Mental images of greedy managers operating from lavish executive suites, misusing power to manipulate organizations (and the people that work for them and depend on them) for personal gain, can be discouraging. Each of us has a choice in terms of our own self-leadership stance concerning ethical behavior and social responsibility. Enron is a great example of self-leadership and ethics.
First, read the following case study on
Enron in the Journal of Leadership
.
Compare and contrast the leadership of Enron with the non-management of Enron in light of self-leadership. How did Enron’s corporate culture promote unethical decisions and actions? What lessons have you personally learned from Enron which will mold your self-leadership?
Faculty Publications – School of Business School of Business
Summer 2003
Enron’s Ethical Collapse: Lessons for Leadership
Educators
Craig E. Johnson
George Fox University, cjohnson@georgefox.edu
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Journal of Leadership Education Volume 2, Issue 1 – Summer2003
Enron’s Ethical Collapse: Lessons
for Leadership Educators
Craig Johnson
Professor of Communication Arts
Department of Communication
George Fox University
414 Meridian St.
Newberg, OR 97132
(503) 554-2610
cjohnson@georgefox.edu
Abstract
Top officials at Enron abused their power and privileges, manipulated
information, engaged in inconsistent treatment of internal and external
constituencies, put their own interests above those of their employees and the
public, and failed to exercise proper oversight or shoulder responsibility for
ethical failings. Followers were all too quick to follow their example. Therefore,
implications for teaching leadership ethics include, educators must: (a) share
some of the blame for what happened at Enron, (b) integrate ethics into the rest of
the curriculum, (c) highlight the responsibilities of both leaders and followers, (d)
address both individual and contextual variables that encourage corruption, (e)
recognize the importance of trust and credibility in the leader-follower
relationship, and (f) hold followers as well as leaders accountable for ethical
misdeeds.
Introduction
Enron’s bankruptcy filing in November 2001 marked the beginning of an
unprecedented wave of corporate scandals. Officials at Tyco, WorldCom,
ImClone, Global Crossing, Adelphia, AOL Time Warner, Quest, and Charter
Communications joined Enron executives as targets of SEC probes, congressional
hearings, stockholder lawsuits, and criminal indictments. Enron’s troubles, which
had been center stage, were soon pushed to the background by subsequent
revelations of corporate wrongdoing.
More recent instances of corporate corruption should not diminish the importance
of Enron as a case study in moral failure. Enron collapsed in large part because of
the unethical practices of its executives. Examining the ethical shortcomings of
Enron’s leaders, as well as the factors that contributed to their misbehaviors, can
provide important insights into how to address the topic of ethics in the leadership
classroom.
45
mailto:cjohnson@georgefox.edu
Journal of Leadership Education Volume 2, Issue 1 – Summer2003
Moral Failure at the Top
Events leading up to Enron’s bankruptcy have been chronicled in a host of
magazine articles as well as in such books as Anatomy of Greed (Cruver, 2002),
Enron: The Rise and Fall (Fox, 2003), What Went Wrong at Enron (Fusaro &
Miller, 2002), The Enron Collapse (Barresveld, 2002), and Pipe Dreams (Bryce,
2002). The company’s collapse was ultimately triggered by failed investments in
overseas ventures and the unraveling of a series of dubious limited partnerships
called Special Purpose Entities (SPEs). These SPEs , backed by Enron stock and
illegally run by company insiders, were designed to keep debt off the firm’s
balance sheets and helped prop up its share price. However, when the firm’s stock
price began to slide, the company was unable to back its guarantees. In addition to
charges related to shady partnerships, Enron stands accused of:
• borrowing from subsidiaries with no intent to repay the loans (Wilke, 2002,
August 5).
• avoiding federal taxes even though some of its subsidiaries, like Portland
General Electric, collected tax payments from customers (Manning & Hill,
2002).
• contributing to the California energy crisis by manipulating electricity prices
(Fusaro & Miller, 2002; Manning, 2002).
