Answer in the word doc “source map assignment” provided below
Now that you’ve selected your final research topics that you will build upon for the last 4 weeks of this course, we are going to take a deep dive into research and source evaluation. To this point, you’ve had experience evaluating other author’s arguments, sources, logic, and claim types and now it’s your turn to try your hand at crafting a multidimensional and hybrid argument of your own.
The choices we make surrounding what kinds of source material help us form our arguments are rhetorical choices. Selecting high quality source material and practicing ethical and sound research is not only important in the context of academia but can tremendously increase your writerly ethos when done well. Using research strategies and techniques outlined by our authors alongside practicing important source annotation techniques will be the first and most vital step in crafting your final hybrid argument and extended research pa.PER.
1. Integrate outside perspectives into texts
2. Distinguish high quality source materials
3. Practice accurate citation style and MLA formatting conventions
Chapter 4 “Using Evidence Effectively” p. 52-66
Chapter 16 “Finding and Evaluating Sources” p. 341-359
Chapter 17 “Incorporating Sources into Your Own Argument” p. 360-374
Chapter 18 “Citing and Documenting Sources” p. 375-396
Follow the prompts in the Source Map Assignment
Week 5: Evaluating Source Material
Source Map Assignment
The focus of this week is to cultivate strong rhetorical awareness and critical research skills. In order for others to take your argument and rhetoric seriously, you need to seriously vet and select appropriate source material for your research topic. Knowing that invention and planning are critical steps in the writing process, you must complete the below research exercises and design a source map below.
My approved Paper topic is:
4.
1 Kinds of Evidence: Define the categories of evidence in your own words, as defined by your textbook, using pages 53-5
5.
Check the box if this type of evidence might be useful for your extended research and proposal argument.
Data from Personal Experience:
Data from Interviews, Questionnaires, and Surveys:
Data from Library or Internet Research:
Testimony:
Statistical Data:
4.2 Persuasive Use of Evidence: Rhetorician, created, the STAR criteria that aims to hold evidence for arguments to a particular standard for effective use.
Sufficiency:
Typicality:
Accuracy:
Relevance:
4.3 Rhetorical Understanding of Evidence: Using pages 62-65 of your textbook,
Identify
three rhetorical strategies you plan on using when framing evidence, specific to
your research topic and
why this strategy works for your topic. Do not merely copy the bolded strategies; rather, bring your actual research topic into discussion and explain why the strategies you selected will be the
strongest
way to frame the evidence in order to make an effective argument.
1.
2.
3.
16.2 Thinking Rhetorically About Evidence
1. After reviewing table 6.1, what is the definition of peer reviewed sources and why do we care? Are peer reviewed sources important for your paper topic?
2. What is the difference between degree of
advocacy
and degree of
authority
? Why is this important in composition?
16.3 Finding Sources: Under this section, what are the five common sources a composition student might use to find information about a topic (hint: the blue headings)? Which of these sources are you planning on using for your paper?
16.4 Selecting and Evaluating Sources: Thinking back to our Rhetorical Analysis unit and table 16.1, what strategies does your book provide for reading with Rhetorical Awareness? Why is this important for your paper?
1. Considering you will likely use online sources to complete this research paper, what is the difference between .edu, .com, and .org? Just because it’s commercial, does it mean it’s a bad source?
What are 5 potential Keywords you anticipate using for Database research?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Are there any other keywords you can add to your search terms? If so, list them below:
52
Chapter 4
•
Learning Objectives
In this chapter you will learn to:
4.1 Explain the different kinds of evidence
4.2 Make your evidence persuasive by using the STAR criteria
and other strategies
4.3 Understand evidence rhetorically by explaining how the
selection and framing of evidence reveal an angle of vision
In Chapters 2 and 3 we introduced the concept of logos the logical structure of
reasons and evidence in an argument and showed how an effective argument
advances the writer’s claim by linking its supporting reasons to one or more
assumptions, beliefs, or values held by the intended audience. In this chapter,
we turn to the uses of evidence in argument. By evidence, we mean all the verifi-
able data and information a writer might use as support for an argument. In
Toulmin’s terms, evidence is part of the grounds or backing of an argument in
support of reasons or warrants. By understanding evidence rhetorically, you will
better understand how to use evidence ethically, responsibly, and persuasively
in your own arguments.
Kinds of Evidence
4.1 Explain the different kinds of evidence.
You have numerous options for the kinds of evidence you can use in an argument,
including personal experience, observations, interviews, questionnaires, field or
laboratory research, or findings derived from researching primary or secondary
sources found in libraries, databases, or the web. Carmen Tieu’ s argument in
Chapter 3 is based on personal experience. More commonly, college arguments
require library and Internet research skills we teach in Part Two (Entering an
Using Evidence Effectively 53
Argumentative Conversation” ) and Part Five (” The Research ed Argument” ). This
chapter focuses more basically on how evidence functions rhetorically in an argu-
m ent and how it is selected and framed.
We be gin by cate gorizing and ev aluating different kinds of evidence,
illustrating how each might be incorporated into an argument.
DATA FROM PERSONAL EXPERIENCE One powerful kind of evidence comes
from p ersonal experience.
Example
Strengths and Limitations
Despite recent criticism that Ritali n is
overprescribed for hyperactivity and
attention deficit d isorder, it can often
seem li ke a miracle d rug . My little
brother is a perfect example. Before
he was given Ritalin, he was a terror
in school . . .. [Tel l the “before” and
“after” story of your litt le brother.]
• Personal-experience examples help readers identify w ith
the writer; t hey show the writer’s personal connection to
the issue.
• Vivid stories capture the imagination and appeal to pathos .
• Skeptics may sometimes argue that personal-experience
examples are insufficient (the writer is guilty of hasty
generalization), not typical, or not adequately scientific
or verifiable .
DATA FROM OBSERVATION OR FIELD RESEARCH You can also d evelop evi-
d ence by p ersonally observing a phenomenon or by doing your own field research.
Example
The intersection at Fifth and Montgomery
is particularly dangerous because pedestri-
ans almost never find a comfortable break
in the heavy flow of cars . On April 29, I
watched fifty-seven pedestrians cross t he
street. Not once d id cars driving in either
direction on Fifth Avenue stop before the
pedestrian stepped off the sidewalk to
cross Montgomery Street. [Contin ue with
observed data about danger.]
Strengths and Limitations
• Field research imparts a sense of scientific credibility.
• Observations and field research increase typicality by
expanding the database beyond a si ngle example.
• Observation and field research en hance the ethos of
the writer as personally invested and reasonable.
• Skeptics may point to flaws in how observations
were cond ucted, showing how data are insufficient,
inaccurate, or nontypical.
DATA FROM INTERVIEWS, QUESTIONNAIRES, AND SURVEYS You can
also gather data by interviewing stakeholders in a controversy, creating ques-
tionnaires, or conducting surveys. (See Chapter 16 for advice on how to conduct
this kind of field research.)
Example
Another reason to ban laptops from class-
rooms is the extent to which laptop users
disturb other students. In a questionnaire
that I d istributed to fifty students in my resi-
dence hall, a surprising 60 percent said that
they are an noyed by fellow students check-
ing lnstagram, sendi ng e-mail, paying their
bil ls , or surfing the Web while pretending
to take notes in class. Add itionally, I inter-
viewed five students w ho gave me specific
examples of how these d istractions interfere
w ith learning. [Report the examples.]
Strengths and Limitations
• Interviews, questionnaires, and surveys enhance the
sufficiency and typicality of evidence by expanding
the database beyond the experiences of one person.
• Quantitative data from questionnaires and surveys
often increase t he argument’s scientific feel.
• Surveys and questionnaires often uncover local or
recent data not available in published research .
• Interviews can provide engaging personal stories,
thus en hancing pathos .
• Skeptics can raise doubts about research method-
ology, q uestionnaire design, or typicality of interview
subjects.
54 Chapter 4
DATA FROM LIBRARY OR INTERNET RESEARCH For m an y arguments, evi-
d ence is d erived from reading, particularly from library or Internet research. Part
Five of this text helps you conduct effective research and incorporate research
sources into your arguments.
Example
The belief that a high-carbohydrate, low-fat
diet is the best way to lose weight has been
challenged by research conducted by Walter
Willett and his colleagues in the department
of nutrition at the Harvard School of Public
Health . Willett’s research suggests that
complex carbohydrates such as pasta and
potatoes spike glucose levels, increasing the
risk of diabetes. Add itionally, some fats-
especially monounsaturated and polyun-
saturated fats found in nuts, fish, and most
vegetable oi Is- he I p lower “bad” cholesterol
levels (45).*
Strengths and Limitations
• Researched evidence is often powerful , especially
when sources speak with verifiable authority/
expertise on their subjects and are respected by
your audience; writers can spotlight the source’s
credentials through attributive tags (see Chapter 17) .
• Researched data may take the form of facts,
examples, quotations, summaries of research
studies, and so forth .
• Skeptics might doubt the accuracy of facts , the cre-
dentials of a source, or the research design of a study.
They might also cite studies with different results.
• Skeptics might raise doubts about sufficiency,
typicality, or relevance of your research data.
TESTIMONY Writers frequently u se testimony when direct data are either
unavailable or highly technical or complex. Testimonial evidence can come from
research or from interv iews.
Example
Althoug h the Swedish economist Bjorn
Lomborg claims that acid rai n is not a sig-
nificant problem , many environmentalists
disagree. According to David Bellamany,
president of the Conservation Founda-
tion, “Acid rain does kill forests and people
around the world, and it’s still doing so in
the most polluted places, such as Russia”
(qtd . in BBC News) .
Strengths and Limitations
• By itself, testimony is generally less persuasive than
direct data.
• Persuasiveness can be increased if the source
has impressive credentials, which the writer can
convey throug h attributive tags introducing the testi-
mony (see Chapter 17).
• Skeptics might undermine testimon ial evidence by
questioning the source’s credentials, showing the
source’s bias, or quoting a countersource.
STATISTICAL DATA Many contemporary arguments rely h eavily on statistical
data, often supplem ented by graphics such as tables, pie charts, and graphs.
(See Chapter 9 for a discussion of the u se of graphics in argument.)
Example
After graduating from college, millennials aren’t
leaving their parents’ homes the way college
graduates used to. According to the U.S. Cen-
sus Bureau’s 2015 American Community Sur-
vey, 34. 1 percent of people between the ages
of eighteen and thirty-four lived in their par-
ents’ households, with the percentage even
higher in states with high real-estate costs.
Strengths and Limitations
• Statistics can provide powerful snapshots of
aggregate data from a wide database.
• Statistics are often used in conjunction with graphics.
• Statistics can be calculated and displayed in differ-
ent ways to achieve different rhetorical effects, so
the reader must be wary.
• Skeptics might question statistical methods,
research design, and interpretation of data.
HYPOTHETICAL EXAMPLES, CASES, AND SCENARIOS Arguments occa-
sionally use hypothetical examples, cases, or scenarios, particularly to illustrate
conjectured consequences of an event or to test philosophical hypotheses.
*Parenthetical citations in this example and the next follow the MLA documentation system.
See Chapter 18 for a full discussion of how to cite and document sources.
Example
Consider what might happen if we continue
to use biotech soybeans that are resistant to
herbicides. The resistant gene, through cross-
pollination, might be transferred to an ordinary
weed , creating an out-of-control superweed
that herbicides couldn’t kil l. Such a superweed
cou ld be an ecological disaster.
Using Evidence Effectively 55
Strengths and Limitations
• Scenarios have strong imaginative appeal.
• Scenarios are persuasive only if they seem plausible.
• A scenario narrative often conveys a sense of
“inevitability” even if the actual scenario is unlikely;
hence, the rhetorical effect may be illogical.
• Skeptics might show the implausibility of the
scenario or offer an alternative scenario.
REASONED SEQUENCE OF IDEAS Sometimes arguments are supported with
a reasoned sequence of ideas rather than with concrete facts or other forms of
empirical evidence . The writer ‘ s goal is to support a point through a logical
progression of ideas. Such arguments are conceptual, supported by linked ideas,
rather than evidential. This kind of support occurs frequently in arguments and is
often intermingled with evidential support.
Example
Embryonic stem cell research, despite its
promise in fighting diseases, may have negative
social consequences. This research encourages
us to place embryos in the category of mere
cellular matter that can be manipulated at will.
Currently we reduce animals to th is category
when we genetically alter them for human pur-
poses, such as engineering pigs to grow more
human-like heart valves for use in transplants.
Using human embryos in the same way-as
material that can be altered and destroyed
at will- may benefit society materially, but
this quest for greater knowledge and control
involves a reclassifying of embryos that could
potentially lead to a devaluing of human life.
Strengths and Limitations
• These sequences are often used in causal argu-
ments to show how causes are linked to effects
or in definitional or values arguments to show
links among ideas.
• A sequence of ideas has great potential to clarify
values and show the belief structure on wh ich a
claim is founded.
• A sequence of ideas can sketch out ideas and
connections that would otherwise remain latent.
• The effectiveness of this type of evidence
depends on the audience’s acceptance of each
link in the sequence of ideas.
• Skeptics might raise objections at any link in the
sequence, often by pointing to different val ues or
outlining different conseq uences.
The Persuasive Use of Evidence
4.2 Make your evidence persuasive by using the STAR criteria
and other strategies.
We turn now from kinds of evidence to strategies for making evidence as
convincing and p ersuasive as possible. Consider a target audience of educated,
reasonable, and careful readers who approach an issue with healthy skepticism,
open-minded but cautious. What d emands would such readers make on a writer’s
use of evidence? To answer that question, let’s look at some general principles for
using evidence persuasively.
Applyfhe STAR Criteria to Evidence
Our open-minded but skeptical audience would expect the ev idence to meet what
rhetorician Richard Fulkerson calls the STAR criteria:*
*Richard Fulkerson, Teaching the A rgumen t in W riting (Urbana, IL: National Council of Teach-
ers of English , 1996), 44-53. In this section, w e are indebted to Fulkerson’s discussion.
56 Chapter 4
Sufficiency: Is there enough evidence?
Typicality: Is the chosen evidence representative and typical?
Accuracy: Is the evidence accurate and up-to-date?
Relevance: Is the evidence relevant to the claim?
Let’s examine each in turn.
SUFFICIENCY OF EVIDENCE How much evidence you need is a function of
your rhetorical context. In a court trial, opposing attorneys often agree to waive
evidence for points that aren’t in doubt in order to concentrate on contested
points. The more contested a claim or the more skeptical your audience, the more
evidence you may need to present. On the one hand, if you provide too little
evidence you may be accused of hasty generalization (see Appendix), a reason-
ing fallacy in which you make a sweeping conclusion based on only one or two
instances. On the other hand, if you provide too much evidence your argument
may become overly long and tedious. You can guard against having too little or
too much evidence by appropriately qualifying the claim your evidence supports.
Strong claim: Working full-time seriously harms a student’s grade point
average (much data needed probably a combination of examples and sta-
tistical studies).
Qualified claim: Working full-time often harms a student’s grade point
average (a few representative examples may be enough).
TYPICALITY OF EVIDENCE If readers are to trust your evidence, they need to
be confident that you have chosen typical and representative cases rather than
extreme or outlier cases. Suppose that you want to argue that students can suc-
cessfully work full-time while going to college full-time. You cite the case of your
friend Pam, who earned a straight-A grade point average while working forty
hours per week as a night receptionist in a small hotel. Your audience might doubt
the typicality of Pam’s case because a night receptionist can often use work hours
for studying. What about more typical jobs, they’ll ask, where you can’t study
while you work?
ACCURACY OF EVIDENCE Evidence can’t be used ethically unless it is accu-
rate and up-to-date, and it can’t be persuasive unless the audience believes in the
credibility of the writer’s sources. This criterion is particularly important in an era
of “fake news” and “alternative facts.” Arguers need to evaluate their sources,
analyzing where each source might be placed on the continuum from “truth-
seeking” to “persuasion” (see Figure 1.5). Ethical arguers must also develop an
eye and ear for identifying reliable sources of data, distinguishing, for example,
between widely respected news and public affairs sites and potential fake news
sites. Later in this section, we illustrate our own fact-checking search to ensure
the accuracy of a piece of evidence, explaining how we tracked down the original
source for a piece of data cited in a The New Yorker article.
RELEVANCE OF EVIDENCE Finally, evidence will be persuasive only if the
reader considers it relevant to what is at stake in the dispute. Consider the
following student argument: “I deserve an A in this course because I worked
exceptionally hard.” The student then cites substantial evidence of how hard he
worked a log of study hours, copies of multiple drafts of papers, testimony
from friends, and so forth. But what is at stake here is the underlying assumption
Using Evidence Effectively 57
(warrant) that grades should be based on effort, not quality of work. The student
provides ample evidence to support the reason (“I worked exceptionally hard”),
but this evidence is irrelevant to the warrant (“People who work exceptionally
hard deserve an A”). Although some instructors may give partial credit for effort,
the criterion for grades is usually the quality of the student’s performance, not the
student’s time spent studying.
Establish a Trustworthy Ethos
Besides supplying evidence that meets the STAR criteria, you can make your
evidence more persuasive by being fair, honest, and open to uncertainty (the
appeal to ethos see Chapter 5). To establish your readers’ confidence, you must
first tell them the source of your evidence. If your evidence comes from personal
experience or observation, your prose needs to make that clear. If your evidence
comes from others (for example, through interviews or library /Internet research),
you must indicate these sources through attributive tags (phrases like “according
toT. Alvarez” or “as stated by a recent EPA report”). For academic papers, you
must also cite and document your sources using an appropriate style for in-text
citations and concluding bibliography. (Part Five of this text explains how to find,
use, and cite research sources.) Finally, you need to be fair in the way you select
evidence from your research sources. For example, it is unethical to take quota-
tions out of context or to write an unfair summary that oversimplifies or distorts
a source author’s intended meaning.
Be Mindful of a Source’s Distance
froin Original Data
When you support an argument through library /Internet research, you often
encounter sources that report evidence from a second- or third-hand perspective.
You need to imagine where your source author found the information that you
now want to use in your own argument. How might you trace the process that led
from the original data to your source author’s use of it? Let’s take as an example
a passage from an article on the minimum wage by James Surowiecki writing for
The New Yorker. (You can read the full article in Chapter 8.) Because the source
is a magazine article rather than an academic paper, it contains no footnotes or
bibliography, but the author nevertheless uses attributive tags to identify his main
sources. Here is a passage from the article:
Passage from “The Pay Is Too Damn Low” by James
Surowiecki
[O]ver the past three decades, the U.S. economy has done a poor job of cre-
ating good middle-class jobs; five of the six fastest-growing job categories
today; pay less than the median wage. That’s why, as a recent study by the
economists John Schmitt and Janelle Jones has shown,low-~ge workers
are older and better educated than ever. More important, more of them are
relying on their paychecks not for pin money or to pay for Friday-night
dates but, rather, to support families.
Much of Surowiecki ‘s argument for increasing the minimum wage depends on
evidence that low-wage workers are “older and better educated than ever.” But we
Attributive tag (cites
this study as his
source)
Purported factual
statement that we are
• •
examining
58 Chapter 4
might ask: How does Surowiecki know about the age and education of low-wage
workers? Why should we trust him? Using an attributive tag, he identifies his source
as a recent study by economists John Schmitt and Janelle Jones. We conducted a
Google search and quickly located the source: a working paper titled “Low-Wage
Workers Are Older and Better Educated than Ever,” dated April 2012. The paper
was published by the Center for Economic and Policy Research, which, according
to its Web site, is a nonprofit, nonpartisan research center aimed at providing factual
economic data for public policy makers. So where did Schmitt and Jones get their
data? They cite statistical tables compiled by the Current Population Survey, which
is a joint effort of the Census Bureau and the Bureau of Labor Statistics. Based on
these original data, Schmitt and Jones constructed two graphs showing shifts in the
distribution of low-wage workers by age and then by education from 1971 to 2011.
One of these graphs shows that in 1979, 26 percent of low-wage jobs were held by
teenagers, but by 2011 only 12 percent of low-wage jobs were held by teenagers.
