 A COLLECTION OF READINGS
King County in Washington, which manages 28,000 acres of parkland
surrounding Seattle, offers a full branding menu: Naming rights or sponsorships
may be had for park trails, benches and even trees. “Make our five million visitors
your next customers,” the county urges potential advertisers.
King County already partnered with Chipotle to hide 30 giant replica burritos
on parkland bearing the logo of the agency and the restaurant chain. People
who found the burritos won prizes from Chipotle.
In May, the National Park Service proposed allowing corporate branding as a
matter of “donor recognition.” As The Washington Post reported, under new
rules set to go into effect at the end of the year, “an auditorium at Yosemite
National Park named after Coke will now be permitted” and “visitors could tour
Bryce Canyon in a bus wrapped in the Michelin Man.”
The logic behind these efforts is, in its own way, unimpeachable. Many millions
of people—that is, “green consumers”—visit parks every day, representing an
unrealized marketing opportunity of great value. Yes, parks are meant to be natural,
not commercial, but times are tough, or so say the backers of the new schemes.
The spread of advertising to natural settings is just a taste of what’s coming.
Over the next decade, prepare for a new wave of efforts to reach some of the
last remaining bastions of peace, quiet and individual focus—like schools,
libraries, churches and even our homes.
Some of this reflects technological change, but the real reason is the
business model of what I call the “attention merchants.” Unlike ordinary
businesses, which sell a product, attention merchants sell people to advertisers.
They do so either by finding captive audiences (like at a park or school) or by
giving stuff away to gather up consumer data for resale.
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Jogger enjoying the beauty in Yosemite National Park.
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CHAPTER 15 The Media: Image and Reality 373
Once upon a time, this was a business model largely restricted to television
and newspapers, where it remained within certain limits. Over the last decade,
though, it has spread to nearly every new technology, and started penetrating
spaces long thought inviolate.
In school districts in Minnesota and California, student lockers are sometimes
covered by large, banner-style advertisements, so that the school hallways are
what marketers call a fully immersive experience. Other schools have allowed
advertising inside gymnasiums and on report cards and permission slips. The
Associated Press reported this year that a high school near South Bend, Ind.,
“sold the naming rights to its football field to a bank for $400,000, its baseball
field to an auto dealership, its softball field to a law firm, its tennis court to a
philanthropic couple and its concession stands to a tire and auto-care company
and a restaurant.”
Even megachurches, with their large and loyal congregations, have come to
see the upside of “relevant” marketing, yielding the bizarre spectacle of product
placements in sermons. In one of the first such efforts, pastors in 2005 were
offered a chance to win $1,000 and a trip to London if they mentioned The
Chronicles of Narnia during services. For the 2013 release of Superman: Man of
Steel, pastors were supplied with notes for a sermon titled Jesus: The Original
Superhero.
Nor are our workplaces and social spheres immune. The time and energy
we spend socializing with friends and family has, almost incredibly, been
harnessed for marketing, through the business models of Facebook, Instagram
and other social media. At the office, the most successful of the productivity-killing
distraction engines, BuzzFeed, brags of luring a “bored at work” network
hundreds of millions strong.
Unfortunately, there is worse yet to come: The nation’s most t