• bribing foreign officials to secure contracts in India, Ghana and other
countries (Wilke, 2002, August 7).
• immediately claiming profits for long term projects that would eventually lose
money (Hill, Chaffin, & Fidler, 2002).
• switching account balances immediately before quarterly reports to boost
apparent earnings (Cruver, 2002).
• manipulating federal energy policy (Duffy, 2002; Duffy & Dickerson, 2002).
• colluding with analysts to project a false image of the firm’s financial health
(Fox, 2003).
Much of the blame for what happened at Enron (nicknamed the “Crooked E” for
its tilted Capital E logo) can be laid at the feet of company founder Kenneth Lay,
his successor Jeffrey Skilling, chief financial officer Andrew Fastow, and
Fastow’s top assistant Michael Kopper. Each failed to meet important ethical
challenges or dilemmas of leadership (Johnson, 2001). Their failures included:
Abuse of Power
Both Lay and Skilling could wield power ruthlessly. The position of vice-chair
was known as the “ejector seat” because so many occupants were removed from
the position when they took issue with Lay or appeared to be a threat to his
power. Skilling, for his part, eliminated corporate rivals and intimidated
subordinates. Abdication of power was also a problem at Enron. At times,
managers did not appear to understand what employees were doing or how the
business (which was literally creating new markets) operated. Board members
also failed to exercise proper oversight and rarely challenged management
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Journal of Leadership Education Volume 2, Issue 1 – Summer2003
decisions. Many were selected by CEO Kenneth Lay and did business with the
firm or represented non-profits that received large contributions from Enron
(Associated Press, 2002; Cruver, 2002).
Excess Privilege
Excess typified top management at Enron. Lay, who began life modestly as the
son of a Baptist preacher turned chicken salesman, once told a friend, “I don’t
want to be rich, I want to be world-class rich” (Cruver, 2002, p. 23). At another
point he joked that he had given wife Linda a $2 million decorating budget for a
new home in Houston which she promptly exceeded (Gruley & Smith, 2002). The
couple borrowed $75 million from the firm that they repaid in stock. Linda Lay
fanned the flames of resentment among employees when she broke into tears on
the Today Show to claim that the family was broke. This was despite the fact that
the Lays owned over 20 properties worth over $30 million (Eisenberg, 2002).
During Enron’s heyday, some of the perks filtered down to followers as well.
Workers enjoyed such benefits as lavish Christmas parties, aerobic classes, free
taxi rides, refreshments, and the services of a concierge (Enron excess, 2002; How
Enron let down its employees, 2002).
Deceit
Enron officials manipulated information to protect their interests and to deceive
the public, although the extent of their deception is still to be determined. Both
executives and board members claim that they were unaware of the extent of the
company’s off-the-books partnerships created and operated by Fastow and
Kopper (Eisenberg, 2002). However, both Skilling and Lay were warned that the
company’s accounting tactics were suspect (Duffy, 2002). The Senate Permanent
Subcommittee on Investigations, which investigated the company’s downfall,
concluded, “Much that was wrong with Enron was known to the board”
(Associated Press, 2002). Board members specifically waived the conflict of
interest clause in the company’s code of ethics that would have prevented the
formation of the most troublesome special partnerships (Cruver, 2002).
Employees were quick to follow the lead of top company officials. They hid
expenses, claimed nonexistent profits, deceived energy regulators and so on.
Inconsistent Treatment of Internal and External Constituencies
Enron’s relationships with both employees and outsiders were marked by gross
inconsistencies. Average workers were forced to vest their retirement plans in
Enron stock and then, during the crucial period when the stock was in free fall,
were blocked from selling their shares. Top executives, on the other hand, were
able to unload their shares as they wished. Five-hundred officials received
“retention bonuses” totaling $
55
million at the same time laid off workers
received only a fraction of the severance pay they had been promised (Barreveld,
2002).