(You can see this graph in Figure 8.3). In contrast, Schmitt and Jones’s second graph
shows that in 1979 only 25 percent of low-wage job holders had completed at least
some college, but by 2011, 43 percent had completed some college.
Let’s summarize the process we have just traced. The original data came
from government statistics collected by the Census Bureau and the Bureau of
Labor Statistics. Schmitt and Jones then converted these data into detailed graphs.
Surowiecki then summarized the graphs’ message into a single sentence. If you
were to cite Surowiecki as your source of this same information (“low-wage work-
ers are older and better educated than ever”), you would be depending on a
chain of trust stretching from the original data through Schmitt and Jones and
Surowiecki to you.
Of course, you can’t be expected to trace all your research-gathered evidence
back to the original data, but you need to imagine that it is possible to do so. The
closer you can get to the original data, the more trustworthy your evidence. Unfor-
tunately, fact-checkers employed by news sources or nonprofit organizations often
discover that purportedly accurate information cannot be traced back to a credible
original source. They might show that the information is not factual at all, that it is
derived from flawed or discredited studies, that it has been distorted unfairly, or
that it is purposely invented fake news in the service of propaganda. Politifact.com,
a nationally respected fact-checker, uses a “truth-o-meter” to rank purported
evidential statements along a scale from “True” to “False,” with the most egre-
giously false statements earning their famous “[Liar, Liar] Pants-on-Fire” award.
To develop a respected ethos, you need to develop your own internal truth-o-meter
by being aware of a source’s distance from the original data and by occasionally
tracing a piece of evidence back to its origins.
etorical Understanding
of Evidence
4.3 Understand evidence rhetorically by explaining how the selection
and framing of evidence reveal an angle of vision.
In the previous section we presented some principles for persuasive use of evi-
dence. We now ask you to look more closely at the rhetorical context in which
evidence operates.
Angle of Vision and the Selection and Framing
of Evidence
Using Evidence Effectively 59
When we enter the argumentative arena, we arrive as complex, whole persons,
not as disembodied computers that reach claims through a value-free calculus.
We enter with our own ideologies, beliefs, values, and guiding assumptions as
formed by our particular lived lives. These differences help explain why one per-
son’s terrorist might be another person’s freedom fighter, or why a handgun in
a drawer might be one person’s defense against intruders and another person’s
accident waiting to happen. In writing about guns, a believer in Second Amend-
ment rights is apt to cite evidence that having a gun can stop a violent intruder
or prevent a rape. Conversely, proponents of gun control are apt to cite evidence
about accidental deaths or suicides. In an argument, evidence is always selected
to further the arguer’s claim and is never simply an inert, neutral”fact.”
These guiding beliefs and values work together to create a writer’s angle of
vision: a perspective, bias, lens, filter, frame, or screen that helps determine what
a writer sees or doesn’t see. This angle of vision makes certain items stand out in
a field of data while other items become invisible. The angle of vision both deter-
mines and reveals the writer’s view of which data are important and significant,
and which data are trivial and can be ignored.
To help you better understand the concepts of selection and framing, we offer
the following exercise based on different angles of vision regarding Uber, the ride-
sharing company. Wildly popular in many cities, Uber has been accused of unfair
or unsafe business practices causing dilemmas for city governments, regulatory
agencies, insurance companies, and customers who want to avoid supporting
socially irresponsible companies.
Suppose that your city has scheduled a public hearing on whether Uber needs
stricter government regulations either for public safety or for ensuring fair busi-
ness practices. The following pieces of data and evidence are available to the
people who plan to attend the hearing.
• Uber has provided income opportunity for over 1 million drivers.
• Customers generally love Uber for the ease of its rider experience. The rider
is automatically billed through the mobile app without the need to pull out
a credit card or pay a tip.
• Some Uber drivers have complained of low pay and stressful work condi-
tions. Uber data show that 11 percent of Uber drivers quit within a month,
and about half quit within a year.
• Uber classifies its drivers as independent contractors rather than employees.
Therefore, Uber doesn’t have to provide health insurance, overtime pay, and
other benefits.
• As independent contractors, Uber drivers have the freedom to work any
hours they wish, and they accept only the riders and destinations they choose.
• In San Francisco, an Uber driver who was watching his Uber app for a poten-
tial rider struck a six-year-old girl in a crosswalk. The parents sued Uber, but
Uber lawyers claimed that the company bore no responsibility for the accident
because the driver was an independent contractor and was not carrying a rider.
• Uber stores every user’s ride-history data. If your Uber app is running,
Uber can also track your location even if you aren’t requesting an Uber
60 Chapter 4
ride. Uber has been accused of using its tracking data to dig up dirt on jour-
nalists who are critical of Uber and to spy on Uber’s rivals.
• Several independent studies have shown that a rollout of Uber in new areas
is frequently associated with a decrease in drunk driving incidents.
• Several American cities have reported instances of Uber drivers sexually
assaulting passengers. Two lawsuits in California accuse Uber of misleading
customers about the quality of their background checks for drivers. As part
of the suits, district attorneys cited findings that twenty-five Uber drivers in
San Francisco and Los Angeles had criminal records.
• An Australian report found that Uber is less risky than a taxi because both
passengers and drivers have profiles that can be checked before pickup.
Unlike taxi services, Uber provides an online record of who the driver is.
• Taxicab drivers and union leaders complain that Uber’s “surge pricing” poli-
cies are unfair to both regulated taxi companies and to customers. During low
demand times, Uber is cheaper than taxis; during surge times, customers are
often surprised by a bill that is higher than what a taxi company would charge.
• One union leader for taxi drivers said: “Either the city should deregulate us
[taxis] completely, like them [Uber] … or regulate them at least closer to us,
and let there be fair business competition.”
For Writing and Discussion
Creating Contrasting Angles of Vision
Individual task:
Drawing on data that you select from the above list, compose two short speeches, one supporting the cur-
rent Uber business model and one calling for more government regulat ion of Uber. Be ready to explain how
you selected and framed data to create a pro-Uber angle of vision in one speech and an anti-Uber angle of
vision in the other. How do data highlighted in one of your speeches become ” less seen” or even “unseen”
in the other?
Group task:
Working in pairs or as a whole class, share your speeches with classmates. Then, after you have shared
examples, explain the approaches that different classmates employed. What principle of selection was
used? If arguers included evidence contrary to their positions, how did they handle it, respond to it, minimize
its importance, or otherwise channel its rhetorical effect?
Examining Visual Arguments
Angle of Vision
Angle of vision can be conveyed visually as well as verba lly. The photos in Figures 4.1 and 4.2 display
different angles of vision toward graffiti or street art, a controversial subject worldwide that affects urban
dwellers’ and tou rists’ experience of public spaces. Suppose you are writ ing a short b lurb advertising city
sights for a free t ravel magazine available at rental car agencies, hotels, and train stations. Which image
Using Evidence Effectively 61
Figure 4.1 Urban site with graffiti
(Pearson Asset Library)
Figure 4.2 Urban site with graffiti
(Source: June Johnson)
would you include w ith your magazine blurb? Why? Now suppose that you are blogging against graffiti and
street art, perhaps urging city res idents to support tougher enforcement of laws against graffiti, which you
see as vandalism. Which image would you choose? Why?
Analyze the features of the two photographs to explain how they are constructed to create alternative
angles of vision on graffiti.
62 Chapter 4
Rhetorical Strategies for Framing Evidence
What we hope you learned from the preceding exercises is that an arguer con-
sciously selects evidence from a wide field of data and then frames these data
through rhetorical strategies that emphasize some data, minimize other data, and
guide the reader’s response. Now that you have a basic idea of what it means to
frame evidence, here are some strategies you can use to guide what the reader
sees and feels.
STRATEGIES FOR FRAMING EVIDENCE
• Controlling the space given to supporting versus contrary evidence.
Depending on your audience and purpose, you can devote most of your
space to supporting evidence and minimal space to contrary evidence (or
omit it entirely). Thus, people arguing in favor of Uber’s current business
model may have used the pro-Uber evidence from the list while omitting (or
summarizing very briefly) the negative data about Uber.
• Emphasizing a detailed story versus presenting a lot of facts and statistics.
Often, you can choose to support a point with a memorable individual case or
with aggregate data such as statistics or lists of facts. A memorable story can
have a strongly persuasive effect. For example, to argue for more government
regulation of Uber, you might tell the harrowing story of the parents who
sued Uber when a distracted Uber driver killed their daughter in a crosswalk.
In contrast, a supporter of Uber might tell stories of happy Uber customers
using the Uber app instead of standing on a corner trying to hail a taxi.
A different strategy is to use aggregate data such as facts and statistics
rather than narratives. For example, a pro-regulation (anti-Uber) argument
might use graphs to show how Uber has cut into the revenue stream of taxi
companies, or it might use comparative data about the way different cities,
states, or governments have tried to regulate ride-sharing companies like
Uber and Lyft. In contrast, a pro-Uber argument might use data showing the
cost savings of using uber rather than taxis.
Each method has its own strengths and weaknesses. The narrative story
often has a powerful rhetorical effect, but it is always open to the charge that
it is an insufficient or nonrepresentative example. Vivid anecdotes make for
engaging reading, but by themselves they may not be compelling logically.
In contrast, aggregate data, often used in scholarly publications, can provide
more compelling, logical evidence but sometimes make the prose wonkish
and dense.
• Providing contextual and interpretive comments when presenting data.
When citing data, you can add brief contextual or interpretive comments that
act as lenses over the readers’ eyes to help them see the data from your perspec-
tive. Suppose you want to support Uber, but you also want to admit that the
Uber business model creates new problems. You could make these problems
seem inconsequential with this sentence: “It is true that Uber has had occasional
start-up problems, but that is to be expected whenever free enterprise creates a
better business model.” That sentence identifies Uber with creative free enter-
prise while minimizing Uber’s problems as “typical” of all start-ups. An Uber
Using Evidence Effectively 63
supporter might also spin Uber positively through an interpretive analogy that
positions Uber as “modern” and taxis as obsolete: “Protecting taxi companies
by regulating Uber is like protecting stagecoaches by regulating trains.”
• Putting contrary evidence in subordinate positions. Just as a photogra-
pher can emphasize or deemphasize an object by placing it in the center or the
background of a photograph, you can place a piece of data in a subordinate or
main clause of a sentence. Note how the structure of the following sentences
changes the writer’s angle of vision:
• “Although Uber drivers sometimes complain of stressful work conditions
and low pay, they are free as independent contractors to work any hours
they wish and accept only the riders and destinations they choose.” (nega-
tive data in subordinate clause deemphasizes it)
• “Although Uber drivers are free to work any times they wish and to accept
only the rides and destinations they choose, drivers’ complaints about low
pay and high stress are frequent.” (negative data in main clause empha-
sizes it).
• Choosing labels and names that guide the reader’s response to data. One
of the most subtle ways to control your readers’ response to data is to choose
labels and names that prompt them to see the issue as you do. If you like
Uber, you might call its business model”creative entrepreneurship,” praising
Uber for destroying the old, clunky regulations on taxis. In contrast, if you
dislike Uber, you might call it a “dangerously unregulated predator” that
steals fares from hardworking taxi drivers. The labels you choose, along with
the connotations of the words you select, urge your reader to share your angle
of vision.
• Using images (photographs, drawings, other graphics) to guide the reader’s
response to data. Another strategy for moving your audience toward your
angle of vision is to include a photograph, drawing, or other graphic that
portrays a contested issue from your perspective. Supporters of Uber might
include an up-close photograph of an Uber app showing the location of the
approaching driver. Anti-Uber images might depict taxi drivers participating
in a protest demonstration. (See Chapter 9 for a complete discussion of using
visuals in argument.)
• Revealing the value system that determines the writer’s selection and fram-
ing of data. Ultimately, how you select and frame evidence is linked to the
system of values that organizes your argument. If you admire Uber, you prob-
ably favor technological innovation and the “creative destruction” (of older
business models) made possible by free markets. You might want government
to require background checks for Uber drivers, but in general you likely want
the government to stay out of the free market. If you don’t admire Uber, you
probably favor more government regulation aimed at ensuring consumer
safety, enhancing workers’ rights, and protecting consumers against fraud or
false advertising. You may also have doubts about the sharing economy, which
may benefit consumers but may have long-range negative effects on workers.
If you are targeting an audience that shares your assumptions, you can frame
your selected data by stating explicitly the values that guide your argument.
64 Chapter 4
Strategies for Framing Statistical Evidence
Numbers and statistical data can be framed in so many ways that this category of
evidence deserves a much closer look. By recognizing how writers frame numbers
to support the story they want to tell, you will always be aware that other stories
are also possible. Ethical use of numbers means that you use reputable sources
for your basic data, that you don’t invent or distort numbers to suit your own
purposes, and that you don’t ignore alternative points of view. Here are some of
the choices you can make when framing statistical data:
• Numbers versus percentages. You can alter the rhetorical effect of a sta-
tistic by choosing between numbers and percentages. If your uncle reports a
$5,000 drop in his retirement account, that sounds scary. It sounds much less
scary if he reports a 1 percent drop. You can apply this framing option directly
to the Uber case. To emphasize the danger of sexual assault by an Uber driver,
you can say that in a given year eight persons filed sexual assault suits against
Uber. This use of numbers emphasizes each reported case. To minimize this
statistic, you could report it as a percentage of the total number of Uber rides
within the United States in a given year. When reported as a percentage, the
sexual assault rate by Uber drivers is a tiny fraction of 1 percent.
• Median versus mean. Another way to alter the rhetorical effect of numbers
is to choose between the median and the mean. The mean is the average of
all numbers in a list. The median is the middle number when all the numbers
are arranged in order from high to low. In 2016 the mean annual income of
retirees aged 70-74 in the United States was $38,000 not a large amount
of income, but enough to live on comfortably if the retirees owned their own
home. However, retirees’ median income in 2016 was only $23,000, a figure
that points to a much more unequal income distribution among older Ameri-
cans. This median figure means that half of the retired persons in this age
bracket had annual incomes of $23,000 or less close to poverty level. The
much higher mean income indicates that some retired Americans are very
wealthy. This wealth raises the average of all incomes (the mean) but doesn’t
affect the median.
• Unadjusted versus adjusted numbers. Suppose your boss tells you that
you are getting a 5 percent raise. You might be happy unless inflation rates
are running at 6 percent. Economic data can be hard to interpret across time
unless the dollar amounts are adjusted for inflation. This same problem
occurs in other areas. For example, comparing grade point averages of college
graduates in 1970 versus 2016 means little unless one can somehow adjust
the numbers for grade inflation.
• Interval sizes on graphs. Whenever you draw a line graph, you can manip-
ulate a curve’s slope (angle) by the intervals you choose on the vertical axis.
If you want to make a graph showing that Earth’s average temperature has
increased by 1.5 degrees Fahrenheit since 1850, the curve will look steep if
you choose Y2 degree intervals on the vertical axis. However, if you choose
five-degree intervals, the curve will look almost flat. You can see this dif-
ference by comparing graphs produced by climate scientists (where global
warming is made to “pop out”) versus those produced by climate skeptics
(where global warming is made to seem nonexistent). For more on graphic
display of data, see Chapter 9.
Using Evidence Effectively 65
For Class Discussion
Using Strategies to Frame Statistical Evidence
A proposal to build a publicly funded sports stadium in a major American city y ielded a w ide range of statis-
tical arguments. All of the following statements are reasonably faithful to the same facts:
• The stadium would be paid for by raising the sales tax from 8.2 percent to 8.3 percent for a twenty-year
period.
• The sales tax increase is one-tenth of 1 percent.
• The sales tax increase represents an average of $7.50 per person per year-about the price of a special
coffee drink and a pastry.
• The sales tax increase represents $750 per f ive-person family over the twenty-year period in which
the higher tax is in effect.
• For a famil y building a new home in this city, this tax will increase building costs by $200.
• This is a $250 million tax increase for city res idents.
How wou ld you describe the costs of the proposed sports stadium if you opposed the proposal?
How wou ld you describe the costs if you supported the proposal?
Creating a Plan for Gathering Evidence
As you begin contemplating an argument, you can use the following checklist to
help you think of p ossible sources for evidence.
A CHECKLIST FOR BRAINSTORMING SOURCES OF EVIDENCE
• What personal experiences have you had with this issue? What details from
your life or the lives of your friends, acquaintances, or relatives might serve
as examples or other kinds of evidence?
• What observational studies would be relevant to this issue?
• Which people could you interview to provide insights or expert knowledge
on this issue?
• Which questions about your issue could be researched with a survey or
questionnaire?
• What useful information on this issue might encyclopedias or specialized
reference works in your university library provide?
• What evidence might you seek on this issue using licensed databases to search
for relevant articles from magazines, newspapers, and scholarly journals?
• How might an Internet search help you research this issue?
• What evidence might you find on this issue from reliable statistical resources
such as the U.S. Census Bureau, the Centers for Disease Control, or the website
USA.gov? (For more information on the last four points, see Chapter 16.)
Conclusion
Effective use of evidence is an essential skill for arguers. In this chapter we showed
you various kinds of evidence ranging from personal experience to library I
Internet research. We then discussed ways you can make your evidence persuasive
66 Chapter 4
by applying the STAR criteria, developing a trustworthy ethos, and being mindful
of a secondary source’s distance from the original data. We next examined how
a writer’s angle of vision influences his or her selection and framing of evidence.
Finally, we described framing strategies for emphasizing, de-emphasizing, and
guiding your reader’s response to evidence.
Writing Assignment
A Supporting-Reasons Argument
Write an argument that uses at least two reasons to support your claim and appropriate evidence to develop
your reasons. Your argument should include the features of a classical argument described at the beginning
of Chapter 2 except that you can omit the section on summarizing and responding to opposing views, which
we will cover in Chapter 6. This assignment builds on the brief writing assignments in Chapter 2 (create a
thesis statement for an argument) and Chapter 3 (brainstorm support for one of your enthymemes using
the Toulmin schema). Like a complete classical argument, a supporting-reasons argument has a thesis-
governed structure in which you state your claim at the end of the introduction, begin body paragraphs with
clearly stated reasons, and use effective transitions throughout to keep your reader on track. In developing
your own argument, place your most important, persuasive, or interesting reason last, where it will have the
greatest impact on your readers. A model for a supporting-reasons argument is Carmen Tieu’s “Why Violent
Video Games Are Good for Girls” in Chapter 3.
4 Using Evidence Effectively
342
Chapter 16
•
Learning Objectives
In this chapter you will learn to:
16.1 Formulate a research question instead of a topic.
16.2 Think rhetorically about kinds of sources.
16.3 Find sources through field, library, or Web research.
16.4 Use rhetorical awareness to select and evaluate your sources
and take purposeful notes.
Although the research paper is a common writing assignment in college, students
are often baffled by their professor’s expectations. The problem is that students
often think of research writing as presenting information rather than creating
an argument. One of our business-school colleagues calls these sorts of research
papers “data dumps.”
But a research paper shouldn’t be a data dump. Like any other argument, it
should use information to support a contestable claim. In academic settings (as
opposed to arguments in many business or civic settings), a distinguishing feature
of a researched argument is its formal documentation. By documentation, we
mean the in-text citations and accompanying list of references that allow readers
to identify and locate the researcher’s sources for themselves while also establish
–
ing the writer’s professionalism and ethos.
Fortunately, writing an argument as a formal research paper draws on the
same argumentation skills you have already been using the ability to pose a
question at issue within a community, to formulate a contestable claim, and to
support your claim with audience-based reasons and evidence. This chapter
shows you how to find and evaluate sources. Chapter 17 then shows you how to
incorporate your sources skillfully into your own prose using the academic con-
ventions for ethical research. (Knowing and using these conventions will free you
from any fears of plagiarism.) Finally, in Chapter 18 we explain the nitty-gritty
details of in-text citations and end-of-paper lists of sources.
Finding and Evaluating Sources 343
Formulating a Research ~ uestion
Instead of a Topic
16.1 Formulate a research question instead of a topic.
The best way to use your research time efficiently is to pose a question rather
than a topic. To appreciate this difference, suppose a friend asks you what your
research paper is about. Consider the differences in the following responses:
Topic focus: I’m doing a paper on gender-specific children’s toys.
Question focus: I’m researching the effects of gender-specific toys on children’s
intellectual development. Do boys’ toys develop intellectual skills more than
girls’ toys do?
Topic focus: I’m doing a paper on eating disorders.
Question focus: I’m trying to sort out what the experts say is the best way to
treat severe anorexia nervosa. Is inpatient treatment or outpatient treatment
more effective?
As these scenarios suggest, a topic focus invites you to collect information
without a clear point or purpose an open road toward data dumping. In con-
trast, a question focus requires you to make an argument in which you support
a claim with reasons and evidence. Your goal as a researcher is to pose an issue
question about which reasonable persons may disagree. In many cases, you might
not know where you stand yourself. Your research thus becomes a process of
inquiry and clarifica
tion.
Thinking etorically About
Kinds of Sources
16.2 Think rhetorically about kinds of sources.
To be an effective researcher, you need to think rhetorically about the different
kinds of sources.
Identifying Kinds of Sources Relevant to
Your Question
At the beginning of your research process, think rhetorically about the conversa-
tion you will be joining and about the kinds of evidence you might use to support
an argument. The brainstorming questions at the end of Chapter 4 on kinds of
evidence (ranging from personal experience to library sources) can help you think
of possible sources for your argument and help you discover different points of
view on your question.
Approaching Sources Rhetorically
Whether you interview someone, listen to a speaker, or read a text, you need to
analyze this source rhetorically, asking questions about the writer’s or speaker’s
purpose, audience, genre, and angle of vision (explained in detail in Chapter 7
344 Chapter 16
on an alyzing argumen ts rhetorically). As a researcher, you often need to ascertain
a text’s genre even before you d ecide to select that text as a potential source for
your paper. Your payoff for having a basic understanding of source typ es will b e
an increased ability to read sources rhetorically and to u se them purposefully in
your research writing.
To help you appreciate how rhetorical analysis can increase your skills as a
researcher, p eruse Table 16.1. The following explanations will help you under-
stand the table’s explanations of each source’s d egree of editorial review, stability,
adv ocacy, and authority.
Table 16.1 A Rhetorical Overview of Sources
ARTICLES IN SCHOLARLY
JOURNALS
Examples: articles in Journal of Abnor-
mal Psychology or American Journal
of Botany
SCHOLARLY BOOKS
Example: Shakespearean Negotia-
tions: The Circulation of Social Identity
in Renaissance England by Stephen
Greenblatt
SCHOLARLY WEBSITES
Example: http:/ /seasia.museum.
upenn .edu (Southeast Asian Archeol-
ogy Scholarly website)
REFERENCE WORKS
Example: The Farmer’s Almanac; New
Dictionary of Cultural Literacy
NEWSPAPERS AND NEWS
MAGAZINES
Examples: Time, Washington Post, Los
Angeles Times
ARTICLES IN PUBLIC AFFAIRS
PERIODICALS
Examples: Harper’s, Commonweal,
National Review
Peer-Reviewed Scholarly Sources
Author: Professors, industry research-
ers, independent scholars
Angle of vision: Scholarly advanc
e-
ment of knowledge; presentation of
research findings; development of new
theories and applications
Author: Professors, industry
researchers, independent scholars
Angle of vision: Scholarly advance-
ment of knowledge; presentation of
research findings; development of new
theories and applications
Author: Professors or institute scholars
Angle of vision: Dissemination of
research findings; informative access to
• pnmary sources
Author: Commissioned scholars
Angle of vision: Balanced, factual
•
overv1ew
Public Affairs Sources
Author: Staff writers and journalists;
occasional freelance journalists
Angle of vision: News reports aimed
at balance and objectivity; editorial
pages reflect perspective of edi-
tors; op-ed pieces reflect different
perspectives
Author: Staff writers, freelancers,
scholars
Angle of vision: Aims to deepen
general public ‘s understanding of
issues; magazines often have political
bias
• Not sold on magazine racks
• No commercial advertising
• Academ ic style with documentation and
bibliography
• Cover often lists table of contents
• Found through licensed online databases
• University press or other academic
publisher on title page
• Academ ic style with documentation and
bibliography
• Found in academic libraries; may be
available as e-book
• Usually have a .edu web address
or address of professional scholarly
organization
• Clearly identified with an academic
institution
• Material is usually peer reviewed, but
may include reports on work-in-progress
or links to primary sources
• Titles containing words such as encyclo-
pedia, dictionary, atlas, and so forth
• Found in library reference section or
online
• Readi ly familiar by name, distinctive
cover style
• Widely available on newsstands, by
subscription, and on the web
• Ads aimed at broad, general audience
• Long, well-researched articles reviewed
by editors
• Ads aimed at upscale professionals
• Often have reviews of books, theater,
film, and the arts
• Often can be found in on line databases
or on the web
ORGANIZATIONAL WHITE PAPERS
Examples : “Congressional White Paper
on a National Policy for the Environ-
ment” (on web) or “Reform Sugges-
tions for Core Curriculum” (in-house
document at a university)
BLOGS
Examples: dailykos.com (liberal blog
site); michellemalkin.com (conservative
blog site); theladysportswriter. blogspot.
com (sports commentary)
NONFICTION BOOKS OF GENERAL
INTEREST
Example: Cheap: The High Cost of
Discount Culture by Ellen Ruppel! Shell
(a journalism professor)
DOCUMENTARY FILMS
Examples: Michael Moore, Sicko; Louie
Psihoyos, The Cove
NEWSPAPER EDITORIALS, COMMEN-
TARY, AND LEI I ERS TO THE EDIT
OR
Examples: editorial page, letters to the
editor, and op-ed pages of Washington
Post, Los Angeles Times, Wall Street
Journal, and some magazines
EDITORIAL CARTOONS
Examples: see www.cagle.
com/politicalcartoons/
ADVOCACY ORGANIZA-
TION WEBSITES, BLOGS, AND
ADVERTISEMENTS
Examples: NRA.org (National Rifle
Association); csgv.org (Coalition to
Stop Gun Violence)
GOVERNMENT AGENCY WEBSITES
Example: www.energy.gov (website of
the U.S. Dept. of Energy)
Author: Organizational stakeholders;
problem-solvers for a client
Angle of vision: Informative document
for client or argumentative paper
for influencing policy or improving
operations
Author: Anyone; some bloggers are
practicing journalists
Angle of vision: Varies from personal
diaries to in-depth commentary on a
subject or issues; wide range of views
from conservative to liberal
Author: Journalists, freelancers,
scholars aiming at popular audience
Angle of vision: Varies from informative
to persuasive; often well researched and
respected, but sometimes shoddy and
aimed for quick sale
Writer/Director: Filmmakers,
screenwriters trained in nonfiction
documentaries
Angle of vision: Varies from informa-
tive science documentaries to strong
advocacy
Advocacy Sources
Author: Editorial writers; citizens
writi ng letters to the editor; syndicated
or guest colu mnists
Angle of vision: Advocacy for certain
positions or public policies
Cartoonist: Usually syndicated artists
who specialize in cartoons
Angle of vision: Varies from
conservative to liberal
Author/Site Sponsor: Advocacy
organizations; staff writers/researchers;
web developers; guest writers; often, it
is difficult to identify individual writers
Angle of vision: Strong advocacy for
the site’s viewpoint; often encourage
donations through site
Government Sources
Author: Development teams employed
by agency; sponsoring agency is usu-
ally the author (corporate authorship);
may include material by individual
authors
Angle of vision: Varies-informational
sites publish data and objective docu-
ments; agency sites also advocate for
agency’s agenda
Finding and Evaluating Sources 345
• Desktop-published, internal documents
aimed at problem solving ; may also be
written for clients
• Internal documents generally not made
available to the public
• Sometimes posted to web or published
in print
• Usually published on time-stamped blog
sites; most sites post responses from
readers
• Bloggers sometimes use pseudonyms
• Often combines text with images or
linked videos
• Published by commercial presses for profit
• Popular style; covers designed for
marketing appeal
• Usually documented in an informal rather
than an academic style
• May be available as an e-book
• Specifically identified as “documentary”
or “nonfiction”
• Combines interviews and voice-overs
with subject -matter footage
• Located in the editorial/op-ed sections of
a newspaper
• Editorials are often unsigned-they
advocate positions held by owners or
publishers of the newspaper
• Letters and op-ed pieces are signed
• Usually located in the op-ed section of
newspapers
• Occasionally political cartoonists are
treated as comic strips (Doonesbury)
• .org in URL-denotes advocacy or
nonprofit status
• Sometimes doesn’t announce advocacy
clearly on home page
• Facts/data selected and filtered by site’s
angle of vision
• Often uses visuals for emotional appeals
• Site often includes blogs (or links to
blogs) that promote same angle of vision
• .gov or .mil in URL- denotes
government or mil itary sites
• Are often layered and complex with
hundreds of links to other sites
(continued)
346 Chapter 16
LEGAL AND COURT DOCUMENTS Author: Lawyers, judges, persons
deposed for trials, trial testimony
Angle of vision: Trial lawyers take
strong advocacy positions; testifiers
vow to tell the whole truth; judges
defend decisions
• Legal briefs have distinctive formats
• Court records can be accessed through
www.pacer.gov (public access to court
electronic records-requires user to
establish an account)
POLITICAL AND LEGISLATIVE
SPEECHES
Author: Politicians, political candi-
dates, researchers, and aides
Angle of vision: Reflects politics of
speaker
• Widely available throug h newspapers,
websites, You Tube videos, congressional
records
Commercial Sources
TRADE MAGAZINES • Title indicating trade or
profession
Examples: Advertising Age, Automotive
Rebuilder, Farm Journal
Author: Staff writers, industry
specialists
Angle of vision: Informative articles
for practitioners; advocacy for the pro-
fession or trade
• Articles on practical industry concerns
• Ads geared toward a particular trade or
profession
POPULAR NICHE MAGAZINES
Examples: Seventeen, People, Car and
Driver, Golf Digest
COMM ERCIAL WEBSITES AN D
ADVERTISEMENTS
PERSONAL WEBSITES, SLOGS, OR
CORRESPONDENCE
Author: Staff or freelance writers
Angle of vision: Varies-focuses on
interests of targeted audience; in some
cases content and point of view are
dictated by advertisers or the pub-
lisher’s politics
Author: Development teams, in-house
writers, contracted developers; adver-
tising agencies
Angle of vision: Varies from informa-
tion to advocacy; promotes the view-
point of the business
Author: Anyone can create a personal
website or blog or write personal
letters/e-mails
Angle of vision: Varies from person
to person
DEGREE OF EDITORIAL REVIEW
• Glossy paper, extensive ads, lots of
visuals
• Popular; often distinctive style
• Short, undocumented articles
• Credentials of writer often not mentioned
• .com or .biz in URL-denotes “commer-
cial” or “business”
• Advertisements or websites often
promote corporate image as well as
products
• Freq uent use of visuals as well as text
• Researcher using these sources is
responsible for citing credentials of
source or revealing bias of source
• N ote that Table 16.1 begins w ith ” p eer-reviewed sch olarly sou rces,” w hich
are p ublish ed by n onprofit acad emic presses and w ritten for sp ecialized
audien ces. Peer review is a highly prized con cept in acad em ia. It refers to
the rigorou s and competitive selection process b y w h ich sch olarly manu-
scripts get ch osen for publication. When manuscripts are submitted to an
academ ic publisher, the editor rem oves the names of the authors and sends
the m anuscripts to exp erien ced scholars w h o judge the rigor and accuracy
of the research and the significance and valu e of the argument. In contrast,
the other typ es of sou rces listed in Table 16.1 many of w hich are publish ed
for profit are n ot p eer review ed and m ay h ave little or n o editorial review
from the publish er. H owever, reputable publishers of b ooks, m agazines, and
n ew sp ap ers u sually employ rigorou s editors who oversee the p roduction of
books and freelance or commissioned magazine articles. Fortunately, it can
be profitable for p opular presses to publish superbly researched and argu ed
intellectual material w ritten for the gen eral reader rather than for highly sp e-
cialized scholars. These can be excellent sources for undergraduate research,
but you n eed to separate the trash from the treasure.
Finding and Evaluating Sources 347
DEGREE OF STABILITY
• Print sources (books, scholarly journals, magazines, newspapers), which can
be stored in archives and retrieved many years later, are more stable than
web-only material, which may change hourly. What complicates the distinc-
tion between “print” and “web only” is that many documents retrievable on
the Web are also stable either because they were originally print sources
and have been made available online in pdf or html formats, or because they
are produced by a reputable company as e-books, e-journals, or online news-
papers that will be archived digitally. As a quick example of a stable versus
nonstable source, suppose you wrote a letter to the editor that was published
in a major newspaper. Your letter will be archived permanently, and it will
be retrievable, just as you wrote it, long into the future. But if instead you
posted a comment on a blog site, that comment (and the whole blog site)
might disappear at any time.
For Writing and Discussion
Identifying Types of Sources
Your instructor w ill bring to c lass a variety of print sources-different kinds of books, scholarly journals,
magazines, and so forth-and may also show you various kinds of sources retrieved onl ine. Working indi-
vidually or in small groups, decide to which category in Table 16.1 each piece belongs. Be prepared to justify
your decisions based on the c lues you used.
DEGREE OF ADVOCACY
• In Chapter 1 we explained how arguments combine truth seeking and per-
suasion. To illustrate these concepts, we charted a continuum from explor-
atory essays at one end of the continuum to outright propaganda at the other
end (see Figure 1.5). To read a source rhetorically, you should try to determine
where on this continuum your source resides. In Table 16.1, we identify as
advocacy sources those sources that clearly announce their persuasive inten-
tions. But other kinds of sources, such as an article in a public affairs maga-
zine, a popular book, a legal brief, a documentary film, or a political speech,
can have a strong advocacy stance.
DEGREE OF AUTHORITY
• Sometimes you turn to a specific genre because you just want the facts.
Reputable newspapers are good sources for day-to-day reporting on “what
happened.” Other kinds of excellent fact-checking sources include encyclo-
pedias, statistical abstracts, and other reference works that provide distilled
background or overview information on many topics. For most sources,
however, you need to be wary about the author’s authority in a field and
read rhetorically for angle of vision, accuracy of data, and cherry picking
of sources. Be aware too that Wikipedia is not a reliable academic source.
Although it is a fascinating cultural product that provides rapid access
to overview information, it is often accused of inaccurate information,
348 Chapter 16
editorial bias, and shifting content because of constant revisions by its col-
laborative writers. Most instructors will not accept Wikipedia as a fac tual or
informative source.
Finding Sources
16.3 Find sources through field, library, or Web research.
In the previous section, we explained d ifferences among the kinds of sources you
may uncover in a research project. In this section, we explain how to find these
sources through field research (such as interviews and questionnaires), through
using your campus’s library resources (books, reference materials, and online
databases for finding articles), and through web searches.
Conducting Interviews
Conducting interviews is a useful way not only to gather expert testimony and
important data for use in your argument but also to learn about alternative views.
To make interviews as productive as possible, we offer these suggestions.
• Determine your purpose. Consider why you are interviewing the person and
what information he or she is uniquely able to provide.
• Do background reading. Find out as much as possible about the interviewee
before the interview. Your knowledge of his or her background will help
establish your credibility and build a bridge between you and your source.
Also, equip yourself with a good foundational understanding of the issue so
that you will sound informed and truly interested in the issue.
• Formulate well-thought-out questions, but also be flexible. Write out beforehand
the questions you intend to ask, making sure that every question is related to
the purpose of your interview. However, be prepared to move in unexpected
directions if the interview opens up new territory. Sometimes unplanned
topics can end up being the most illuminating and useful.
• Arrive well prepared for the interview. As part of your professional demeanor,
be sure to have all the necessary supplies (notepaper, pens, pencils, perhaps
a recording device if your interviewee is w illing)
with you.
• Be prompt and courteous. It is important to be punctual and respectful of your
interviewee’s time. In most cases, it is best to present yourself as a listener
seeking clarity on an issue rather than an advocate of a particular position or
an opponent. During the interview, p lay the believing role. Save the doubting
role for later, when you are looking over your notes.
• Take brief but clear notes. Record the main ideas and be accurate w ith quota-
tions. Ask for clarification of any points you don’t understand.
• Transcribe your notes soon after the interview. Immediately after the interview,
while your memory is still fresh, rewrite your notes more fully and completely.
When you use interview data in your writing, put quotation marks around
any direct quotations. In most cases, you should also identify your source by name
and indicate his or her title or credentials w h atever will convince the reader that
this person’s remarks are to be taken serious! y.
Gather-ing Source Data from Surveys
or Questionnaires
Finding and Evaluating Sources 349
A well-constructed survey or questionnaire can provide lively, current data that
give your audience a sense of the currency and importance of your views. To be
effective and responsible, however, a survey or questionnaire needs to be carefully
prepared and administered, as we suggest in the following guidelines.
• Include both closed-response questions and open-response questions. To gain useful
information and avoid charges of bias, you will want to include a range of
questions. Closed-response questions ask participants to check a box or number
on a scale, and they yield quantitative data that you can report statistically,
perhaps in tables or graphs. Open-response questions elicit varied responses
and often short narratives in which participants offer their own input. These
may contribute new insights to your perspective on the issue.
• Make your survey or questionnaire clear and easy to complete. Consider the num-
ber, order, wording, and layout of the questions in your questionnaire. Your
questions should be clear and easy to answer. Neatness and an overall formal
appearance of the questionnaire will also invite serious responses from your
participants.
• Explain the purpose of the questionnaire. Respondents are usually more willing
to participate if they know how the information gained from the question-
naire will benefit others. Therefore, it is a good idea to state at the beginning
of the questionnaire how it will be used.
• Seek a random sample of respondents in your distribution of the questionnaire.
Think out where and how you will distribute and collect your questionnaire
to ensure a random sampling of respondents. For example, if a questionnaire
about the university library went only to dorm residents, then you wouldn’t
learn how commuting students felt.
• Convert questionnaires into usable data by tallying and summarizing responses.
Tallying the results and formulating summary statements of the information
you gathered will yield material that might be used as evidence.
Finding Books and Reference Sources
To find the specialized resources provided by your campus library, your best
initial research tool is your campus library’s home page. This portal will lead
you to two important resources: (1) the library’s online catalog for its own hold-
ings of books, periodicals, films, multimedia materials, reference works, and
other resources, and (2) direct links to the many digital databases leased by the
library. (We discuss these databases in the next section.) When searching for
books related to your research question, particularly look for recent books that
might have helpful indexes and bibliographies. Also be aware of your library’s
reference materials such as statistical abstracts, biographies, dictionaries, and
encyclopedias.
In addition to checking your library’s home page, make a personal visit to
your library to learn its features and to meet your library’s reference librarians,
who are a researcher’s best friends.
350 Chapter 16
Using Licensed Databases to Find Articles in
Scholarly Journals, Magazines, and News Sources
For many research projects, the most useful sources are articles that may be
immediately available in your library’s periodical collection or online through
databases. In either case, you discover the existence of these articles by searching
licensed databases leased by your library.
WHAT IS A LICENSED DATABASE? Electronic databases of periodical sources
are produced by for-profit companies that index the articles appearing in thou-
sands of periodicals. You can search the database by author, title, subject, key-
word, date, genre, and other characteristics. In most cases, the database contains
an abstract of each article, and in many cases it contains the full text of the article,
which you can download and print. These databases are referred to by several
different generic names: licensed databases (our preferred term), periodical databases,
or subscription services. Because access to these databases is restricted to fee-pay-
ing customers, they can’t be searched through web search engines like Google.
Most university libraries allow students to access these databases from a remote
computer by using a password. You can therefore use the Internet to connect your
computer to licensed databases as well as to the World Wide Web.