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Journal of Leadership Education Volume 2, Issue 1 – Summer2003
Enron treated its friends royally. In particular, the company used political
donations to gain preferential treatment from government agencies. Kenneth Lay
was the top contributor to the Bush campaign and officials made significant
donations to both Democratic and Republican members of the House and Senate.
In return, the company was able to nominate friendly candidates for the Security
Exchange Commission (SEC) and the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission
(FERC). Federal officials intervened with foreign governments to promote Enron
projects, and company representatives played a major role in setting federal
energy policy that favored deregulation of additional energy markets (Fox, 2003).
Anyone perceived as unfriendly to Enron’s interests could expect retribution,
however. In one instance, Lay withdrew an underwriting deal to pressure Merrill
Lynch into firing an analyst who had downgraded Enron stock (Smith &
Raghaven, 2002). Skilling called one analyst an “asshole” when he questioned the
company’s performance during a conference call (Cruver, 2002).
Misplaced and Broken Loyalties
Enron officials put their loyalty to themselves above those of everyone else with a
stake in the company’s fate — stock holders, business partners, rate payers, local
communities, foreign governments, and so on. They also betrayed the trust of
those who worked for them. Employees apparently believed in the company and
in Lay’s optimistic pronouncements. In August 2001, for example, he declared “I
have never felt better about the prospects for the company” (Cruver, 2003, p. 91).
In late September, just weeks before the company collapsed, he encouraged
employees to “talk up the stock” because “the company is fundamentally sound”
(Fox, 2003, p. 252). These exhortations came even as he was unloading his own
shares. The sense of betrayal experienced by Enron employees only added to the
pain of losing their jobs and retirement savings.
Irresponsible Behavior
Enron officials acted irresponsibly by failing to take needed action, failing to
exercise proper oversight, and failing to shoulder responsibility for the ethical
miscues of their organization. CEO Lay downplayed warnings of financial
improprieties and some board members did not understand the numbers or the
company’s operations. Too often company managers left employees to their own
devices, encouraging them to make their numbers by any means possible. After
the collapse, no one stepped forward to accept blame for what happened. Lay and
Fastow claimed Fifth Amendment privileges against self-incrimination when
called before congressional committees; Skilling testified but claimed he had no
knowledge of illegal activity.
The unethical behavior of Enron’s leaders appears to be the product of both
individual and situational factors. Greed was the primary motivator of both
managers and their subordinates at Enron (Cruver, 2002). Optimistic earnings
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reports, hidden losses and other tactics were all designed to keep the stock price
artificially high. Lofty stock values justified generous salaries and perks, deflected
unwanted scrutiny, and allowed insiders to profit from their stock options. Greed
was not limited to top Enron executives, however. Meeting earnings targets
triggered large bonuses for managers throughout the firm, bonuses that were
sometimes larger than employees’ salaries. Rising stock prices and extravagant
rewards made it easier for followers as well as leaders to overlook shortcomings
in the company’s ethics and business model.
Hubris was also a major character flaw at the Crooked E, a fact reflected in the
company banner that declared: FROM THE WORLD’S LEADING ENERGY
COMPANY — TO THE WORLD’S LEADING COMPANY (Cruver, 2002, p.
3). Skilling, who lacked the social and communication skills of Ken Lay, best
exemplifies the haughty spirit of many Enron officials. At the height of the
California energy crisis he joked that the only difference between the Titanic and
the state of California was that “when the Titanic went down, the lights were on”
(Fusaro & Miller, 2002. p. 122).
Even the so-called “heroes” of the Enron debacle failed to demonstrate enough
virtue to delay or to prevent the company’s collapse. Former company treasurer
Clifford Baxter complained about Fastow’s financial wheeling and dealing, but
then retired without going public with his complaints. Vice-president of corporate
development Sherry Watkins outlined her concerns about the firm’s questionable
financial practices in a letter and in a meeting with Lay (A Hero, 2002). Later she
discussed the same issues with an audit partner at Anderson. While these are
commendable acts, in her letter she recommended quiet clean up of the problems
rather than public disclosure. She stopped short of talking to the press, the SEC
and other outside agencies when her attempts at internal reform failed (Zellner,
2002).