Although the methods of accessing licensed databases vary from institution
to institution, we can offer some widely applicable guidelines. Most likely your
library has access to one or more of the following databases:
• Academic Search Complete (Ebsco): Indexes nearly 8,000 periodicals, including
full text of nearly 7,000 peer-reviewed journals. It features a mix of interdis-
ciplinary scholarly journals, magazines, newspapers, and books.
• Research Library Complete (ProQuest): Similar to Academic Search Complete
except that it includes trade publications and more business and industry
materials.
• LexisNexis Academic Universe: Primarily a full-text database covering current
events, business, and financial news; includes company profiles and legal,
medical, and reference information.
• JSTOR: Offers full text of scholarly journal articles across many disciplines;
you can limit searches to specific disciplines.
Generally, one of these databases is the default database chosen by your
library for most article searches. Your reference librarian will be able to direct
you to the most useful licensed database for your purpose.
Finding Cyberspace Sources:
Searching the World Wide Web
Another valuable resource is the World Wide Web, but when using the web you
need to be extra careful to evaluate your sources rhetorically. Web search engines
search only the free-access, ever-changing portions of the Internet known as the
World Wide Web. When you type keywords into a web search engine, it searches
for matches in material made available on the web by all the users of the world’s
network of computers government agencies, corporations, advocacy groups,
information services, individuals with their own websites, and many others.
Finding and Evaluating Sources 35
1
Because different web search engines search the web in different ways, your ref-
erence librarian can give you good advice on what works well for particular kinds
of searches. On the web, an additional resource is NoodleTools.com, which offers
lots of good advice for choosing the best search engine.
• The following example will quickly show you the difference between a
licensed database search and a web search. When student Ivan Snook (see
his proposal argument in Chapter 15) typed “women in combat roles” into
Google, he received 5,800,000 hits. When he entered the same keywords
into the licensed database Academic Search Complete, he received forty-four
hits. When he limited the database search to full-text articles appearing in
peer-reviewed journals, he received twenty hits. Clearly, the search tools are
searching different fields. Google picks up, in addition to all the articles that
someone may have posted on the web, all references to material appear-
ing on advocacy websites, government publications, newspapers, b logs,
chat rooms, student papers posted on the web, and so forth. In contrast,
Academic Search Complete searches for articles primarily in scholarly journals
and magazines.
Selecting and Evaluating Your
Sources and Taking Purposeful Notes
16.4 Use rhetorical awareness to select and evaluate your sources
and take purposeful notes.
So far, we have explained the importance of posing a good research question;
understanding the different kinds of sources; and using purposeful strategies for
conducting interviews, for designing questionnaires, and for searching libraries,
licensed databases, and the web. In this final section, we explain how to read with
rhetorical awareness, how to select and evaluate sources, and how to take pur-
poseful notes. We also provide some additional advice for evaluating web sources.
Reading with Rhetorical Awareness
How you read a source may depend on where you are in the research process.
Early in the process, when you are in the thesis-seeking, exploratory stage, your
goal is to achieve a basic understanding about your research problem. You need to
become aware of different points of view, learn what is unknown or controversial
about your research question, see what values or assumptions are in conflict, and
build up your store of background knowledge.
Given these goals, at the early stages of research you should select overview
kinds of sources to get you into the conversation. In some cases, even an ency-
clopedia or specialized reference work can be a good start for getting general
background information.
As you get deeper into your research, your questions become more focused,
and the sources you read become more specialized. Once you formulate a thesis
and p lan a structure for your paper, you can determine more clearly the sources
you need and read them with purpose and direction.
352 Chapter 16
Table 16.2 Questions Asked by Rhetorical Readers
What was the source author’s purpose in writing this
piece?
• Who is t his author? What are his or her credentials and
affiliations?
• What audience is th is person add ressing?
• What is the genre of this piece? (If you downloaded t he
piece from the World Wid e Web , did it originally appear
in print?)
• If this p iece appeared in print, w hat is the reputation and
bias of the journal, magazine, or press? Was the piece
peer reviewed?
• If this p iece appeared only on the web , who or what
organization sponsors the website (check the home page)?
What is the reputation and bias of the sponsor?
• What is the author’s t hesis or pu rpose?
• How d oes this author try to change his or her aud ience’s
view?
• What is this w riter’s ang le of vision or bias?
• What is omitted or censored from this text?
• How reliable and credible is t his author?
• What facts, data, and ot her evidence d oes this author use,
and what are the sources of these data?
• What are this author’s underlying values , assumptions,
and bel iefs?
What might be my purpose in using this piece in my
own argument?
• How has t his p iece influenced o r compl icated my own
thinking?
• How does this piece relate to my research q uestion?
• How w ill my own intended aud ience react to th is author?
• How might I use t his p iece in my own argument?
• Is it an opposing view that I m ight summarize?
• Is it an alternative point of view that I might compare to
other points of view?
• Does it have facts and data that I m ight use?
• Would a summary of all or part of this argument su pport or
oppose one or more of my own poi nts?
• Could I use this author for testimony? (If so, how shou ld I
ind icate t his author’s credentials?)
• If I use this source, w ill I need to acknowledge the author’s
bias and angle of vision?
To read your sources rhetorically, you should keep two basic questions in mind:
1. What was the source author’s purpose in writing this piece?
2. What might be my purpose in using this piece?
Table 16.2, which lists the questions that rhetorical readers typically ask, rein-
forces a point we’ve made throughout this text: All writing is produced from an
angle of vision that privileges some ways of seeing and filters out other ways. You
should guard against reading your sources as if they present hard, undisputed
facts or universal truths. For example, if one of your sources says that “Saint
John’s wort [an herb] has been shown to be an effective treatment for depression,”
some of your readers might accept that statement as fact but many wouldn’t.
Skeptical readers might ask whether the author is relying on published research,
and if so, whether the studies have been peer-reviewed in reputable, scholarly
journals. They would also want to know whether a trade association for herbal
supplements sponsored the research and whether the author or the researchers
had financial connections to companies that produce herbal remedies. Rather than
settling the question about Saint John’s wort as a treatment for depression, this
author’s assertion may open up a heated controversy about medical research.
Reading rhetorically is thus a way of thinking critically about your sources.
It influences the way you evaluate sources, take notes, and shape your argument.
Evaluating Sources
When you read sources for your research project, you need to evaluate them as you
go along. As you read each potential source, ask yourself questions about the author’s
reliability, credibility, angle of vision, political stance, and degree of advocacy.
Finding and Evaluating Sources 353
RELIABILITY Reliability refers to the accuracy of factual data in a source. If you
check a writer’s “facts” against other sources, do you find that the facts are cor-
rect? Does the writer distort facts, take them out of context, or otherwise use
them unreasonably? In some controversies, key data are highly disputed for
example, the frequency of date rape or the risk factors for many diseases. A reli-
able writer acknowledges these controversies and doesn’t treat disputed data as
fact. Furthermore, if you check out the sources used by a reliable writer, they’ll
reveal accurate and careful research respected primary sources rather than hear-
say or secondhand reports. Journalists of reputable newspapers (not tabloids)
pride themselves on meticulously checking out their facts, as do editors of serious
popular magazines. However, editing is often minimal for web sources, which can
be notoriously unreliable. As you gain knowledge about your research question,
you’ll develop a good ear for writers who play fast and loose with data.
CREDIBILITY Credibility is similar to reliability but is based on internal rather
than external factors. It refers to the reader’s trust in the writer’s honesty, goodwill,
and trustworthiness and is apparent in the writer’s tone, reasonableness, fairness
in summarizing opposing views, and respect for different perspectives. (Authors
who earn your trust have successfully appealed to ethos.) Audiences differ in
how much credibility they will grant to certain authors. Nevertheless, a writer
can achieve a reputation for credibility, even among bitter political opponents, by
applying to issues a sense of moral courage, integrity, and consistency of principle.
ANGLE OF VISION By angle of vision, we mean the way that a piece of writing is
shaped by its author’s underlying values, assumptions, and beliefs, resulting in a
text that reflects a certain perspective, world view, or belief system. Of paramount
importance are the underlying values or beliefs that the writer assumes his or her
readers will share. You can get useful clues about a writer’s angle of vision and
intended audience by doing some quick research into the politics and reputation
of the author on the Internet or by analyzing the genre, market niche, and political
reputation of the publication in which the material appears.
POLITICAL STANCE Your awareness of angle of vision and political stance is
especially important if you are doing research on contemporary cultural or politi-
cal issues. In Table 16.3, we have categorized some well-known political commen-
tators, publications, policy research institutes (commonly known as think tanks),
and blogs across the political spectrum from left/liberal to right/ conservative.
Although the terms liberal and conservative or left and right often have fuzzy
meanings, they provide convenient shorthand for signaling a person’s over-
all views about the proper role of government in relation to the economy and
social values. Liberals, tending to sympathize with those potentially harmed by
unfettered free markets (workers, consumers, p laintiffs, endangered species), are
typically comfortable with government regulation of economic matters. Conser-
vatives, who tend to sympathize with business interests, typically assert faith in
free markets and favor a limited regulatory role for government. On social issues,
conservatives tend to espouse traditional family values and advocate laws that
would maintain these values (for example, promoting a constitutional amend-
ment that would forbid abortions). Liberals, on the other hand, tend to espouse
individual choice on many social matters. Some persons identify themselves as
economic conservatives but social liberals; others side with workers’ interests on
economic issues but are conservative on social issues.
354 Chapter 16
Table 16.3 Ang les of Vision in U.S. Media and Think Tan ks: A Sampling Across the Political Spectrum
Barbara Ehrenreich
Naomi Klein
Michael Moore (film-maker)
Paul Krugman
Thom Hartman (radio)
Rachel Maddow (television)
The American Prospect
Harper’s
Los Angeles Times
Mother Jones
The Nation
New York Times
New Yorker
Salon
Sojourners
americablog .com
crooksandliars.com
dailykos.com
digbysblog. blogspot. com
firedoglake.com
huffingtonpost.com
med iamatters. com
talkingpointsmemo.com
wonkette.com
Center for American Progress
E. J. Dionne
Leonard Pitts
Gail Collins
Nicholas Kristof
Maureen Dowd
Mark Shields
Frank Bruni
Charles M. Blow
Froma Harrop
Center for Media and Democracy (sponsors
Disinfopedia. org)
Institute for Policy Studies
Open Society Institute (Soros Foundation)
Progressive Policy Institute
Urban Institute
David Ignatius
Thomas Friedman
Kathleen Hall Jamieson
Kevin Phillips
David Broder
David Brooks
Peggy Noonan
Jonah Goldberg
And rew Sullivan
George Wi ll
Charles Krauthammer
Michelle Malki n
Glenn Beck (radio/TV)
Rush Limbaugh (radio/TV)
Bill O’Reilly (radio/TV)
Kathleen Parker Will iam Saletan
Mary Sanchez
Ruben Navarrette, Jr.
Ross Douthat Thomas Sowell
Atlantic Monthly
Business Week
Commentary
Commonweal
Foreign Affairs
New Republic
Slate
Washington Post
don klephant. com
Paul Gigot
newmoderate. blogspot. com
politics-central. blogspot . com
rantingbald hippie.com
stevesilver. net
themoderatevoice. com
washingtonindependent. com
watchi ngwashington . blogspot.com
The Brookings Institution
Carnegie Endowment for Interna-
tional Peace
Council on Foreign Relations
Jamestown Foundation
National Bureau of Economic
Research
Avik Roy
American Spectator
Fortune
National Review
Reader’s Digest
Reason
Wall Street Journal
Washington Times
Weekly Standard
Breitbart News (far right)
fi rsti nthenation . us
instapundit. com
littlegreenfootballs.com
michellemalkin .com
polipundit. com
powerlineblog .com
sistertoldjah. com
red state. com
townhall.com
American Enterprise Institute
Cato Institute (Libertarian)
Center for Strategic and International
Studies
Heritage Foundation (sponsors
Townhall.com)
Project for the New American Century
* For further information about the political leanings of publications or think tanks, ask your librarian about the Gale Directory of Publications and Broadcast
Med ia or NIRA World Directory of Think Tanks.*
* Newspapers are categorized according to positions they take on their editorial page; any reputable newspaper strives for objectivity in news reporting and
includes a variety of views on its op-ed pages. Magazines do not claim and are not expected to present similar breadth and objectivity.
Finding and Evaluating Sources 355
Finally, many persons regard themselves as “centrists.” In Table 16.3, the
column labeled “Center” includes commentators who seek out common ground
between the left and the right and who often believe that the best civic decisions
are compromises between opposing views. Likewise, centrist publications and
institutes often approach issues from multiple points of view, looking for the most
workable solutions.
DEGREE OF ADVOCACY By degree of advocacy, we mean the extent to which an
author unabashedly takes a persuasive stance on a contested position as opposed
to adopting a more neutral, objective, or exploratory stance. For example, publica-
tions affiliated with advocacy organizations (the Sierra Club, the National Rifle
Association) will have a clear editorial bias. When a writer takes a strong stance on
an issue, you need to weigh carefully the writer’s selection of evidence, interpreta-
tion of data, and fairness to opposing views. Although no one can be completely
neutral, it is always useful to seek out authors who offer a balanced assessment
of the evidence. Evidence from a more detached and neutral writer may be more
trusted by your readers than the arguments of a committed advocate.
Criteria for Evaluating a Web Source
When you evaluate a web source, we suggest that you ask five different kinds
of questions about the site in which the source appeared, as listed in Table 16.4.
These questions, developed by scholars and librarians as points to consider when
you are evaluating websites, will help you determine the usefulness of a site or
source for your own purposes.
Table 16.4 Criteria for Evaluating Websites
1 . Authority
2. Objectivity or
Clear Disclosure
of Advocacy
3 . Coverage
4 . Accuracy
5 . Cu rrency
• Is t he document author o r site sponsor clearly identified?
• Does the site identify t he occupation, position , ed ucation, experience, o r other credentials of the author?
• Does the home page or a clear li nk from the home page reveal t he author’s or sponsor’s motivation for
establish ing the site?
• Does the site provide contact information for t he author or sponsor, such as an e-mail or organization
add ress?
• Is t he site’s pu rpose clear (for example, to inform, entertain, or persuade)?
• Is t he site explicit about declaring its point of view?
• Does the site ind icate whether the author is affiliated with a specific organization, institution , or
association?
• Does the site ind icate whether it is directed toward a specific audience?
• A re the topics covered by the site c lear?
• Does the site exhibit a suitable depth and comprehensiveness for its purpose?
• Is sufficient evidence provided to support the ideas and opinions presented?
• A re the sources of information stated ?
• Do the facts appear to be accurate?
• Can you verify th is information by comparing this source wit h other sources in t he field?
• A re d ates included in the website?
• Do the d ates apply to the material itself, to its placement on the web , or to the time the site was last
revised and updated?
• Is t he information cu rrent, or at least sti ll relevant, for the site’s p urpose? For you r pu rpose?
356 Chapter 16
As a researcher, the first question you should ask about a potentially use-
ful web source should be, “Who placed this piece on the web and why?” You
can begin answering this question by analyzing the site’s home page, where you
will often find navigational buttons linking to “Mission,” “About Us,” or other
identifying information about the site’s sponsors. You can also get hints about the
site’s purpose by asking, “What kind of website is it?” Different kinds of web sites
have different purposes, often revealed by the domain identifier following the
site name:
• com, .co., and .biz sites: These are commercial sites designed to promote a
business’s image, attract customers, market products and services, and pro-
vide customer service. Their angle of vision is to promote the view of the
corporation or business. Often, material has no identified author. (The spon-
soring company is often cited as the author.)
• org sites: These are sites for nonprofit organizations or advocacy groups.
Some sites provide accurate, balanced information related to the organiza-
tion’s mission work (Red Cross, World Vision), while others promote politi-
cal views (Heritage Foundation) or advocate a cause (People for the Ethical
Treatment of Animals).
• edu sites: These sites are associated with a college or university. Home pages
aim to attract prospective students and donors and provide a portal into the
site. Numerous subsites are devoted to research, pedagogy, libraries, and so
forth. The angle of vision can vary from strong advocacy on issues (a student
paper, an on-campus advocacy group) to the objective and scholarly (a uni-
versity research site).
For Writing and Discussion
Analyzing the Rhetorical Elements of Two Websites
Individual task:
Using a web search engine, find a site opposing gun control (such as the National Rifle Association or
Women Against Gun Control) and a site supporting gun control (such as National Gun Victims Action Coun-
cil or the Brady Campaign). Peruse each of your chosen sites. Then write out your answers to the following
questions:
1. What is the angle of vision and degree of advocacy of each of the sites? How does the selection of
images, links to articles, and use of “facts” and “fact sheets” indicate an angle of vision?
2. Look for images of women on each of your sites. How do they construct women differently and imply
differences in women’s concerns about guns?
3. What range of underlying values does each of the sites appeal to? How do words and images create
viewer awareness of these underlying values?
4. How does each of the sites use logos, ethos, and pathos to sway readers toward its point of view?
Group task:
Compare your answers to these questions with those of others in your class. How do you r rhetorical
observations intersect? Where do they differ?
Finding and Evaluating Sources 357
• gov or .mil sites: These sites are sponsored by a government agency or mili-
tary units. They can provide a range of basic data about government policy,
bills in Congress, economic forecasts, census data, and so forth. Their angle
of vision varies from objective (informational sites) to subjective (sites that
promote the agency’s agenda).
• .net sites: These sites were originally intended for networking businesses that
provided Internet service or hosted Internet infrastructure. Recently the .net
domain has expanded to include a wide range of commercial businesses and
seems interchangeable with .com and .biz.
Because of a new rule by the agency that controls domain identifiers, people
and organizations will be able to buy their own unique domain identifiers. Sites
with unique identifiers are likely to be commercial sites because the identifiers
cost thousands of dollars each.
Taking Purposeful Notes
By reading rhetorically and evaluating your sources as you proceed, you will
make purposeful choices about the sources you will use in your researched argu-
ment. In this concluding section we offer advice on how to take notes about each
of your sources. Many beginning researchers opt not to take notes a serious mis-
take, in our view. Instead, they simply photocopy or print articles, perhaps using a
highlighter to mark passages. This practice, which experienced researchers almost
never use, reduces your ability to engage the ideas in a source and to find your
own voice in a conversation. When you begin drafting your paper, you’ll have
no notes to refer to, no record of your thinking-in-progress. Your only recourse is
to revisit all your sources, thumbing through them one at a time a practice that
leads to passive cutting and pasting (and possible p lagiarism).
Good note taking includes recording bibliographic information for each
source, recording information and ideas from each source, and responding to
each source with your own ideas and exploratory writing.
RECORDING BIBLIOGRAPHIC INFORMATION To take good research notes,
begin by making a bibliographic entry for each source, following the documenta-
tion format assigned by your instructor. Although you will be tempted to put off
doing this mechanical task, there are two reasons to do it immediately:
• Doing it now, while the source is in front of you, will save you time in the
long run. Otherwise, you’ll have to try to retrieve the source, in a late-night
panic, just before the paper is due.
• Doing it now will make you look at the source rhetorically. Is it a peer-reviewed
journal article? A magazine article? An op-ed piece? A blog? Having to make
the bibliographic entry forces you to identify the source’s genre.
Chapter 18
explains in detail how to make bibliographic entries for both the MLA format
(called “Works Cited”) and the APA format (called “References”).
RECORDING IDEAS AND INFORMATION AND RESPONDING TO EACH
SOURCE To take good research notes, follow the reading habits of summary
and exploration discussed in Chapter 8, weaving back and forth between walk-
ing in the shoes of the source author and then standing back to believe and doubt
358 Chapter 16
what the source says. Think in terms of two categories of notes: informational
and exploratory.
• Your informational notes on each source: Using the skills of summary writing
explained in Chapter 8, summarize each source’s argument and record use-
ful information. To avoid the risk of plagiarism later, make sure that you put
quotation marks around any passages that you copy word for word (be sure
to copy exactly). When you summarize or paraphrase passages, be sure to put
the ideas entirely into your own words. (For more on quoting, summarizing,
and paraphrasing sources, see Chapter 17.)
• Your own exploratory notes as you think of ideas: Write down your own ideas as
they occur to you. Speak back to the source. Record your thinking-in-progress
as you mull over ways the source sparked your own thinking.
An approach that encourages both modes of writing is to keep a dialectic or
double-entry journal. Divide a page in half; enter your informational notes on one
side and your exploratory writing on the other. If you use a computer, you can put
your informational notes in one font and your own exploratory writing in another.
Taking effective notes is different from the mechanical process of copying out
passages or simply listing facts and information. Rather, make your notes pur-
poseful by imagining how you might use a given source in your research paper.
Table 16.5 shows the different functions that research sources might play in your
argument and highlights appropriate note-taking strategies for each function.
Table 16.5 Strategies for Taking Notes Accord ing to Purpose
Provides background about your
problem or issue
Gives an alternative view that you will
mention briefly
Provides an alternative or opposing
view t hat you might summarize fully
and respond to
Provides information or testimony that
you might use as evidence
Mentions information or testimony
that counters your position or raises
doubts about your arg ument
Provides a theory or method that
influences you r approach to the issue
• Summarize t he information.
• Record specific facts and fig ures
useful for background .
• Summarize the sou rce’s argument in
a couple of sentences; note its bias
and perspective.
• Identify brief q uotations that sum up
t he source’s perspective.
• Summarize the article fully and fairly
(see Chapter 8 on summary writi ng) .
• Note t he kinds of evidence used .
• Record the data or information.
• If using authorities for testimony,
quote short passages.
• Note t he credentials of the writer
or person quoted.
• Note counterevidence.
• Note authorities who disagree
with you.
• Note credentials of the author.
• Note passages that sparked ideas.
• Speculate on how much background
your readers will need.
• Jot d own ideas on how and why
d ifferent sources disagree.
• Begin making an idea map of
alternative views.
• Speculate about why you disagree
w ith the source and whether you can
refute t he argument, concede to it ,
or compromise with it.
• Explore what research you ‘ll need to
support your own argument.
• Record new ideas as they occur to
you.
• Continue to t hink purposefully about
additional research you ‘ ll need .
• Speculate how you might respond to
counterevidence.
• Freewrite about how the source
influences your method or approach.
Finding and Evaluating Sources 359
Conclusion
This chapter has explained the need to establish a good research question; to
understand the key differences among different kinds of sources; to use purposeful
strategies for searching libraries, databases, and websites; and to use your rhetori-
cal knowledge when you read and evaluate sources and take p urposeful notes.
It has also d iscussed briefly the sp ecial problems of evaluating a website. In the
next chapter we focus on how to integrate research sources into your own prose.
360
Chapter 17
•
Learning Objectives
In this chapter you will learn to:
17.1 Use your sources for your own purposes.
17.2 Summarize, paraphrase, and quote a source.
17.3 Punctuate quotations correctly.
17.4 Signal your use of sources through rhetorically effective
attributive tags.
17.5 Avoid plagiarism.
Previous chapters taught you to pose a good research question, use online data-
bases, search the web wisely, and evaluate your sources by reading them rhetori-
cally. This chapter teaches you how to incorporate sources smoothly into your
own argument.
Using Sources for Your Own
Purposes
17.1 Use your sources for your own purposes.
To illustrate the purposeful use of sources, we will use the following short
argument from the website of the American Council on Science and Health
(ACSH) an organization of doctors and scientists devoted to providing scientific
information on health issues and to exposing health fads and myths. Please read
the argument carefully in preparation for the discussions that follow.
Incorporating Sources into Your Own Argument 361
Is Vegetarianism Healthier than Nonvegetarianism?
Many people become vegetarians because they believe, in error, that vegetari-
anism is uniquely conducive to good health. The findings of several large epi-
demiologic studies indeed suggest that the death and chronic-disease rates of
vegetarians primarily vegetarians who consume dairy products or both dairy
products and eggs are lower than those of meat eaters ….
The health of vegetarians may be better than that of non vegetarians partly
because of nondietary factors: Many vegetarians are health-conscious. They
exercise regularly, maintain a desirable body weight, and abstain from smok-
ing. Although most epidemiologists have attempted to take such factors into
account in their analyses, it is possible that they did not adequately control
their studies for nondietary effects.
People who are vegetarians by choice may differ from the general popula-
tion in other ways relevant to health. For example, in Western countries most
vegetarians are more affluent than non vegetarians and thus have better living
conditions and more access to medical care.
An authoritative review of vegetarianism and chronic diseases classified
the evidence for various alleged health benefits of vegetarianism:
• The evidence is “strong” that vegetarians have (a) a lower risk of
becoming a lcoholic, constipated, or obese and (b) a lower risk of
developing lung cancer.
• The evidence is “good” that vegetarians have a lower risk of develop-
ing adult-onset diabetes mellitus, coronary artery disease, hyperten-
sion, and gallstones.
• The evidence is “fair to poor” that vegetarianism decreases risk of
breast cancer, colon cancer, diverticular disease, kidney-stone forma-
tion, osteoporosis, and tooth decay.
For some of the diseases mentioned above, the practice of vegetarianism itself
probably is the main protective factor. For example, the low incidence of con-
stipation among vegetarians is almost certainly due to their high intakes of
fiber-rich foods. For other conditions, nondietary factors may be more impor-
tant than d iet. For example, the low incidence of lung cancer among vegetar-
ians is attributable primarily to their extremely low rate of cigarette smoking.
Diet is but one of many risk factors for most chronic d iseases.
How you might use this article in your own writing would depend on your
research question and purpose. To illustrate, we’ll show you three different hypo-
thetical examples of writers who have reason to cite this article.
Writer 1: A Causal Argument Showing Alternative
Approaches to Reducing Risk of Alcoholism
Writer 1 argues that vegetarianism may be an effective way to resist alcoholism.
She uses just one statement from the ACSH article for her own purpose and then
moves on to other sources.
Another approach to fighting alcoholism is through naturopathy, holistic
Writer’s claim
medicine, and vegetarianism. Vegetarians generally have better health than the
362 Chapter 17
Identification of source
Quotation from ACSH
Writer’s claim
Identification of source
Summary of ACSH
material
Writer’s claim
Identification of source
Paraphrased points from
ACSH
rest of the population and particularly have, according to the American Council
on Science and Health, “a lower risk of becoming alcoholic.” This lower risk has
been borne out by other studies showing that the benefits of the holistic health
movement are particularly strong for persons with addictive tendencies …. [goes
on to other arguments and sources]
Writer 2: A Proposal Argument Advocating
Vegetarianism
Writer 2 proposes that people should become vegetarians. Parts of his argument
focus on the environmental costs and ethics of eating meat, but he also devotes
one paragraph to the health benefits of vegetarianism. As support for this point
he summarizes the ACSH article’s material on health benefits.
Not only will a vegetarian diet help stop cruelty to animals, but it is also good
for your health. According to the American Council on Science and Health,
vegetarians have longer life expectancy than nonvegetarians and suffer from
fewer chronic diseases. The Council cites “strong” evidence from the scientific
literature showing that vegetarians have reduced risk of lung cancer, obesity,
constipation, and alcoholism. The Council also cites “good” evidence that
vegetarians have a reduced risk of adult-onset diabetes, high blood pressure,
gallstones, and hardening of the arteries. Although the evidence isn’t nearly as
strong, vegetarianism may also lower the risk of certain cancers, kidney stones,
loss of bone density, and tooth decay.
Writer 3: An Evaluation Argument Looking
Skeptically at Vegetarianism
Here, Writer 3 uses portions of the same article to make an opposite case from that of
Writer 2. She focuses on those parts of the article that Writer 2 consciously excluded.
The link between vegetarianism and death rates is a classic instance of correlation
rather than causation. While it is true that vegetarians have a longer life expec-
tancy than nonvegetarians and suffer from fewer chronic diseases, the American
Council on Science and Health has shown that the causes can mostly be explained
by factors other than diet. As the Council suggests, vegetarians are apt to be more
health conscious than non vegetarians and thus get more exercise, stay slender, and
avoid smoking. The Council points out that vegetarians also tend to be wealthier
than non vegetarians and see their doctors more regularly. In short, they live longer
because they take better care of themselves, not because they avoid meat.
Incorporating Sources into Your Own Argument 363
For Writing And Discussion
Using a Source for Different Purposes
Each of the hypothetical writers uses the short ACSH argument in different ways for different purposes.
Working individually or in small groups, respond to the fo llowing questions. Be prepared to elaborate on and
defend your answers.
1. How does each writer use the orig inal article differently and why?
2. If you were the author of the article from the American Council on Science and Health, would you think
that your article is used fa irly and responsibly in each instance?
3 . Suppose you r goal were simply to summarize the argument from the American Council on Science and
Health. Write a brief summary of the argument and then explain how you r summary is d ifferent from
t he partial summaries by Writers 2 and 3.
Using Summary, Paraphrase,
and uotation
17.2 Summarize, paraphrase, and quote a source.
As a research writer, you need to incorporate sources gracefully into your own
prose. Depending on your purpose, you m ight (1) summarize all or part of a
source author’s argument, (2) paraphrase a relevant portion of a source, or (3)
quote small passages from the source directly. To avoid plagiarism, you’ll need to
reference the source with an in-text citation, put quotation marks around quoted
passages, and convert paraphrases and summaries entirely into your own words.
Table 17.1 gives you an overview of summary, paraphrase, and quotation as ways
of incorporating sources into your own prose. With practice, you’ll be able to use
all these strategies smoothly and effectively.
Sum.m.arizing
Detailed instructions on how to write a summary of an article and incorporate
it into your own prose are provided in Chapter 8. Summaries can be as short as
a single sentence or as long as a paragraph. Make the summary as concise as
possible so that you don’t d istract the reader from your own argument. In many
cases, writers summarize only parts of a source, depending on what is relevant to
their own argument. Writer 3′ s summary of the article by the American Council
on Science and Health is a good example of a partial summary.
Paraphrasing
Unlike a summary, which is a condensation of a source’s whole argument, a
paraphrase translates a short passage from a source’s words into the writer’s
own words. Writers often choose to paraphrase when the details of a source pas-
sage are particularly important or when the source is overly technical and needs
to be simplified for the intended audience. When you paraphrase, be careful to
364 Chapter 17
Table 17.1 Incorporating Sources into Your Own Prose
Summarize the source.
Paraphrase the source.
Quote short passages
from the source using
quotation marks.
Quote long passages from
the source using the block
method. (Use this method
sparingly.)
Condense a source writer ‘s
argument by keeping main
ideas and omitting details
(see Chapter 8).
Reproduce an idea from a source
writer but translate the idea entirely
into your own words; a paraphrase
should be approximately the same
length as the original.
Work brief quotations from the
source smoothly into the grammar
of your own sentences (see details
in this chapter).
Use noticeably lengthy block
quotations.
• When the source writer’s whole argument is relevant to
your purpose
• When the source writer presents an alternative or
opposing view that you want to push against
• When the source writer’s argument can be used in
support of your own argument
• When you want to incorporate factual information from a
source or to use one specific idea from a source
• When the source passage is overly complex or technical
for your targeted audience
• When you want to incorporate a source’s point in your
own voice without interrupting the flow of your argument
• When you need testimony from an authority (state the
authority’s credentials in an attributive tag, as explained in
this chapter)
• In summaries, when you want to reproduce a source ‘s
voice, particularly if the language is striking or memorable
• In lieu of paraphrase when the source language is
memorable
• When you intend to analyze or critique the quotation- the
quotation is followed by your detailed analysis of its ideas
or rhetorical features
• When the flavor and language of testimonial evidence are
important
avoid reproducing the original writer’s grammatical structure and syntax. If you
mirror the original sentence structure while replacing occasional words with syn-
onyms or small structural changes, you will be doing what composition special-
ists call patchwriting that is, patching some of your language onto someone
else’s writing.* Patchwriting is a form of academic dishonesty because you aren’t
fully composing your own sentences and are thus misrepresenting both your own
work and that of the source writer. An acceptable paraphrase needs to be entirely
in your own words. To understand patchwriting more fully, track the differences
between unacceptable patchwriting and acceptable paraphrase in the following
examples.
Original
• The evidence is “strong” that vegetarians have (a) a lower risk of
becoming alcoholic, constipated, or obese and (b) a lower risk of
developing 1 ung cancer.
• The evidence is “good” that vegetarians have a lower risk of develop-
ing adult-onset diabetes mellitus, coronary artery disease, hyperten-
sion, and gallstones.
* We are indebted to the work of Rebecca Moore Howard and others who have led com-
position researchers to reexamine the use of sources and plagiarism from a cultural and
rhetorical perspective. See especially Rebecca Moore Howard, Standing in the Shadow of
Giants: Plagiarists, Authors, Collaborators (Stamford, CT: Ablex Pub., 1999).
Incorporating Sources into Your Own Argument 365
Unacceptable Patchwriting
According to the American Council on Science and Health, there is strong evi-
dence that vegetarians have a lower risk of becoming alcoholic, constipated,
or obese. The evidence is also strong that they have a lower risk of lung cancer.
The evidence is good that vegetarians are less apt to develop adult-onset dia-
betes, coronary artery disease, hypertension, or gallstones.
Acceptable Paraphrase
The Council summarizes “strong” evidence from the scientific literature show-
ing that vegetarians have reduced risk of lung cancer, obesity, constipation,
and alcoholism. The Council also cites “good” evidence that vegetarians have
a reduced risk of adult-onset diabetes, high blood pressure, gallstones, or hard-
ening of the arteries.
Both the patchwriting example and the acceptable paraphrase reproduce the same
ideas as the original in approximately the same number of words. But the writer of
the acceptable paraphrase has been more careful to change the sentence structure
substantially and not copy exact phrases. In contrast, the patchwritten version
contains longer strings of borrowed language without quotation marks.
Among novice writers, the ease of copying web sources can lead to patchwrit-
ing. You may be tempted to copy and paste a web-based passage into your own
draft and then revise it slightly by changing some of the words. Such patch writing
won’t occur if you write in your own voice that is, if you convert information
from a source into your own words in order to make your own argument.
When you first practice paraphrasing, try paraphrasing a passage twice to
avoid patchwriting:
• The first time, read the passage carefully and put it into your own words,
looking at the source as little as possible.
• The second time, paraphrase your own paraphrase. Then recheck your fina l
version against the original to make sure you have eliminated similar sen-
tence structures or word-for-word strings.
We’ll return to the problem of patchwriting in our discussion of p lagiarism later
in this chapter.
Quoting
Besides summary and paraphrase, writers often choose to quote directly in order
to give the reader the flavor and style of the source author’s prose or to make a
memorable point in the source author’s own voice. Be careful not to quote a pas-
sage that you don’t fully understand. (Sometimes novice writers quote a passage
because it sounds impressive.) When you quote, you must reproduce the source
author’s original words exactly without change, unless you indicate changes with
ellipses or brackets. Also be careful to represent the author’s intention and mean-
ing fairly; don’t change the author’s meaning by taking quotations out of context.
Identification of source
Note that phrases are
taken word for word from
the original
Identification of source
Doesn’t follow
original sentence
structure
Quotes “strong” and
“good” to indicate dis-
tinction made in original
366 Chapter 17
Attributive tag
Quotation introduced
with comma
Quotation is a complete
sentence, so it starts
with a capita/letter
Page number comes
from the source; the
period comes after
J?.arentheses
Final quotation
mark goes before
parentheses
–
Punctuating~ uotations Correctly
17.3 Punctuate quotations correctly.
Because the mechanics of quoting offers its own challenges, we devote the follow-
ing sections to it. These sections answer the nuts-and-bolts questions about how
to punctuate quotations correctly. Additional explanations covering variations
and specific cases can be found in any good handbook.
Quoting a Co111plete Sentence
In some cases, you will want to quote a complete sentence from your source. Typi-
cally, you will include an attributive tag that tells the reader who is being quoted.
At the end of the quotation, you usually indicate its page number in parentheses.
(For more information, see Chapter 18 on in-text citations.)
Original Passage
Many people become vegetarians because they believe, in error, that vegetarianism
is uniquely conducive to good health. [found on page 359 of source]*
Writer’s Quotation of This Passage
~JI
According to the American Council on Science and Health, “Many people
become vegetarians because they believe, in error, that vegetarianism is
uniquely conducive to good health” 392 · I•
~
•
Quoting Words and Phrases
Instead of quoting a complete sentence, you often want to quote only a few words
or phrases from your source and insert them into your own sentence. In these
cases, make sure that the grammatical structure of the quotation fits smoothly
into the grammar of your own sentence.
Original Passage
The health of vegetarians may be better than that of nonvegetarians partly
because of nondietary factors: Many vegetarians are health-conscious. They
exercise regularly, maintain a desirable body weight, and abstain from smok-
ing. [found on page 392]
*The cited page is from this text in its printed version. When quoting from print sources
or other sources with stable page numbers, you indicate the page number as part of your
citation. To illustrate how to punctuate page citations, we’ll assume throughout this section
that you found the American Council on Science and Health article in this textbook rather
than on the web, in which case it would not be possible to cite page numbers.
Incorporating Sources into Your Own Argument 367
Quoted Phrase Inserted into Writer’s Own Sentence
The American Council on Science and Health argues that the cause of
Quotation marks show
where quotation starts
~——~~~~——————- and ends
vegetarians’ longer life may be “nondietary factors.” The Council claims No comma or capital
letter: Punctuation and
that vegetarians are more “health-conscious” than meat eaters and that they capitalization deter-
~–=—=—————————————————–~– mmedbygrnmmarof
“exercise regularly, maintain a desirable body weight, and abstain from your own sentence
, If Period comes after
smoking” (392). parentheses containing
~ag_e number
Modifying a Quotation
Occasionally you may need to alter a quotation to make it fit your own context.
Sometimes the grammar of a desired quotation doesn’t match the grammar of
your own sentence. At other times, the meaning of a quoted word is unclear when
it is removed from its original context. In these cases, use brackets to modify the
quotation’s grammar or to add a clarifying explanation. Place your changes or
additions in brackets to indicate that the bracketed material is not part of the
original wording. You should also use brackets to show a change in capitalization.
Original Passage
Many vegetarians are health-conscious. They exercise regularly, maintain a
desirable body weight, and abstain from smoking. [found on page 359]
Quotations Modified with Brackets
The American Council on Science and Health hypothesizes that vegetarians
.._——.,——————-..–,——–.–r———– Brackets show change
maintain better health by “exercis[ing regularly, maintain[ing] a desirable
body weight, and abstain[ing] from smoking” 392).
~
According to the American Council ot Science and Health, “They [vegetarians]
;f !s.
exercise regularly, maintain a desirable body weight, and abstain from
smoking” (392).
Om.itting Som.ething from. a Quoted Passage
Another way that writers modify quotations is to leave words out of the quoted
passage. To indicate an omission, use three spaced periods called an ellipsis ( … ).
Placement of the ellipsis depends on where the omitted material occurs. In the mid-
d le of a sentence, each of the periods should be preceded and followed by a space.
When your ellipsis comes at the boundary between sentences, use an additional
period to mark the end of the first sentence. When a parenthetical page number
must follow the ellipsis, insert it before the final (fourth) period in the sequence.
in quotation to fit gram-
mar of writer’s sentence
Page number from
source
Attributive tag
Brackets show that
writer has added a word
to explain what “they”
stands for
368 Chapter 17
Three spaced periods
mark omitted words in
middle of sentence; note
the spaces between
each period
Three periods form the
ellipsis. (Omitted mate-
rial comes before the
end of the sentence)
This period ends the
sentence
Original Passage
People who are vegetarians by choice may differ from the general popula-
tion in other ways relevant to health. For example, in Western countries most
vegetarians are more affluent than non vegetarians and thus have better living
conditions and more access to medical care. [found on pages 359-360]
Quotations with Omitted Material Marked by Ellipses
According to the American Council on Science and Health, “people who are
vegetarians by ch oice may differ . ‘t . in other ways relevant to health. For
example, in Western countries most vegetarians are more affluent than non-
vegetarians . f . ” 392 .