The destructive power of individual greed and pride was magnified by Enron’s
corporate culture that encouraged creativity and risk taking. Employees invented a
host of new commodity products which earned Enron top ranking six straight
years on Fortune magazine’s list of most innovative companies (Fusaro & Miller,
2002). Ken Lay was fond of telling the story of how Enron employees in London
started its on-line trading business (which later carried a quarter of the world’s
energy trades) without the blessing or knowledge of corporate headquarters in
Houston (Stewart, 2001). The cost of freedom, however, was pressure to produce
that created a climate of fear. Enron’s atmosphere was similar to that of an elite
law firm where talented young associates scramble to make partner (Fusaro &
Miller, 2002).
Adding to the stress was the organization’s “rank and yank” evaluation system.
Every six months 15% of all employees were ranked in the lowest category and
then had a few weeks to find another position in the company or be let go
(Cruver, 2002). Workers in the next two higher categories were put on notice that
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Journal of Leadership Education Volume 2, Issue 1 – Summer2003
they were in danger of falling into the lowest quadrant during the subsequent
review. This system (a harsher variant of one used at many companies)
encouraged cutthroat competition and silenced dissent. Followers were afraid to
question unethical and or illegal practices for fear of losing their jobs. Instead,
they were rewarded for their unthinking loyalty to their managers (who ranked
their performance) and the company as a whole (Fusaro & Miller, 2002).
Lack of controls, combined with an intense, competitive, results-driven culture
made it easier to ignore the company’s code of ethics which specifically
prohibited conflicts of interest like those found in the SPEs and to seek results at
any cost (Hill, Chaffin, & Fidler, 2002). Anderson auditors signed off on its
questionable financial transactions for fear of losing lucrative auditing and
consulting contracts with Enron.
Enron was also a victim of larger social and cultural factors. Publicly traded firms
in the United States are judged by their quarterly earnings reports. Obsession with
short-term results encourages executives to do whatever they can to meet these
expectations. Enron’s explosive growth took place during the economic boom of
the 90s. All the major stock indices soared and billions were wasted on Internet
start-ups that never had a realistic chance to make a profit. During this period the
Cult of the CEO emerged. Business leaders achieved rock star status, gracing the
covers of national magazines and best selling biographies (Elliott & Schroth,
2002, p. 125). In this heady climate, government regulators and investors felt little
need to study the operations or finances of apparently successful companies led
by business superstars. The recent spate of corporate scandals and the
accompanying market crash may be the penalty that society must pay for the
excesses and inattention of the last decade.
Implications for Leadership Educators
The lessons of Enron extend beyond the accounting and market reforms instituted
in the wake of the scandal. Leadership educators can gain important insights
about how to treat the topic of ethics in the classroom from the moral
shortcomings of Enron’s top executives. The pedagogical implications of Enron
include:
Educators Must Share Some of the Blame
Academics find it easy to distance themselves from the sins of Enron. The college
and university classroom seems a world away from the high flying, gun slinging
mentality of the former energy giant. Few professors can begin to comprehend the
level of privilege and influence enjoyed by the company’s C level executives.
Those who study and teach ethics believe that they would exhibit the virtues that
Lay, Skilling, and Fastow seemed to lack.
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Journal of Leadership Education Volume 2, Issue 1 – Summer2003
Disassociating oneself from Enron may be comforting, but this maneuver
conveniently overlooks the fact educators must shoulder at least some of the
blame for the company’s moral failure (Kavanaugh, 2002). As college graduates,
Enron managers undoubtedly enrolled in leadership and ethics courses. Many
were also products of Harvard and other top MBA programs. Followers armed
with bachelor and masters degrees served as willing soldiers in the army of public
relations experts who helped the company maintain its veneer of profitability,
lobby government official, and attack its critics. What Enron’s top leaders, lower
level managers, and front line employees learned in university classrooms was not
enough to prevent ethical tragedy.