Quoting Something That Contains a Quotation
Occasionally a passage that you wish to quote will already contain quotation marks.
If you insert the passage within your own quotation marks, change the original
double marks(“) into single marks(‘) to indicate the quotation within the quota-
tion. The same procedure works whether the quotation marks are used for quoted
words or for a title. Make sure that your attributive tag signals who is being quoted.
Original Passage
The evidence is “strong” that vegetarians have (a) a lower risk of becoming
alcoholic, constipated, or obese and (b) a lower risk of developing lung cancer.
[found on page 392]
Use of Single Quotation Marks to Identify a Quotation
within a Quotation
Single quotation marks According to the American Council on Science and Health, “The evidence is
replace the double
1
quotation marks in the :–+——–.::-1~.————r?~
original source ‘strong; that vegetarians have (a) a lower risk of becoming alcoholic, consti-
Double quotation marks y
enclose the material pated, or obese and (b) a lower risk of developing lung cancer” (392).
quoted from the source
Using a Block Quotation for a Long Passage
If you quote a long source passage that will take more than four lines in your own
paper, use the block indentation method rather than quotation marks. Block quo-
tations are generally introduced with an attributive tag followed by a colon. The
indented block of text, rather than quotation marks, signals that the material is a
direct quotation. Block quotations occur rarely in scholarly writing and are used
primarily in cases where the writer intends to analyze the text being quoted. If you
overuse block quotations, you simply produce a collage of other writers’ voices.
Incorporating Sources into Your Own Argument 369
Original Passage
The health of vegetarians may be better than that of nonvegetarians partly
because of nondietary factors: Many vegetarians are health-conscious. They
exercise regularly, maintain a desirable body weight, and abstain from smok-
ing. Although most epidemiologists have attempted to take such factors into
account in their analyses, it is possible that they did not adequately control
their studies for nondietary effects. [found on page 359]
Block Quotation
The American Council on Science and Health suggests that vegetarians may
be healthier than non vegetarians not because of their diet but because of their
more healthy lifestyle:
Many vegetarians are health-conscious. They exercise regularly,
maintain a desirable body weight, and abstain from smoking.
Although most epidemiologists have attempted to take such factors
into account in their analyses, it is possible that th d. d t d ey 1 no a
quately control their studies for nondietary effects.
Creating etorically Effective
Attributive Tags
17.4 Signal your use of sources through rhetorically effective
attributive tags.
392
) ~
e-
Throughout the previous examples we’ve been using attributive tags to indi-
cate words or ideas taken from a source. Attributive tags are phrases such as
“according to the American Council on Science and Health … ,” “Smith claims
that … ,”or “the author continues …. “Such phrases signal to the reader that
the material immediately following the tag is from the cited source. In this sec-
tion we’ll show you why attributive tags are often clearer and more powerful
than other ways of signaling a source, such as a parenthetical citation. Par-
ticularly, attributive tags can also be used rhetorically to shape your reader’s
response to a source.
Attributive Tags versus Parenthetical Citations
Instead of attributive tags, writers sometimes indicate a source only by citing it
in parentheses at the end of the borrowed material a common practice in the
social sciences and some other kinds of academic writing. However, the preferred
practice when writing for nonspecialized audiences is to use attributive tags.
Block quotation
introduced with a
colon
No quotation marks
Block indented 112 inch
on left
Page number appears
in parentheses. (Note
that parentheses come
after the closing period
~receded by_ a s~ace)
370 Chapter 17
Less Preferred: Indicating Source through
Parenthetical Citation
Vegetarians are apt to be more health-conscious than non vegetarians (American
Council on Science and Health).*
More Preferred: Indicating Source through Attributive Tag
According to the American Council on Science and Health, vegetarians are apt
to be more health-conscious than nonvegetarians.
A disadvantage of the parenthetical method is that it requires readers to wait until
the end of the source material before the source is identified. Attributive tags, in
contrast, identify the source the moment it is first used, thus marking more clearly
the beginning of borrowed material. Another disadvantage of the parenthetical
method is that it tends to treat the borrowed material as “fact” rather than as the
view of the source author. In contrast, attributive tags call attention to the source’s
angle of vision. An attributive tag reminds the reader to put on the glasses of the
source author to see the borrowed material as shaped by the source author’s
biases and perspectives.
Creating Attributive Tags to Shape
Reader Response
Attributive tags can be used not only to identify a source but also to shape your
readers’ attitudes toward the source. For example, if you wanted your readers
to respect the expertise of a source, you might say,” According to noted chemist
Marjorie Casper …. ” If you wanted your readers to discount Casper’s views, you
might say,” According to Marjorie Casper, an industrial chemist on the payroll of
a major corporate polluter …. ”
When you compose an initial tag, you can add to it any combination of the
kinds of information in Table 17.2, depending on your purpose, your audience’ s
values, and your sense of what the audience already knows about the source. Our
Table 17.2 Modifying Attributive Tags to Shape Reader Response
Author’s credentials or relevant specialty
(enhances credibility)
Author’s lack of credentials (decreases
credibility)
Author’s political or social views
Civil engineer David Rockwood, a noted authority
on stream flow in rivers
City Council member Dilbert Weasel, a local
politician with no expertise in international affairs
Left-wing columnist Alexander Cockburn [has
negative feeling] ; Alexander Cockburn, a longtime
champion of labor [has positive feeling]
*This parenthetical citation is in MLA form, and it assumes that the source was found on
the web. If this had been a print source rather than a web source, a page number would also
have been given as follows : (American Council on Science and Health 43). APA form also
indicates the date of the source: (American Council on Science and Health, 2002, p. 43). We
explain MLA and APA styles for citing and documenting sources in Chapter 18.
Table 17.2 Continued
Title of source if it provides context
Publisher of source if it adds prest ige or
ot herwise shapes audience response
Historical or cultural information about a
source t hat provides context or background
Indication of source ‘s purpose or angle of
• •
VISIOn
Incorporating Sources into Your Own Argument 371
In her book Fasting Girls: The History of Anorexia
Nervosa, Joan Jacobs Brumberg shows that
[establishes credentials for comments on eating
disorders]
Dr. Carl Patrona, in an article published in the
prestigious New England Journal of Medicine
In his 1960s book popularizing the hippie
movement, Charles Reich claims that
Feminist author Naomi Wolfe, w riting a blistering
attack on the beauty industry, argues that
point here is that you can use attributive tags rhetorically to help your readers
understand the significance and context of a source when you first introduce it
and to guide your readers’ attitudes toward the source.
Avoiding Plagiarism
17.5 Avoid plagiarism.
In Chapter 18, we proceed to the nuts and bolts of citing and documenting
sources a skill that will enhance your ethos as a skilled researcher and as a person
of integrity. Unethical use of sources called plagiarism is a major concern not
only for writing teachers but for teachers in all disciplines. To combat plagiarism,
many instructors across the curriculum use plagiarism-detection software like
turnitin.com. Their purpose, of course, is to discourage students from cheating.
But sometimes students who have no intention of cheating can fall into producing
papers that look like cheating. That is, they produce papers that might be accused
of plagiarism even though the students had no intention of deceiving their read-
ers.* Our goal in this section is to explain the concept of plagiarism more fully and
to sum up the strategies for avoiding it.
Why Some Kinds of Plagiarisn1
May Occur Unwittingly
To understand how unwitting plagiarism might occur, consider Table 17.3,
where the middle column “Misuse of Sources” shows common mistakes of
novice writers. Everyone agrees that the behaviors in the “Fraud” column con-
stitute deliberate cheating and deserve appropriate punishment. Everyone also
agrees that good scholarly work meets the criteria in the “Ethical Use of Sources”
column. Novice researchers, however, may find themselves unwittingly in the
middle column until they learn the academic conventions for using research
sources.
*See Rebecca Moore Howard, Standing in the Shadow of Giants: Plagiarists, Authors, Collabora-
tors (Stamford, CT: Ablex Pub., 1999).
372 Chapter 17
Table 17.3 Plagiarism and the Eth ical Use of Sources
The w riter
• buys a paper from
a paper mill
• submits someone
else’s work as his
own
• copies ch unks of
text from sources
w ith obvious inten-
tion of not being
detected
• fabricates data or
makes up evidence
• intends to deceive
The writer
• copies passages d irectly from a source
and references t he source with an in-text
c itation , but fails to use quotat ion marks
o r block indentation
• in attempt ing to paraphrase a sou rce,
makes some changes, but follows
too closely the wording of t he original
(pat chwriting)
• fails to ind icate the sources of some ideas
o r data (often is unsure what needs to be
c ited or has lost track of sources t hrough
poor note taking)
• in general, misunderstands the conventions
for using sources in academic writing
The writer
• writes paper ent irely
in her own words and
uses exact q uotations
from sources
• indicates all q uota-
t ions with q uota-
t ion marks or block
indentat ion
• indicates her use of
all sources through
attribution , in-text
citation , and an end-
of -paper list of works
cited or references
You might appreciate these conventions more fully if you recognize how they
have evolved from Western notions of intellectual property and patent law associ-
ated with the rise of modern science in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
A person not only could own a house or a horse, but also could own an idea
and the words used to express that idea. You can see these cultural conventions
at work in the form of laws or professional codes of ethics whenever a book
author is disgraced for lifting words or ideas from another author or whenever an
artist or entrepreneur is sued for stealing song lyrics, publishing another person’s
photographs without permission, or infringing on some inventor’s patent.
This understanding of plagiarism may seem odd in some non-Western cultures
where collectivism is valued more than individualism. In these cultures, words
written or spoken by ancestors, elders, or other authority figures may be regarded
with reverence and shared with others without attribution. In these cultures, it
might also be disrespectful to paraphrase certain passages or to document them
in a way that would suggest the audience didn’t recognize the ancient wisdom.
However, such collectivist conventions won’t work in research communities
committed to building new knowledge. In the academic world, the conventions
separating ethical from unethical use of sources are essential if research findings
are to win the community’s confidence. Effective research can occur only within
ethical and responsible research communities, where people do not fabricate data
and where current researchers respect and acknowledge the work of those who
have gone before them.
Strategies for Avoiding Plagiarislll
Table 17.4 will help you review the strategies for using source material ethically
and avoiding plagiarism.
Incorporating Sources into Your Own Arg ument 373
Table 17.4 Avoiding Plag iarism or the Appearance of Plagiari sm
At the beginning
Read your college’s pol icy on plagiarism; listen to
your teachers’ statements regarding plagiarism
in class or read about them on course syllabi.
Understanding policies on plagiarism and
academic integrity wi ll help you research and
write ethically.
Pose a research question rather t han a topic Your thesis statement is your contestable answer
area. to your t hesis question. Arg uing your own thesis
gives you a voice, establishes your ethos, and
urges you to write ethically.
At the note-taking stage
Create a bibliographic entry for each sou rce .
When you copy a passage into your notes, copy
it word for word and enclose it within quotation
marks.
When you enter summaries or paraphrases into
your notes, avoid patchwriting.
Distinguish your informational notes from your
personal exploratory notes.
This action makes it easy to create an end-of-
paper bibliography and encourages rhetorical
reading .
It is important to distinguish a source’s words
from your own words .
If your notes contain any strings of a source’s
original wording, you might later assume that
these words are your own .
Keeping these kinds of notes separate will help
you identify borrowed ideas when it’s time to
incorporate the source material into your paper.
When writing your draft
Except for exact q uotat ions, w rite the paper
entirely in your own words.
Indicate all q uotations with quotation marks or
block indentation . Use ell ipses or brackets to
make changes to fit your own grammar.
Never cut and paste a web passage d irectly into
your draft. Paste it into a separate note file and
put q uotation marks around it.
Inside your text, use attributive tags or paren-
thetical citat ions to identify all sources . List all
sources alphabetically in a concluding Works
C ited or References list.
Cite with attributive tags or parenthetical citations
al l q uotat ions, paraphrases, summaries, and any
other references to specific sources.
Use in-text citations to indicate sources for
al l visuals and media such as graphs, maps,
photographs, films, vid eos, broadcasts, and
recordings.
Use in-text citations for all ideas and facts that
are not common knowledge.
This strategy keeps you from patchwriting w hen
you summarize or paraphrase.
Be careful to represent the author fairly; don ‘t
change meaning by taking quotations out of
context.
Pasted passages are direct invitations to
patchwrite.
This strategy makes it easy for readers to
know w hen you are using a source and where
to find it.
These are the most common in-text citations in a
research paper.
The rules for citing words and ideas apply
equally to visuals and media cited in your paper.
Although you don’t need to cite w idely accepted
and noncontroversial facts and information, it is
better to cite them if you are unsure.
37 4 Chapter 17
For Writing and Discussion
Avoiding Plagiarism
Individual task:
Reread the original article from the American Council on Science and Health (at the start of this chapter)
and Writer 3 ‘s use of this source in her paragraph about how nond ietary habits may explain why vegetarians
are healthier than nonvegetarians. Then read the paragraph below by Writer 4, who makes the same argu-
ment as Writer 3 but crosses the line from ethical to nonethical use of sources. Imagine that Writer 4 says in
dismay, “How can this be plagiarism? I c ited my source.” Write a message to Writer 4 explaining how this
passage falls into the category of plagiarism.
Writer 4’s Argument (Example of Plagiarism)
According to the American Council on Science and Health, the health of vegetarians may be better
than that of nonvegetarians partly because of nondietary factors. People who eat only vegetables
tend to be very conscious of their health. They exercise regularly, avoid getting fat, and don’t smoke.
Scientists who examined the data may not have adequately controlled for these nondietary effects.
A lso, in Western countries, most vegetarians are more affluent than nonvegetarians and thus have
better living conditions and more access to medical care.
Group task:
Working in small groups or as a c lass, respond to the following questions.
1. Share with one another your messages to Writer 4.
2. Explore the possib le causes of Writer 4’s difficulty. Psychological ly or cogn itively, what may have
caused Writer 4 to misuse the source? How might this writer’s note-taking process or composing pro-
cess have d iffered from that of Writer 3? In other words, what happened to get this writer into trouble?
Conclusion
This chapter has shown you how to use sources for your own purposes; how to
summarize, paraphrase, and quote a source; how to signal your use of sources
through rhetorically effective attributive tags; and how to punctuate quotations
correctly. It has also explained how to use sources ethically to avoid plagiarism
and create a professional ethos. In the next chapter we will provide guidelines and
formats for citing and documenting your sources.
Chapter 18
Learning Objectives
In this chapter you will learn to:
18.1 Understand the correspondence between in-text citations and
the
end-of-paper list of cited works.
18.2 Cite and document your sources using the style and format
of the Modern Language Association (MLA).
18.3 Cite and document your sources using the style and format
of the American Psychological Association (APA).
The previous chapter showed you how to use sources ethically, incorporating
them into your own prose so as to further your argument as well as to avoid
plagiarism.
The Correspondence between In-Text
Citations and the End-of-Paper List
of Cited orks
18.1 Understand the correspondence between in-text citations and the
end-of-paper list of cited works.
The most common forms of documentation use what are called in-text citations
that match an end-of-paper list of cited works (as opposed to footnotes or end-
notes). An in-text citation identifies a source in the body of the paper at the point
where it is summarized, paraphrased, quoted, inserted, or otherwise referred to.
375
376 Chapter 18
At the end of your paper you include a list alphabetized by author (or by title if
there is no named author) of all the works you cited. Both the Modern Language
Association (MLA) system, used primarily in the humanities, and the American
Psychological Association (APA) system, used primarily in the social sciences,
follow this procedure. In MLA, your end-of-paper list is titled Works Cited. In
APA it is titled References.
Whenever you place an in-text citation in the body of your paper, your reader
knows to turn to the Works Cited or References list at the end of the paper to get
the full bibliographic information. The key to the system’s logic is this:
• Every source in Works Cited or References must be mentioned in the body
of the paper.
• Conversely, every source mentioned in the body of the paper must be
included in the end-of-paper list.
• The first word in each entry of the Works Cited or References list (usually an
author’s last name) must also appear in the in-text citation. In other words,
there must be a one-to-one correspondence between the first word in each
entry in the end-of-paper list and the name used to identify the source in the
body of the paper.
Suppose a reader sees this phrase in your paper: “According to Debra Gold-
stein …. ” The reader should be able to turn to your Works Cited list and find an
alphabetized entry beginning with “Goldstein, Debra.” Similarly, suppose that
in looking over your Works Cited list, your reader sees an article by “Guillen,
Manuel.” This means that the name “Guillen” has to appear in your paper in one
of two ways:
• As an attributive tag: Economics professor Manuel Guillen argues that ….
• As a parenthetical citation, often following a quotation:” … changes in fiscal
policy” (Guillen 49).
Because this one-to-one correspondence is so important, let’s illustrate it with
some complete examples using the MLA formatting style:
If the body of your paper has this: Then the Works Cited list must have this:
According to linguist Deborah Tannen, … •~-•• Tannen, Deborah . The Argument Culture: Moving
political debate in America leaves out from Debate to Dialogue. Random House, 1
998.
the complex middle ground where most
solutions must be developed.
In the 1980s, cigarette advertising
revealed a noticeable pattern of racial
stereotyping (Pol lay et al. ).
On its website, the Children’s
Movement of California offers advice
to parents on how to talk with children
about alcohol and drugs (“Talking”).
Pollay, Richard W., et al. “Separate, but
Not
Equal: Racial Segmentation in Cigarette
Advertising .” Journal of Advertising, vol. 2 1, no. 1,
1992, pp. 45-57.
“Talking with Kids about Drugs and Alco-
hol .” Children’s Movement of California, www
.childrennow.org/parenting-resources/drugs-
alcohol. Accessed 12
Apr. 2018.
How to format an MLA in-text citation and a Works Cited list entry is the
subject of the next section. The APA system is similar except that it emphasizes
the date of publication in both the in-text citation and the References entry. APA
formatting is discussed in the final section of this chapter.
Citing and Documenting Sources 377
MLAStyle
18.2 Cite and document your sources using the style and format of the
Modern Language Association.
An in-text citation and its corresponding Works Cited entry are linked in a
chicken-and-egg system: You can’t cite a source in the text without first knowing
how the source’s entry will be alphabetized in the Works Cited list. However,
because most Works Cited entries are alphabetized by the first author’s last name,
for convenience we start with in-text citations.
In-Text Citations in MLA Style
A typical in-text citation contains two elements: (1) the last name of the author
and (2) the page number of the quoted or paraphrased passage. However, in
some cases a work is identified by something other than an author’s last name,
and sometimes no page number is required. Let’s begin with the most common
cases.
Typically, an in-text citation uses one of these two methods:
• Parenthetical method. Place the author’s last name and the page number in
parentheses immediately after the material being cited.
The Spanish tried to reduce the status of Filipina women, who had been
able to do business, get divorced, and sometimes become village chiefs
( Karnow 41 ).
• Attributive tag method. Place the author’s name in an attributive tag at
the beginning of the source material and the page number in parentheses
at the end.
According to Karnow, the Spanish tried to reduce the status of Filipina
women, who had been able to do business, get divorced, and sometimes
become village chiefs ( 41 ).
Once you have cited an author and it is clear that the same author’s material
is being used, you need cite only the page numbers in parentheses in subse-
quent citations. A reader who wishes to look up the source will find the biblio-
graphic information in the Works Cited section by looking for the entry under
“Karnow.”
Let’s now turn to the variations. Table 18.1 identifies the typical variations
and shows again the one-to-one connection between the in-text citation and the
Works Cited list.
When to Use Page Numbers in In-Text Citations When the materials you are cit-
ing are available in print or in PDF format, you can provide accurate page num-
bers for parenthetical citations. If you are working with web sources or HTML
files, however, do not use the page numbers obtained from a printout because
they will not be consistent from printer to printer. If the item has numbered para-
graphs, cite them with the abbreviation par. or pars. for example, “(Jones, pars.
22-24).” In the absence of reliable page numbers for the original material, MLA
378 Chapter 18
Table 18.1 In-Text Citations in MLA Style
Type of Source
One author
Two authors
More than two authors
Author has more than
one work in Works Cited
list
Corporate author
No named author
(Work is therefore
alphabetized by title.)
Indirect citation of a
source that you found in
another source
Suppose you want to use a
quotation from Peter Singer
that you found in a book by
Daniel Dombrowski. Include
Dombrowski but not Singer
in Works Cited.
Works Cited Entry at End of Paper
(Construct the entry while taking notes on
each source.)
Pollan, Michael. The Omnivore’s Dilemma: A
Natural History of Four Meals . Penguin, 2006.
Lewis, Robin, and Michael Dart. The New Rules
of Retail: Competing in the World’s Tough-
est Marketplace. Macmillan, 2010.
Pollay, Richard W., et al. “Separate, but Not
Equal: Racial Segmentation in Cigarette
Advertising .” Journal of Advertising, vol . 21,
no. 1, 1992, pp. ~5-57 .
Dombrowski, Daniel A. Babies and Beasts: The
Argument from Marginal Cases. U of Illinois
P, 1997.
—. The Philosophy of Vegetarianism. U of
Massachusetts P, 1984.
Note that the second Dombrowski entry uses
three hyphens in place of the author’s name.
American Red Cross. Standard First Aid.
Mosby Lifeline, 1993.
“Body Piercing. Ouch!” Menstuff, www.menstuff
. org/issues/byissue/bodypiercing. html.
Accessed 12 Apr. 2018 .
Dombrowski, Daniel A. Babies and Beasts : The
Argument from Marginal Cases. U of Illinois
P, 1997.
In-Text Citation in Body of Paper
(Use the first word of the Works Cited
entry in parentheses or an attributive tag;
add page number at end of quoted or
paraphrased passage. )
.. . (Pollan 256) . OR
According to Pollan, . .. (256) .
. . . retail” (Lewis and Dart 62). OR Lewis and
Dart have argued that “advertisers . . . retail” (52).
For the in- text citation, cite the specific page
number rather than the whole range of pages
given in the Works Cited entry .
. . . race” (Pollay et al. 52)
OR
Pollay et al. have argued that
“advertisers . .. race” (52).
For the in- text citation, cite the specific page
number rather than the whole range of pages
given in the Works Cited entry .
. . . (Dombrowski, Babies 207).
.. . (Dombrowski, Philosophy 328) . OR
According to Dombrowski, . . . (Babies 207l
Dombrowski claims that .. . (Philosophy :328).
Because author has more than one work in
Works Cited, include a short version of the title
to distinguish between entries.
. . . (American Red Cross 1 02~ . OR Snake bite
instructions from the American Red Cross show
that . .. @ 2).
.. . (“Body”). OR
According to the National Men’s Resource
Center, . . . (“Body”) .
• Add “Body” in parentheses to show that work
is alphabetized under “Body,” not “National.”
• No page numbers are shown because
website pages aren’t stable. The website
does not provide a date on which “Body
Piercing. Ouch!” was posted. When a web-
site does not provide a date of posting or
publication, add the access date as the last
item in the Works Cited entry.
Animal rights activist Peter Singer argues
that . .. (qtd . in Dombrowski 429).
• Singer is used for the attributive tag, but the
in-text citation is to Dombrowski.
• “qtd. in” stands for “quoted in.”
Citing and Documenting Sources 379
says to omit page references from the parenthetical citation. Table 18.1 summa-
rizes the use of page numbers in in-text citations.
Include a page number in the in-text citation:
If the source has stable page numbers (print
source or PDF version of print source):
• If you q uote something
• If you paraphrase a specific passage
• If you refer to d ata o r details from a specific
page or range of pages in the sou rce
Do not include a page number:
• If you are referring to t he arg ument of t he
whole source instead of a specific page or
passage
• If t he source does not have stable page
numbers (articles on websites, HTML text, and
so forth)
Works Cited List in MLA Style
In the MLAsystem, you place a complete Works Cited list at the end of the paper.
The list includes all the sources that you mention in your paper. However, it does
not include works you read but did not use. Entries in the Works Cited list follow
these general guidelines:
• Entries are arranged alphabetically by author’s last name, or by title if there
is no author.
• If there is more than one entry per author, the works are arranged alphabeti-
cally by title. For the second and all additional entries, type three hyphens
and a period in place of the author’s name.
Dombrowski, Daniel A. Babies and Beasts: The Argument from Marginal Cases. U of
Illinois P, 1997.
-. The Philosophy of Vegetarianism. U of Massachusetts P, 1984.
You can see a complete, properly formatted Works Cited list on the last pages of
Ivan Snook’s paper (see Chapter 15).
The remaining pages in this section show examples of MLA citation for-
mats for different kinds of sources and provide explanations and illustrations as
needed.
MLA Works Cited Citation Models
The MLA Handbook provides a set of guidelines to help you format your Works
Cited list correctly. You can also visit the MLA’s help center online at https:/ I
style.mla.org.
The following templates will help you compile the information you need
for your MLA Works Cited list and format your entries correctly. Take note of
the punctuation following each element, and use the same punctuation in your
entries.
• Author can contain other identifying information, such as “editor,” “transla-
tor,” “actor,” or “director.”
• Title of source requires you to use italics and quotation marks correctly. Itali-
cize the titles of books, magazines, newspapers, journals, websites, films,
albums/CDs, and TV series. Use quotation marks for titles that are part of
larger works. Specifically, place article titles, essay titles, episode titles, song
380 Chapter 18
titles, and titles of web posts in quotation marks. When a source is untitled,
provide a generic description of it, neither italicized nor in quotation marks.
When you document an e-mail, use its subject line as the title.
• Container is a generic term that is intended to capture any type of print or
d igital medium. A container may be a book, magazine, scholarly journal, TV
series, website, comic book, any type of social media (Twitter, Facebook),
and so on. One container can be nested in a larger container. For example,
one blog may be part of a network of b logs. A scholarly journal (the first con-
tainer) may be retrieved from a larger container for example, an academic
database such as Academic Search Complete (the second container). When
a container is nested in a larger container, both containers should be docu-
mented, w ith a period separating the two containers.
• Other contributors are people who have played a role in the creation of the
source. Other contributions include “adapted by,” “directed by,” “illustrated
by,” “performance by,” and “introduction by.”
• Version is the version you are citing (for example, the second edition of a
work).
• Number refers to identifying numbers when a publication is too long to be
printed in one book (for example, “vol. 2”). With periodicals, the number is
the volume number and the issue number, separated by a comma.
• Publication date should be as specific as possible. Provide month, date, and
year whenever possible. For books, usually the year alone is sufficient.
• Location usually refers to page numbers in a print work and to a URL or DOl
in an online source. Whenever possible, DO Is are preferred to URLs because
DO Is are more stable. Note that “http: I I” and “https: I I” are not included
in URLs. If a publication date is not provided for a URL, complete the Works
Cited entry by listing the date you accessed the URL.
Print Source
Author.
Title of source.
Title of container,
Pther contributors,
‘ tversion,
Number,
blication date
Location.
Online Source
Author.
Title of source.
Title of container,
Pther contributors,
Herrera-Sobek, Maria.
“Border Aesthetics: The Politics of Mexican Immigration in Film and Art.”
Western Humanities Review,
vol. 60, no. 2,
2006,
pp. 60-7 1.
Gourlay, Alexander S.
“An Emergency Online Glossary of Terms, Names, and Concepts in
Blake.”
The William Blake Archive,
Citing and Documenting Sources 381
Version,
Number,
blication date
Location. www.blakearchive.org/exist/blake/archive/g lossary.xq?chunk.
id=glossary&toc.depth=1 &toc. id=O. Accessed 14 Apr. 2018 .
Print Articles in Scholarly Journals All scholarly journal entries include
both volume number and issue number, regardless of how the journal is
paginated.
One author
Herrera-Sobek, Maria. “Border Aesthetics: The Politics of Mexican Immigration in
Film
and Art.” Western Humanities Review, vol. 60, no. 2, 006 tpp. 60- 71.
Two authors
Kwon, Ohbyung, and Yixing Wen. “An Empirical Study of the Factors Affecting Social
Network Service Use.” Com12.uters in Human Behavior, vol. 26, no. 2, . 2010
P..E. 254- 63.
Three or more authors
List the first author, and use “et al.” (meaning “and others”) to replace all but the
first author. Your Works Cited entry and the parenthetical citation should match.
Do not italicize et al. in your Works Cited entry or in-text citation.
Pollay, Richard W., et al. “Separate, but Not Equal: Racial Segmentation in Cigarette
Advertising.” Journal of Advertising, vol. 21, no. 1, 992 pp. 45- 57.
Print Articles in Magazines and Newspapers If no author is identified, begin the
entry with the title or headline. Distinguish between news stories and editorials
by putting the word “Editorial” after the title of an editorial and “Letter to the
editor” when appropriate. If a magazine comes out weekly or biweekly, include
the complete date (“27 Sept. 2013”). If it comes out monthly, then state the month
only (“Sept. 2013”). Indicate reviews by clearly indicating the key identifying
information of the work being reviewed.
Note: If the article begins on one page but continues in another part of the
magazine or newspaper, add”+” to the number of the first page to indicate the
nonsequential pages: pp. 45+.
Magazine article with named author
Snyder, Rachel L. “A Daughter of Cambodia Remembers: Loung Ung’s Journey. ” Ms.,
382 Chapter 18
Magazine article without named author
“Sacred Geese.” The Economist, ~ une 20131 ER· 24- 25.
Review of book, film, or performance
Schwarz, Benjamin. “A Bit of Bunting: A New History of the British Empire Elevates
Expediency to Principle.” Review of Ornamentalism: How the British Saw Their
Empire, by David Cannadine. The Atlantic, ov. 2001 pp. 126-35.
Kaufman, Stanley. “Polishing a Gem.” Review of The Blue Angel, directed by Josef von
Sternberg. New Republic, ….___…..___ __ –=-
Lahr, John. “Nobody’ s Darling: Fascism and the Drama of Human Connection in Ashes
to Ashes.” Review of Ashes to Ashes, by Harold Pinter, The Roundabout Theater
Co. Gramercy Theater, New York. The New Yorker, f”.” Feb. 1999 PF· 182-83.
Newspaper article
Page numbers in newspapers are typically indicated by a section letter or number
as well as a page number. The “+” indicates that the article continues on one or
more pages later in the newspaper.
Dougherty, Conor. “The Latest Urban Trend: Less Elbow Room.” The Wall Street
Journal, une 2013 pp. A 1 +.
Newspaper editorial
“Dr. Frankenstein on the Hill.” Editorial. The New York Times, 8 Ma 2002 12: A22.
Letter to the editor of a magazine or newspaper
Tomsovic, Kevin. Letter to the editor. The New Yorker, 3 Jul 1998 p. 7.
Print Books
One author
Pollan, Michael. The Omnivore’s Dilemma: A Natural History of Four Meals.
Two authors
Dombrowski, Daniel A., and Robert J. Deltete. A Brief, Liberal, Catholic Defense of Abor-
tion.
Lewis, Robin, and Michael Dart. The New Rules of Retail: Competing in the World’s Toughest
Marketplace. 010
Citing and Documenting Sources 383
Three or more authors
List the first author, and use “et al.” (meaning “and others”) to replace all but the
first author. Your Works Cited entry and the parenthetical citation should match.
Do not italicize et al.
Belenky, Mary, et al. Women’s Ways of Knowing: The Development of Self, Voice, and Mind.
986.
Second, later, or revised edition
Montagu, Ashley. Touching: The Human Significance of the Skin. Brd ed., 986
In place of “3rd ed.,” you can include abbreviations for other kinds of editions:
“Rev. ed.” (for “revised edition”) or “Abr. ed.” (for “abridged edition”).
Republished book (for example, a paperback published after the original
hardback edition or a modern edition of an older work)
Hill, Christopher. The World Turned Upside Down: Radical Ideas During the English
991
Wollstonecraft, Mary. A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, with Strictures on Political
and Moral Subjects. 792
The date immediately following the title is the original publication date of the work.
Multivolume work
Speaking Peoples, vol. 4, 956-58 4 vols.
Use the first method when you cite the whole work; use the second method when
you cite one individually titled volume of the work.
Article in familiar reference work
“Mau Mau.” The New Encyclopaedia Britannica. 15th ed., 008 p. 808.
Article in less familiar reference work
Hirsch, E. D., et al. “Kyoto Protocol.” The New Dictionary_ of Cultural Literacy,
002 [pp. 256-57.
Translation
961.
384 Chapter 18
Illustrated book
Jacques, Brian. The Great Redwall Feast. lllustrated by Christopher Denise~
996
Graphic novel
Miyazaki, Hayao. Nausicaa of the Valley of Wind. 995-97 4 vols.
Corporate author (a commission, committee, or other group)
American Red Cross. Standard First Aid. 993
No author listed
The Complete Cartoons ofThe New Yorker.
Whole anthology
O’Connell, David F., and Charles N. Alexander, editors. Self Recovery: Treating Addie-
tions Using Transcendental Meditation and Maharishi Ayur-Veda. 994
Anthology article
Royer, Ann. “The Role of the Transcendental Meditation Technique in Promoting
Smoking Cessation: A Longitudinal Study.” Self Recovery: Treating Addictions
Using Transcendental Meditation and Maharishi Ayur-Veda, dited b David F
O’Connell and Charles N. Alexander 994 lPP· 221- 39.
Articles or Books from an Online Database
Article from online database
Matsbuba, Kyle. “Searching for Self and Relationships Online.” CyberPyschology
and Behavior, vol. 9, no. 3, une 2006. Academic Search Complete, doi:10.1089 I
cr b.2006.9 .275.
To see where each element in this citation was found, see Figure 18.1, which
shows the online database screen from which the Matsuba article was accessed.
For articles in databases, you will need to use two containers. The first container
is the scholarly journal and its identifying information. The second container is
the academic database and its DOl or URL.
Article from a scholarly e-journal
Welch, John R., and Ramon Riley. “Reclaiming Land and Spirit in the Western Apache
Homeland.” American Indian Quarterly, vol. 25, no. 4, 001 lPP· 5- 14. JSTOR,
www.jstor.org / stable/ 1185999?seq=1#.
Citing and Documenting Sources 385
Figure 18.1 Artic le downloaded from an on line database, w ith elements identified for an
M LA-style citation
Research
..:.,:…:::;;;:;..;;;:…:..~ D otobose s.
Sign ln 1 GJ Folder 1 Preferences 1 New Features! 1 Help
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Title: S.a rch ing f o r Se lf an d Relationships On lin e.
Authors: Matsuba. M. Kyle 1 mafsu bak@unbc.ca
Source: c:;yoorPaychology & Beha~~~ or; Jun2006, Vol. 9 Issue 3, p275-284 , 10p, 4 charts, 1 gr.~ ph
Document Type : Miele
Subject Terms: ‘ COLLEGE students
‘ IPENTITY (psvc hoi oovl
ons
‘ INTERNET
‘INTERPERSONAL relatj
‘lONELINESS
‘ RESEARCH
‘ SOCIAL psvcboloqy
NAICSIIndusJN Codes: 518111 Internet Service P rcMders
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twas to study how lnlemel use relates to psychological well-being. relarions hips. the self and identity. University studenls Abstract The purpose of thi s projec
<( N = 203) completed a b
relationship quality, 'elf-<:
altery of questionnaires including measures oftime spent online. ” pathological” Internet use. Internet mot ivati Bn. lonelfness.
oncept clarity, and ego identity . Results showed J>OS~ive relationships between measures oflntemet use and l oneliness.
lioMhips were r.~ted higlter on both positive and negative quality dimensions relative to online relations hips. Finally, As well, face-t O·fac~ rei a
Internet use was negati\-e
may be an impcJrtant aid
ly correlated with self CopyrighlofCybe~ ogy & Behavior is the properly of Mary Ann Liebert, Inc. and its content may not be copied a 9171ai1ed to multiple sites a . (Copyright .applies tB all Abstracts)
A.utltor Affil iat iOn$: 1Psychology Department , Univershy of Northern Briti sh Columbia, Prine~ George, Britislt Columbia, Canada
ISSN: 1094-9313
001: 10.1 089/cpb.2006.9.275
Accession Number: 21217065
Persistent li nk to this recor d: http:f/proxy.seattleu .edu : 204811ogin?url~http://search.ebseohost.comllogin.aspll?direct”‘:rue&dtFa9h&MF21217065&site~ehost~ive
Database: Academic Search Complete
View.!iiJ Citation ~PDF Full Text 1100KI
Matsuba, M. Kyle. ~~searching for Self and Relationships Online.” CyberPsychology and
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Volu me and Date
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Behavior, vol. 9, no. 3, ~006, pp. 275-84. Academic Search Complete, doi: 10.1089 j cpb.2006.9.275.
Broadcast-transcript from website
Conan, Neal. “Arab Media. ” NPR Tal k of the Nation , ….,_u_e_st_a::_:_e_a_ra_n_c_e_b~J–S_h_ib__.
~ey Telhami, 002 ttR:/ /www.nEr.org/ rograms/ totn / transcri ts/ 2004 /
rna I 040504.conan.html. Transcript.
“Transcript” at the end of the entry indicates a text (not audio) ver sion.
E-book from online database
Hanley, Wayne. The Genesis of N apoleonic Propaganda, 1796-1799. 002
Gutenberg-e, ww.gutenberg-e.org/hawOl. Accessed 12 Apr. 2018.
Paine, Thomas. Rights of Man . ….____.
frameset .html. Accessed 12 Apr. 2018.
w.bibliomania.com / 2/ 1 / 327/ 2414/
Information about the original print v ersion, including a translator if relevant and 386 Chapter 18
E-book on Kindle, iPad, or other e-reader Boyle, T. C. When the Killing’s Done. 011
Other Internet Sources
Article on website
Saucedo, Robert.” A Bad Idea for a Movie.” theeagle.com, ~3 Mar. 2012 www.theeagle
.com/ entertainment/ a-bad-idea-for-a-movie/ article_00454e59-7d77-5bc3-9e56
-8eec8ca488ee.html.
Date of access is not required because the article is dated (13 Mar. 2012). Entire website
Agatho. Mysterious Matters , …___ __
Apr. 2018. Documents wi-thin a website
Gourlay, Alexander S. “An Emergency Online Glossary of Terms, Names, and Concepts
in Blake.” The William Blake Archive, www.blakearchive.org/ exist/blake/ archive/
glossary.xq?chunk.id=glossary&toc.depth=1&toc.id=O. Accessed 14 Apr. 2018.
“Body Piercing. Ouch!” Menstuff, www.menstuff.org/issues/byissue/bodypiercing
.html. Accessed 12 Apr. 2018. Article from a-newspaper or newswire site
Brennan, Charlie. “Boulder Scientists over the Moon at Chance to Work on Lunar
Dust.” Daily Camera Boulder News, ~Oct. 2015 ww.dail camera.com/news~
boulder I ci_28913824/boulder-scientists-over-moon-at-chance-work-lunar.
“Great Lakes: Rwanda Backed Dissident Troops in DRC-UN Panel.” IRIN, 1 ul
….-:::.: .. , www.irinnews.org/ report/ 50763 I great-lakes-rwanda-backed-dissident
-troops-drc-un-panel.
Broadcast transcript from a website
Woodruff, Judy, et al. “Experts Analyze Supreme Court Free Speech Rulings.”
PBS NewsHour, une 2007 www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/law-jan-june07
-freespeech_06-25. Transcript.
“Transcript” at the end of the entry indicates a text (not audio) version. Citing and Documenting Sources 387
Blog posting
Dyer, Bob, and Ella Barnes. “The ‘Greening’ of the Arctic.” Greenversations: The Official
Blog of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, ~ Oct. 2008} ~log.epa.gov I
blogl2008 I 10 I 07 I the-greening-of-the-artie.
To see where each element of this citation comes from, refer to Figure 18.2.