Strive for Ethical Integration
Enron is a classic example of a company whose ethical pronouncements were
“decoupled” from the rest of its operations (Weaver, Trevino, & Cochran 1999).
The key values of the company were respect, integrity, communications, and
excellence. Enron also had an extensive code of ethics. Unfortunately, these
values and policies had little impact on how Lay, Skilling, and their underlings
did business. By the time of its collapse in 2001, the company had been
manipulating its books and misleading investors for several years.
Unfortunately, the teaching of ethics, like the practice of ethics at Enron, is
typically decoupled from the rest of the curriculum. Discussions of ethics often
stand alone, limited to a single unit or to one course in the entire leadership
curriculum. Further, the placement of ethical material also diminishes its
importance. Ethics units and text chapters sometimes appear to be an afterthought,
introduced at the end of a course or book and therefore likely to be eliminated if
the professor falls behind during the quarter or semester. To be effective, ethical
considerations should be part of every unit, class, and set of readings.
Highlight Leadership and Followership Duties and Responsibilities
Many students study leadership in hopes of achieving the kind of heroic stature
that, until recently, they saw reflected in press reports about famous business
figures and other prominent leaders. Power, perks, financial security, and
recognition all seem to come with an executive title. Instructors cater to this
motivation when they act as cheerleaders for prominent business leaders like Jack
Welch or Kenneth Lay. They overlook the fact that the same qualities and
strategies so often praised in business and other leadership literature can lead to
disaster. Enron is a case in point. The company’s leaders did many things right
according to the leadership and management literature. Lay and his colleagues
had a clear vision and values, pursued excellence, and fostered an extraordinary
degree of creativity and innovation. Sadly, their vision was unrealistic, their stated
values took back seat to unstated ones (e. g., make the deal at whatever the cost
and generate constant profits and growth), and their drive for innovation led them
into a host of unprofitable markets that even their management team did not
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Journal of Leadership Education Volume 2, Issue 1 – Summer2003
completely understand. Followers also lost sight of their personal values as well
as their commitment to society.
Highlighting leadership duties and responsibilities is one way to address selfish
motivation and to demythologize leadership. Altruism, Communitarianism, and
Servant Leadership are three ethical perspectives that drive home this point. Each
of these approaches emphasizes the duties that leaders have both to followers and
to the larger community and can serve as a framework for discussions of
leadership and followership ethics.
• Altruism is a universal value that is particularly important to leaders who, by
virtue of their roles, are to exercise influence on behalf of others. Leaders
cannot articulate the concerns of followers unless they first understand their
needs (Kanungo & Mendoca, 1996). Leaders driven by altruism pursue
organizational goals rather than personal achievement and are more likely to
give power away. Leaders seeking self-benefit focus on personal
achievements, and control followers through coercion and reward.
• Communitarianism emphasizes the need for individual and corporate
responsibility (Etzioni, 1993). Citizens and institutions have obligations to the
larger community. When making decisions, leaders and followers must look
beyond the immediate interests of themselves and their organizations to the
needs of the local community and society as a whole.
• Servant leadership is a model that puts the needs of followers first (Greenleaf,
1977; Spears, 1998). Servant leaders continually ask themselves what would
be best for their constituents and measure their success by the progress of their
followers. Driven by a concern for people, they seek to treat others fairly and
recognize that they hold their positions in stewardship for others.
Address Both Individual and Contextual Variables
Training can help individuals develop sensitivity to moral issues and improve
ethical reasoning skills (Rest, 1993). To prevent future Enrons, faculty must help
current and future leaders and followers equip themselves with the values,
principles, and skills they need to make reasoned moral choices. Nonetheless, an
individual focus does not address organizational forces – group culture, high
forced turnover, reward system – that played a significant role in Enron’s moral
failures. In addition, society’s fixation on short term profits and daily market
moves also increased the pressure to manipulate results and to hide financial bad
news.