Tweet @persiankiwi. “We have report of large street battles in east & west of Tehran now
– #Iranelection.” Twitter, ~3 une 2009, 11:15 a.m.J twitter.comiEersiankiwil
status 12298106072.
Figure 18.2 An item published on the web, w ith elements identified for an MLA-style citation
(5 Greenversations The ” Greening ” of the Arctic – Windows Internet Explorer L;’]LQ)cg) 1:1 .!$1 ~ Greenversations The “GreeningN of the Arctic • §j • • Q} Page • ( Tools •
THE OFFICIAL BLOG OF THE U . S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
—
« New Climate for Action : Getting to School
The “Greening” of the Biodiversity and
Human Disease –
How EPA is Studying
the Connections »
About the authors: Bob Dyer and Ella Barnes, Office of
International Affairs, have managed work on the reduction of toxic
and hazardous wastes in the Arctic under both the multilateral
Arctic Contaminants Action Program (ACAP) and the Arctic Military
Environmental Cooperation (AMEC) Program for over 10 years. Bob
Dyer chaired the ACAP Working Group under the Arctic Council
from 2004 to 2008, and Ella Barnes is the u.s. Representative to I f you stood with me at the northernmost point of the Chukotka would we see? A star-filled sky, the Aurora Borealis, whales,
walruses, perhaps a lost polar bear … But there is something that • .___ __ ___,I [ Search J
ABOUT I EPA HOME
COMMENT POLICY FREQUENT §1 Subscribe to this blog’s feed
Follow us on Twitter
• Question of the Week
RE C ENT POSTS
Celebra te t he environment: Your
holiday shopping list can be eco-
friendly
» Internet ~ 100% .. .: Dyer, Bob, and Ella Barnes. #The ~Greening’ of the Arctic.” Greenversations: The Offici a I
Blog of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, ~ Oct. 2008, blog.epa.gov II
blog/2008/ I 0/07 /the-greening-of-the-artie.
URL
Site sponsor
Nameofblog
Title of posting
I Date of posting
Blog author 388 Chapter 18
Podcast
“The Long and Winding Road: DNA Evidence for Human Migration.” Scientific Ameri-
can Science Talk, ul 2008 www.scientificamerican.com/ odcast/ episode /
fe 166e6b-f88f-3538-2702d 97555f62442.
Web video
“Immigration, World Poverty, and Gumballs.” YouTube,
.com/ watch?v=LPjzfGChGlE.
Note that the date is the date on which the video was uploaded to YouTube.
Home page
Center for Africana Studies. Home page.
lkrieger.jhu.edu / africana. Accessed 12 Apr. 2018.
E-mail Rubino, Susanna. “Reasons for Unemployment.” Received by Matthew Rollins, e:!:l
.2018
Miscellaneous Sources
Episode of television or radio program
“Lie Like a Rug.” NYPD Blue, ~irected by Steven Bochco and David Milch,
ov.2001
Ashbrook, Tom. “Turf Wars and the American Lawn.” On Point,
ul 2008 onpoint.wbur.org/ 2008 / 07 / 22/ turf-wars-and-american-lawns.
Film or video recording Shakespeare in Love. irected b ohn Madden, erformances b ose h Fiennes an
eth Paltrow screen la b Marc Norman and Tom Sto…,….,.
998. Shakespeare in Love. irected by ohn Madden, erformances b ose h Fiennes an
G eth Paltrow, screen la b Marc Norman and Tom Sto ard.
998 Netflix, ~Mar. 2010
Song on a CD
Dylan, Bob. “Rainy Day Women #12.” Blonde on Blonde, 966
The song title is “Rainy Day Women #12.” The CD title is Blonde on Blonde. If you Dylan, Bob. Blonde on Blonde, 966 Citing and Documenting Sources 389
Cartoon or advertisement (print)
Trudeau, Garry. “Doonesbury.” Seattle Times, ~9 Nov. 2001 p . B4.
Cartoon (online)
Sipress, David. “Anger Management Therapy.” The New Yorker, ~4 Mar. 2016~ www
.newyorker.com/ cartoons I daily-cartoon/ monday-march-14th-anger-management.
Interview
Castellucci, Marion. Personal interview,~ Oct. 2018
Lecture, speech, or conference presentation
Sharples, Mike. “Authors of the Future.” Conference of European Teachers of Aca-
demic Writing, 0 une 2001 niversity of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands.
Government publications
When a work’s publisher and author are separate organizations, give both names, When an organization or institution is both publisher and author, begin the When an entry starts with a government agency as the author, begin with the New York State, Committee on State Prisons. Investigation of the New York State Prisons.
974
Foreign Direct Investment, the Service Sector, and International Banking.
987
Great Britain, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries, and Food. Our Countryside, the Future:
A Fair Deal for Rural England.
MLA-Style Research Paper APAStyle American Psychological Association.
In many respects, the APA style and the MLA style are similar, and their basic 390 Chapter 18
sources cited in the body of the paper. The distinguishing features of APA citation In-Text Citations in APA Style References List in APA Style Table 18.2 In-Text Citations in APA Style
One author Three to seven authors
Author has more than Indirect citation of a Pollan, M. (2006). The omnivore’s dilemma: A … (Pollan, 2006, p. 256). OR
natural history of four meals . New York, NY: According to Pollan (200~ … (p. 256). Kwon, 0 ., & Wen, Y. (201 0). An empirical study … (Kwon & Wen, 2010, p. 262) . OR
of the factors affecting social network ser- Kwon and Wen (201 0) claim that .. . (.–p .- 2-6–.2).
vice use. Computers in Human Behavior, 26,
254-263. doi :1 0.1 016 /j.ch b.2009.04.0 11
Pollay, R. W., Lee, J. S., & Carter-Whitney, D.
(1 99~ Separate, but not equal : Racial seg- Advertising, 21 (1 ), zt5-57 .
Dombrowski, D. A. (1 984) . The philosophy of
vegetarianism . Am herst: University of Mas-
sachusetts Press.
Dombrowski, D. A. (1 997). Babies and beasts:
The argument from marginal cases . Urbana:
University of Illinois Press .
Dombrowski, D. A. (1 997) . Babies and beasts:
The argument from marginal cases . Urbana: … race” (Pol lay, Lee, & Carter-Whitney, 1992,
~52) . OR that “advertisers … race” ~1 992, p. 52) . . . . (Dombrowski, 1984, p. 207~ .
… (Dombrowski, 1997, p. 328) .
OR Dombrowski (1 984) claims that … ~p . 207). Animal rights activist Peter Singer argues that . .. (as cited in Dombrowski, 1997, p . 429).
Singer is used for the attributive tag, but the in- Citing and Documenting Sources 391
them in the list alphabetically by title, and then add a lowercase “a” or “b” (etc.) Smith, R. (1999a). Body image in non-Western cultures, 1750-present. London, England: Smith, R. (1999b ). Eating disorders reconsidered. Journal of Appetite Studies, 45,295-300.
A formatted References list appears with the student paper in Chapter 13.
APA References Citation Models General Format for Print Article in Scholarly Journal
Author. (Year of Publication). Article title. Journal Title, volume number(issue number),
rage numbers. doi:xx.xxxx/ x.xxxx.xx
If there is one, include the DOl (digital object identifier), a code that is uniquely One author Herrera-Sobek, M. (2006). Border aesthetics: The politics of Mexican immigration in
film and art. Western Humanities Review, 60, 60-71. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2009.04.011
Two to seven authors
McElroy, B. W., & Lubich, B. H. (2013). Predictors of course outcomes: Early indicators
of delay in online classrooms. Distance Education, 34(1). http: / I dx.doi.org/ 10.1
080 I 01587919.2013.770433
When a source has more than seven authors, list the first six and the last one by Scholarly journal that restarts page numbering with each issue
Pollay, R. W., Lee, J. S., & Carter-Whitney, D. (1992). Separate, but not equal: Racial Note that the issue number and the parentheses are not italicized, but the volume Print Articles in Magazines and Newspapers
General Format for Print Article in Magazine or Newspaper
Author. (Year, Month Day). Article title. Periodical Title, volume number, page
numbers.
If page numbers are discontinuous, identify every page, separating numbers with 392 Chapter 18
Magazine article with named author Hall, S. S. (2001, March 11). Prescription for profit. The New York Times Magazine, 40-45,
59, 91-92, 100.
Magazine article without named author Sacred geese. (2013, June 1). The Economist, 24-25.
Review of book or film
Schwarz, B. (2001, November). A bit of bunting: A new history of the British empire
elevates expediency to principle [Review of the book Ornamentalism: How the
British saw their empire, by D. Cannadine]. Atlantic Monthly, 288, 126-135.
Kaufman, S. (2001, July 30). Polishing a gem [Review of the motion picture The blue
angel]. New Republic, 225, 28-29.
Newspaper article Dougherty, C. (2013, June 4). The latest urban trend: Less elbow room. The Wall Street
Journal, pp. A1, A12.
Newspaper editorial Nearing a climate legacy [Editorial]. (2014, June 3). The New York Times, p. A22.
Letter to the e-ditor of a magazine or newspaper
Harvey, J. (2014, April 21). The lives of Paul de Man [Letter to the editor]. The New
Yorker, 7.
Print Books General Format for Print Books
Author. (Year of ublication). Book title: Subtitle. City, State [abbreviated]: Name
of Publisher.
Brumberg, J. J. (1997). The body project: An intimate history of American girls. New York,
NY: Vintage.
If the publisher’s name indicates the state in which it is located, list the city but Reid, H., & Taylor, B. (2010). Recovering the commons: Democracy, place, and global justice.
Champaign: University of Illinois Press.
Second, later, or revised edition Montagu, A. (1986). Touching: The human significance of the skin (3rd ed.). New York,
NY: Perennial Press. Citing and Documenting Sources 393
Republished book (for example, a p-aperback published after the original Wollstonecraft, M. (1995). A vindication of the rights of woman, with strictures on political
and moral subjects. Rutland, VT: Tuttle. (Original work published 1792)
The in-text citation should read: (Wollstonecraft, 1792/1995).
Multivolume work Churchill, W. S. (1956-1958). A history of the English-speaking peoples (Vols. 1-4). New
York, NY: Dodd, Mead.
This is the citation for all the volumes together. The in-text citation should read: Churchill, W. S. (1957). A history of the English-speaking peoples: Vol. 4. The great democracies.
New York, NY: Dodd, Mead.
This is the citation for a specific volume. The in-text citation should read: Article in reference work
Hirsch, E. D., Kett, J. F., & Trefil, J. (2002). Kyoto Protocol. In The new dictionary of cul- Translation De Beauvoir, S. (1961). The second sex (H. M. Parshley, Trans.). New York, NY: Bantam
Books. (Original work published 1949) Corporate author (a commission, committee, or other group) American Red Cross. (1993). Standard first aid. St. Louis, MO: Mosby Lifeline.
Anonymou-s author
Complete cartoons of The New Yorker. (2004). New York, NY: Penguin Books.
The in-text citation is (Complete Cartoons, 2004).
Whole anthology O’Connell, D. F., & Alexander, C. N. (Eds.). (1994). Self recovery: Treating addictions using
transcendental meditation and Maharishi Ayur-Veda. New York, NY: Haworth Press.
Anthology article Royer, A. (1994). The role of the transcendental meditation technique in promoting
smoking cessation: A longitudinal study. In D. F. O ‘Connell & C. N. Alexander
(Eds.), Self recovery: Treating addictions using transcendental meditation and Maha –
rishi Ayur-Veda (pp. 221-239). New York, NY: Haworth Press. 394 Chapter 18
Articles or Books from an Online Database Article from d-atabase with digital object identifier (DOl)
Scharrer, E., Daniel, K. D., Lin, K.-M., & Liu, Z. (2006). Working hard or hardly
working? Gender, humor, and the performance of domestic chores in televi-
sion commercials. Mass Communication and Society, 9(2), 215-238. doi:10.1207 I
s15327825mcs0902_5
Omit the database name. If an article or other document has been assigned a Article from database without DOl
Highland, R. A., & Dabney, D. A. (2009). Using Adlerian theory to shed light on drug
dealer motivations. Applied Psychology in Criminal Justice, 5(2), 109-138. Retrieved
from http:/ /www.a_pg.org
Omit the database name. Instead, use a search engine to locate the publica- Other Internet Sources General Format for Web Documents
Author, editor, director, narrator, performer, compiler, or producer of the work, if avail-
able. Year, Month Day of posting). Title of web document, italicized as indicated below.
Retrieved from Name of website if different from author or title: URL of home page
Barrett, J. (2007, January 17). My Space is a natural monopoly. Retrieved from ECommerce
Times website: http:/ /www.ecommercetimes.com
Marks, J. (n.d.). “Overview: Letter from the president.” Retrieved June 3, 2014, from
the Search for Common Ground website: http: I I www.sfcg.org
Entire website BlogPulse. (n.d.). Retrieved September 3, 2014, from the Intelliseek website: http:/ I
www.intelliseek.com
Article from a-newspaper site
Bounds, A. (2007, June 26). Thinking like scientists. Daily Camera [Boulder]. Retrieved
from http:/ /www.dailycamera.com
Article from a scholarly e-journal Welch, J. R., & Riley, R. (2001). Reclaiming land and spirit in the western Apache home-
land. American Indian Quarterly, 25,5-14. Retrieved from http:/ /muse.jhu.edu/
journals I american_indian_quarter 1 y Citing and Documenting Sources 395
Reference material
Cicada. (2004). In Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved from http:/ /www.britannica.com
E-book
Hoffman, F. W. (1981). The literature of rock: 1954-1978. Retrieved from http://www
.netlibrary.com
E-mail, interviews, and personal correspondence Blog posting Goddard, A. L. (2014, May 31). Maya Angelou’s words were a comfort to abducted aid
worker [Blog post]. Retrieved from annegoddard.tumblr.com
Social media posting
Storm King Art Center. (2013, May 30). Rattlesnake figure (aluminum) by Thomas
Houseago [Facebook update]. Retrieved from http:/ /www.facebook.com/
StormKingArtCenter
Web video Beck, R. (2006, November 2). Immigration gumballs [Video file]. Retrieved from http:/ I
www.youtube.com/watch?v=n7WJeqxuOfQ
Note that the date is the day on which the video was uploaded.
Podcast Funke, E. (Host). (2007, June 26). ArtScene [Audio podcast]. National Public Radio.
Retrieved from http: I I www.npr.org
Miscellaneous Sources Television program
Bochco, S., & Milch, D. (Directors). (2001, November 6). Lie like a rug [Television series
episode]. In NYPD blue. New York, NY: American Broadcasting Company.
Film Madden, J. (Director). (1998). Shakespeare in love [Motion picture]. United States: Uni-
versal Miramax.
Sound recording
Dylan, B. (1966). Rainy day women #12. On Blonde on blonde [Record]. New York, NY:
Columbia. 396 Chapter 18
Government publications U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2012). Preventing tobacco use among
youth and young adults: A report of the Surgeon General. Retrieved from http:/ I
www.surgeongeneral.gov /library I reports I preventing-youth-tobacco-use I
index.html#Full Report
APA-Style Research Paper Conclusion 16 Finding and Evaluating Sources 466 467 468 469 470 471 472 473 474 475 476 477 478 479 480 481 482 483 484 485 486 487 488 489 490 491 492 493 494 495 496 497 498 499 500 501 502 503 504 505 506 507 508 509 510 511 512 513 514 515 516 517 518 519 520 521 522 523 524 525 526 527 528 529 530 531 532 533 534 535 536 537 538 539 540 541 542 543 544
pooled to a lisl:~en- wilhou
Th1s abstract may oo ·itbn
material for the run absiract
I the copyright holder’s e.xp~e:~s written permi~on. Hor.ever, u:~er.s may print. download. or email articles lor individual u:re.
dged. No warranty rs gwen about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the ongmal published ver;sion of the
•
numbers ISSUe
•
dical peno
available, should b e provided. Access date should b e provide d for any sources
that are not date d.
According to MLA, a book is a book whether you read it in print or on an e-reader
(such as a Kindle, Nook, or iPad).
Break URLs onto a new line only after a piece of punctuation, such as a hyphen,
slash, or period.
Identify a short untitled message, such as a tweet, by reproducing its full text,
without changes, in place of a title. Enclose the text in quotation marks, and
include not only date but also time.
~ … ~~ http:l/blog.epa .gov/blog/2008/ 10/07/the-greening-of-the-arc v I +-t- X LIL_Ive_ s_e_ar_ch _______ —‘1 P •
Arctic
Posted on October 7th. 2008-10:30 Af.1
the ACAP Working Group.
Peninsu la in Russia, on t he shores of the frigid Arctic Ocean, what
t-ho o\lo r~nnnt- coo • hinh rnnront-r~t-innc nf rnnt-~l”‘nin~nt-c frnl”‘n
Comments submitted after hours
or on weekends w;ll be posted as
early as possible the next
business day.
QUESTIONS
–
•
Start with the sender’s name. The title is the subject line.
Use the first format to cite a film on DVD. Use the second format (which uses a sec-
ond container) if you watched the film via a rental service such as Netflix or Hulu.
are citing the CD, use the following:
starting the entry with the author.
entry with the title.
name of the largest entity, followed by a comma, followed by smaller organiza-
tional units within the agency, arranged from largest to smallest and separated
by commas.
As an illustration of a student research paper written in MLA style, see Ivan
Snook’s argument about women in combat roles in Chapter 15.
18.3 Cite and document your sources using the style and format of the
logic is the same. In the APA system, the list where readers can find full biblio-
graphic information is titled “References”; as in MLA format, it includes only the
style are summarized in Table 18.2 and highlighted in the following sections.
A typical APA-style in-text citation contains three elements: (1) the last name
of the author, (2) the date of the publication, and (3) the page number of the
quoted or paraphrased passage. Table 18.2 identifies some typical variations
and shows again the one-to-one connection between the in-text citation and the
References list.
The APA References list at the end of a paper presents entries alphabetically by
author ‘s last name. If you cite more than one item for an author, repeat the author’s
name each time and arrange the items in chronological order, beginning with the
earliest. In cases where two works by an author appeared in the same year, arrange
Two authors
one work in References
list
source that you found in
another source
You use a quotation from
Peter Singer from a book
by Dombrowski. Include
Dombrowski, not Singer, in
References.
Penguin.
mentation in cigarette advertising. Journal of
University of Illinois Press .
Pollay, Lee, and Carter-Whitney have argued
For subsequent citations, use Pol lay et al. For
a quotation, use the specific page number, not
the whole range of pages .
According to Dombrowski (1 997), .. . ~p . 328).
text citation is to Dombrowski.
after the date so that you can distinguish between them in the in-text citations:
Bonanza Press.
Print Articles in Scholarly Journals
assigned to many journal articles in numeric or URL form. Note the style for
capitalizing article titles and for italicizing the volume number.
name, separated by an ellipsis ( … ) to indicate the authors whose names have
been omitted.
segmentation in cigarette advertising. Journal of Advertising, 21(1), 45-57.
number is.
a comma.
omit the state.
hardback edition or a modern edition of an older work)
(Churchill, 1956-1958).
(Churchill, 1957).
tural literacy. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
The in-text citation should read: (De Beauvoir, 1949 /1961).
digital object identifier (DOl), include the DOl at the end. Do not put a period
after the DOL
tion’s home page, and cite that URL. If you need to break a URL at the end
of a line, do not use a hyphen. Instead, break it before a punctuation mark or
after http:/ I.
Cite personal correspondence in the body of your text, but not in the References
list: “Daffinrud (personal communication, December 12, 2018) claims that. … ”
An example of a paper in APA style is shown at the end of Chapter 13.
This chapter has shown you the nuts and bolts of citing and documenting sources
in both the MLA and APA styles. It has explained the logic of parenthetical citation
systems, showing you how to match sources cited in your text with those in your
concluding bibliography. It has also shown you the documentation formats for a
wide range of sources in both MLA and APA styles.
17 Incorporating Sources into Your Own Argument
18 Citing and Documenting Sources