Leadership instructors need to help students analyze and respond to contextual
forces that encourage ethical misdeeds. These questions should be considered:
• What organizational controls should be put on innovation?
• How can employees be rewarded in a way that promotes ethical behavior?
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Journal of Leadership Education Volume 2, Issue 1 – Summer2003
• What are the dysfunctional consequences of the rank and yank evaluation
system?
• What are reasonable limits on executive compensation?
• What is a corporate board’s role in overseeing the operations of an
organization?
• What should be the composition of a board’s membership?
• How should the performance of companies be judged?
• How can society develop a long-term perspective on financial results?
Recognize the Importance of Credibility
Since Aristotle, scholars have examined the factors that make a source believable
to an audience, an interest based on the strong correlation between credibility and
influence (Hackman & Johnson, 2001, chap. 6). The Enron debacle and
subsequent scandals demonstrate that credibility, specifically trustworthiness, is
more important than ever. Stock values declined nearly 40% from market highs in
July1998 due largely to investors’ loss of confidence in the integrity of publicly
held corporations. Employees are increasingly skeptical as well. A 2002 survey
by the Ethics Resource Center found that 43% of respondents believed that their
bosses fail to model integrity and felt pressure to compromise their own ethical
standards at work (Wee, 2002). Modern technology, which enables the rapid,
worldwide dissemination of information, makes credibility more important now
than in the time of Plato and Aristotle. Leadership faculty need to help students
consider not only how credibility is built and maintained, but also how trust is
destroyed and at what cost to individuals and organizations.
Followers are Also Accountable
Lay, Skilling, Fastow and other high level executives deserve most of the blame
for what went wrong at Enron. It was they who created the company’s culture,
approved dubious partnerships, attacked critics, and, in the end, abandoned
employees while enriching themselves. Nevertheless, followers, ranging from
second tier officials down to receptionists and mailroom clerks, share some of the
blame. Many willingly bought into the get rich quick mentality of the Crooked E.
During the company’s 15 years of rapid growth, few stopped to question the
company’s tactics. They were “bought off” by the generous perks and the thrill of
being part of one of the most sophisticated and innovative companies in the
world. The constant threat of termination undoubtedly convinced others to keep
their doubts to themselves and to support their bosses.
According to Chaleff (1995), courage – the willingness to accept a higher level of
risk – is the most important virtue for organizational followers. Such courage was
sorely lacking at Enron. Few had the courage to challenge authority. Few had the
courage to leave when faced with ethical violations. Apparently no member of the
firm had the courage to bring the misbehavior of Lay and his subordinates to the
attention of the public before the crisis erupted (Cruver, 2002).
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Journal of Leadership Education Volume 2, Issue 1 – Summer2003
Unfortunately, cowardice is not limited to Enron. Nearly two-thirds of those who
witness ethical violations in their companies refuse to report them, believing that
reporting problems would not do any good (Chief Executive, 2002). The final
lesson of Enron, then, is that both instructors and students have the responsibility
to confront moral failure whenever and wherever it appears, regardless of whether
they function in a leadership or in a followership role.
Conclusion
In summary, top officials at Enron abused their power and privileges. They
manipulated information while engaging in inconsistent treatment of internal and
external constituencies. These leaders put their own interests above those of their
employees and the public, and failed to exercise proper oversight or shoulder
responsibility for ethical failings. Sadly, the followers were all too quick to follow
their example.
Numerous implications for teaching leadership ethics can be gleaned from the
Eron situation. Educators must share some of the blame for what happened at
Enron. It is important to integrate ethics into the rest of the curriculum.
Leadership educators need to highlight the responsibilities of both leaders and
followers along with addressing both individual and contextual variables that
encourage corruption. The importance of trust and credibility in the leader-
follower relationship must be recognized. And, finally, educators must hold
followers as well as leaders accountable for ethical misdeeds.
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